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I.
INTRODUCTION
Abnormal electrical conditions that require automatic protective relay operation can occur at any time, without warning. To ensure proper relay operation, all protective relay technologies (E-M, static and digital) need to be commissioned and maintained properly. While methods and practices for older E-M and static relay technologies are well defined within the industry, maintenance/commissioning practices for new digital multifunction relays are not yet firmly established. Solid-state electronic protective (static) relays, using discrete components, were developed in the 1960s. These relays used many discrete components with associated interconnections and therefore were not as reliable as equivalent electromechanical relays. Continued developments in the semiconductor industry led to the introduction of integrated circuits that combined complex electronic circuits into single chips. This use of integrated circuits reduced the number of components and enhanced the reliability of static protective relays. These static relays were essentially single-function devices and could be tested and commissioned in the same way as older E-M relays. The advent of microprocessors and high-speed digital signal processors in the 1980s brought a new generation of relay designs. These digital relay designs contained less hardware but required considerable software development. As microprocessor capability increased, multiple tripping functions were put into a single hardware platform. The testing and commissioning of these relays is substantially different than either E-M or solid-state relays. Commissioning multifunction digital relays offers some unique challenges to the user. Multifunction relays have protective functions that interact with each other, making testing more complicated. They can also be programmed to do control logic, which must be verified. In addition, digital relays can have multiple setting groups that may be switched to address varying system conditions. This flexibility increases the commissioning complexity. This paper presents methods and techniques to address the challenges cited above. These relays also have significant input monitoring capability that can greatly assist the user in determining whether these relays are properly connected to their CT and VT inputs, helping to verify that the relay is functioning properly. Digital relays also have self-diagnostics that check the health of the relay that can immediately detect internal failures. This is perhaps the most important single feature in digital relays. The ability to detect a
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failure before the protection system has to operate contrasts with traditional protection where a failed or defective relay remains undetected until it does not operate correctly during a fault or until the next maintenance test. It is important that the completeness of self-diagnostics be considered in developing maintenance/testing programs for multifunction digital relays.
II.
a) Commission Testing
Commission testing for E-M and static relays includes calibration or acceptance testing to verify that relay performance is within the manufacturers published tolerances. Also, field testing is done to test the individual relays at their setpoints and to establish a baseline reference point for periodic maintenance testing. E-M and some static relays are provided in a draw-out case, with built-in test plugs or test switches. The test set current leads can be connected to a test plug to provide an easy method of injecting secondary current into the relay for testing. Additional test plug inputs can be used to monitor the output contact of the relay and stop the test set timer when the relay operates. When static relays are used which do not include these built-in facilities, it is helpful to provide them separately on the relay panel. Commission testing typically includes the use of a phase angle meter, ammeter and voltmeters to verify that correct voltage and currents are correctly applied to a relay by their instrument transformers, and that polarized relays are looking in the right direction. Today, these features are incorporated in modern, computer-driven test sets. Verification of the wiring between the electromechanical relays and the associated equipment that must isolate faulted areas requires both time and knowledge of the equipment, relays and intended system performance under various system operating conditions.
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NERC-Defined Protection System Figure 1 Table 1 NERC Maximum Allowable Testing Intervals (from PRC-005-2)
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b) Typical Transformer Protection with Dual Digital Typical Dual Protection Schemes Figure 3
Another result of basic digital multifunction relay design is that a number of tripping functions are supplied for common VT or CT inputs as shown in Figure 3. In relay testing, the input current or voltage is applied commonly to all functions. Thus, there is an interference effect where the more sensitive functions trip before the functions that are being tested. b) Important Digital Relay Features Multifunction digital relays have features that were not available on electromechanical or static relays. These include: 1. Oscillography and Event Recording The capability of storing analog data and sequence of events allows the user to quickly analyze tripping events. 2. Multiple Setting Groups This allows a user to select different settings for different operating conditions. 3. Multiple Output & Input Contacts This allows the user increased flexibility in designing trip/alarm output circuitry. Programmable inputs allow the user to block or alter settings based on circuit breaker open/close status or other external conditions. 4. Metering Depending on the display capability and accuracy, the protection package may displace or supplement traditional metering. The metering capability also allows easier testing of the relay and its associated wiring. 5. Monitoring Monitoring of external inputs/outputs, such as trip circuits, enhances security. Current and voltage transformer circuits can be monitored and functions can be detected. 6. Communications Local and remote communication capabilities allow easy input of settings and changes, as well as access to event data. With the proper interface/protocol conversion, the relay can be integrated with other intelligent devices into a distributed control system. 7. Self-Monitoring and Diagnostics Self-monitoring software in relays allows detection of a failure of a major piece of hardware or a software module. The relay outputs can be disabled and an alarm generated, signaling the failure. 8. Programmable Logic With all the information brought to the relay, programmable logic permits a combination of protection and control functions within the relay. This can eliminate significant wiring external to the relay, but increases the complexity of testing the relay to verify internal relay control logic.
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a) Calibrating Relays
Calibration of digital relays is usually not required since there are no adjustments to be made. There are no trim pots, switches, or selectors to make settings and adjustments within the relay. If the relay does not operate within tolerance, there is no way to adjust it, so calibration as we know itis not needed. However, each relay should be tested to make sure it is operating properly. Secondary injection is used for this type of test, and the output contacts should be monitored to confirm proper operation.
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For internally-wetted programmable inputs, a check should be made that the input will operate when the external contact (52a in Figure 5b) is closed. If wiring from the contact to the relay is long, there may not be enough current to pick up the input. Many manufacturers provide guidance as to wiring distance limits.
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Transformer Differential CT Connections Figure 7 I) Firmware Revisions The firmware revision level should be documented on the settings file for each individual relay. It may not be necessary to upgrade every relay on your system to implement a new feature or to fix a software problem. Many changes are bug fixes that do not adversely affect the protective or control functions of the relay. In general, firmware updates are mandatory only if a misoperation of protection or control functions may occur. By tracking the changes, a decision can be made if the new feature or bug fixes are absolutely needed. Keeping track of the firmware in each relay will help to avoid visiting every relay if a change must be made to all relays before or after a certain firmware level. When new firmware is installed in the relay, all commissioning tests must be done again. In many cases, changes to the software will be minor, but re-commissioning confirms that there were no unintended consequences of the firmware change. For this reason, firmware changes are made only when necessary.
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VI. IMPACT OF DIGITAL RELAY SELF-MONITORING AND DIAGNOSTICS ON TESTING a) Self-Monitoring and Diagnostics
Self-diagnostics was not available in either electromechanical or static relay designs and is one of the most important features of digital relays. The ability to detect a failure before the protection system is required to operate contrasts with traditional protection systems where a relay failure remains undetected until it fails to operate correctly during an event or the failure is uncovered during maintenance testing. The quality of electronic components available today is excellent, although failure of electronic components can still occur. Digital relays are designed to detect most of these failures. The following are some of the most important self-diagnostic functions implemented on digital multifunction relays.
2. Memory Testing
The flash ROM contents are checked by calculating the checksum and comparing it to the pre-computed and stored checksum. The RAM is tested by writing and reading a test pattern.
3. Setpoint Testing
Setpoints are stored in the serial EEPROM (See Figure 2) and a copy of these setpoints is also stored in the RAM for executing relay logic. Whenever any setpoint is changed, the checksum of the setpoints is calculated from the contents of the EEPROM. This checksum is then compared with the calculated checksum of the setpoints stored in the RAM every time a setpoint task is executed. Settings are stored in non-volatile memory so if DC power is lost, the setting values within the relay will be retained when DC power is re-applied.
4. Watchdog Timer
Should the program get lost due to hardware/software glitches, the relay hardware design includes a watchdog timer reset circuit to take the processor through an orderly reset.
5. Summary
It is generally accepted in the industry that digital relay self-diagnostics do an excellent job in detection of internal electronic component failures.
1. Input Circuitry
Most digital relays measure three-phase and the neutral current from the CT inputs. The input diagnostic logic in the relay calculates the vector sum of the phase currents and compares it to the measured value of CT neutral current. Evaluation of this current symmetry is used to check for valid current measurement. If a symmetry threshold is exceeded, then an alarm is generated. When this alarm occurs, the abnormality can be from a broken CT connection, compromised CT, or possible A/D converter error within the relay. Open VT circuit monitoring is a common feature in digital relays and is used to detect a loss of voltage signal. In many cases, VT open circuits are caused by a VT fuse blowing or fuses not being replaced after maintenance. Open circuit VT monitoring is achieved using both voltage and current measurements. The basic logic used by most manufacturers is that if an unbalanced voltage is detected in the absence of unbalanced current, then there is a possible open circuit or other problem in the voltage input circuitry. If
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both current and voltage are substantially unbalanced at the same time, the assumption is that this event is a short circuit and no VT failure alarm is initiated. In addition to alarming for a VT failure, protection functions that could falsely operate on loss of voltage are typically blocked from operating to prevent false tripping. Typically, this is not automatically done and must be programmed as part of the setup of the relay. Programmable inputs can be used to check basic logic external to the relay. An example of this type of logic check is the monitoring of the 52a and 52b contacts together with current measurements. An open circuit breaker with current flowing can be alarmed. Programmable inputs are also used to monitor the continuity of the trip circuit to detect an open trip coil or loss of trip circuit control voltage. Digital relays can also measure their DC supply voltage and issue an alarm when the value is above or below a programmable setpoint. In addition to the external DC power source, most digital relays have an internal battery. This battery is used to power the back-up data stored in RAM (e.g., waveform capture records and internal relay clock). An alarm here does not normally block any protective function. The DC/DC converter supervision is achieved by monitoring the electronic board component supply voltages (typically 5, 15, and 24VDC). An alarm here ensures that the relay does not issue a trip command should the voltage vary beyond the tolerances of the electric components.
2. Output Circuitry
Outputs have no monitoring. The trip, close and alarm contacts are not monitored. The health of the individual contacts can be checked through functional testing. Most relays have built-in functional testing through the software, to activate all input contacts, outputs contacts, and LEDs to prove functionality. These tests are not automatically performed and are generally done during periodic maintenance. Communication interfaces may have monitoring depending on the type of protocol used. Some have an internal redundancy check that will indicate loss of communication. Displays, keypads and LEDs are typically not monitored. Almost all the internal self-check failures described in this section of the paper are alarmed through the self-check failure output contact. A relay self-test failure contact (normally closed) is generally available on all digital relays. When the relay is healthy, this contact is held open. On relay self check failure (including a loss of power supply), the relay coil is released and the contact will close. The self-test failure alarm contact should be wired to alarm at a manned location to alert personnel that the relay has failed. The relay cannot self-test for human error such as application of the wrong voltage for input coil wetting or DC power connected at the wrong voltage level outside the rating of the relay. Relay monitoring does not monitor the circuit breakers ability to trip, although trip coil circuit continuity can be monitored. There is still a need to periodically operate the circuit breaker to ensure the correct mechanical operation.
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VII. CONCLUSIONS
Testing and commissioning of new multifunction digital relays offer unique challenges to the user. The advantages of numerous relay functions being available in a single hardware platform are offset to some extent by the need to provide for the failure of that platform. Also, these relays have trip functions that interact with each other, making testing more difficult. Digital relays reduce external control wiring required by EM and static relay technologies by incorporating control logic within the relay itself. This, however, results in more complex relay testing to verify proper relay control logic. These shortcomings, however, are far out-weighed by the many advantages of digital relays cited in this paper. Users also have seen the many benefits of digital relays with almost all-new installation using this technology. Despite the technology changes introduced by digital relays, the testing and commissioning fundamentals remain unchanged. Both commissioning and periodic maintenance testing are still required, but digital relay features have modified the method and extent of testing. Features such as internal metering of all input analog and calculated quantities available within digital relays provide the test engineer with a valuable new tool to assist in the commissioning processes. This paper has outlined many helpful test techniques to help the test engineer utilize these features, which are available within all digital relays.
a) Commission Testing
Commission testing still requires the test engineer to verify the proper setting, internal logic and operation for a new installation or verify a setting/logic/control change at an existing installation. This typically requires: 1. Injection of current and voltage into the relay to verify relay setting and timing 2. Verifying proper relay inputs and outputs 3. Verifying proper relay logic 4. Verifying tripping and targets
b) Maintenance Testing
The frequency and testing required for periodic maintenance testing is the test area where digital technology has introduced major changes. Internal self-diagnostic testing and power supply monitoring features in all digital relays have provided the user with some assurance that the relay is functioning properly. The drifting of settings or the blocking of relay operation by foreign contaminateswhich were a major problem with E-M and static relaysare not a problem with digital relays. As pointed out in this paper, there are no trim pots, switches or slide wire resistors to tweak to bring a drifted setting back into calibration. So what type of periodic maintenance testing is required for digital relays? NERC has relied heavily on digital relay self-diagnostics to develop their testing intervals. Many users are only testing in areas where self-diagnostics cant completely verify proper relay operation. As pointed out in this paper, self diagnostics do an excellent job in detecting internal electronic component failures. It doesnt do nearly as good a job in checking the relays inputs and trip/alarm outputs. Many users are only checking the relays inputs and output on a periodic basis and forgoing periodic maintenance injection testing of digital relays. The use of internal relay metering can provide a handy tool to verify that under load conditions, the relay is measuring expected currents and voltages confirming proper relay inputs. The output contacts, however, need to be tested at the same periodic frequency used for E-M and static relays since they are not checked via self-diagnostics.
VIII. REFERENCES
[1] NERC Standard PRC-005 & PRC-005-2 Protection System Maintenance - NERC Website [2] M. Young, Commissioning Numerical Relays, Western Protective Relay Conference, 2003. [3] F.J. Nepveux, Applying the Directional Neutral, 67N Function in Microprocessor Multifunction Relays, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Applications, vol. 39, Jan./Feb. 2003. [4] C.J. Mozina, M. Yalla, Fundamental Reliability Considerations in the Design, Manufacturing and Application of Multifunction Digital Relays for Generator Protection, Canadian Electric Association Engineering and Operating Division, April 1996.
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BIOGRAPHY
Charles (Chuck) J. Mozina, IEEE Life Fellow, is a Consultant, Protection and Protection Systems, for Beckwith Electric Co. Inc., specializing in power plant and generator protection. He is an active 25-year member of the IEEE Power System Relay Committee (PSRC) and is the past chairman of the Rotating Machinery Subcommittee. He is active in the IEEE IAS committees that address industrial protection. He is a former U.S. representative to the CIGRE Study Committee 34 (now B-5) on System Protection. Chuck has a Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering from Purdue University and is a graduate of the eight-month GE Power System Engineering Course. He has more than 25 years of experience as a protection engineer at Centerior Energy (now part of FirstEnergy), a major investor-owned utility in Cleveland, Ohio where he was the Manager of the System Protection Section. For 10 years, Chuck was employed by Beckwith Electric as the Manager of Application Engineering for Protection and Protection Systems. He is a registered Professional Engineer in Ohio. He has authored a number of papers and magazine articles on protective relaying.
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