Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles

ECUADOR

by Dr. Raul Vera

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

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FAO 2006

CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
Livestock and poultry

5
6

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Topography Soils

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7 7

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE
Coastal pastures Andean pastures Introduced pastures in the Andes Pastures of the eastern region

8 11 12
13 13 15 15

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES 7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 8. REFERENCES 9. CONTACTS 10. THE AUTHOR

15 16 17 18 19

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

1. INTRODUCTION
Ecuador, the smallest of the Andean countries, borders with Colombia to the N and NE, with Peru to the S and SE, and with the Pacific Ocean to the West. It lies between 1 20 N and 4 58 S, and 75 10 and 81 10 West (see Figure 1). Its capital is Quito. Its surface area is 283561km (with small variations according to different sources of information) not counting the disputed 174565 km allocated to Per according to the Ro de Janeiro Protocol (1942) to which Ecuador has not yet agreed. Ecuadors population, of which 62% is urban, was estimated at 11 900 000 in 2000 by the Army Geographic Institute (according to the World Factbook estimated population in July 2006 was 13547510 with a growth rate of 1.5%). The population is characterized by a high percentage of mixed race (mestizos) and indigenous people: in fact, mestizos form 55% of the population, Amerindians 25%, Caucasians 10% and blacks 10%. The majority live in the interandean central highlands (Sierra), and include close to 700 ethnic groups, many of which do not speak Spanish but only the native Quechua. They are largely farmers, and in many cases practise old agricultural traditions. In the eastern, Amazon portion of the country and the coastal (Costa) areas, the indigenous population is smaller. The distribution of the population is as follows: 50% along the coastal region (77persons/km), 47% in the Sierra (68 persons/ km) and 3% in the eastern (Oriente) area (3persons/km). Ecuador is predominantly agricultural (Ecuador, 2001), despite oil having become its main source of revenue and industry having expanded substantially. The per capita gross national product ranged between USD 1200 and USD 1600 in the last decade. Ecuadors human development index was 0.726 in 1999 (UNDP, 2001). Agriculture employs 32% of the workforce and provides 1317% of the gross national product. Animal production contributes approximately a third of this amount (SICA/ MAG, 2002). Agricultural imports over 1999 2001 ranged between USD 199 and 267 million FOB, whereas exports amounted to USD 1 4621 968 million FOB (SICA/MAG, 2002). Half of the agricultural exports are bananas and plantains; shrimps, coffee, cocoa, cut flowers and fish make up the rest. The evolution of important indicators of agricultural production in Ecuador is shown in Table 1. The area under cultivation is 3 100 000 ha, nearly 9.3% of the countrys area. Permanent pasture covers 18% of the country and forests nearly 43%; 30% is uninhabited mountains. In the highlands, subsistence agriculture and the production of staples for the urban areas are predominant (maize, wheat, barley, potatoes, pulses, and various vegetables). In the coastal lowlands, tropical crops are mainly grown for export. Since the late 1940s bananas have been the main commercial crop of this region. Large-scale production of cocoa for export began in the 1870s. Production of coffee for export began in the 1920s. Ecuadors forests produced 8 700 000 m3 of timber in 1986. Livestock, raised mainly in the highland region, included 3 800 000 cattle, 2 100 000 sheep and 4 200 000 pigs in 1987. Data on land use vary widely and were often considered by analysts as unreliable or at best an approximation of actual numbers. In the mid-1980s, for example, estimates of cropland Figure 1. Location and map of Ecuador

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

ranged from 1 600 000 to 2 500 000 ha Table 1. Indices of agricultural production and land out of a total land area of 228300000ha. resources of Ecuador 19902000 1990 2000 Different sources put the amount of pasture at 4 400 000 or 4 800 000 ha. Physical volume of agricultural production, index 100.3 146.6 100.0 156.1 Estimates for the total land area suitable Physical volume of agricultural crops, index Physical volume of livestock production, index 100.1 153.6 for agriculture showed an even wider Per capita food production, index 100.2 142.7 variation, from less than 50% to as high as Arable land, 1 000 ha 1 604 1 574 90%. Over half of the cultivated land was Permanent crops, 1 000 ha 1 321 1 427 in the Costa, about a third in the Sierra, Irrigated land, 1 000 ha 820 865 and the remainder dispersed throughout Bananas and plantains, 1 000 tonnes 4 120 6 953 67 218 160 400 the Oriente region. Nevertheless, the last Consumption of fertilizers, tonnes available census (2000), developed with (CEPAL, 2001) foreign aid, appears reliable. The Costa, apart from the area near the Santa Elena Peninsula, has generally fertile land with a climate conducive to agriculture. Altitude, rainfall and soil composition determine land use in the Sierra. The intermontane basins near Quito and farther south near Cuenca and Loja offer the most productive Sierra lands, whereas the basins surrounding Latacunga and Riobamba have dry and porous soil and the least fertile lands. Higher areas of the Sierra contain grasslands suitable only for grazing or cold-tolerant crops, such as potatoes. Land tenure patterns evolved from Spanish colonial feudal systems and were first implemented in the Sierra where the Spanish encountered large native populations that gave rise to a predominance of small plots and farms (minifundios). Large-scale agriculture developed later in the Costa. A land reform law, enacted in 1964, outlawed systems inherited from colonial times and set up the Ecuadorian Institute of Agrarian Reform and Settlement (Instituto Ecuatoriano de Reforma Agraria y Colonizacin IERAC) to administer the law and to expropriate idle arable land for redistribution to farmers. The law was reviewed in the early 1970s. Despite many political and financial difficulties, by 1984 over 700000ha had been distributed to 79000 peasants. Although current land tenure in Ecuador is somewhat skewed, it is less so than in the rest of the Latin American countries, as shown by a Gini coefficient of 0.43 for the 1990s. The 19992000 agricultural census (SICA/MAG, 2002) reveals that out of 1700000 holdings, 67% were in the Sierra, 26% in the Costa and the reminder in the Oriente. Overall, farms of under 5 ha represented 63% of all holdings, but occupied only 6.3% of the agricultural land. Farms of 520, 2050 and 50100 ha were evenly distributed in terms of agricultural land, occupying between 14 and 19% each. Farms over 200 ha were 0.78% of the total number and had 29% of the total land. Livestock and poultry Livestock raising represents an important part of agricultural output and has grown significantly in the last 20 years. Livestock was produced primarily for domestic consumption and was one of the few agricultural products found throughout the country. Although animal husbandry was widespread, it was generally practised on small plots of land. Ecuador produced a total of 2 M and 2.5 Mtonnes of milk in 2000 and 2004 respectively (FAO databases, 2006) and 170620 and 212000tonnes of beef and veal. Both products grew in the 1900s at rates of 4.1% and 4.5% per year respectively, whereas the stock of cattle grew at only 2.97% per year. On the other hand, the stock of goats has remained nearly stagnant, while that of sheep grew 2.9% over the same period. Milk equivalent imports are still substantial with 5042Mt in 2000 and 6243Mt in 2004, although these have fallen from 11650 in 1995 and a high of 53158 in 1998 (presumably reflecting the earthquake of 1997). The Costa and Oriente regions produce mainly beef and dual purpose cattle with dairy cattle found mostly in the Sierra. Cattle graze on Costa land otherwise unsuited for agriculture, such as the hilly terrain in Manab Province, seasonally flooded river plains or semi-arid parts of the far south. Dairying in the Sierra is carried on typically in fertile valleys, particularly between Riobamba and the Colombian border. Beef cattle are relatively new to the Oriente, although large areas of land are suitable for grazing. The beef industry in the Oriente suffered a serious setback in 1987 when an earthquake damaged roads

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Table 2. Stock of ruminant animals, 19802005 (selected years)

Year 1980
Cattle (000) Goats Sheep (000) 3 005.4 256 835 1 096.8

1985
3 730.4 286 710 1 080.3

1990
4 359.4 310 590 1 419.9

1995
4 995.0 295 000 1 692.0

2000
4 486.0 279 000 2 195.9

2001
4 657.0 272 560 2 249.0

2002
4 486.0 205 276 2 380.7

2003
4 657.0 230 000 2 390.0

2004
4 794.3 240 000 2 880.0

2005
4 951.4 250 000 2 550.0

(FAO database 2005, data for camelids not available)

used to transport the beef. Ecuador had about 3700000 beef cattle in 1985, but by 2005 the number had increased to almost 5.0M (4951390 according to FAOSTAT). The 1980s saw an improvement in stock with the introduction of European and Asian breeds. The native Creole breed represented about half of all cattle, with the rest being crosses between Creole and Holstein, Brown Swiss, or Jersey for dairy, and Creole and Santa Gertrudis or Charolais for beef. The absence of veterinarians and medicines remained a problem, however, and diseases and parasites plagued many herds. Besides cattle, livestock include pigs, sheep, and some goats. For pigs, FAO data indicates 1.4M in 2001, whereas the latest country survey (2000) records 1.53M; the greatest concentration was in coastal areas. The FAOSTAT figure for 2004 was 1.77M pigs and 1.95M in 2005. Current stocks of ruminant animals are shown in Table 2. In early 2001, the stock of South American camelids was estimated (White, 2001) to include 1 700 vicunas (Vicugna vicugna), 10000 llamas (Lama glama)and 4600 alpacas (Lama pacos). The last two are domesticated. Camelids are largely grazed on high altitude commons, including national parks and reserves.

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Topography Ecuador is divided into three continental regions the Costa, Sierra and Oriente areas, plus one insular region the Galpagos Islands (Ecuador, 2001). The Coastal region is located between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes Mountains, and consists of lowlands and mountains. The lowlands are generally below 200m, whereas the coastal mountains (Cordillera Costanera) do not exceed 1000m. The width of the Costa ranges between 15 and 150km. The Sierra includes two major chains of the Andes Mountains that run NorthSouth, the Cordillera Occidental (Western Chain) and Cordillera Oriental (Eastern Chain) respectively, and intermontane basins in between. The Western Chain contains Ecuadors highest peak, 6267 m Mount Chimborazo, and the Eastern Mountains consists of the Andean piedmont and eastern lowlands. Several transverse mountains cross the two chains, thus dividing the intermontane plateaus into ten basins. The main transversal is the Nudo del Azuay, and divides the Sierra into two subregions the area of modern volcanism to the north and the area of ancient volcanism to the south. The former area consists of newer, higher mountains than those in the ancient volcanism section, which with time have eroded to lower levels. Conventionally, the area located above 3500m is identified as the Paramo. The Oriente consists of two subregions: the Andean piedmont and the Eastern lowlands. The piedmont drops from a height of 3353m to the lowlands, which spread out at an altitude of 150 to 300m. Soils The extremely variable topography of the country is associated with a complex mosaic of soils. The coastal littoral, located between the Pacific Ocean and the western Andes, possesses an abundance of hydromorphic soils particularly in the well-watered parts, which have moderate to low drainage and moderate fertility. It contains soils derived from deposits of diverse origins influenced by volcanic activity of the Andes, aeolian transport of volcanic ashes and alluvial deposits, all subjected to intense weathering.

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

In the temperate Andean ecozone (see below under ecozones), soils vary somewhat depending upon rainfall. It should be noted that classification of Andean soils is notoriously complex; details and equivalencies between systems of classification are available (Quantin, 1986; FAO, 2001; FAO-CSIC, 2002). The portion of the temperate area frequently classified as a low montane spiniferous steppe, with rainfall of less than 500mm, includes the following soils (Len-Velarde and Izquierdo, 1993): (a) Durandept, sandy loams, with a calcareous layer located above a duripan placed at a depth of 70cm these are soils that if irrigated support a variety of annual crops, lucerne, oats and Kikuyu grass; (b) Durustoll, generally located on slopes, over fine ashes and also with an underlying duripan; (c) Eutrandept, loamy soils with very fine ash, low water retention, pH 7; and lastly (d) Torripsamment, very sandy soils, with less than 1% organic matter and pH 8. Farms surveyed in this area by Ramrez et al. (1996) had soils with pH 5.2 to 6.7, acidity increasing with altitude, generally low in organic matter (OM), and always very low P (< 4 ppm). When rainfall increases to 5001000mm, the zone is classified as low montane dry forest, and includes very variable soils, most frequently derived from volcanic ashes. These are clayey loams, black soils, that support productive stands of lucerne if irrigated. The low montane humid forest zone is encountered in areas with 1000 to 2000mm, and has similar soils to the previous one. The cold temperate ecozone (see below) is found at high altitudes. Within it, the Paramo (or cold high steppe) is the typical landscape, receiving 250500 mm rainfall. In general terms, Paramo soils are of volcanic origin; these include soils derived from recent volcanic ashes, and those derived from metamorphic and igneous rocks (Medina and Mena, 2001). Those of the northern and central Paramos are generally Andisols, young, undifferentiated, high in organic matter, with high water retention capacity, highly permeable and resistant to erosion. Nevertheless, once they lose these physical properties as consequence of compaction, they begin to repel water. Soils of the southern Paramos are generally Inceptisols, derived from metamorphic rocks, older than the previous one, less fertile but have less capacity than the former to immobilize P. Soils in farms surveyed by Ramrez et al. (1996) in the Paramos had pH 5.86.2, high OM (615%), high K and trace amounts of available P. Soils in the interandean regions are highly eroded (de Noni, Viennot and Trujillo, 198990) and it has been estimated that 48% of the national territory has some degree of erosion (Ecuador, 2001, see below). Soils of the Amazon piedmont, on the eastern slope of the Andes, are mostly Inceptisols of low to medium fertility (Hicks et al., 1990). Thus, farms surveyed by Ramrez et al. (1996) had soils with pH 55.8, frequently high OM (> 5%) particularly if associated with poor drainage, P < 3ppm and moderate to low K. In the lowland plains three main types of soils are recognized (Estrada et al., 1988): (a) alluvial sandy soils in the flatter portions along the rivers, seasonally cultivated with a variety of crops; (b) black, fertile volcanic soils, in the plains located N of the Napo River, and (c) red ultisols in broken hills, characteristically acid and of low fertility.

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

The coastal area has a tropical humid climate (Ecuador, 2001). Temperatures for the region range between 23C in the south and 26C in the north. Although seasonal changes in temperature are not pronounced, the hottest period is during the rainy season, especially from February to April. Near Guayaquil, the coolest months are August and September. Rainfall decreases north to south, with vegetation changing from tropical rainforest in the north to tropical savannas and desert in the south. These phenomena are associated with the Peruvian (Humboldt) Current and periodic appearances of El Nio. When the Peruvian Current is dominant, the amount of precipitation along the coast varies from north to south, with levels ranging from 3000mm to 300mm. Two rainy seasons in the northernmost part of the coast become a single season (December through June) in the south. Near Esmeraldas, average annual rainfall is 2500mm. The rainy season shortens farther south, lasting only from January to May at Guayaquil. Very little rainfall occurs on the end of the Santa Elena Peninsula west of Guayaquil. Arid

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

conditions prevail on the border with Peru south of the Gulf of Guayaquil. Separated from the effects of ocean currents by the coastal mountains, the internal part of the coastal area has a hot and humid climate. Temperatures can surpass 26C, and the vegetation and cloud cover tend to retain and augment the heat. Rain is constant during the winter months of December through May, with the heaviest rainfall occurring in February and March. Temperatures in the Sierra do not vary greatly, with the hottest month averaging 16C and the coolest month 13C at higher elevations. Diurnal temperatures vary markedly from cold mornings to hot afternoons. The almost vertical sun and the rarefied air in the higher Sierra region allow the land to warm quickly during the day and lose heat quickly at night. Mornings typically are bright and sunny, whereas afternoons often are cloudy and rainy. In general, rainfall is highest on exposed locations at lower altitudes. Rain also can vary on a local basis. The interandean region has a rainy season that extends from October to May, and the driest months are June through September with maximums of 1500 to 2000mm along the mountains, and 500mm in some interior valleys. Sheltered valleys normally receive 500mm/year, whereas annual rainfall is 1500mm in Quito and can reach 2500mm on some slopes exposed to winds. Climate in the Sierra is divided into levels based on altitude. The tropical level 400 to 1800m has temperatures ranging from 20C to 25C and heavy precipitation. The subtropical level 1800 to 2500m has temperatures from 15C to 20C and moderate precipitation. The temperate level 2500 to 3200m has a year-round temperature in the range of 10C to 15C and an annual rainfall of 1000mm. The temperate level experiences rainstorms, hailstorms and fog. The rainy (winter) season lasts from January through June, and the dry season or summer from July through December. Most rain falls in April. There is also a short rainy period in early October caused by moisture penetrating the Sierra from the Oriente. Quito and most other populated areas in the Sierra are at this temperate level. The cold level extends from the temperate zone to 4650m. Here, average temperatures are 3C to 9C, and the precipitation often appears in the form of rain, hail and thick fog. Above 4650m is the frozen level, where peaks are constantly capped with snow and ice, and temperatures range from below zero to 3C. Precipitation frequently is in the form of snow, fog and rain. The eastern lowlands have an equatorial climate. Rainfall is abundant, especially in the Andean piedmont, sometimes exceeding 5 000 mm/year. Temperatures average 25 C in the western parts of this region. The jungle-covered plains of the eastern lowlands register high levels of rainfall (> 2500mm) and temperatures surpassing 28C.

Figure 2. Ecozones of Ecuador

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Vegetation types are related to climatic conditions, and in particular to rainfall. Classification of vegetation types varies between countries in the region and also among authors, but a glossary is available (Huber and Riina, 1997). The following types are identified (see Figure 2): (1) tropical rainforest found in the wettest parts of the eastern lowlands, northern parts of the coast and on parts of the Andean piedmonts. The rainforest here is as rich as that of the Colombian rainforest. Its composition is influenced by altitude, and at 1 0002 000 m it is mixed with shrubs and ferns, whereas above 2000m a cloud forest is commonly encountered; (2) along the drier portions of the (southern) coast, a dry deciduous forest predominates with Figure 3. Location of the Paramos of Ecuador (3) a savannah further south, and scrubs composed mostly of Mimosa sp. that alternate with more open grassy types; (4) in the extreme southwestern part of the coast the savannah yields to desertic, xerophytic vegetation; (5) in the Andes, vegetation depends on the altitudinal level and evolves from dry forest to grass Pramo (see Figure 3) or steppe as altitude increases, finally reaching the area of permanent snow. Depending upon the altitude, soils and rainfall a variety of farming systems occur, exemplified in a highly stylistic form in Figure 4, but generally speaking, milk was the most important commodity in terms of value of production throughout the 1990s. The hot coastal lowlands are used for plantains, cocoa, coffee, rice, cotton and sugar cane. Important parts of the coastal Pacific shores and mangroves are dedicated to shrimp production. Some of the previous crops extend into the lower floors of the Sierra, together with maize. Above 1800m, temperate cereals, fruit and horticultural crops dominate, while extensive cattle, and mainly sheep and South American camelids production are practised above 3500m.

Figure 4. Cropping systems in the high Andes

[Source: Walker et al. (1994); Arce and Paladines (1997)]

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

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4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Farming systems that include ruminants cover nearly half of the national territory (Thornton et al., 2002). This estimate includes rainfed mixed systems (32% of the territory), rangeland-based systems (1011%), and irrigated mixed systems (8%). Production systems vary somewhat between agroecozones, but a distinctive characteristic of Ecuador is the general predominance of dual-purpose systems over beef and dairy production systems across most of the country. As in all other countries of tropical Latin America, these systems utilize crossbred cattle (Bos indicus x Bos taurus) resulting from miscellaneous, uncontrolled, crosses between Zebu, Creole, Holstein and Brown Swiss. Cows are generally milked by hand once daily with the calf on foot to allow milk let down. After milking, the calf is allowed to suckle and remains with the cow after the morning milking until midafternoon when calves are yarded and cows generally left on pastures. The amount of milk thus milked seldom exceeds 5kg/day over lactations that may extend anywhere between 150 and 350days or more, depending upon the financial needs of the farmer, the cows milk potential and the available forage resources. It constitutes a very flexible system in that if temporarily milk cannot be carried to local markets or made into cheese, it is utilized by the calf to gain weight. The dual-purpose system predominates in the coastal area, where it is estimated that 75% of the farms practise it (Ramrez et al., 1996), whereas the rest have mostly cow-calf beef systems based on Bos indicus breeds. As expected, all cattle directly graze available pastures and may be supplemented with cut-and-carry forage (elephant grass, sugar cane, etc.) during the drier part of the year. Farm-level data (Ramrez et al., 1996) show that milk for sale (or for cheese making) is generally low (34kg/cow/day). Similarly, in beef systems weight gains of yearlings do not exceed 400g/head/day. Dual-purpose systems also occur in much of the Andean region, below 2500 to 3500m. Yields per cow are similarly low, age at first calving is generally in excess of 36 months, and calving intervals are long (> 450days). Milk in many of these systems is converted into cheese and the residues fed to pigs. As altitude increases, sheep and guinea-pigs become part of the livestock raised by farmers, with guinea pigs and poultry mainly destined for household consumption. However, in the most favoured, northern part of the Andes, farming systems are generally mixed and more productive, including up to 7080% of the area under pastures, and crops such as potatoes, cereals, maize and beans in decreasing order of importance make up the difference, but the base is generally milk-potatoes, with a high proportion of Holstein crossbreds and purebreds, It should be noted that the milk-potato system is characteristic also of parts of the well watered Andes in Peru, Colombia and Venezuela, and detailed characterizations are available (e.g. Proao and Paladines, 1998). A summary of numerous on-farm research projects (Estrada, Paladines and Quiroz, 1997) indicates that potato yields vary between 20tonnes/ha in unfertilized stands, to 3035tonnes/ha in well managed and fertilized fields. Forage yields in sown pastures currently range between 4 and 10tonnesDM/ha. Nevertheless, these potential yields are severely constrained by a number of socio-economic factors. By 1998, the milk-potato system occupied 2000000ha in the Sierra, including 67000ha under potatoes and 1940000ha in pastures (CONDESAN, 2000), and contributed 5.5kg/cow/day and 7.5tonnes/ha of potatoes, the latter mostly for household consumption. The northern part of the Sierra (north of Quito, up to the Colombian border) is the most favoured area in terms of soils and rainfall; historically it was relatively less modified by human intervention. Important agricultural activities include the production of cereals, potatoes, garlic, onions, milk and sheep, with milk increasing in importance towards the valleys, in competition with floriculture (Recharte and Gearheard, 2001). South of Quito rainfall decreases in the Sierra. This area concentrates a large number of indigenous communities that grow wheat, barley and potatoes at 32003800m, in close association with a small number of cattle and sheep, whereas at higher altitudes they practise extensive grazing of the Paramo vegetation (see Figure 3 and www.paramo.org\coppusetal-eser.doc). Ruminants in these systems play, among others, an important role in the supply of manure for crops. (Recharte and Gearheard, 2001). North of the Peruvian border, the Sierra is drier and soils more superficial; medium to large ranches exist in the southern-most extreme, evolving to small to medium mixed systems, as described above, in the northern direction.

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

It was indicated earlier that the high Andes are largely inhabited by indigenous communities. On-farm activities generally provide 4090% of household income, with milk accounting for 2070% of it, depending on the specific community and location (Candill, Bremner and Vohman, 2001). Off-farm employment is generally essential to the maintenance of households since they have been so highly subdivided (through successive generations) that many of them are marginally viable, particularly as these communities undergo rapid transition to a market economy. As altitude further increases, generally above 3500m, cattle are seldom raised, and sheep, South American camelids and guinea pigs become relatively more important. In some areas though, fighting bulls can be important in the larger holdings. Farming systems at these altitudes make intensive use of the most favoured parts of the landscape to grow barley, potatoes and fava beans, whereas ruminants and camelids are raised extensively in the Paramo rangelands. Vicunas (wild) are generally found above 4 300 m, mostly in nature reserves. Llamas are concentrated in the central portion of the Sierra, and are used by indigenous communities as source of meat, leather, manure and for freight. Alpacas were introduced from Chile and Peru in 1985. A large number of them are in a nature reserve, but private producers are becoming common (White, 2001). A peculiar characteristic of cattle raising systems in the Andes is the prevalence of sogueo, a form of tethering whereby individual cattle are tied with a long rope to pegs placed in the paddocks and are moved daily or more frequently. This of course implies very intensive (and labour intensive) grazing management since 27% of farms practise it. As expected, it is more common on smaller farms, and its use decreases from 35% in the smaller sector to 6% in the larger farms (SICA/MAG, 2002). In the piedmont of the Amazon basin, cattle are the mainstay of the rural economy. Ramrez et al. (1996) estimated that 95% of household income is provided by cattle, with minor contributions from sugar cane, banana, plantains and other crops. Depending upon the location, dual-purpose or beef cattle may predominate. Cattle are grazed year round, with very little if any supplementation. Yields are similar to those already mentioned and, in well-stocked farms, stocking rates range between 1 and 2AU/ha. In the lowlands of the Amazon basin (< 450m, > 3000mm rainfall) settlers farms average 4050ha (Estrada et al., 1988), 515 of which may be pastures and 15 under coffee, and/or cocoa, with the rest under forest. During the 1980s and early 1990s pastures were constituted by elephant grass and Brachiaria decumbens, but Brachiaria humidicola was increasing rapidly in the late 1990s. As elsewhere in much of the lowlands tropics, relative scarcity of cattle implies that stocking rates of beef or dual-purpose animals seldom exceed 1head/ha, although experimental data suggest that at least Brachiaria humidicola should be able to carry 2head/ha.

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

According to census data (SICA/MAG, 2002) the agricultural land of Ecuador in 19992000 amounted to 12400000ha, 27% of which was under sown pastures, 9.1% under native grasslands, 4.9 covered by Paramos and 3% fallow. If all of these are considered as grazing resources, nearly half of the usable land was available for grazing. Although the data reveal that there is trend for larger farms to have more of the land covered by the above resources, even farms under 5 ha dedicate 32% of the land to grazing and 24% to sown and native pastures. In farms over 200ha, these percentages increase to 48% and 33% respectively. The Sierra and Costa have 51 and 36% of Ecuadors cattle stock respectively, with the reminder in the Oriente. Cattle are evenly distributed across farm sizes, oscillating very little between 12% of the stock in farms of 100200ha to 19% in farms of 2050ha; farms of less than 5 ha own 17% of the cattle stock. The previous data show the extreme importance of livestock raising in Ecuador across regions and farm sizes. The area of sown, native and naturalized pastures of Ecuador has been variously estimated between the 5510000ha reported in SICA/MAG (2002) and FAO databases and the 6500000ha reported by some analysts (Hervas, 1985). These are distributed as follows: 3070000ha in the coastal area (48%), 180000ha (3%) in the Amazon basin, 1865460ha in the high Paramos (29%), 883400ha of naturalized

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

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pastures where Pennisetum clandestinum (Kikuyu grass) is a very important contributor (14%), and close to 400000ha of sown pastures, including lucerne (Medicago sativa) and other temperate forages. Coastal pastures Pasture development along the tropical, wet, coastal belt relies on sown tropical grasses, and to a much lesser degree legume species, some of which have become endemic. Where soil fertility allows, grazed pastures are based on star grass (Cynodon nlemfuensis), Pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens) or Guinea grass (Panicum maximum), while elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) is used for cut-and-carry systems, particularly in dual purpose systems. Legumes such as Centrosema pubescens, Stylosanthes spp., Desmodium spp., Dolichos lablab, Neonotonia wightii and numerous others have been tried but their contribution to sward composition is generally unimportant. Following the trend observed across all of tropical Latin America, the last 15 years have witnessed the expansion of Brachiaria-based pastures (Brachiaria decumbens, B. humidicola, B. brizantha) in the area. Extremely limited information regarding the animal production potential of all of these pastures is available for Ecuador, but it can confidently be estimated that their potential is similar to that observed in neighbouring countries, meaning that carrying capacities for directly grazed pastures will range between 14AU/ha, whereas elephant grass can supply forage for 712AU/ha over limited periods of time. A potentially important niche for one of the newest legumes, Arachis pintoi, is as a cover crop under plantains, cocoa and coffee, as shown in numerous other tropical countries of the region. Ramrez et al. (1996) describe a recent survey of pastures in a subregion of the coastal area, located at 150260m, latitudes between 0 11 S and 0 28 S, mean temperature of 25C and rainfall of 1560 to 2000mm. The area surveyed included 55000ha of sown pastures, 95% of which was Panicum maximum and 5% Cynodon nlemfuensis with a token presence of native Desmodium sp. and some broadleaf weeds such as Sida acuta and others. Across 11 on-farm experimental sites, aboveground yields averaged over three years were estimated at 15400kgDM/ha.year, with two-thirds being produced during the wet season. This annual yield was nearly 50% less than that obtained under controlled, well managed conditions in a nearby experimental research station. Clippings taken at 60-day intervals during the wet season and 78 days in the dry season showed 10.4 and 7.2% crude protein, and 55 and 52.8% IVDMD, respectively. Milk yields were recorded in a subsample of two farms that had dual-purpose systems. As is typical of these systems elsewhere, milk yields averaged 3kg/milking/cow/day/year using stocking rates of 1.5 1.8cows/ha. The authors consider that stocking rates could be significantly increased if provision for summer feeding was available, as farmers stock their pastures based on the predicted carrying capacity during the dry season. Weight gains in beef production systems of seven farms averaged 0.35kg/steer/ day, also highly typical values for tropical systems in the lowlands of Latin America. Similar comments regarding efficiency of utilization of pastures apply as for dual-purpose systems. The potential of these pastures under optimal conditions has been determined in controlled, experiment station-run, grazing experiments. Ramrez et al. (1996) report that carrying capacities on Panicum maximum alone, or with a mixture of legumes (most notably, Centrosema pubescens, contributing 40% of the botanical composition), were 4 and 2.5steers/ha for the rainy season and 3.5 and 2head/ha for the rainy season, respectively. Andean pastures Andean pastures are complex, their composition depending upon the altitude and climate of the site considered, and they have been modified by human interventions. A recent classification of these pastures recognizes two main types of ecozones, the temperate and the cold temperate zones, respectively (LenVelarde and Izquierdo, 1993), each of which includes a number of subtypes described below. The Andean temperate ecozone The first subtype corresponds to native and naturalized grasslands and shrublands located in dry interandean plateaus and valleys, estimated to cover 0.45% of Ecuadors surface area. They are between 2000 and 3000m, with mean temperatures of 1218C and 250500mm annual rainfall, including a dry period of 35months, extending from May to September. If irrigation is available, these areas can

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

grow cereals, fruits and vegetables, as well as lucerne, forage oats and Kikuyu grass. The steeper slopes are used for grazing goats and forestry. At similar altitudes, but with rainfall ranging from 500 to 1 000 mm, the region includes a large number of valleys that, although representing only 3% of the countrys area, are extremely important from the point of view of population density, and agricultural and livestock activities. Here the main forage resource is lucerne wherever irrigation is available, followed by Kikuyu grass and lupins (Lupinus spp.) in a variable land-use mosaic that includes wheat, barley, beans, green beans and various other vegetables. In numerous other valleys of similar altitudes but with rainfall of over 1000mm, milk production is based on Kikuyu grass, ryegrass, Melinis minutiflora and Panicum coloratum, frequently located in mixed production systems that include potatoes, maize, and wheat. Ramrez et al. (1996) described farm surveys carried out in an area corresponding to the drier part of the temperate ecozone, with a 68 month dry season. The study area covered 87 000 ha at latitudes 3 59 to 4 26 S, and between longitudes 79 18 to 79 37 W. Farms averaged 53ha each, with 31% of this area under pastures and 50% in fallows used for grazing and dominated by Paspalum humboldteanum and Kikuyu grass under a sparse cover of Acacia sp. and Mimosa sp. trees. Further detailed characterization of 13 farms located at 1 600 to 2 400 m within this area, and with slopes ranging between 10 and 65%, was carried out. Five of the 13 farms had irrigation available. Native or naturalized pastures were composed of grasses (88%, either P. humboldteanum and/or Kikuyu), legumes (6%) and broadleaf weeds (6%). Pastures were used to graze dual-purpose cattle. Unirrigated pastures yielded on average 2548kg/ha/year (range 5007000), and yields were inversely related to slope (r=-0.62, P<0.05). Trampling by cattle in the wet season left patches of bare soil, the size of which was positively related to slope (r=0.65, P<0.05). Irrigated king grass (Pennisetum purpureum x P. typhoides) used to provide cut-and-carry forage yielded 1518 tonnes DM/ha/year, whereas if unirrigated yields fell to 68tonnes. Fifteen farms averaging 26 ha each, located at altitudes of 3 000 to 3 500 m, and with slopes ranging from 0 to 55%, had 71% of their area under pastures. One half of the pasture area was under naturalized and sown Dactylis glomerata- Lolium multiflorum-Trifolium repens associations, and 37% under Kikuyu, Holcus lanatus and Paspalum pigmaeum native populations. In this case, aboveground yields ranged from 4tonnesDM/ha/year in Paspalum pigmaeum pastures to 15tonnes in well managed lucerne stands. These results coincide well with a study conducted across 17 sites by Paladines and Jcome (1999), who measured dry matter production under exclosures placed in a variety of pastures in the extreme north of the Andes (Carchi). Pasture components included all of the above-named species in various proportions. The authors found that 93% of the variation in yield (ranging between 3 and 18tonnesDM/ha) was explained by just two variables: hours of irrigation applied per month, and soil apparent density, which had a negative effect on yields. The Andean cold temperate ecozone The ecozone is located at 3000 to 4000m, and has mean temperatures of 6 to 12C. Three subtypes can also be identified based on rainfall availability, although grassland species are fairly common to all. Common species include (Hervas, 1985; Len-Velarde and Izquierdo, 1993): Agrostis perennans, Agrostis tolucensis, Agrostis alba, Calamagrostis vicunarum, Poa pratensis, Holcus lanatus, Bromus catharticus, Stipa ichu, Stipa obtusa, Muhlenbergia emesrleyi, Lupinus alopecuroides and numerous others. Naturalized Kikuyu grass (introduced from Colombia in 1947), frequently associated with white clover, is common in the better soils below 3200m. The first of the subtypes is dry steppes, with < 500mm rainfall distributed over 10months. The dry months are July and August. The area has been estimated to cover 0.4% of Ecuador. Extensive sheep production systems make use of these grasslands, which are based on a variety of species of Festuca, Agrostis, Poa, Bromus, Calamagrostis, Stipa (most notably Stipa ichu) and Lupinus. The second, humi, subtype receives 5001000mm rainfall and constitutes close to 4% of Ecuadors surface area. Rainfall is distributed year-round, and evapotranspiration at these altitudes is very low. Grasslands here are dominated by species of Stipa, Calamagrostis and Festuca, and constitute the main land use. Cattle, both beef and dairy, are the mainstay of the economy of these regions.

Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

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Ramrez et al. (1996) reported studies aimed at characterizing native grasslands above 3 500 m, receiving 5001000mm rainfall and on slopes > 12% where mean temperatures ranged between 3 and 12C. Calamagrostis sp. dominated pastures (>35% of the botanical composition) located at higher altitudes within the region, whereas lower-lying areas were characterized by mixtures of Bromus sp., Holcus lanatus, Poa sp., Stipa ichu, Festuca pratensis and others. Areas with rainfall in excess of 1000mm (over 4% of Ecuador) are extremely humid, and wetlands abound. The better drained areas, as well as the slopes, are dominated by the same species listed in the previous case, but the livestock industry here is marginal. Introduced pastures in the Andes Artificial pastures in the well-watered high Andes of Ecuador vary between the naturalized Kikuyu stands and sown pastures of species such as lucerne, Dactylis glomerata and Lolium spp., frequently associated with naturalized Trifolium repens. Lolium multiflorum stands are very common. The potential of these pastures in the best parts of the Ecuadorian Andes is extremely high if well managed. Experimental yields of 2030tonnesDM/ha have been obtained, which could potentially yield 10000litresmilk/ha/ year (Estrada, Paladines and Quiroz, 1997). Pastures of the eastern region The Amazon basin of Ecuador, to the east of the Andes chains, includes the piedmont region, and the less populated lowlands. The latter are also of much less importance from the point of view of ruminant production than the piedmont. More limited studies have been carried out in this ecozone than in the previous two. Ramrez et al. (1996) summarized the results of farm surveys carried out over 213000ha of piedmont, with rainfall in excess of 3700mm. The average area of 185 farms surveyed in the region was 122ha (range 50186ha), and 75% of this area had been cleared of forest, with 90% of it converted to pastures. Axonopus scoparius was the main (83% of the cases) species, followed by small percentages under Brachiaria decumbens, Echinochloa polystachia and others. Legumes contributed no more than 1% of the botanical composition. Average yields of these pastures were 13tonnesDM/ha/year. Pastures in the lowlands are far less common. Estrada et al. (1988) surveyed farms located in the area at 450m, averaging in excess of 3000mm rainfall, and with the driest month averaging 140mm. Farms had a mean of 46ha each, including 411ha under pastures. Elephant grass and Brachiaria decumbens were the two main species, although Brachiaria humidicola was expanding at the expense of the latter. Scarcity of cattle probably explained why average stocking rates were 0.93head/ha, while experimental results suggest that Brachiaria humidicola should be able to support 2head/ha.

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF FODDER RESOURCES

Undoubtedly, the most difficult constraints are faced by pastures in the high Andes, particularly in the drier parts of the mountain chain. In Ecuador indigenous communal coordination is considerable. Thus, rural development initiatives can be effectively supported by these organizations, but a major difficulty faced by them is the limited economic options available at these altitudes, an issue discussed at length by Bebbington (1996) from the institutional point of view. As indicated above, the major limitation is one of forage availability, closely followed by forage quality, in an environment where growth is severely limited by low temperatures and rainfall, thus making the process of pasture restoration very slow. Wherever strategic irrigation is available, these constraints can be overcome by resorting to strategic supplementation of animals with sown pastures. Yields of lucerne and ryegrass-lucerne, as well as white clover-based pastures, can be reasonably high and responses to N and P fertilization are also high. Nevertheless, a higher level constraint in applying these solutions is the lack of enabling policies and credit, and limited advisory services, as well as inaccessibility of many parts of the high Andes.

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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

It should be noted that native Andean grasslands, particularly in the Paramo, have been overgrazed and overexploited for decades if not centuries. Given the severe climatic conditions alluded to above, reversal of this situation, if feasible, is only possible over the long term and if adequate policies are available. Policies must take into account valuing their biodiversity and the ecological services that they offer. It should be noted that nine of 34 Latin American ecoregions rated as globally outstanding for biological distinctiveness are grasslands (White et al., 2000), and that one of these is the North Andean Paramo of Ecuador (shared with Colombia), as well as the Central Andean Paramo (shared with Peru). These are challenges that remain to be faced by government bodies, a difficult proposition in view of the more immediate preoccupation with the promotion of high-value export crops and other commodities mostly produced in the lowlands. It would appear that trade-offs between immediate returns and longterm benefits would have to be examined via simulation of alternative development scenarios, since longer-term field research will only offer solutions over a much more extended period of time. In the temperate areas of the Andes, where traditional temperate grasses and legumes (Lolium sp., lucerne, white clover, etc.) have been used for decades, continued introduction and testing of varieties and species should provide a steady stream of improved materials. Better management practices, including those referred to forage conservation, are probably required, but this is a process that is already under way to some extent and it probably explains the relatively rapid increase in dairy production. Opportunities for improvement of pasture resources are, however, much more abundant and feasible along the coastal area. Since this is the region that produces a substantial share of commodities for export (e.g. banana, plantains, cocoa) as well as for local consumption (e.g. milk, beef), management expertise and attitudes are already in place that should make improved pasture and animal management feasible and relatively easy. To a large extent this is already happening as witnessed by the rapid expansion of the dairy sector here as well as in intermediate altitudes and valleys of the Andean region. A relatively large number of technical alternatives are available, both locally generated as well as coming from comparable regions elsewhere in tropical Latin America. These include the introduction of persistent legumes, such as Arachis pintoi, and a more varied portfolio of grass species and varieties. Adoption of tropical forage legumes is admittedly very slow, but in contrast, the more rapid adoption of some of these same legumes as cover crops under cocoa, coffee and plantains may eventually spill over into pastures.

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL

The national research institute of Ecuador is the Instituto Nacional Autnomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, INIAP. The institute operates seven research stations, in the three main ecozones, namely the Costa, Sierra and Oriente. In addition the institute includes the national Department of Plant Genetic Resources and Biotechnology (DENAREF, Departamento Nacional de Recursos Fitogenticos y Biotecnologa). It operates under the aegis of INIAP (the Autonomous National Institute for Agricultural Research) undertaking germplasm collection, ex situ conservation, research, training, promotion and the provision of scientific and technical advice and information. INIAP, as well as many other national research institutes in the region, has had a declining budget since the mid 1980s, and funding is increasingly channelled through a foundation, FUNDAGRO (Fundacin para el Desarrollo Agropecuario) that receives both public and private funds. In 1992 INIAP became a decentralized, autonomous institute and it has its own foundation to secure funds. FUNDACYT (Fondo de Desarrollo de la Ciencia y Tecnologia) is a government-financed fund to support some aspects of research, in particular, development of human resources. The coordination of the Andean grasslands network, Red de Pastizales Andinos, is based in Quito. It has done a considerable amount of work with financial support from various sources, and presently functions under the umbrella of the Consortium for Sustainable Development of the Andean Ecoregion, CONDESAN, which in turn is hosted by the International Potato Center, CIP in Lima, Per.

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In addition to the above institutions, a large number of international institutes and universities have had occasional projects in Ecuador, particularly in the Sierra, in cooperation with national and regional universities and NGOs. Many of these projects have coincided in the Carchi Province (North of Quito), where a large amount of information has been, and is being, generated for the area of the humid high Andes.

8. REFERENCES
Arce, B. a nd O. Paladines (1997) Anlisis y opciones de desarrollo sostenible del ecosistema hmedo altoandino de la Provincia del Carchi, Ecuador. Bebbington, A. (1996) Organizations and intensifications: campesino federations, rural livelihoods and agricultural technology in the Andes and Amazonia. World Development 24: 11611177 Candill, D., J. Bremner and E. Vohman (2001) Exploring Capacity for Integration. The University of Michigan Population-Environment Fellows Program. Impact Assessment Project: Phase 2. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. www.sph.umich.edu/pfps/ CEPAL (2001) Anuario estadistico de America Latina y el Caribe. Santiago: CEPAL. CONDESAN (2000) Mejoramiento de la productividad y sostenibilidad de los sistemas de produccin mixtos: cultivos-ganadera, en la ecoregin andina del Ecuador (Proyecto PROMSA). Ecu005/2000. www. condesan.org/memoria/ECU0500.PDF de Noni, G., M Viennot and G. Trujillo (198990) Measures de lrosion dans les Andes de lEquator. Cah. ORSTOM, ser. Pedol., 25: 183196 Ecuador (2001) Comunicacin Nacional. Repblica del Ecuador. Convencin Marco de las Naciones Unidas. Cambio Climtico. Quito: Comit Nacional sobre el Clima, Ministerio del Ambiente. Estrada, R.D., C. Ser and H. Luzuriaga (1988) Sistemas de produccin agrosilvopastoriles en al selva baja de la provincia del Napo, Ecuador. Cali: CIAT. 108 p. Estrada, R.D., O. Paladines and R. Quiros (1997) Pobreza y degradacin de suelos en los Andes altos. La experiencia de CONDESAN. VII Encuentro CONDESAN. http://www.rimisp.org/webpage.php?webid=167. FAO (2001) Lecture Notes on the Major Soils of the World. World Soil Resources Report No. 94. Rome: FAO FAO-CSIC (2002) FAO-CSIC Multilingual Soil Profile Database (SDBmPlus). Rome: FAO Land and Water Development Division, http://leu.irnase.csic.es/microlei/microlei.htm (under Documentation) and Sevilla: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiologia de Sevilla, http://www.microleis.com FAO Databases 2006 (website http://apps.fao.org/) Hervas, T. (1985) Praderas del Ecuador. Unpublished mimeo. 21 p. Hicks, J.F., H.E. Daly, S.H. Davis and M. de L. de Freitas (1990) Ecuadors Amazon Region. Development issues and options. World Bank Discussion Paper 75. Washington DC: The World Bank. 41 p. Huber, O. and R. Riina, eds.(1997) Glosario Fitoecolgico de las Amricas. Vol. I Amrica del Sur: pases hispanoparlantes. Caracas: UNESCO. 500 p. Len-Velarde, C. and F. Izquierdo (1993) Produccin y Utilizacin de los Pastizales de la Zona Altoandina. Compendio. Quito: Red de Pastizales Andinos-REPAAN. 228p. Medina, G. and V.P. Mena (2001) Los pramos de Ecuador. In Mena, V.P., G. Medina and R. Hofstede, eds. Los Pramos del Ecuador. Particularideades, Problemas y Perspectivas. Proyecto Pramo. Quito. Fundacin Ecuatoriana de Estudios Ecolgicos Paladines, O. and C. Jcome (1999) Factores que determinan la produccin primaria de los pastizales en el ecosistema hmedo altoandino de la Sierra, en especial de la Provincia del Carchi-Ecuador. Informe 1999. ECU299. www.condesan.org/memoria/ECU0299.PDF Proao, M. and O. Paladines (1998) Anlisis de los sistemas agropecuarios de los pequeos y medianos productores de la cuenta del Ro El Angel. www.condesan.org/memoria/ECU0198.PDF Quantin, P. (1986) Taxonomy of some chilean and ecuadorian volcanic ash soils. Cah. ORSTORM, sr. Pdol. 22: 109111 Ramrez, P., F. Izquierdo and O. Paladines (1996) Produccin y Utilizacin de Pastizales en Cinco Zonas Agroecolgicas del Ecuador. Quito: MAG-GTZ-REPAAN. 235 p.

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Recharte, J. and J. Gearheard (2001) Los pramos altamente diversos del Ecuador: ecologa poltica de una ecoregin. In Mena, V.P., G. Medina and R. Hofstede, eds., Los Pramos del Ecuador. Particularidades, Problemas y Perspectivas. Proyecto Pramo. Quito SICA/MAG (2002) III Censo Agropecuario. http://www.sica.gov.ec/censo/ Thornton, P. K. et al. (2002) Mapping Poverty and Livestock in the Developing World. Nairobi: ILRI UNDP (2001) Human Development Report 2001. New York: UNDP. 274 p. Walker, T., C. Crissman, R. D. Estrada, H. Fano, O. Ortiz, C. Len-Velarde and R. Quiroz (1994) Prospects for agricultural intensification in the Andean ecoregion. Ecoregional/2020 Vision Workshop. Warrenton: IFPRI White, R., S. Murray and M. Rohweder (2000) Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems. Grassland Ecosystems. Washington DC: World Resources Institute. 69 p. White, S. (2001) Los camlidos sudamericanos en los Pramos Ecuatorianos: presente, historia y futuro. In Mena, V.P., G. Medina and R. Hofstede, eds., Los Pramos del Ecuador. Particularidades, Problemas y Perspectivas. Proyecto Pramo. Quito

9. CONTACTS
INIAP, Instituto Nacional Autnomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (=Autonomous National Institute for Agricultural Research) Casillas Postal 1717 1362 Quito, Ecuador iniap@iniap-ecuador.gov.ec http://www.mag.gov.ec/docs/servicio2.htm Forage specialist: Victor Hugo Barrera Mosquera Instituto Nacional Autnomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIAP) Estacin Experimental Santa Catalina. Panamericana Sur Km 14. Casilla Postal 17-012600. Quito, Ecuador barrera@cip.org.ec Germplasm collection and conservation: Agr. Ral Castillo, PhD INIAP, Instituto Nacional Autnomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias DENAREF, P.O. Box 17-01-340 Quito, Ecuador Telephone: 593 (2) 690 691 Fax: 593 (2) 690 691 or 593 (2) 504 240 castillo@cip.org.ec Coordinator of the Andean Network of Forage Evaluation: Dr. Osvaldo Paladines Red Pastizales Andinos (REPAAN) Casilla 17-16-219 Quito, Ecuador Tel: 220533/34; 277816 Fax: 507422 aladin@vio.telconet.net

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FUNDAGRO Moreno Bellido No. E6-168 & Av. Amazonas Quito - Ecuador Phone: (593) 250 7361 & 222 0533 Fax: (593) 250 7422 P.O. Box: 16-17-219 CEQ, Quito, Ecuador fundagro@uio.telconet.net www.fundagro.org FUNDACYT (Fondo de Desarrollo de la Ciencia y Tecnologia) http://www.fundacyt.org.ec/

10. THE AUTHOR

The author of this profile, Dr. Ral R. Vera, spent 16 years in Colombia as Senior Scientist, and later as Leader of the former Tropical Pastures Programme, and Tropical Lowlands Programme of CIAT, the International Centre for Tropical Agriculture located in Cali. He can be contacted at: Ral R. Vera 2 Norte 443 dpto. 52 Via del Mar, CHILE 2534194 Fax (Chile) 56-2-552 9435 raulvera@terra.cl [The profile was prepared in December 2002/January 2003 and was edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in January, 2003 and modified by S.G. Reynolds in May 2006.]