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Essential UNIX For DBAs

Index
Topics UNIX Operating System Unix Commands Files & Directories Unix Utilities Process Shell Programming Reference Lab
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Chapter 1
UNIX Operating System

Objectives
In this session, you learn about: The functions of OS The history of Unix The features of UNIX The Unix architecture Process management CPU scheduling Memory management File management

Operating System (OS)

OS is a system software OS can be defined as an organized collection of

software consisting of procedures for operating a computer

OS provides an environment for execution of

programs
OS acts as an interface between the user and the

hardware of the computer system.

Operating System
Operating system interacts with user in two ways Operating system commands Enables user to interact directly with the operating system.
Operating system calls

Provides an interface to a running program and the operating system. System calls in UNIX are written in C.

History of UNIX
Ken Thompson of AT&T Bell Laboratories designed

UNIX in late 1960s

Two versions of UNIX that emerged are AT&T Unix

and BSD Unix

In 1989, AT&T and Sun Microsystems joined together

and developed system V release 4 (SVR4)

Two of the main standards mainly in use are POSIX

(Portable Operating System Interface) and X/open standard. In 1988, MIT formed Xconsortium developed vendor-neutral Xwindow System.

Common UNIX Flavours

BSD: Solaris: Ultrix: OSF 1: HPUX: AIX: IRIX: Berkeley, BSD Sun Microsystems, Sys 5/BSD Digital Equipment Corporation, BSD Digital Equipment Corporation, BSD/sys 5 Hewlett-Packard, Sys 5 IBM, Sys 5 / BSD Silicon Graphics, Sys 5

GNU/Linux: GNU, BSD/Posix

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What is Linux?
An open-source UNIX like operating system Initially created by Linus Torvalds for PC architecture

Ports exist for Alpha and Sparc processors

Developer community world-wide contribute to its enhancement and growth

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Features of UNIX
Multi-user, multitasking, timesharing Portability Modularity

File structure
Security Strong networking support & advanced graphics

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Layered Architecture

... cp comp shell as ld vi ed

banner ls

kernel hardware

sort

sh who a.out date grep wc

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UNIX System Architecture

Unix system follows a layered approach. It has four layers The innermost layer is the hardware layer In the second layer, the kernel is placed The utilities and other application programs form the third

layer
Fourth layer is the one with which the user actually interacts.

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Kernel
Kernel is that part of the OS which directly makes interface with the

hardware system.
A program that starts running when the system is booted and

runs continuously until the system is shutdown.

Actions: Provides mechanism for creating and deleting processes Provides processor scheduling, memory, and I/O management Provides inter-process communication. File management and interrupt and error handling.

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The Shell
A utility program that comes with the UNIX system. Features of Shell are: Interactive Processing Background Processing I/O Redirection Pipes Shell Scripts Shell Variables Programming Constructs

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Process Management
A process is a program in execution Several processes can be executed simultaneously in

a UNIX system.
A process is generally created using the

fork( ) system call.

The process that invokes the fork( ) system call is

the parent process, and the newly created process is called the child process.

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CPU Scheduling
Unix uses round-robin scheduling to support its multi-user and time-sharing feature. Round-robin fashion of scheduling is considered to be the oldest, simplest and widely used algorithm. Every process is given a time slice (10-100 millisec.)

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Memory Management
Virtual memory : The entire memory space available to the Unix Kernel. This consists of both the physical memory(RAM) and all swap space.

Swap Space :The space on disk used to extend the physical

memory of a system. Swap space is a how a system with 64MB Ram can run a 100MB program
Paging :The action of transferring one Page of physical memory from, or to, the swap space.

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File Management
UNIX uses a hierarchical file system with / as

its root.
Every non-leaf node of the tree is called as a directory file. Every leaf node can either be a file, or an empty directory

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File System

dev

bin sh

tmp home

etc

var spool

lib

usr

console lp0

ls user1

inittab passwd user2

bin

src

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File System
File system is the structure in which files are stored

on disk
File in UNIX is sequence of bytes organized in the form

of blocks
The size of each block is 512 bytes (depends on

architecture)
Block size can be decided while creating the file system

structure

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File System Structure

Type of the file Link counter Uid, gid, size Date and time of Creation Date and time of access Date and time of modification : :

Boot Block Super Block Inode Block Data Block

Address of datablock Address of datablock : :

Address of the addr block Address of the addr block Address of the addr block

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Types of UNIX Users

Broad classification of users root (most privileged) Non-root (less privileged)

Group UNIX allows user IDs to be grouped A single user ID can be member of multiple groups Differentiating users w.r.to file access Owner Group Others
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Working With UNIX

User logs in with a valid user ID

To indicate that the system is ready to accept a login, the system prompts with login as indicated below:

login:
Once the user enters login ID, then the system prompts for password (if login expects password) as given below:

password:
Once the password is entered, the system validates the user id and password combination to identify if it is one of the valid user IDs on the system. If so the system displays a prompt. In case of Bourne shell or Bash shell it is $ sign for ordinary user and # for root login.

User logs out to terminate the login session

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Summary
In this session, you learned about The functions of OS The History of Unix The features of UNIX The Unix Architecture Process management CPU Scheduling Memory management File management
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Chapter 2
UNIX Commands

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13

Objectives
In this session, you will learn to: Use the basic Unix commands

pwd date who ls man

Use man pages

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Simple Commands
pwd Displays the current working directory. date Displays the current date and time

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Simple Commands
who Displays the names of all the users who have currently logged in who am i Displays the name of the current user.

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Listing the Directory Contents

ls Syntax options:

:ls [options] [file.] -l list in long format -a list all files including those beginning with a dot -i list inode no of file in first column -s reports disk blocks occupied by file -R recursively list all sub directories -F mark type of each file -C display files in columns

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Meta Characters
Meta Characters * ? [] Purpose Example $ ls l *.c file* $ ls l file? $ ls l file[abc] $ cat file1; cat file2 $ cat abc | wc $ (echo ==== x.c ====; cat x.c) > out count=`expr $count + 1` assuming count has value3, this increments the value of count echo expr $count + 1 displays expr $count + 1 echo expr $count + 1 displays expr 3 + 1 assuming the variable count has value 3

Match with one or more characters or none Match with any single character Match with any single character within the brackets ; Command separator | Pipe two commands () Group commands Useful when the output of thecommand group has to be redirected `command` Execute the command enclosed within back quotes. Useful when the output of a command into a variable in a shell script string string Quote all characters with no substitution (ex. no special meaning for $ ) Quote all cha racters with substitution. The characters $,\ (back slash) and back quote have special meaning.

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Listing the Directory Contents

$ ls l total 6 -rwxr-xr-x drwxr-xr-x -rw-r--r--rw-------rw-r--r--

1 2 1 1 1

user1 user2 user1 user1 user3

projA projD projA projA projC

12373 4096 12831 61440 255

Dec Dec Dec Dec Dec

15 22 12 15 20

14:45 14:00 13:59 11:16 14:29

a.out awkpro c core cs

File access permissions File type

User id Link count Group id

File size in bytes

Date & time of modification

File name

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Getting Help on Commands

The Unix manual, usually called man pages, is available

on-line to explain the usage of the Unix system and commands. Syntax: man [options] command_name
Common Options -k keyword list command synopsis line for all keyword matches -M path path to man pages -a show all matching man pages (SVR4)

info command_name - help for commands help -command_name gives command synatx
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Summary
In this session, you have learned to use the basic Unix commands like

pwd date who ls man

use man pages

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Chapter 3
Files & Directories

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Objectives
In this session, you will learn to: set file permissions using the chmod command use directory-related commands namely mkdir, rmdir, cd commands use file-related commands namely cp, mv, rm commands access advanced file permissions using commands umask, suid, sgid, linking files, stickybit create and edit files using the vi editor

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File Access Permissions

Refers to the permissions associated with a file with respect to the following Permission Levels User (owner) (u) Group (wheel, staff, daemon, etc.) (g) World (guest, anonymous and all other users) (o) Permission Settings Read (r) Write (w) Execute (x)

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File Access Permissions

No read permission does not allow the user to: List the contents of directory Remove the directory No Write permission does not allow the user to : copy files to the directory remove files from the directory rename files in the directory make a subdirectory remove a subdirectory from the directory move files to, and from the directory

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File Access Permissions

No execute permission does not allow the user to:

display the contents of a directory file from within the directory change to the directory display a file in the directory copy a file to, or from the directory

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Changing Permissions - chmod

chmod u+x file_name Syntax: chmod <category> <operation> <permission> <filename(s)> or chmod <octal number> filename Octal Number

4 - for read 2 - for write 1 - for execution $ chmod 744 xyz this sets read, write and execute permissions for owner, read permission for group and others

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Directory Creation
Command Syntax mkdir [OPTION] DIRECTORY $ mkdir <path>/<directory> $ mkdir m <directory> $ mkdir p <directory1>/<directory2>/<directory3> Example:
$ mkdir project1

This creates a directory project1 under current directory

Note: Write and execute permissions are needed for the directory in which user wants to create a directory

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Directory Removal
rmdir command removes directory Syntax
rmdir <directory name>

Example Removes project1 directory in the current directory

rmdir project1

Remove multiple directories rmdir pos1 pos2 Remove the directory recursively rmdir p dir1/dir2/dir3 rmdir removes a directory if it is empty and is not the current directory

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Command - cd
cd command is used to change the directory
cd cd .. cd /

- take to the home directory - takes to the parent directory - takes to the root directory

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File-Related Commands
File Operation Copying a file Moving a file Removing a file Displaying a file and concatenating files Command cp mv rm cat

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Command - cp
Used to copy files across directories Syntax cp <source file> <new file name> Example cp file1 file2

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Command - cp
Options to cp -p
Copies the file and preserves the following attributes owner id group id permissions last modification time

-r recursive copy; copy subdirectories under the directory if any -i interactive; prompts for confirmation before overwriting the target file, if it already exists

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Command - mv
Used to move a file, or rename a file Preserves the following details

owner id group id permissions Last modification time

-f

suppresses all prompting (forces overwriting of target) prompts before overwriting destination file
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-i

Command - rm
Used to remove a file
Syntax : rm file(s)

-f -i -r

suppresses all prompting prompts before deleting destination file will recursively remove the file from a directory (can be used to delete a directory along with the content )

Caution: Use i option along with r to get notified on deletion

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Command chown & chgrp

$ ls l -rwxr-xr-x 1 user1 training -rwxr-xr-x 3 user1 faculty $chown user2 a.out $ls l -rwxr-xr-x 1 user2 training -rwxr-xr-x 3 user1 faculty $ chgrp training awkpro $ls l -rwxr-xr-x 1 user2 training -rwxr-xr-x 3 user1 training 12373 Dec 15 14:45 a.out 4096 Dec 24 11:56 awkpro 12373 Dec 15 14:45 a.out 4096 Dec 24 11:56 awkpro 12373 Dec 15 14:45 a.out 4096 Dec 24 11:56 awkpro

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Command - umask
umask value is used to set the default permission of a file and directory while creating umask command is used to see the default mask for the file permission Default umask value will be set in the system environment file like /etc/profile umask 022 will set a mask of 022 for the current session
The file permission after setting this umask value will be

644 And the directory permission will be 755

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Command - ln
Linking files
Hard Link (in the same filesystem) $ ln /usr/bin/clear /usr/bin/cls
Hard link uses the same inode number

Soft Link (in different filesystems also used to link directories) $ ln s /usr/bin/clear /home/user1/cls

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Special Permission Bits

Set user ID (SUID) This means that if the SUID bit is set for any application then your user ID would be set as that of the owner of application/file rather than the current user, while running that application
set user ID bit can be set in one of the two ways:

chmod u+s <filename> chmod 4755 <filename>

The leftmost octal number 4 indicates set user ID bit to be set, other octal digits indicate regular file permissions. This is meaningful for executable files only.

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Special Permission Bits

cont..

Set group id (SGID) Just like SUID, setting the SGID bit for a file sets your group ID to the file's group while the file is executing
set group ID bit can be set in one of the two ways:

chmod g+s <filename>

chmod 2755 <filename>

The leftmost octal number 2 indicates set group ID bit to be set, other octal digits indicate regular file permissions. This is meaningful for executable files only.

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Special Permission Bits

cont..

Sticky bit (SVTX) Typically set to a directory that is shareable Any user can create a file in such sharable directory Only owner of the file or super user (root) can remove a file from the directory
sticky bit can be set in one of the two ways:

chmod +t <directoryname> chmod 1555 <directoryname>

The leftmost octal number 1 indicates sticky bit to be set, other octal digits indicate regular file permissions.

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Vi Editor
vi is a visual editor used to create and edit text files. A screen-oriented text editor Included with most UNIX system distributions Command driven Categories of commands include Cursor movement Editing commands Search and replace commands The vi editor is invoked by the following command:
$ vi filename

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Navigation using vi
B a c k s p a c e h j k S p a c e l

t h e q u i c k b r o w n f o x w ww t h e q u i c k b r o w n f o x w 2 t h e q u i c k b r o w n f o x b b b

t h e q u i c k b r o w n f o x $ t h e q u i c k b r o w n f o x ^

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Editing Commands
Text insertion / replacement
I - inserts text to the left of the cursor a - inserts text to the right of the cursor I - inserts text at the beginning of the line A

- appends text at end of the line o - opens line below O - opens line above R - replaces text from cursor to right s - replaces a single character with any number of characters S - replaces entire line
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Editing Commands
Deletion
x 3x

- to delete character at cursor position - to delete 3 characters at cursor position

dw
2dw dd 2dd

- to delete word
- to delete 2 word - to delete a line - to delete 2 lines

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Editing Commands
Yanking (copy) Y - copy line into buffer 3Y - copy 3 lines into buffer p - copy buffer below cursor P - copy buffer above cursor Save and quit :w - to save :w! - to name a file (:w! filename -> save as) :x - save and quit :q - cancel changes :q! - cancel and quit

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Search & Replace Commands

The following commands are applicable for vi editor in Linux /pat searches for the pattern pat and places cursor where pattern occurs.

/
:%s/old/new/g

repeat last search

to change every occurrence in the whole file. where #,# are replaced with the the two lines.

:#,#s/old/new/g numbers of

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More System Commands

Clear --- To clear the screen df

--- Eg. df h

See how much free disk space ( Human readable form)

du ---- du -b subdir
Estimate disk usage of directory in Bytes

alias ---- alias lls="ls -alF"

Create new command "lls" for long format of ls

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Summary
In this session, you have learned how to use file permissions using the chmod command use directory-related commands namely mkdir, rmdir, cd commands use file-related commands namely cp, mv, rm commands access advanced file permissions using commands umask, suid, sgid, linking the files, stickybit create and edit files using the vi editor

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Chapter 4
UNIX Utilities

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Objectives
In this session, you will learn how to:
use the Unix utilities such as cat, echo, touch, more, file, wc, cmp, comm, find employ redirection operators use filters such as sort, grep, cut, head, tail, tr, and paste use communication commands telnet, ftp use backup commands zip/gzip and tar

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cat
cat command takes the input from the keyboard, and sends the output to the monitor We can redirect the input and output using the redirection operators
$ cat > file1 Type the content here press <ctrl d> $ cat file1 Displays the content of the file $cat >> file1 This will append standard input to the content of file1
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touch
touch is used to change the time stamp of the file

Syntax: touch [options] file

Options:

-a to change the access time -m to change the modification time -c no create if not exists
touch <file> will change the time of change of the file if the file exists
If the file does not exist, it will create a file of zero byte size.
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echo & read

echo command is used to print output to the screen echo This is an example This is an example
x=10 echo $x 10

read command allows to read input from user and assign it to the variable specified. read x
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General Purpose Utilities

more

Allows user to view one page-full of information at a

time.
file

Used to display the type of the file tty Prints the terminals name

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General Purpose Utilities

wc

A filter used to count the number of lines, words, and

characters in a disk file or from the standard input. -l - displays the number of lines -w - displays the number of words -c - displays the number of characters

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find
Lets user to search set of files and directories based on various criteria Syntax: find [path...] [expression] [path] where to search [expression] What type of file to search (specified with type option) What action to be applied (exec, print, etc.) Name of the files (specified as part of name option, enclosed in

Example

find . name *.c -print

lists all files with .c extension from the current dir & its subdirectories

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find
Finding files on the basis of file size
size [+ ]n[bc]
n represents size in bytes (c) or blocks (b) of 512 bytes find . size 1000c find . size +1000c find . size 1000c lists all files that are exactly 1000 bytes in size lists all files that are more than 1000 bytes in size lists all files that are less than 1000 bytes in size

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find
Finding files on the basis of access time (atime) or modified time (mtime)
atime [+-]n mtime [+-]n
n represents number of days ( actually 24 * n hours) find . atime 2 find . atime +2 find / mtime 2 lists files accessed exactly 2 days ago lists files accessed more than 2 days ago lists files modified less than 2 days ago

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find
Applying a command on files matching the criteria with

exec and ok options exec command {} \;

command is command to be applied on the matching files (does not prompt user) find . -name *.dat exec ls l {} \; Long listing of all files with .dat extension in the current and its subdirectories -ok command {} \; Functionality is similar to exec, but prompts user before applying the command on the file matching the criteria.

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Standard Files
Standard Input file Keyboard, file descriptor is 0 Standard Output file Monitor, file descriptor is 1 Standard Error file Monitor, file descriptor is 2

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I/O Redirection
< file > file 2> file 2>&1 output $ cat > abc $ ls l > outfile $ cat xyz abc > outfile 2> errfile $ cat xyz abc > outfile 2>&1 redirect standard input from file redirect standard output to file redirect standard error to file merge standard error with standard

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Filters
Filters are programs that takes its input from the standard input file, process it, and sends it to the standard output file. Commonly used filter commands sort grep cut head tail paste

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sort
Sorts the contents of the given file based on the first char of each line. -n -r
numeric sort (comparison made according to strings numeric value)

reverse sort

-t
+num +num [-num]

specify delimiter for fields

specify sorting field numbers to specify the range

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grep
grep -Global Regular Expression Printer is used for searching regular expressions Syntax grep <options> <pattern> <filename(s)>

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grep options
-c -n -v -i displays count of the number of occurrences displays line numbers along with the lines displays all lines except lines matching pattern Ignores case for matching

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Patterns
* - matches 0 or more characters [^pqr] - Matches a single character which is not p ,q or r ^pqr -Matches pqr at the beginning of the line pqr$ -Matches pqr at the end of the line . - Matches any one character \ - ignores the special meaning. grep New\[abc\] filename

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Filter Command - head

Displays the first n lines of the file $ head -3 file1

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Filter Command - tail

Displays the last n lines of a file $ tail -3 file1 Can also specify the line number from which the data has to be displayed till the end of file $ tail +5 file1

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Filter command - tr
tr - translate filter used to translate a given set of characters Example :
tr [a-z] [A-Z] < filename

This converts standard input read from lower case to upper case. option -s can be used to squeeze the repeated characters.

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Filter command - tr
Useful options for tr
-s char Squeeze multiple contiguous occurrences of the character into single char -d char Remove the character

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Command Piping
Allows the output (only the standard output) of a command to be sent as input to another command. Multiple pipes may appear in one command line.

Example: $ cat * | wc $ cat fil1 | head | wc -l

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Filter Command tee

tee command allows the normal output to the standard output, as well as to a file Useful to capture intermediate output of a long command pipeline for further processing, or

debugging purpose.

Example who | tee userlist cat - | tee file1 | wc -l

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Filter Command cut

Used to extract specified columns of a text Option remark -c used to extract characters -d Delimiter for fields -f Field no. Examples $ cut -c2-5 file1 $ cut -d | -f2,3 file1

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ftp

Ftp is a file transfer program Provides necessary user interface to the standard File Transfer Protocol Allows users to transfer files to and from a remote host

Syntax $ ftp hostname

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ftp - commands

Ftp program supports the following commands

get mget put mput

receive file from host receive multiple files from host send file to host send multiple files from host

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ftp - commands

Ftp program supports the following commands as well

ls cd lcd

list directory of host change directory on the host change directory on the local machine

To set transfer format ascii set to ascii mode binary set to binary mode

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ftp - commands

Progress indication of transfer hash command Quitting ftp session bye command

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Tape Archive - tar

Tar is an archiving utility to store and retrieve files from an archive, known as tarfile. Though archives are created on a tape, it is common to have them as disk files as well.

tar c|t|x [vf destination] source...

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Tape Archive - tar

Examples: Create a new tar file containing all .dat files (assuming a.dat, b.dat and c.dat exist) $ tar cf mytar *.dat

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Compression Utilities
gzip, Usage is very similar to compress and pack utilities in Unix: gzip [-vc] filename

where -v displays the compression ratio. -c sends the compressed output to standard output and leaves the original file intact.
gunzip gunzip can uncompress files originally compressed with compress.

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Summary
In this session, you have learned to: use the Unix Utilities like

cat, echo, touch, more, file, wc, find

employ redirection operators use filters like sort, grep, cut, head, tail, tr, ftp backup commands tar and zip/gzip

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Chapter 5
Process

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Objectives
In this session, you will learn to:

Use process-related commands like

ps, kill, sleep

Start a background process Use background and foreground-related commands

like

bg, fg, jobs , nice , nohup

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Processes
Process - a program in execution When program is executed, a new process is created

The process is alive till the execution of the program is complete

Each process is identified by a number called pid

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Login shell
As soon as the user logs in, a process is created which executes the login shell. Login shell is set for each login in /etc/passwd file.

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ps
The ps command is used to display the characteristics of a process It fetches the pid, tty, time, and the command which has started the

process.

-f -u -a -e

lists the pid of the parent process also. lists the processes of a given user lists the processes of all the users lists all the processes including the system processes

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Background Process
Enables the user to do more than one task at a time. If the command terminates with an ampersand (&), UNIX executes

the command in the background

Shell returns by displaying the process ID (PID) and job id of the

process

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Controlling Background Processes

jobs

List the background process fg % <job id> Runs a process in the foreground bg %<job id> Runs a process in the background

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The kill Command

kill: Kills or terminates a process kill command send a signal to the process

The default signal is 15 ( SIGTERM)

kill -9 (SIGKILL)

Terminates the process abruptly

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Process priority
nice

Used to reduce the priority of jobs

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Background Process
nohup
Lets processes to continue to run even after logout The output of the command is sent to nohup.out if not

redirected

$ nohup command args

$ nohup sort emp.lst & [1] 21356 nohup: appending output to `nohup.out'

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Background Process
wait command
can be used when a process has to wait for the output

of a background process
The wait command, can be used to let the shell wait

for all background processes terminate. $ wait

It is possible to wait for completion of one specific

process as well.

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Summary
In this session, you learned to: Define a process Use process-related commands like

ps, kill, sleep

Start a background process Use background and foreground-related commands

like

bg, fg, jobs

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Chapter 6
UNIX Shell Programming

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Objectives
In this session, you will learn to:
Use Shell variables Write scripts to process positional parameters Use test command Use if construct Use for loop Use while loop Use case construct Define and use functions Debug shell scripts

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Flavours of the Unix shell

Bourne shell C shell

sh csh

Korn shell
Bourne again shell

ksh
bash

(shell distributed with linux

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Command processing
Displays the shell prompt and reads the command typed by the user. Interprets the command and classifies it as an internal (built-in), or an external command. If it is NOT a built-in command, searches for the command in the PATH-specified directories, and executes that command if it is found.

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Shell Features
Parent shell process
fork

$ vi test.c

(bash) Child shell process (bash)

command typed by user

Exec of vi test.c

User Mode Kernel Mode

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Additional Shell Features

Each shell, apart from the basic features, provides additional features such as:
Maintaining command history (C, korn and bash)

Renaming (aliasing) a command (C, korn, bash)

Command editing (C, korn and bash) Programming language (all shells)

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History
some UNIX shells support command history facility to keeps track of commands that were executed facility to rerun previously executed commands bash shell supports the following !! !num recall the last command and execute it. execute nth command where n is the the num specified after !

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alias
alias can be used to give new name to an existing command A better name that represents a single command or a sequence of commands to be executed, often with appropriate options alias is an internal command alias newname=command $ alias l=ls l The unalias command cancels previously defined alias.

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Shell Programming
Allows Defining and referencing variables Logic control structures such as if, for, while, case Input and output

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Shell Variables
A variable is a name associated with a data value, and it offers a symbolic way to represent and manipulate data variables in the shell. They are classified as follows user-defined variables environment variables predefined variables value assigned to the variable can then be referred to by preceding the variable name with a $ sign.

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Shell Variables
The shell provides the facility to define normal, and environment variables. A normal variable can be only used in the shell where it is defined. An environment variable can be used in the shell where it is defined, plus any child shells invoked from that shell.

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Using Normal Variables

To define a normal variable, use the following syntax:
variable_name=value

Examples:
x=10 textline_1=This line was entered by $USER textline_2=This line was entered by $USER allusers=`who` usercount=`who | wc l`

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Using Normal Variables

Once variables are defined, one can use the echo command to display the value of each variable:
$ echo $x $ echo $textline_1 $ echo $textline_2 $ echo $allusers $ echo $usercount

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Using Environment Variables

To define an environment variable, use following syntax: variable_name=value export variable_name Examples:

$ x=10; export x $ allusers=`who` ; export allusers

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Built-in environment variables

PATH BASH_ENV HOME PWD

MAIL USER LOGNAME PS1 PS2

SHELL
TERM

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Sample Shell Script

#! /bin/bash # The above line has a special meaning. It must be the # first line of the script. It says that the commands in # this shell script should be executed by the bash # shell (/bin/bash). # --------------------------------------------------------------echo Hello $USER. echo Welcome to programming shell scripts.. # ---------------------------------------------------------------

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Executing Shell Scripts

There are two ways of executing a shell script: By passing the shell script name as an argument to the shell. For example:
sh script1.sh

If the shell script is assigned execute permission, it can be executed using its name. For example:
./script1.sh

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Passing Parameters to Scripts

parameter can be passed to a shell script parameters are specified after the name of the shell script when invoking the script. Within the shell script, parameters are referenced

using the predefined variables $1 through $9.

In case of more than 9 parameters, other parameters can be accessed by shifting.

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Built-in variables
Following are built-in variables supported
$0, $1$9 $* $@ $?

- positional arguments - all arguments - all arguments - exit status of previous command

executed
$$ $!

- PID of the current process - PID of the last background process

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Passing Parameters to Scripts

Consider following shell script:

----------------------script2.sh-------------------------echo Total parameters entered: $# echo First parameter is : $1 echo The parameters are: $* shift echo First parameter is : $1 ----------------------------------------------------------- Execute the above script using the script2.sh these are the

parameters command.

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Passing Parameters to Scripts

The shell parameters are passed as strings. to pass a string containing multiple words as a single

parameter, it must be enclosed within quotes.

For example,

$ ./script2.sh this string is a single parameter

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Doing Arithmetic Operations

Arithmetic operations within a shell script can be performed using expr command. Example, x=10 y=5 number_1 = `expr $x + $y` number_2 = `expr $x - $y` number_3 = `expr $x / $y` number_4 = `expr $x \* $y` number_5 = `expr $x % $y`

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Using the test Command

The general syntax of test command is:
test expression

The expression can be formed using a combination of shell variables and the operators supported by the test command. These operators provide facility to compare numbers, string and logical values, file types and file access modes.

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Using the test Command

To compare two integers using test following operators are available:
-eq (equal to) -ne (not equal to) -lt (less than) -le (less than or equal to) -gt (greater than) -ge (greater than or equal to)

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Using the test Command

General syntax
test expression or
[ expression ]

test integer1 operator integer2 OR [ integer1 operator integer2 ]

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Using the test Command

To compare two strings using the test command, following operators are available:
string1 = string2 (equal to, please note it is a single

=) string1 != string2 (not equal to) string1 (string is not NULL) -n string1 (string is not NULL and exists) -z string1 (string is NULL and exists)

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Using the test Command

The syntax for this string comparison is:
test string1 operator string2 OR [ string1 operator string2 ] OR test operator string OR [ operator string ]

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Using the test Command

To check a file type/access permissions using the test command, following operators are available:
-s file (file is not empty and exists) -f file (Ordinary file and exists) -d file (file is a directory and exists) -r file (file is readable and exists) -w file (file is write-able and exists) -x file (file is executable and exists)

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Using the test Command

To check a file type/access permissions using the test command, following operators are available:
-b file (file is a block device and exists) -c file (file is a character device and exists)

-p file (file is a named pipe and exists)

-g file (file has sticky bit set) -u file (file has setuid bit set) -t file_des (file descriptor is standard output)

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Combining Conditions
It is possible to combine conditions by using following operators:
-a (logical AND operator) -o (logical OR operator)

! (logical NOT operator)

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Combining Conditions
The syntax for this is:
test expression_1 a expression _2, OR [ expression _1 a expression _2 ] test expression_1 o expression _2, OR [ expression_1 o expression_2 ] test ! expression _1 OR [ ! expression _1 ]
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Condition Checking in Scripts

Bash shell provides the if command to test if a condition is true. The general format of this command is:
if condition then command fi

The condition is typically formed using the test command.

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Example
# to check if the current directory is the same as your home directory curdir=`pwd` if test $curdir != $HOME then echo your home dir is not the same as your pesent working directory else echo $HOME is your current directory fi
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Checking Multiple Conditions

The complex form of if statement is as follows:
if condition_1 then command elif condition_2 then command else command fi

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Using for Loop

The Bash shell provides a for loop.

Example:
The syntax of this loop is:

for variable in list do command command done

for i in 1 2 3 4 5 do echo -n $i \* $i = " " echo `expr $i \* $i ` done

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Example ----------------------script.sh-------------------------#! /bin/sh usernames=`who | cut d f1` # for user in ${usernames} do echo $user done ------------------------------------------------------------

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Using while Loop

The Bash shell provides a while loop. The syntax of this loop is:
while condition do command command done

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Example
Shell script checks for a blank/non blank string eg: read nam while [ -z $nam ] do read nam done echo the string is $nam the above piece of code keeps accepting string variable nam until it is non zero in length.

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Example
Shell script to compute factorial of a given number #!/bin/bash n=$1 if [ $n -eq 0 ]; then fact=0 else fact=1 while [ $n ne 0 ] do fact=`expr $fact \* $n` n=`expr $n 1` done fi echo $fact

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The case Statement

The structure of case statement case value in pattern1) command command;; pattern2) command command;; patternn) command;; esac

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Example
#!/bin/bash echo enter 2 nos read num1 read num2
(contd.) case $choice in 1) res=`expr $num1 + $num2` echo result is $res;;

echo enter 1 (for addition) 1) res=`expr $num1 - $num2` or 2 (for subtraction) echo result is $res;; read choice
*) echo invalid input;; esac

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Example
#!/bin/bash read number case $number 1) echo 1st break;; 2) echo 2nd break;; 3) echo 3rd break;; *) echo ${number}th break;; esac
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Summary
In this session, you have learned to:
Use Shell variables Write scripts to process positional parameters Use test command

Use if construct
Use for loop Use while loop Use case construct

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UNIX Bibliography
UNIX in a Nutshell for BSD 4.3: A Desktop Quick Reference For Berkeley (O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1990, ISBN 0-937175-20-X). UNIX in a Nutshell: A Desktop Quick Reference for System V & Solaris 2.0 (O'Reilly & Associates, Inc., 1992, ISBN 0-56592-001-5). The UNIX Programming Environment, Brian W. Kernighan & Rob Pike (Prentice Hall, 1984).

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Thank You

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