Clarifying the Concepts 11-1. What is an ANOVA?

Answer: An ANOVA is a hypothesis test with at least one nominal independent variable (with at least three total groups) and a scale dependent variable. 11-3. The F statistic is a ratio of between-groups variance and within-groups variance. What are these two types of variance? Answer: Between-groups variance is an estimate of the population variance based on the differences among the means; within groups variance is an estimate of the population variance based on the differences within each of the three (or more) sample distributions. 11-5. What are the three assumptions for a between-groups ANOVA? Answer: The three assumptions are that the participants were randomly selected, the underlying populations are normally distributed, and the underlying variances of the different conditions are similar, or homoscedastic. 11-7. Why is the F statistic always positive? Answer: The F statistic is calculated as the ratio of two variances. Variability, and the variance measure of it, is always positiveit always exists. Variance is calculated as the sum of squared deviations, and squaring both positive and negative values makes them positive. 11-9. Explain the concept of sum of squares Answer: With sums of squares, we add up all the squared values. Deviations from the mean always sum to 0. By squaring these deviations, we can sum them and they will not sum to 0. Sums of squares are measures of variability of scores from the mean. 11-11. What is the grand mean? Answer: The grand mean is the mean of every score in a study, regardless of which sample the score came from. 11-13. We typically measure effect size with _________ for a z test or a t test and with _________ for an ANOVA. Answer: Cohens d; R2 11-15. What does post-hoc mean, and when are these tests needed with ANOVA? Answer: Post-hoc means "after this." These tests are needed when our ANOVA is significant and we want to discover where the significant differences exist between our groups.

11-17. Find the error in the statistics language in each of the following statements about z, t, or F distributions or their related tests. Explain why it is incorrect and provide the correct word. a. The professor reported the mean and standard error for the final exam in the statistics class. b. Before we can calculate a t statistic, we must know the population mean and the population standard deviation. c. The researcher calculated the parameters for her three samples so that she could calculate an F statistic and conduct an ANOVA. d. For her honors project, Evelyn calculated a z statistic so that she could compare a sample of students who had ingested caffeine and a sample of students who had not ingested caffeine on their video game performance mean scores. Answer: a. Standard error is wrong. The professor is reporting the spread for a distribution of scores, the standard deviation. b. t statistic is wrong. We do not use the population standard deviation to calculate a t statistic. The sentence should say z statistic instead. c. Parameters is wrong. Parameters are numbers that describe populations, not samples. The researcher calculated the statistics. d. z statistic is wrong. Evelyn is comparing two means; thus, she would have calculated a t statistic. 11-19. What are the four assumptions for a within-groups ANOVA? Answer: The four assumptions are that (1) the data are randomly selected, (2) the underlying population distributions are normal, (3) the variability is similar across groups, orhomoscedasticity, and (4) there are no order effects. 11-21. Explain the source of variability called subjects. Answer: The "subjects" variability is noise in the data caused by each individuals personal variability. It is calculated by comparing each persons mean response across all levels of the independent variable with the grand mea n, the overall mean response across all levels of the independent variable. Calculating the Statistics 11-23. Calculate each type of degrees of freedom for the following data, assuming a between-groups design:

1970: 45, 211, 158, 74 1980: 92, 128, 382 1990: 273, 396, 178, 248, 374 a. dfbetween b. dfwithin c. dftotal

Answer: a. dfbetween = Ngroups 1 = 3 1 = 2 b. dfwithin = df1 + df2 + . . . + dflast = (4 1) + (3 1) +(5 1) = 3 + 2 + 4 = 9 c. dftotal = dfbetween + dfwithin = 2 + 9 = 11 11-25. Using the F table and a p level of 0.05, determine the critical value for the degrees of freedom determined in Exercise 11-23. Answer: The critical value for a between-groups degrees of freedom of 2 and a within-groups degrees of freedom of 9 at a p level of 0.05 is 4.26. 11-27. Calculate the F statistic, writing the ratio accurately, for each of the following cases:a. Between-groups variance is 321.83 and within-groups variance is 177.24.b. Between-groups variance is 2.79 and within-groups variance is 2.20.c. Within-groups variance is 41.60 and between-groups variance is 34.45. Answer:

11-29. An incomplete one-way, between-groups ANOVA source table is shown below. Compute the missing values.

Answer:

11-31. Calculate a mean for each group and a grand mean for these data from Exercise 11-23.

1970: 45, 211, 158, 74 1980: 92, 128, 382 1990: 273, 396, 178, 248, 374 Answer:

11-33. Using the data from Exercise 11-23, calculate each of the following for a between-groups design: a. Total sum of squares b. Within-groups sum of squares c. Between-groups sum of squares Answer: (Note: The total sum of squares will not exactly equal the sum of the between-groups and within-groups sums of squares because of rounding error.) a. Total sum of squares is calculated here as SStotal = (X -GM)2:

b. Within-groups sum of squares is calculated here as SSwithin = (X M)2:

c. Between-groups sum of squares is calculated here as SSbetween = (X GM)2:

11-35. Using all of your calculations from Exercises 11-23 and 11-33, perform the simple division to complete an entire ANOVA source table for these data.

Answer:

11-37. Calculate Tukey HSD values for the necessary comparisons following the F statistic you calculated in Exercise 11-34. Remember that this F statistic was based on the data originally presented in Exercise 11-22 and that you worked with in Exercise 11-32. Answer: Because we have unequal sample sizes, we must calculate a weighted sample size.

Now we can compare our three groups.

11-39. Calculate each type of degrees of freedom for the following data, assuming a within-groups design:

a. dfbetween = Ngroups 1 b. dfsubjects = n 1 c. dfwithin = (dfbetween)(dfsubjects) d. dftotal = dfbetween + dfsubjects + dfwithin, or dftotal = Ntotal 1 Answer: a. dfbetween = Ngroups 1 = 3 1 = 2 b. dfsubjects = n 1 = 4 1 = 3 c. dfwithin = (dfbetween)(dfsubjects) = (2)(3) = 6 d. dftotal = dfbetween + dfsubjects + dfwithin = 2 + 3 + 6 = 11, or we can calculate it as dftotal = Ntotal 1 = 12 1 = 11 11-41. Using all of your calculations in Exercises 11-39 and 11-40, perform the simple division to complete an ANOVA source table for these data. Answer:

11-43. Calculate the Tukey HSD statistic for the comparisons between level 1 and level 3, as presented in Exercise 11-39, and based on the F statistic you calculated in Exercise 11-41. Answer:

The Tukey HSD statistic comparing level 1 and level 3 would be:

Applying the Concepts 11-45. For each of the following situations, state whether the distribution of interest is a z distribution, a t distribution, or an F distribution. Explain your answer. a. A city employee locates a U.S. Census report that includes the mean and standard deviation for income in the state of Wyoming and then takes a random sample of 100 residents of the city of Cheyenne. He wonders whether residents of Cheyenne earn more, on average, than Wyoming residents as a whole. b. A researcher studies the effect of different contexts on work interruptions. Using discreet video cameras, she observes employees working in enclosed offices in the workplace, in open cubicles in the workplace, and in home offices. c. An honors student wondered whether an education in statistics reduced the tendency to believe advertising that cited data. He compared social science majors who had taken statistics and social science majors who had not taken statistics with respect to their responses to an interactive advertising assessment. Answer: a. z distribution; we know both the mean and standard deviation for the income of the population, everyone in Wyoming. b. F distribution; we are comparing the means of three samplesemployees in enclosed workplace offices, in open workplace cubicles, and in home offices. c. t distribution; we are comparing the means of two samples social science majors who had taken statistics and social science majors who had not taken statistics. 11-47. The z, t, and F distributions are closely linked. In fact, it is possible to use an F distribution in all cases in which a t or a z could be used. a. If you calculated an F statistic of 4.22 but you could have used a t statistic (i.e., the situation met all criteria for

using a t statistic), what would the t statistic have been? Explain your answer. b. If you calculated an F statistic of 4.22 but you could have used a z statistic, what would the z statistic have been? Explain your answer. c. If you calculated a t statistic of 0.67 but you could have used a z statistic, what would the z statistic have been? Explain your answer. d. Cite two reasons that all three types of distributions (i.e., z, t, and F) are still in use when we really only need an F distribution. Answer: a. The F statistic is the square of the t statistic. We can take the square root of the F statistic to get the t statistic: 4.22 = 2.05. b. With infinitely large samples, the t distribution reduces to the z distribution. This means that the F statistic is also the square of the z statistic (just as with the t statistic). We can take the square root of the F statistic to get the z statistic: 4.22 = 2.05. c. The t statistic is the same as the z statisticin this case, 0.67. d. First, it is easier to gain a deep understanding of hypothesis testing when we first learn the simple z test and then build to the more complicated tests. Second, historically, statisticians calculated test statistics by hand rather than using a computer. Thus, it made sense to use the far less time-consuming z test or t test when possible, rather than the more complicated ANOVA (based on the F statistic). Statisticians continue to use the simplest test possible as a matter of convention. 11-49. Do people remember names better under different circumstances? In a fictional study, a cognitive psychologist studied memory for names after a group activity that lasted 20 minutes. Participants were not told that this was a study of memory. After the group activity, participants were asked to name the other group members. The researcher randomly assigned 120 participants to one of three conditions: (1) group members introduced themselves once (one introduction only), (2) group members were introduced by the experimenter and by themselves (two introductions), and (3) group members were introduced by the experimenter and themselves and also wore nametags throughout the group activity (two introductions and nametags). a. Identify the type of ANOVA that should be used to analyze the data from this study. b. State what the researcher could do to redesign this study so it would be analyzed with a one-way within-groups ANOVA. Be specific. Answer: a. A one-way between-groups ANOVA should be used. b. The researcher could have some members of the same group introduced only once, others introduced twice, and others introduced twice and also wearing nametags. The researcher could then ask the participants to remember all the names of those working in their group. This way, all participants would be in all three experimental conditions. 11-51. Refer to the study described in Exercise 11-50. a. What is the first assumption for ANOVA? Is it likely that the researchers met this assumption? Explain your answer. b. What is the second assumption for ANOVA? How could the researchers check to see if they had met this assumption? Be specific.

c. What is the third assumption for ANOVA? How could the researchers check to see if they had met this assumption? Be specific. Answer: a. The first assumption of ANOVA is that the samples are randomly selected from their populations. It is unlikely that the researchers met this assumption. The study description indicates that the researchers were from Yale University and does not mention any techniques the researchers might have used to obtain participants from across the nation. So it is likely that the Yale researchers used a sample of participants from their local area. b. The second assumption is that the population distribution is normal. Although we do not know the exact distribution of the population of scores, there are more than 30 participants in the study. When there are at least 30 participants in a sample, the distribution of sample means will be approximately normal even if the underlying distribution of scores is not. So it is likely that the distribution of sample means is normal and that this assumption was met. c. The third assumption is homoscedasticitythat our samples come from populations with equal variances. It is not possible to tell whether this assumption was met on thebasis of the study description. The researchers could assess whether this assumption was met by comparing the variance of each of the three treatment groups to ensure that the largest variance is no larger than two times the smallest variance. 11-53. Researchers asked 180 U.S. students to identify their political viewpoint as most similar to that of the Republicans, most similar to that of the Democrats, or neither. All three groups then completed a religiosity scale. The researchers wondered whether political orientation affected levels of religiosity, a measure that assesses how religious one is, regardless of the specific religion with which a person identifies. a. What is the independent variable, and what are its levels? b. What is the dependent variable? c. What are the populations and what are the samples? d. Using this example, explain how you would calculate the F statistic. Answer: a. The independent variable is political viewpoint, with the levels Republican, Democrat, and neither. b. The dependent variable is religiosity. c. The populations are all Republicans, all Democrats, and all who categorize themselves as neither. The samples are the Republicans, Democrats, and people who say they are neither among the 180 students. d. First, we would calculate the between-groups variance. This involves calculating a measure of variability among the three sample meansthe religiosity scores of the Republicans, Democrats, and others. Then we would calculate the within-groups variance; this is essentially an average of the variability within each of the three samples. Finally, we would divide the between-groups variance by the within-groups variance. If the variability among the means is much larger than the variability within each sample, this provides evidence that the means are different from each other. 11-55. In Chapter 10, we introduced a study by Steele and Pinto (2006) that examined whether peoples level of trust in their direct supervisor was related to their level of agreement with a policy supported by that leader. Steele and Pinto found that the extent to which subordinates agreed with their supervisor was related to trust and showed no relation to gender, age, time on the job, or length of time working with the supervisor. Lets assume we used a scale that sorted employees into three groups: low trust, moderate trust, and high trust in supervisors. We have presented

fictional data regarding level of agreement with a leaders decision for these three groups. The scores presented are the level of agreement with a decision made by a leader, from 1, the least agreement, to 40, the highest level of agreement. (Note: These fictional data are different from those presented in Chapter 10.)

Employees with low trust in their leader: 9, 14, 11, 18 Employees with moderate trust in their leader: 14, 35, 23 Employees with high trust in their leader: 27, 33, 21, 34 a. What is the independent variable? What are its levels? b. What is the dependent variable? c. Conduct all six steps of hypothesis testing for a oneway between-groups ANOVA. Answer: a. Level of trust in the leader is the independent variable. It has three levels: low, moderate, and high. b. The dependent variable is level of agreement with a policy supported by the leader or supervisor. c. Step 1: Population 1 is employees with low trust in their leader. Population 2 is employees with moderate trust in their leader. Population 3 is employees with high trust in their leader. The comparison distribution will be an F distribution. The hypothesis test will be a one-way, between-groups ANOVA. We do not know if employees were randomly selected. We also do not know if the underlying distributions are normal, and our sample sizes are small so we must proceed with caution. To check the final assumption, that we have homoscedastic variances, we will calculate variance for each group.

Because the largest variance, 111, is much more than twice as large as the smallest variance, we can conclude we have heteroscedastic variances. Violation of this third assumption of homoscedastic samples means we should proceed with caution. Because these data are intended to give you practice calculating statistics, proceed with your analyses. When conducting real research, we would want to have much larger sample sizes and to more carefully consider meeting the assumptions. Step 2: Null hypothesis: There are no mean differences between these three groups: the mean level of agreement with a policy does not vary across the three trust levels. Research hypothesis: There are mean differences between some or all of these groups: the mean level of agreement depends on trust.

Step 3: dfbetween = Ngroups 1 = 3 1 = 2 dfwithin = df1 + df2 + . . . + dflast = (4 1) + (3 1) + (4 1) = 3 + 2 + 3 = 8 The comparison distribution will be the F distribution with 2 and 8 degrees of freedom. Step 4: The critical value for the F statistic based on a p level of 0.05 is 4.46. Step 5: dftotal = dfbetween + dfwithin = 2 + 8 = 10 GM = 21.727 Total sum of squares is calculated here as SStotal = (X GM)2:

Within-groups sum of squares is calculated here as SSwithin = (X M)2:

Between-groups sum of squares is calculated here as SSbetween = (X GM)2:

Step 6: Our F statistic, 5.49, is beyond our cutoff of 4.46, so we can reject the null hypothesis. The mean level of agreement with a policy supported by a supervisor varies across level of trust in that supervisor. Remember, our research design and data did not meet the three assumptions of this statistical test, so we should be careful in interpreting this finding. 11-57. In Exercise 11-55, you conducted an ANOVA on data regarding employees trust in supervisors. Conduct a Tukey HSD test. What did you learn? Answer: Because we have unequal sample sizes, we must calculate a weighted sample size.

Now we can compare our three groups.

According to the q table, the critical value is 4.04 for a p level of 0.05 when you are comparing three groups and have a within-groups degrees of freedom of 8. We obtained one q value (-4.363) that exceeds this cutoff. Based on our calculations, there is a statistically significant difference between the mean level of agreement by employees with low trust in their supervisors compared to those with high trust. Because the sample sizes here were so small and we did not meet the three assumptions of ANOVA, we should be careful in making strong statements about this finding. In fact, these preliminary findings would encourage additional research. 11-59. In Exercise 11-54 we used a one-way between-groups ANOVA to explore patients likelihood of wearing orthodontic appliances. The researchers compared students in primary school, junior high school, and high school. The data presented were hours spent wearing the appliance per day. Primary school: 16, 13, 18 Junior high school: 8, 13, 14, 12 High school: 20, 15, 16, 18 a. Calculate the appropriate measure of effect size for this sample. b. Based on Cohens conventions, is this a small, medium, or large effect size? c. Why is it useful to have this information in addition to the results of a hypothesis test? Answer: a. The appropriate measure of effect size is

b. According to Cohens conventions, this is a large effect size. c. It is useful to have this information because hypothesis testing tells us only whether year in school is a significant factor affecting how long patients wear their appliances. R2 gives us an indication of how large this effect is or how much of the variability in appliance wearing can be accounted for by year in school. Here, theres a large effect. 11-61. Based on your knowledge of the relation between the t and F distributions, complete the accompanying software output tables on pg 295. The table for the independent-samples t test and the table for the oneway betweengroups ANOVA were calculated using the identical fictional data. a. What is the F statistic? Show your calculations. (Hint: The Mean Square column includes the two estimates of variance used to calculate the F statistic.) b. What is the t statistic? Show your calculations. (Hint: Use the F statistic that you calculated in part (a).) c. In statistical software output, Sig. refers to the actual p level of the statistic. We can compare the actual p level to a cutoff p level such as 0.05 to decide whether to reject the null hypothesis. For the t test, what is the Sig.? Explain how you determined this. (Hint: Would we expect that the Sig. for the independent -samples t test be the same as or different from that for the one-way between-groups ANOVA?)

Answer:

c. The "Sig." for t is the same as that for the ANOVA, 0.005, because the F distribution reduces to the t distribution when we are dealing with two groups. 11-63. Commercials for chewing gum make claims about how long the flavor will last. In fact, some commercials present the idea that the flavor lasts too long, affecting sales and profit. Lets put these claims to a test. Imagine a student decides to compare four different gums using five participants. Each randomly selected participant was asked to chew a different piece of gum each day for four days, such that at the end of the four days, each participant had chewed all four types of gum. The order of the gums was randomly determined for each participant. After two hours of chewing, participants recorded the intensity of flavor from 1 (not intense) to 9 (very intense). Here are some hypothetical data:

a. Conduct all six steps of the hypothesis test. b. Are any additional tests warranted? Explain your answer.

Answer: a. Step 1: Four different populations are being compared here: one for the people who chew gum 1, and one for each of the other three types of gum. The comparison distribution will be the F distribution, and we will calculate a oneway, within-groups ANOVA. Regarding our assumptions, we know that the participants were randomly selected and that the order of presentation of the gum was also randomly determined. We do not know anything about the underlying population distributions, and we must be careful when assessing homoscedasticity with such a small sample. We will proceed with caution. Step 2: Null hypothesis: People report the same flavor intensity, on average, across the different gum types. Research hypothesis: People do not report the same flavor intensity, on average, across the different gum types. Step 3: We determine the characteristics of the comparison distribution by computing our degrees of freedom. dfbetween = Ngroups 1 = 4 1 = 3 dfsubjects = n 1 = 5 1 = 4 dfwithin = (dfbetween)(dfsubjects) = (3)(4) = 12 dftotal = dfbetween + dfsubjects + dfwithin = 3 + 4 + 12 = 19; we can also calculate it as: dftotal = Ntotal 1 = 20 1 = 19 We will use the F distribution with 3 and 12 degrees of freedom. Step 4: The critical value for F with 3 and 12 degrees of freedom at a p level of 0.05 is 3.49. Step 5: Calculate the test statistic. SStotal = (X GM)2 = 111.8

SSbetween = (X GM)2 = 93.80

SSsubjects = (Mparticipant GM)2 = 2.3

Step 6: Our F statistic, 23.90, is well beyond our critical value of 3.49, so we would reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there are mean differences in the intensity of flavor. We cannot conclude which gums are different, however, without a post-hoc test. b. Yes; because we computed a significant F statistic, we would want to compute Tukey HSD statistics, or conduct some other post-hoc test, to determine where the significant mean differences are within our data. Also, computing the effect size can give us an indication of just how large or important our finding is.