Department of Soci al Work

Facilitating communication with

people in groups and communities
Only study guide for
SCK201-3
University of South Africa,
Pretoria
Mrs B.J. (Joyce) Mohapi
Prof C.J. (Rinie) Schenck
# 2006 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
Printed and published by the
University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
SCK2013/1/20072009
97975818
3B2
PRS STyle
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Study Unit Page
Introduction to and scope of this module vii
Outcomes and assessment criteria for this module vii
SECTION A
Facilitating communication with people in groups
for the purpose of the individual 1
Prescribed books for this section 1
Recommended book for this section 1
1 INTRODUCTION TO WORKING WITH PEOPLE IN GROUPS FOR THE
PURPOSE OF THE INDIVIDUAL 2
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Historical background to social group work 5
1.3 Conclusion 6
2 RATIONALE AND NEED FOR A THEORETICAL FOUNDATION FOR
FACILITATING COMMUNICATION WITH GROUPS 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 What is theory? 7
2.3 The self and theory 9
2.4 Introduction to the needed theory 9
2.5 The importance of a body of knowledge in social work 10
2.6 Conclusion 10
3 GROUPS FORMED FOR THE PURPOSE OF THE INDIVIDUAL 12
3.1 Advantages of groups for the individual 12
3.2 Purpose of group work 12
3.3 A typology of treatment groups 13
3.4 Conclusion 16
4 RATIONALE FOR FACILITATING COMMUNICATION WITH PEOPLE IN
GROUPS IN THE WELFARE CONTEXT 17
4.1 Introduction 17
4.2 Definitions of concepts 18
4.3 The aims of social group work 21
4.4 Why social group work? 23
4.5 Group care 23
4.6 Empowerment 24
4.7 Group therapy and group counselling 25
4.8 What is communication? 25
4.9 Rationale for facilitating communication with groups in the welfare
context 32
4.10 Conclusion 35
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5 THE PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH AS A THEORETICAL
FOUNDATION FOR WORKING WITH PEOPLE IN GROUPS 36
5.1 Selecting a theory and perspectives for the helping professions and social
work practice in South Africa 36
5.2 The person-centred approach to helping 38
5.3 The propositions of the person-centred approach and their value in
explaining group behaviour 58
5.4 Conclusion 67
6 VALUES AND ETHICAL ISSUES WHEN WORKING WITH GROUPS 68
6.1 Introduction 68
6.2 Definitions of the values of respect, individualisation, self-determination
and confidentiality 70
6.3 Ethical and professional issues when working with groups 76
6.4 Ethical dilemmas 77
6.5 Conclusion 77
7 BASIC SKILLS FOR FACILITATING COMMUNICATION IN GROUPS 78
7.1 Introduction 78
7.2 Attentiveness in communication with groups 79
7.3 Listening 80
7.4 Empathy 81
7.5 Advanced empathy 92
7.6 Probing and questioning 93
7.7 Minimal encouragers 101
7.8 Verbal following skills and focusing skills 102
7.9 Conclusion 109
8 REFLECTIONS ON THE SELF AND ON WORKING WITH GROUPS 110
8.1 Introduction 110
8.2 The self and working with groups 110
8.3 Conclusion 111
REFERENCES 112
COMMENTS ON SECTION A 115
SECTION B
Facilitating communication with people in communities
for the purpose of collective action 119
Prescribed books for this section 119
1 INTRODUCTION TO FACILITATING COMMUNICATION WITH
PEOPLE IN COMMUNITIES FOR THE PURPOSE OF COLLECTIVE
ACTION 122
1.1 Introduction 122
1.2 Glossary 125
1.3 How to use this section 127
1.4 Rationale for facilitative communication with and within communities 127
(iv)
2 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION FOR FACILITATIVE COMMUNICATION
WITH AND AMONG PEOPLE IN COMMUNITIES 129
2.1 From problems to a people-theoretical overview 129
2.2 The importance of theory 130
2.3 Theory is personal 131
2.4 Participatory people-centred theories 132
2.5 Conclusion 164
3 FACILITATIVE COMMUNICATION WITH PEOPLE IN COMMUNITIES 165
3.1 The importance of facilitative communication in communities 165
3.2 Culture and community 165
3.3 Aims of facilitative communication in working with people 167
3.4 Purpose of facilitative communication 168
3.5 Description of the concept ``facilitation'' 168
3.6 Some theoretical principles for facilitation 169
3.7 The behaviour/actions of the facilitator 171
3.8 A note on adult learners/participants 173
3.9 Facilitative communication with groups in communities for the purpose of
collective action 174
3.10 Facilitative communication skills with and within communities to bring
about social change 178
3.11 The relationship as context for communicating with people in the
community 178
3.12 Application of values to the community 180
3.13 Criteria for skills for participatory communication 181
3.14 Dealing with symbolised experiences: basic communication skills 181
3.15 Dealing with unsymbolised experiences: advanced communication skills 191
3.16 Communication and project development 195
3.17 Conclusion 197
BIBLIOGRAPHY 198
COMMENTS ON SECTION B 202
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This study guide for this module covers important aspects of communicating, and of
facilitating communication with groups and communities. Communicating with people in
groups and communities means communicating with individuals, but also communicating
with groups of people consisting of more than one individual. For the purposes of this
module, we base our attitudes, values and skills on the person-centred approach, which is
covered comprehensively in both sections of this study guide.
Level at which this module is developed Level at which this module is developed
This module is developed at NQF level 5. General principles and application are emphasised
at this level.
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Specific outcome 1 Specific outcome 1
You will be able to develop and maintain professional relationships with groups and
communities.
Assessment criteria Assessment criteria
. The learner is able to form professional relationships which are founded on knowledge of
and insight into the nature of groups and communities and their dynamics.
. The learner is able to form professional relationships which are characterised by the
purposeful implementation of social work principles at the group and community level.
. The learner is able to form professional relationships which demonstrate an understanding
of ethical parameters.
. The learner is able to create an enabling environment for groups and communities to
develop to their full capacity.
Specific outcome 2 Specific outcome 2
You will be able to assess the needs, strengths, challenges, roles and aspirations of groups
and communities.
Assessment criteria Assessment criteria
. The learner's assessments reflect the ability to undertake a comprehensive analysis of the
needs and strengths of groups and communities.
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. The learner is able to apply the person-centred theory in assessing groups and
communities.
. The learner's assessment of groups and communities reflects the influence and impact of
social circumstances.
. The learner is able to demonstrate a holistic approach in assessing groups and
communities.
. The learner is able to demonstrate an ability to draw up mutually agreed-upon group and
community goals based on assessment.
Specific outcome 3 Specific outcome 3
You will be able to demonstrate social work values while interacting with groups and
communities of different races, cultures, languages, socio-political status, religious affiliation
and political orientation.
Assessment criteria Assessment criteria
. The learner is able to reflect sensitivity to diversity and the ability to work with diverse
groups and communities.
. The learner is able to demonstrate, when working with groups and communities, an
awareness of different viewpoints and values, and the ability to appreciate these in relation
to his or her own views and values.
. The learner is able to demonstrate an understanding and acceptance of diversity in his or
her interaction and teamwork with groups and communities.
Specific outcome 4 Specific outcome 4
You will be able to appraise and implement the ethical principles and values of social work.
Assessment criteria Assessment criteria
. The learner is able to recognise the impact of personal life experiences and personal values
when working with people in groups and communities.
Specific outcome 5 Specific outcome 5
You will be able to identify, select and implement various techniques, methods and means of
raising awareness, and to use such awareness to engage people as change agents.
Assessment criteria Assessment criteria
. The learner is able to describe a specific social issue (e.g. single parenthood, substance
dependence or HIV/AIDS) that must be targeted as an area of intervention in groups.
Please note
Read through this study guide in conjunction with Tutorial Letter 101 for module
SCK2013.
(viii)
The module covered by this study guide consists of two sections. Keep the following in mind
when reading through each section.
Section A is about facilitative communication with people in groups for the purpose of the
individual, e.g. when somebody joins a group for support during a difficult time or when
experiencing problems. This section will prepare the learner who will continue with group
work at level 3.
Section B is about facilitative communication with people in communities for the purpose
of collective action, e.g. when a group of people join their ideas and skills to improve their
circumstances or to make them more powerful. ``Bobedi bo logisana maano '' meaning ``two
heads are better than one'' and/or ``Bontsi bo balaya nnoga'' meaning ``many hands make
light work''.
Sections A and B are therefore seen as two entities. They are both based on the person-
centred approach, but are applied for different purposes.
This is an interactive study guide meaning that you have to participate actively in the learning
process. We advise you to complete the various activities and to read through the examples
to derive full benefit from this module. We will provide you with a strong theoretical
framework for the most important aspects of the prescribed and recommended chapters in
the textbooks. Each study unit summarises the most important concepts which are dealt with
in the relevant chapters of the prescribed and recommended textbooks. It is important that
you use this study guide in conjunction with the textbooks. This study guide indicates which
chapters in the textbooks you need to study. It is recommended that you study these
chapters in their entirety and that you supplement or reinforce your knowledge with the
information in this study guide. We will use various methods in this study guide to enhance
your understanding of the subject matter, such as practical examples, case studies and
activities. We hope that you will find these interesting and stimulating.
We wish you success in your studies!
Mrs Joyce Mohapi (Section A)
Prof. Rinie Schenck (Section B)
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(x)
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Mrs BJ Mohapi
Prescribed books for this section Prescribed books for this section
Grobler, H, Schenck, R & Du Toit, D. 2003. Person-centred communication. Cape Town:
Oxford University Press.
Toseland, RW & Rivas, FR. 2005. An introduction to group work practice. Boston: Allyn &
Bacon.
Recommended book for this section Recommended book for this section
Becker, L (ed). 2005. Working with groups. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
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Learning outcomes
After completing this section (section A) of the study guide, you should understand
and be able to explain the following:
. the theory and values relating to participatory communication with people in groups
. the different kinds of groups that you can facilitate
. facilitation of communication with, and among, individuals in a group
. the different skills that can be applied to facilitate communication with groups in a
person-centred way
. some of the facilitator's reflections on self (see chapter 18 in Grobler, Schenck and
Du Toit, 2003)
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Please note
The words ``helper'', ``group worker'', ``leader'', ``facilitator'' and ``social worker'' are
used interchangeably in this section. The reason for this is that many learners who are
enrolled for this module have already obtained degrees in other fields (education,
psychology, nursing, theology, etc.), and may be taking this module for non-degree
purposes. There are also many learners who are taking this module as part of another
degree and who will not necessarily continue with social work. For these reasons, I
have decided to use the terms mentioned above in order to accommodate everybody.
I begin this module by quoting from Van Dyk's MSW1015 study guide (1997:viii):
There are few experiences in life as satisfying and fascinating as helping other human
beings.
I hope this study guide will stimulate your interest in studying social work and strengthen
your commitment to joining the host of helping professions. This study guide introduces you
to facilitating communication with people in groups and communities. It is important for
2
some of you to have worked through the counselling skills module in which you reflected on
the self in relation to others. I would like to emphasise that some degree of commitment is
required of you. You need to continue thinking critically about what you learn, and to reflect
on your own life and the lives of those around you.
Moving away from the counselling skills module and what you have learnt, you may ask,
``Where are we now?'' The answer is simple. This module (facilitating communication with
people in groups and communities) will enable you to continue reflecting on the self and
how you can go about working with more than one individual, such as your family members,
friends and neighbours. Let us continue this process of self-reflection by looking at ourselves
as group workers/counsellors.
D Activity 1
Instructions: Ask yourself the following questions and then answer them
honestly.
Questions
(1) Is it important for me to know myself as a group worker? Why?
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(2) What aspects should I be aware of when working with groups which are
different from the aspects encountered when working with individuals?
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...........................................................................................................................
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(3) What should I observe as a group worker/counsellor?
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During the course of your orientation to counselling (counselling skills module), you became
aware of how other people feel when they need your help, and of how this and your
interaction with them will affect you. We can now move on and become conversant with
different contexts in which one can communicate with or talk to people in order to gain a
better understanding of them.
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Moreover, we will examine group work as another context in which a counsellor/group
worker can work with people. You may be wondering what ``group work'' is all about. Let us
discuss this for a while and perhaps start with our own perceptions of groups. Remember
that the family we are born into is a natural group. A family consists of more than one person,
and we therefore refer to it as a system. All the parts of this system work together and
communicate with one another: there is ongoing interaction.
Ask yourself the following, ``What is a family all about?'' In my opinion, a family is a group in
which individual family members support one another, interact with one another and listen
to one another. Consider the scenario where a family is facing a threat such as a conflict or a
member is dying of HIV and Aids.
D Activity 2
Instructions: Think about the above scenario (of a family facing a threat/
member dying of Aids) and answer the following question:
Question
(1) What do you think might happen to such a family?
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...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
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I know that you will have thought of various answers, all of which are unique and correct in
their own way. My answer, which probably links with yours, is but one of a few correct
answers and is as follows: The family members will become closer, as well as more
supportive, coherent, caring and prepared to listen. If you think about what you studied in
your counselling skills module, the family members' behaviour can be linked to the theory of
the person-centred approach. According to this approach, the family consists of people who
differ (are unique), who have different needs, perceptions, feelings and values, but who still
share certain common aspects (bonds). It can also consist of people who interact, and feel
the need to pursue this interaction in a group.
Toseland and Rivas (2005:14) support the comment about a family being a natural group
(remember that a family is but one type of group) by pointing out that natural groups come
together spontaneously as a result of naturally occurring events, interpersonal attraction or
the mutually perceived needs of members. Natural groups, according to these two authors,
include family groups, peer groups, friendship networks, street gangs and cliques. It is also
important to remember that natural groups are neither planned nor established by a group
worker.
What other groups (which are formed spontaneously) can you think of?
A formal group is another type of group and is formed for a specific purpose, for example a
group of learners who meet for study or discussion purposes, and a therapy group. Toseland
and Rivas (2005:13) explain that formed groups are groups which are established as a result
4
of some outside influence or intervention. They add that these groups do not exist without
some form of sponsorship or affiliation. (We will deal with this in a later unit.) Another
example of a formed group is that found in the following scenario:
A doctor is working at a clinic in Mamelodi and notices that most of the children are
malnourished. He discusses the matter with mothers by bringing them together,
listening to their needs and forming a sustainable group. An action group continues to
address the needs in this group.
It is important to think about how you, as learners, form a group, such as a study group or
discussion group. Think about the dynamics of communication within such a group. How
did you meet your fellow learners and why are you friends or in the same group? Your answer
should make you realise that people interact and feel the need to pursue such interaction in a
group.
4 Points to ponder
What is a family?
. A family is a natural group.
. It is characterised by coherence, intimacy and bonding, and is supportive.
. Family members are there for one another.
. Family members share ongoing interaction.
Think about how you feel about your own family. Also think about the communication
pattern in your family. Be aware that bonds are established and that people interact and will
pursue such interaction in a group. If you reflect on the example of the clinic, what roles do
you think you could play? Some of you may think of the roles of facilitator, mediator, listener
and enabler. We will come back to these questions in a later part of this study guide and will
link them to our understanding of group work as another context in which we can work with
people.
By now you should have realised that working with groups is not entirely unfamiliar because
(for years perhaps) you have dealt with groups. Do you still experience uncertainty or fear?
Relax and take a deep breath! I hope you will find the rest of this discussion stimulating and
enjoyable. You will be afforded more opportunities, in different contexts, to arrive at new
meanings regarding groups and group work as a method of social work.
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As Du Toit and Spies (1997:2) explain, when introducing any social work method (in the
present instance, group work), it is essential to be aware of the particular method's historical
development. A historical perspective gives the group worker a stronger foundation on
which to build his or her knowledge of effective group work practice. These two authors
indicate that it is impossible to give an exact account of how social group work developed.
They do, however, highlight certain tendencies relevant to this development. Social group
work had its origins in the crisis periods before and after the Second World War in countries
such as America, England, the Netherlands and South Africa. Poverty was widespread and
this, together with the depopulation of the rural areas which followed on industrialisation,
greatly necessitated the expansion of support services. Owing to these adverse conditions,
private initiative helped create and develop certain resources. For example, Stanton Cort in
5 SCK201-3/1
America and Arnold Toynbee in England were instrumental in the establishment of
settlement houses (Toseland & Rivas, 2001:44).
In South Africa, the Dutch Reformed Church and welfare organisations such as the Suid-
Afrikaanse Vrouefederasie, among others, began providing emergency relief and working
with groups. The principal aim of these institutions was to look after people's spiritual, moral
and social interests. As Du Toit and Spies (1997:5) point out, these activities can be
regarded as the earliest forms of group care.
According to Becker (2005:10), the first social work course in group work was developed in
1946 by Grace Coyle in the United States of America, at the Case Western Reserve
University.
Group work was introduced to South Africa in 1960 by Professor E Peterburg who, having
conducted research in the United States, presented the first course in group work to social
workers from the Suid-Afrikaanse Vrouefederasie at the University of Pretoria (Du Preez,
1981:3446). Group care, which entails providing groups with non-professional assistance,
had developed into group work, which is a professional service provided to individuals
within a group. We will clarify the concepts ``group care'' and ``group work'' in study unit 3
of this section (section A). .
Becker (2005:26) points out that in South Africa the following factors played an important
role in group work:
. race
. discriminatory welfare policies
. denial of social context
. the changes that took place after 1994
. group approach or ubuntu
. the repercussions of apartheid
I hope the discussion so far has given you a better idea of where we are headed. In any event,
the purpose of such discussion will become clearer in ensuing study units.
/: /:
That which we have experienced redefines what we understand about groups and group
work, i.e. our perceptions and observations of people in our environment. In this study unit, it
was important for you to become aware that:
. groups and group work are not unfamiliar concepts
. groups are an integral part of our lives, and we form groups spontaneously and formally
. we all belong to natural groups
. groups and group work have a history of development
A Self-study task
Read through chapter 1 in Becker (2005), ``An overview of groups and
groupwork''.
Answer the discussion questions at the end of chapter 1.
6
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Learning outcomes
After completing this study unit, you should be able to:
. define the concept ``theory''
. discuss the importance of working according to a theoretical approach
. describe the relationship between theory and the self
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Van Dyk (1997:126) points out that if one considers the complexity of the interaction
between people and their environment, and the scope of the subject matter covered by social
work practice, one soon realises that it would be naive to believe that one can work
effectively without a thorough understanding of social work knowledge and theory. She
adds that not only will knowledge and theory influence one's professional behaviour, but it
will also have important consequences for the client. In her view (1997:127), learners of
social work and other helping professions are inclined to think of social work in terms of
something that is done, and in terms of actions which are carried out. Social work, however,
consists of far more than what one is ultimately going to do. All actions or activities in social
work are underpinned by a scientific body of knowledge and by a theoretical approach to
social work practice.
Knowledge, theory and a scientific approach to the profession not only determine the
decisions we take in practice, but also which skills we will utilise in a particular situation
when engaged in the helping processes. Boy and Pine (1982:31) emphasise the importance
of theory and point out that theory and practice cannot be separated. Some counsellors may
feel, however, that they are working without any theory, or that theory and practice are
unlikely to be integrated.
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Van Dyk (1997:127) explains that a theory does not focus on how something must be done,
or what must be done. Instead, it is an attempt to answer questions and explain phenomena.
Compton and Galaway (1994:93) state the following:
7 SCK201-3/1
A theory is a coherent group of general propositions or concepts used as principles of
explanation for a class of phenomena a more or less verified, established, or accepted
explanation accounting for confirmed or confirmable phenomena and their
interrelationships.
In her discussion, Van Dyk (1997:127) substantiates her definition by stating that a theory is
formulated from the observation of events taking place around us. Theory is thus the process
by which we look at the world, and order and explain the information (knowledge) obtained
according to specific guidelines. Similarly, the person-centred approach (theory) provides us
with a framework in terms of which we can try to understand and explain human behaviour.
Turner (1986:2) points out that theory is based on a series of propositions relating to reality,
that it provides us with models of reality, and that it helps us to understand what is
achievable and how something may be achieved. Spies (1995:52) appears to agree with
these definitions and indicates that there are four basic, essential terms for describing theory:
(1) Concepts. These are symbols and abstractions used to describe the world. They are the
labels we use to communicate with one another, i.e. the terms describing the world in
which we live such as ``relationship'', ``forces'' and ``self-identity''.
(2) Facts. Unlike concepts, facts are empirically verifiable. They are observations about the
manifestations of the concepts with which we are dealing.
(3) Theory. Theory originates from the systematisation of facts. It is thus a matter of
organising the facts and indicating the relationship between them. Theory is used to
explain phenomena and guides the thoughts and actions of the helper. Without theory
there would be no direction.
(4) Hypotheses. Formal explanations of facts which culminate in theory are known as
hypotheses.
Grobler (1993:4) has a similar perception of theory and states that theory is an attempt to
explain a phenomenon. It requires a set of logical, related principles and concepts on the
basis of which available information/facts about a phenomenon may be selected, arranged or
explained. Theory guides the thoughts and actions of the helper in relation to the client
(group). She cautions that ``without theory, there would be no direction, and to work
without a theoretical perspective renders one's work unsubstantiated and unscientific''. She
uses an example to substantiate her viewpoint:
Alcoholism as a phenomenon will be explained in different ways by different theories.
Psychoanalytic theory will employ concepts such as id, ego and superego. Learning
theories will focus on observable behaviour which has been acquired and can be
learned. Person/client-centred theory in turn focuses on man as a whole (experiences,
behaviour, emotions and values).
A theory is a value-based philosophy used to explain human behaviour. The social worker's
value system will therefore determine his or her choice of theory to explain realities. His or
her good intentions, empathic involvement and honest convictions do not necessarily lead to
efficient social work practice, although a scientific approach does (Van Dyk, 1997:127).
Becker (2005:12) states that theory is useful for people who practise the profession as it
offers explanatory concepts, and helps to order events.
Lonergan (1994) as quoted by Becker (2005:12) offers the following explanation of theory:
Theories are tools which are useful to group leaders in three ways: they help to organise
data, they generate new ideas for group interventions, and having theory increases
confidence as group leaders know what they are doing; group members pick up on this
and this increases their engagement in the group process.
8
4 Points to ponder
Instructions: Ask yourself the following questions:
. What can theory tell me about situations so that I will be able to act
effectively?
. Do I need to adopt a particular theory, and, if so, why?
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Spies (1995:57) emphasises that it is impossible to prescribe a particular theory for a
particular person, and that the theory chosen, formulated or adhered to by any particular
person will say much about that person's beliefs, principles and views. She adds that it is the
personalisation of the theory that makes it meaningful to the helper and enables the helper to
put it into practice effectively. This means that the theories which the helpers adopt and put
into practice reflect something of their personality, since they would not choose something
that does not make sense to them or that is impracticable. Thus there should be congruence
between the helper and the theory he or she adopts.
Boy and Pine (1982:39) make the following comment:
A number of helpers have been unable to translate counselling theory into practice
because they have failed to integrate into their own personalities the philosophical and
psychological nutrients of a particular theory.
The implication of this is that helpers should be thoroughly conversant with theory and not
merely have a vague notion of it. Boy and Pine (1982:41) further explain that the helper
needs to realise the extent to which personal values influence the selection of one theory
above another. Theories are based on values; hence it is the adaptation of the theory's values
to the helper's values which is usually decisive in the helper's selection of a theory or
theories.
Another aspect which Boy and Pine (1982:44) emphasise is the need to expend intellectual
energy on learning a theory really well.
If a theory of counselling is substantive, it contains the answers necessary for the helper
to solve issues related to the process, goals and outcomes of counselling.
This means that, rather than engaging in facile condemnation of the theory, one should make
the intellectual investment of learning the theory well. Spies (1995:58) sees this as a route to
becoming a scientifically and accountable helper who knows the philosophy which is being
used as a background for studying human beings and their problems, and knows how to
facilitate change.
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Why do you think that we have chosen the people-centred approach as the basic
approach and philosophy for your studies in social work? (Refer to Van Dyk,
1997:127.)
9 SCK201-3/1
As Van Dyk (1997:45) puts it, there are many texts which list and compare different theories
and models, all identifying slightly different configurations. One of the problems is that these
texts tend to include a whole range of theories, models and techniques, some of which are
more comprehensive than others. Almost all theories may be partly right in the sense that
they guide us towards different but useful events in the real world that may influence us in
helping clients solve problems and achieve objectives. The theory which is the closest to the
traditional social work philosophy and values, as well as the values of society, is the person-
centred approach of Carl Rogers. We will focus exclusively on this theory in study unit 2 of
section B.
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According to Van Dyk (1997:129), the kind of knowledge needed for social work includes
both theoretical knowledge (``knowing why'' and ``knowing what'') and practical
knowledge (``knowing how''). Further on in her discussion, Van Dyk indicates that, to a very
large extent, the social work profession borrows knowledge about people and knowledge
about various environments from various supporting sciences. Social work practice is clearly
the responsibility of our profession. While we may occasionally borrow and integrate
practice concepts from other professions, the responsibility for developing, testing and
transmitting knowledge about social work both the processes and the models of
intervention must remain the responsibility of social workers. If you registered for this
module with a view to obtaining a degree in social work, this is a challenge you may face and
I encourage you to continue thinking about this.
.: /: .: /:
Working with groups also requires knowledge about theory in order to ensure effective and
efficient service rendering. Compton and Galaway (1994:112) emphasise this in the
following quotation:
I will try everything I know to help the client (group) with whom I'm involved. In some
respects I may be too ignorant to truly know what is best, but I will think carefully about
my procedure, and I will be willing to assume the responsibility for my actions. I will
neither be blinded by preconceptions nor will I be guilty of impulsively following a
fleeting impulse or an easy answer. I will draw thoughtfully and responsibly upon every
bit of knowledge that is available, and I will constantly and actively seek for more. I will
be an insistent questioner rather than a passive taker, remaining identified with the
profession while I vigorously question it. This is my solemn vow to my client (group).
Thus, if my knowledge proves inadequate to the situation and the client's (group's)
problem, the client (group) and I will know that everything possible, given the present
state of knowledge, has been done.
A Self-study tasks
(1) Briefly explain the concept ``theory''.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
10
(2) Why would you as a group worker deem it important to work according
to a particular theory?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
OR
(3) Why is there a need for theory in the helping professions (professions
such as social work)?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4) What role does the self play in selecting and applying a theory when
working with people?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
11 SCK201-3/1
/1, / /1, /
, ,:o: :-1 : // o:o: :o: :-1 : // o:o:
// 11./ // 11./
Learning outcome
After completing this study unit, you should be able to:
. explain and describe the different types of groups which can be formed for the
purpose of the individual
-1./.,: ,:o: : // 11./ -1./.,: ,:o: : // 11./
Toseland and Rivas (2005:17) indicate that there are several advantages of a group effort,
rather than an individual effort, at meeting individual, organisational and community needs.
Groups help members to feel that they are not alone in their problems, and allow members to
share their concerns and to hear that others have similar concerns. They also give members
the opportunity to help others by being supportive, giving feedback, making helpful
suggestions and providing useful information. This process provides what Yalom (1975)
refers to as an ``installation of hope'', which is absent in individual treatment.
Toseland and Rivas (2005) add that groups can be valuable because they allow members to
engage in reality testing, and also allow members to work through previously unsatisfying
relationships with family members, peers or friends. Toseland and Rivas (2005:13) further
explain that, to understand the scope of group work practice, it is helpful to become familiar
with the variety of groups that can be led in practice settings. Their argument is that because
there are so many kinds of groups which workers can lead, it is helpful to distinguish
between them. In this study unit, we will examine the various types of groups.
. :o: ,:o :/ . :o: ,:o :/
Toseland and Rivas (2005:14) emphasise that formed groups may be classified according to
the purpose for which they are organised. You will recall that in study unit 1 I emphasised
that a stimulating part of this discussion would be to focus on these aspects. ``Purpose'',
according to Toseland and Rivas, may be defined as the general aims of a group. According
to Wilson (1976) (cited in Toseland & Rivas, 2005), the nature of the framework for group
work practice depends on the purpose of the group served. He further asserts that a group's
purpose reveals the reasons for bringing members together. Groups may be classified either
as treatment groups or as task groups, and it is important to consider how the two differ.
Toseland and Rivas state that the term ``treatment group" is used to refer to a group whose
12
major purpose is to meet members' socio-emotional needs. The purposes of forming
treatment groups include meeting members' needs for support, education, therapy, growth or
socialisation. In contrast, the term ``task group" is used to refer to any group, the major
purpose of which is neither intrinsically nor immediately linked to the needs of the members
of the group. The overriding purpose of a task group is to arrive at a mandate and to complete
the work for which the group was convened.
TABLE 3.1
Comparison between task groups and treatment groups
(Adapted from: Toseland and Rivas 2005:15)
Type of group
Selected characteristics Treatment Task
Bond Members' personal needs Task to be completed
Roles Develop through interaction Develop through interaction
or are assigned
Communication patterns Open, back-and-forth
interaction based on
members' needs
Focused on a task to be
accomplished
Procedures Flexible or formal, depending
on the group
Formal agenda and rules
Composition Based on common concerns,
problems or characteristics
Based on needed talents,
expertise or division of labour
Self-disclosure Expected to be high Expected to be low
Confidentiality Proceedings usually private
and kept within the group
Proceedings may be private
but are sometimes open to
the public
Evaluation Success based on the
members' meeting treatment
goals
Success based on the
members' accomplishing task
or mandate, or producing a
product
- /,o/,, /:./-/ ,:o: - /,o/,, /:./-/ ,:o:
According to Toseland and Rivas (2005:22), there are five primary purposes of treatment
groups, which include support, education, growth, therapy and socialisation. We therefore
find support groups, educational groups, growth groups, therapy groups and socialisation
groups.
3.3.1 Support groups 3.3.1 Support groups
The description of the treatment typology begins with support groups because support is a
common ingredient of many successful treatment groups. Some examples of support groups
are the following:
. A group of children meeting to discuss the effects of divorce on their lives. The members of
13 SCK201-3/1
the group will share their experiences and will identify common aspects which will enable
them to deal with their traumatic experiences within the group context.
. A group of single parents sharing the difficulties of raising children alone. The group
context will enable them to open up and deal with these experiences, and support will be
spontaneously shared as the group develops.
. A group of people diagnosed as HIV-positive, and their families, discussing the effects of
the disease and how to cope with it. The group context and the experiences shared will
enable the members and their families to develop a greater awareness of the disease and
how to support one another.
Leadership of support groups is characterised by a facilitative approach which emphasises
helping members share their collective experiences in coping with stressful events, such as
the loss of a loved one or the onset of a serious illness. A main role of the worker is to instil
hope in the future and to motivate members to improve their coping skills through self-help
and mutual aid efforts. The worker fosters group norms which encourage members to share
information and suggestions for more effective coping, and to try out new coping strategies.
Strong emotional bonds often develop quickly because of members' shared experiences.
There is a high level of self-disclosure, resulting in emotionally charged material.
3.3.2 Educational groups 3.3.2 Educational groups
The primary purpose of educational groups is to help members learn about themselves, their
community and their society (information sharing and giving). These groups can be used in a
variety of settings, such as at treatment agencies, schools, nursing homes, correctional
institutions and hospitals. Some examples of educational groups include the following:
. An adolescent sexuality group sponsored by a family planning agency. The group context
will enable members to share experiences and to provide information about issues relating
to sexuality. Information leaflets/pamphlets can be used to facilitate the discussion.
. A ``wellness-in-the-workplace'' group formed by a social worker in charge of an employee
assistance programme. The group members will develop an awareness of issues at work
(such as policies relating to absenteeism, labour relations, unions, HIV, alcoholism and
transformation) and how these issues affect them.
. A group for prospective foster parents, sponsored by a child welfare agency. The group
context will afford the members an opportunity to learn more about foster-parenting,
about policies and procedures relating to this matter, and about the experiences of those
already involved in the programme.
The aim of all educational groups is to increase members' information or improve their skills.
Such groups are also involved in the presentation of information by experts and provide
opportunities for group discussions for the purpose of fostering learning. The role of the
worker is to concentrate on both the individual learner and the group as a whole as a vehicle
for learning, reinforcement and discussion. The members are bonded by a common interest,
namely the material to be learned, as well as common characteristics, such as adolescence or
being a union worker. Member self-disclosure varies from low to moderate.
3.3.3 Growth groups 3.3.3 Growth groups
Growth groups are found in a variety of settings as they provide opportunities for members to
become aware of, and expand and change, their thoughts, feelings and behaviours regarding
themselves and others. The group is used as a vehicle to develop members' capabilities to the
full. The focus is on promoting socio-emotional health rather than remediating/remedying
socio-emotional illness. The following are some examples of growth groups:
14
. An encounter group for married couples. The group context will enable members to
become aware of issues relating to marriage and married life (marriage enrichment, sex,
infidelity, betrayal, coping with children, etc.).
. A values-clarification group for adolescents. In the case of such a group, the members will
expand their thoughts about common value systems which people have, as well as about
the choices people make when they grow (e.g. when being torn between peer influence
and family/societal values).
. A consciousness-raising group sponsored by a women's community centre. The group
context will afford members an opportunity to become aware of, and expand their
thoughts about, issues relating to empowerment, abuse, rights, etc.
Growth groups generally emphasise self-improvement and the potential of human beings to
live a full and rewarding life, especially through improved relationships with others. These
groups provide a supportive atmosphere in which individuals can gain insight, experiment
with new behaviours, obtain feedback and grow as human beings. The bond which
originates is a result of members' commitment to help one another develop their potential.
The role of the worker is to select diverse individuals as members of the group so that
exposure to members with different characteristics will enhance growth. Self-disclosure is
moderate to high.
3.3.4 Therapy groups 3.3.4 Therapy groups
Therapy groups help members change their behaviour, cope with and ameliorate personal
problems, or rehabilitate themselves after a social or health trauma. Focus on remediation
and rehabilitation distinguishes this type of group from the support group. Therapy/remedial
groups are associated with the professionalism of the group as a method of practice. Some
examples of remedial groups are the following:
. A psychotherapy group for outpatients at a community mental health centre. Such a group
enables members to deal with aspects relating to their mental health, such as depression,
isolation and frustration (caused by debt, divorce, loss of a loved one, etc.). The group
worker facilitates a process of change by using communication skills and by allowing
members to open up and share their own experiences.
. A hospital-sponsored group for people addicted to drugs. In this case, members are
encouraged to consider the effects of drugs (physiologically, on relationships with others,
on work/school performance) and measures which can be used to help them deal with
this type of problem.
In the case of these groups, members come together to solve their problems. The group
leader is often viewed as an expert, authority figure or change agent. Members' problems are
assessed and treatment goals are developed with the help of the worker. Although the group
has a common purpose, each member may have different symptoms. In addition, the
aetiology and development of each member's problem is unique. The role of the worker is to
focus on one member at a time. The level of member self-disclosure is quite high and
depends on the types of problems experienced by group members. The group members have
much to gain: relief from symptoms, freedom from emotional pain, or the resolution of a
problem.
3.3.5 Socialisation groups 3.3.5 Socialisation groups
Socialisation groups help members learn social skills and socially accepted behaviour
patterns so that they can function effectively in the community. Programme activities include
games, role playing and outings to help members accomplish individual goals. The personal
15 SCK201-3/1
needs of members and the goals of the group are often met through programme activities
rather than exclusively through group discussions. Thus socialisation groups are
characterised by a ``learning-through-doing'' approach which allows members to improve
their interpersonal skills by participating in programme activities. Some examples of
socialisation groups are the following:
. A Catholic youth organisation activity group. The group will enable its members to
communicate openly about issues affecting them as young people (such as drugs and
sexual orientation).
. A parents-without-partners group which allows members to participate in picnics, dances
and other social activities. The members may meet partners in the same group or through
others in the group.
Leadership in socialisation groups may be directive or non-directive, depending on the
complexity of programme activities and on the competencies of group members. The
participation of members is the key to successful individual and group outcomes. The group
is a medium for activity, participation and involvement, and this creates a bond between
members. There are three forms of socialisation groups: social skills groups, governance
groups and recreation groups (Toseland & Rivas, 2005:27). Role plays, psychodrama and
other activities requiring verbal as well as non-verbal communication can be used to increase
members' skills and promote socialisation. (Also refer to table 1.3 in Toseland and Rivas,
2005:2931.)
- /: - /:
This study unit focused on those groups which are formed for the purpose of the individual.
Emphasis was placed on the types of groups with which you, as a social work learner or
learner in the helping professions, can work. The classification used by Toseland and Rivas
(2005) ensures that you can work and communicate with a diversity of people using group
work. Despite the differences indicated, you should realise that generic practice principles
are to be found in all forms of group practice. These will be dealt with in section B.
A Self-study task
Complete the learning assignments in Toseland and Rivas (2001:4647).
16
/1, / - /1, / -
././ : .//./, ././ : .//./,
--./ // oo/ --./ // oo/
,:o: // /.: // ,:o: // /.: //
Learning outcomes
After completing this study unit, you should be able to:
. define relevant terms such as ``group'', ``group work'', ``social group work'',
``empowerment'', ``group therapy/counselling'', ``communication'' and ``interaction
patterns''
. identify communication and interaction patterns and processes
. explain the rationale for facilitating communication with people in groups in the
welfare context
- /:1/ - /:1/
In this study unit, we will concentrate on the glossary of terms relevant to working with
groups. In addition, emphasis will be placed on communication and interaction processes
which you can facilitate as a group worker. Finally, we will continue to consider the matter of
working with people in groups in the welfare context.
FIGURE 1.1
A small group in a
meeting in which
everyone is actively
involved in sharing
ideas and making
decisions
17 SCK201-3/1
D Activity 3
(1) What do you know (or what have you heard) about groups and social
group work? Discuss.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2) Have you ever been a member of a group? How did the experience
compare with what you had heard about social group work?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3) If you have had experience of being a member of a group, can you (on
the basis of your experience) recommend participation in a group? Why?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4) Explain what the term ``group'' implies.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
-. 2/: o/: -. 2/: o/:
In this study unit, different concepts relevant to group work will be defined and discussed,
but specific and detailed attention will be paid to the concepts ``social group work'',
``communication'' and ``interaction''.
4.2.1 Group 4.2.1 Group
The Collins English Dictionary (1986) defines a group as a number of persons standing
together, belonging or classed together, or forming a whole. A group is a collection of two or
more people. Toseland and Rivas (1995:9) add that a group is valuable in that it allows
members to engage in relationships and to learn about themselves through the experiences
of others which they see enacted in a group. Sundel, Glasser, Sarri and Vinter (1985) agree
that a group is both a means of treatment and a context for treatment. As a means, it
constitutes a vehicle by means of which peer interactions and influence can be used to affect
participants. As a context, it affords opportunities for direct, leader-participant interactions
which can contribute to change.
Barnes, Ernst and Hyde (1999) as quoted by Becker (2005) define a group in the following
manner:
18
A group is more than people who happen to be doing the same thing at the same time in
the same place; to be a group, the people must have some connection, some way in
which they come together (either literally or in their minds) with a common aim,
purpose or function. This defines the boundary of the group, separating it from the
surrounding environment of which nevertheless it is a part.
4.2.2 Group work 4.2.2 Group work
Group work is used by various professions in order to provide help. Although different
professions may have different approaches, each has had a major share in the development
of an information base for group work (Du Toit & Spies, 1997:5). Trecker (1975:20) points
out that there is a distinction between group work and social group work. Any profession
can make use of group work, but only trained social workers can utilise social group work.
Lippitt (cited in Trecker, 1975:20) explains group work as follows:
My use of the term ``group work'' is a generic rather than a specialized one. I refer to all
contexts in which professional practitioners use their professional values and skills to
help a group develop and function for such diverse purposes as the social-emotional
growth of group members, the development of task competence of group members,
facilitation of the individual productivity of group members, and growth of the group as
a group towards such objectives as competence in collective achievement or facilitation
of group productivity, committee decision-making and so on.
This definition highlights the versatility of group work as a means of providing help. Please
note the following aspects:
. ``Group work'' is a generic term.
. Group work can be practised by any professional practitioner.
. Group work can be practised in all contexts.
4.2.3 Social group work 4.2.3 Social group work
As far back as 1950, Grace Coyle (cited in Trecker, 1975:20) made it clear in her definition
that social group work, like all other methods of assistance used in social work, is aimed at
the growth and development of the individual, who never functions in isolation. In Coyle's
words:
Social group work, like casework, community organization, administration, and
research, is now recognized as a basic aspect of social work practice. Its distinct
characteristics lie in the fact that group work is used in social relationships within group
experience as a means to individual growth and development, and that the group
worker is concerned with developing social responsibility and active citizenship for the
improvement of democratic society.
Social group work can thus be viewed as a purposeful activity which emphasises the
provision of service to the individual within a group context. Toseland and Rivas (2005:12)
confirm this assumption by stating in their definition that social group work is a ``goal-
directed activity with small groups of people aimed at meeting socio-emotional needs and
accomplishing tasks. This activity is directed to individual members of a group and to the
group as a whole within a system of service delivery''.
19 SCK201-3/1
Look at the three pictures and then answer the questions that follow:
FIGURE 1.2
. What stories do you think are unfolding in these pictures?
. Which of the stories in the three pictures applies to the definition of social group work?
Give reasons for your answer.
Although social group work is described as a purposeful activity, priority is not given to the
group worker's ideals but rather to those of the group members. This requires a particular
attitude on the part of the group worker towards the group members. Rogers (cited in Boy &
Pine, 1990:309) regards the following factors as being important when referring to the group
worker's attitude towards members:
. The group worker should be genuine and congruent.
. The group worker should demonstrate total and unconditional acceptance of the group.
. The group worker should communicate empathic understanding.
As Du Toit and Spies (1997:6) put it, the purposefulness in question thus refers to a joint
effort on the part of the group worker and the group members to fulfil individual members'
needs for change. This aspect is closely linked to your counselling skills module, in which the
helping relationship may be seen as a voyage of discovery which the leader and the group
undertake together, all being aware of their own ``baggage''. Social group work is not
performed in a vacuum, but is directly linked to the institutions in society. Toseland and
Rivas (2001:3) confirm this in their definition by stating that the group ``exists in relation to
many systems, particularly the system of service delivery that sponsors, legitimizes, and
influences its purpose''. In social group work, there is continuing interaction between the
leader, members and the environment. What happens in the group will eventually also affect
the larger community with which both individual group members and the group as a whole
interact.
a Example
A social worker meets some of the women from a town and they decide to
get together every Wednesday to make sandwiches for their children and to
discuss the preparation of economical meals. From these discussions it
becomes evident to the social worker that the women also have other needs
in the area of improving family relationships. The same group begins to meet
20
on Thursdays, and, at these meetings, the group worker acts as the group
leader and purposefully deals with the needs of the individuals (women)
within the group in order to improve their family relationships.
4
Points to ponder
It is important to note that social group work develops from group care and
that:
. it is directed at individualisation
. purposeful, professional service is delivered
. the emphasis is on therapeutic value
. it is one of social work's primary methods
- ./ .-: :./ ,:o :/ - ./ .-: :./ ,:o :/
Although the context in which assistance by means of social group work takes place differs
from that of other social work methods, social group work is aimed at the improvement of
human social functioning. Different authors describe the aims of social group work in
different ways. Trecker (1975:28) gives the following description:
Group experience is used in social group work for helping people in a number of ways
including:
(1) Helping group members to learn to participate actively in group life as experience
in developing a sense of responsibility for active citizenship.
(2) Helping individuals develop their growth potential and achieve enrichment of life
through collective experience and interpersonal exchange.
(3) Helping individuals find social associations or peer relations necessary for
strengthening self-awareness and social belonging, or for personal support
through particular stress periods, or to extend the range of social relationships, or
to assist the individual to prepare for and adapt to new situations.
(4) Helping individuals maintain a satisfactory level of social functioning, especially
when it is in danger due to personal or social circumstances.
(5) Helping by providing corrective experiences where there has been social
breakdown or marked distress in the social situation.
The aims of social group work therefore do not focus on the individual in isolation but
emphasise the individual in interaction with the entire environment. The environment has a
constant effect on human social functioning. Alissi (1980:6667) further emphasises that
social group work may be employed to various ends and gives the following as its aims: the
aim of correction, the aim of prevention, the aim of social growth, the aim of personal
development, and the aim of community involvement and responsibility.
21 SCK201-3/1
4.3.1 The aim of correction 4.3.1 The aim of correction
In cases of social and personal dysfunction of individual members, the group experience may
be used to bring about growth or change in the individual. Group members can then share
similar experiences with one another, and, in this way, can learn from one another how to
bring about change.
a
Example
Group work with teenage girls who are guilty of shoplifting
4.3.2 The aim of prevention 4.3.2 The aim of prevention
If individual group members find themselves in circumstances where there is a risk of their
social and personal functioning coming under threat, the group experience may support
them in considering alternatives to counter the risk.
a
Example
Group work with single parents who are experiencing problems in their
relationships with their teenage sons, and who feel that these relationships
are at risk of breaking down
4.3.3 The aim of social growth 4.3.3 The aim of social growth
Here the emphasis is on facilitating the normal social growth and developmental processes
of individual members. For example, during stressful phases in the life cycle.
a
Example
Group work with elderly people whose life values have altered radically since
their retirement and who feel useless
4.3.4 The aim of personal development 4.3.4 The aim of personal development
Here the concern is with expanding and improving group members' social functioning and
social skills. This cannot be achieved by means of individual activities.
a
Example
Group work with young married couples with a view to marriage enrichment
22
4.3.5 The aim of community involvement and responsibility 4.3.5 The aim of community involvement and responsibility
Here the emphasis is on developing and encouraging community involvement on the part of
individual members, as well as participation in community decision-making processes.
a Example
Getting a group together to campaign for personal security in a particular
neighbourhood
-- //, :./ ,:o :/ -- //, :./ ,:o :/
You have now been introduced to group work as a method in social work. It is important to
remember that social group work may be regarded as a system of support in that the group
members can support one another in the process of change. On occasion, some people
require more support than can be provided by a therapist/group worker alone.
- ,:o .: - ,:o .:
``Group care'' is an extremely comprehensive term which refers to any form of assistance
provided in a group setting and which does not necessarily involve a trained social group
worker. It refers to the non-professional assistance rendered to groups, which may be
sporadic and which does not necessarily require individualisation of group members.
a Example
Situation: A mine manager realises that some of the children in the mining
town appear to be malnourished. He discusses the matter with the social
worker involved and requests that the matter be attended to urgently.
4 Points to ponder
. Group care develops from an identified need.
. Individualisation is not required.
. The aims are non-professional.
. The emphasis is on the activity and its non-therapeutic value.
It is important to point out that social group work does not always develop from group care,
and that in less-developed communities it is almost a natural process.
D Activity 4 (Adapted from MSW1015)
Instructions: Answer the following questions:
23 SCK201-3/1
(1) What happens when you decide to make a change and to set your plan in
motion?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2) What gives you the courage to believe in your ability to carry out your
plan?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3) How do you get yourself to take the first step?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
-: -o:-/ -: -o:-/
As Van Dyk (1997:88) puts it, to initiate changes you must believe that your project is viable
and that your efforts will make a difference. You must believe that you are capable of taking
action and have the requisite resources to complement your own. Your perspective of
hopefulness needs to complement your resources in order to give effect to your responses. If
you believe a task is impossible, think your actions will not make a difference, or conclude
that your abilities and resources are insignificant, will you do anything at all? Probably not! It
is more likely that you will feel incapable, helpless and powerless. Van Dyk (quoting DuBois
and Miley, 1996:24) adds that when people feel powerless, they feel defeated and lose their
sense of control over their lives. On the contrary, if people are empowered they feel effective,
conclude that they are competent and perceive themselves as having control over the course
of their lives.
Empowerment may be defined as:
the process of increasing personal, interpersonal or political power so that individuals,
families and communities can take action to improve their situations (cited in Van Dyk,
1997).
The roots of empowerment are not only to be found in the philosophy of the person-
centred approach, but also in the political and philosophical foundation of the concept
of democracy and its embodiment in political institutions permitting all citizens to
participate in decisions affecting their welfare. Empowerment is held to comprise both
individual determination over one's life and democratic participation in the life of one's
community, often through mediating structures such as unions, schools, churches and
voluntary organisations. Empowerment conveys both a psychological sense of personal
24
control or influence, and a concern for actual social influence, political and legal rights
(cited in Van Dyk, 1997).
Empowerment refers to a state of mind, such as a feeling of worth and competence, or a
perception of power and control. It also refers to the reallocation of power that may result
from democratically modifying social structures and the relationships between citizens and
social structures. Empowerment implies that the power is already there, that various
possibilities already exist, and that what might be regarded as poor functioning on the part of
the client is often the result of social structures and a lack of resources which make it
impossible for people to realise their full potential. The personal and political-structural
dimensions of empowerment are thus interrelated.
- ,:o //:.o, .1 ,:o ://, - ,:o //:.o, .1 ,:o ://,
As Corey (1990:10) puts it, a major difference between group therapy and group counselling
lies in their goals. Whereas counselling groups focus on growth, development, enhancement,
prevention, self-awareness and realising blocks to growth, therapy groups focus on
remediation, treatment and personality reconstruction. Group psychotherapy is a process of
re-education that includes both conscious and unconscious awareness, and both the present
and the past. Some therapy groups are designed primarily to correct emotional and
behavioural disorders that impede one's functioning.
The goal may be a minor or a major transformation of personality structures, depending on
the theoretical orientation of the group therapist. Because of this goal, therapy groups tend
to exist for a relatively long period. The people who make up the group may be suffering from
severe emotional problems, deep-seated neurotic conflicts or psychotic states, and some
may exhibit socially deviant behaviour. Therefore, many of these individuals are in need of
remedial treatment rather than development and preventative work. In general, the goal of a
therapy group is the achievement of interpersonal and intrapsychic adequacy (Shapiro cited
in Corey, 1990:10). Group therapists are typically clinical or counselling psychologists,
psychiatrists and clinical social workers. They use a wide range of verbal modalities (which
group counsellors also use), and some employ techniques to induce regression to earlier
experiences, to tap unconscious dynamics, and to help members re-experience traumatic
situations so that catharsis can occur.
- //./ : --./ - //./ : --./
Communication occurs when two people interact. Unless all our senses are destroyed, it is
impossible not to communicate. Effective communication is a core component of all social
work activities. Communication is encountered in the writing of reports, the conducting of
interviews, and the holding of assessments and meetings.
Brill (1990:58) describes the initial task of helpers (social workers) as being to communicate
with their clients, colleagues and persons in the community. It is very important to realise that
communication takes place in different ways and can be verbal, non-verbal or symbolic. Brill
concludes that it is important for social workers to be able to express themselves and that
they should be able to perceive what others are communicating to them. He illustrates
communication between people in figure 1.3.
25 SCK201-3/1
Figure 1.3
Communication between people
Source: Brill, 1990:61
4.8.1 Definition and description 4.8.1 Definition and description
Compton and Galaway (1994:307) define communication as an interactional process that
provides meaning, and receives and clarifies that meaning. This process occurs in human
interaction. DeVito (1994:9) describes communication with the aid of figure 1.4.
SENDER
Receives and
decodes feedback
in light of own
perception
Encodes response
Perceives and
and returns feedfack
evaluates receiver
Evaluates sender Encodes and sends
and sender's intent and message using verbal
selects response and nonverbal media
Interference (attitudes,
Interference
feelings, faulty perceptions)
may distort message of
any point in process
RECEIVER
Receives message and
decodes in light of perception
26
Figure 1.4
The universals of human communication
Source: DeVito, 1994:9
According to DeVito, ``communication refers to the act, by one or more persons, of sending
and receiving messages that are distorted by noise, occur within a context, have some effect
and provide some opportunity for feedback''. The following case study illustrates the
viewpoint of Compton and Galaway (1994):
Case study
Eight men who have just been laid off work come to you for assistance. One of them
says, ``I became a defensive listener because of this experience.'' He continues, ``I had
just been laid off work the recession you know and I felt worthless. I couldn't
support my family, and I couldn't stand the idea of being unemployed. Nobody in my
family had ever been unemployed.''
The other men in the group also discuss their experiences. ``My wife mentioned that the
car needed some repair work and I shouted to her that I wasn't a money machine. I've
never been like that before.''
Another stated, ``When my son asked me for a bit of money for a school outing, I just
flew at him saying how irresponsible he was with money.''
You (the group facilitator) notice that, while each man was talking, some of the others
were nodding their heads in agreement.
c
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c
e
c
o
m
p
e
t
e
n
c
e
"
"
" "
"
" "
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
source- source-
encoder
Channels
encoder
Effect
Messages
Effect
receiver- (Feedforward) receiver-
decoder decoder
Noise
self- self-
feedback feedback
Feedback
27 SCK201-3/1
Du Toit and Spies (1997:50) explain that, on the other hand, small-group theory
differentiates between the concepts ``communication'' and ``interaction''. Such theory entails
the following:
. encoding a person's perceptions, thoughts and feelings into language and other symbols
. decoding the transmission by another person
``Interaction, according to Northern (cited in Toseland & Rivas, 1984:57) is a term for the
dynamic interplay of forces in which contact between persons results in a modification of the
behaviour and attitudes of participants.
According to Du Toit and Spies (1997), it is clear from the two definitions that interaction is
a comprehensive concept describing the entire dynamics within a large or small group. In
contrast, communication, whether verbal or non-verbal, is the most significant component in
initiating and maintaining the interaction.
4.8.2 The purpose of communication 4.8.2 The purpose of communication
DeVito (1994:17) maintains that there are five main reasons for communication:
(1) Personal exploration. When you communicate with another person, you learn about
yourself and about the other person; you get feedback about your own actions and
communication; you can compare yourself with others; and you can explore the external
world of people, things and events.
(2) Entering into relationships. Relationships with other people take up a large amount of
our time. This is one of the main reasons for communication in the social work context.
(3) Helping. This is especially relevant for people in the helping professions, such as
teachers, psychologists and social workers. A large part of the social worker's function is
based on communication.
(4) Persuading. Much time is spent persuading people to think and act differently, to
consider new ideas, and to find different ways to communicate. Social workers also use
communication for this purpose, for example when lobbying for housing on behalf of
people.
(5) Playing. Communication also includes entertaining people by way of film or video
shows, or by telling stories. Sometimes this is an end in itself, while on other occasions it
serves a more important purpose, such as when children in an orphanage act in a
concert as part of therapy.
4.8.3 Communication and context 4.8.3 Communication and context
Van Biljon (1997:144) explains that communication always takes place within a context.
When studying this section, always think about the group context and relate it to group
work. This context consists of the following four dimensions:
(1) The physical context, which is the concrete context, such as under a tree, on the veranda
or in the office where communication takes place. The place or physical context
influences what is said and how it is said. Consider how communication in a hall (filled
with community members) differs from that in a room (with a group of six or seven
members).
(2) The cultural context, which refers to the communicator's rules, norms, convictions and
attitudes. This context is transmitted from generation to generation. For instance, in one
culture it may be considered polite to talk to a stranger, while in another such conduct is
forbidden. Try to think of more examples relating to this aspect.
(3) The psychosocial context, which includes the relative status of the participants, the
cultural rules of the community within which the communication occurs, formality and
28
informality, and the level of friendliness encountered in the situation. Consider how
communication at a party will differ from that at a hospital.
(4) The temporal (time) context, which includes the time of day and the period in history.
Consider, for instance, the different messages about politics, sex and religion that have
been sent out during different historical periods and how a specific message fits in with
the temporal flow of communication, such as what gets said when.
These four dimensions interact with and influence one another because the communication
process is never static.
When considering figure 1.3, it is essential to remember that the speaker (source or sender)
and the listener (receiver) both possess a receptive system which consists of five senses, a
processing system and a sending system (also relate this to group work).
4.8.3.1 Senders/sources and receivers
Every communicating person is simultaneously a sender (speaker) and a receiver (listener).
For example, people send messages by talking, but also receive their own messages (hear
themselves speaking or observe their own gestures) while simultaneously looking at the
receivers for their responses. They then perceive the responses, decode them and react to
them. As suggested above, think about the group context and relate it to these aspects.
4.8.3.2 Encoding
The message to be communicated originates in the thoughts of the sender and then has to be
``translated'' into words, behaviour and gestures, a process which is called ``encoding''
(Kadushin, 1990:20). Even before the message is sent, certain filters come into play which
affect the message. A thought that might lead to rejection if it were to be expressed will
rather not be expressed at all. If people feel that there is no benefit in them revealing their
secrets and talking about their emotions, they will not do so. Perhaps such people feel that
there is a social distance between them and the helper, and that the helper will not
understand them anyway. The receiver's attitude to the sender will also determine whether
the latter will send the message at all, and, if so, what the message will be like. It is important
that the sender, while encoding the message, is constantly aware of who the receiver will be,
as this will ensure that the message is understood. Just imagine how frustrating this process
can be if one is working with more than one person at a time.
4.8.3.3 Transmission
Once the message has been encoded it is sent, and the sender promptly loses control over it.
It is important to encourage the receiver to provide feedback, as this will confirm whether or
not the message was received as intended. Simultaneously, senders need to obtain feedback
from themselves by listening to how they transmit the message, once again with the
objective of checking whether they are sending the message they intended to send. By
evaluating their behaviour they can make changes to the encoding and transmission to make
the message more effective. If, for instance, the receiver constantly asks the sender to repeat
his or her message, the sender will realise that there are problems with the encoding,
transmission or decoding and can then try to clarify any or all of these problems.
4.8.3.4 Decoding
Receiving the message, for example by listening, is known as ``decoding''. Encoding and
decoding occur simultaneously. There are certain problems associated with decoding. For
29 SCK201-3/1
instance, people might not have received the message properly because of a hearing problem
or lack of attention; because they also have filters which prevent them from hearing the full
message; because they hear only what they expect to hear; or because they have had certain
experiences regarding the person sending the message. Once the message has been sent, the
communication is circular and all participants in the communication process are both senders
and receivers. If this sounds complicated, imagine what it may be like when working with
more than one person.
a Example
(This is based on someone's personal experience. Note that names and
places have been changed for the purpose of confidentiality.)
I once phoned my mother at home to give her a message about the death of
one of our relatives. Unfortunately, my mother was not home when I made
the call, and my cousin Mpikazi received the message. The message I left
was, ``Tell my mother to inform Aunt Suzie that Themba (Solly's brother)
from Stinkwater (Hammanskraal) died on 20 September and will be buried
on 25 September.'' When my mother arrived home, my cousin gave her the
message but forgot to specify the deceased's surname. My mother then
phoned my niece in Tzaneen and informed her that her son Themba (a
policeman in Mamelodi) had been shot dead while on duty and would be
buried in Stinkwater on 25 September.
Imagine the confusion which ensued. My niece left Tzaneen and travelled to
Nylstroom. Before she arrived in Mamelodi, she decided to phone me to
ascertain whether the deceased was in a private or a government mortuary. I
could hear how hysterical she was, and she kept on crying. It also came as a
shock to me to receive her telephone call. The message had been distorted,
and her son was alive!
The message had been intended for Aunt Suzie in Nylstroom, and not my
niece in Tzaneen!
It should be quite obvious that communication is a complex process. You will probably have
encountered a similar situation in your experiences with friends and family members.
4.8.4 Communicative competence 4.8.4 Communicative competence
Communicative competence, as Van Biljon (1997:147) explains, refers to people's
knowledge of the social aspects of communication, for example the influence of context on
the content and form of communication. Just as different types of nuts have different shells,
so different forms of communication exist within different contexts. A subject may be quite
appropriate in some contexts with some listeners, but be completely unsuitable in another
context. The rules of non-verbal behaviour indicate when touching is permissible and when
not, which physical and psychological distances are appropriate in which circumstances, etc.
4.8.5 Messages and channels 4.8.5 Messages and channels
Messages are sent and received in various ways, for instance they may be verbal, non-verbal
or written. The channel is the medium by which the message is sent. Usually, we use more
30
than one channel simultaneously, including speech, listening, gestures, smell and touch. The
following are important:
Feedback: Feedback comprises the information that is sent back to the source of the
information (the sender) and is used to check whether the message which
was sent has been received correctly. Because messages are easily distorted
(as in the above example), there is a need for feedback so that the sender can
adapt the message.
Feedforward: Feedforward is the information supplied even before the message is sent and
which says something about the message (a meta-message). It can be used to
open up the channels of communication and convey the information so that
the normal, generally accepted rules of communication will apply. Examples
include ``How are you?'' and ``Haven't we met before?'' It can also give a
preview of the message, telling the listener what is to come. For instance, ``I
am afraid you are not going to like what I have to tell you, but ...''
Disclaimer: The purpose of disclaimer is to ensure that the message will be understood in
the right way and that it will not refer negatively to the sender. For example, ``I
may be wrong, but ...'' and ``Don't judge me until you've heard the whole
story, OK?''
Altercast: This places the receiver in a specified role and asks him or her to respond in
terms of that role or perspective. For instance, ``What do you as parents of
teenagers think of the decriminalisation of dagga?''
4.8.6 Noise 4.8.6 Noise
Noise is the ``static'' in communication which distorts the message and prevents the receiver
from receiving it as it was intended to be received. The following types of noise can be
identified:
. physical noise, such as stereotypical ideas and presuppositions held by the communicator
. semantic noise, which commonly occurs when people do not attach the same meaning to
words because of differences in language, ethnicity or class
It is also important to realise that communication always has an effect on the people
involved. In other words, communication always has consequences. For example, it may
provide pleasure, change attitudes, and lead to better understanding or action.
4.8.7 Effective communication 4.8.7 Effective communication
Kadushin (1990:30) states that good communication exists where thoughts are encoded
freely and with fidelity, and where the message, once it has been decoded by the receiver, is
a correct version of the message as it was initially encoded; or where there is congruence
between the symbols that were sent and the meaning attached to them upon reception. The
meaning of the decoded symbols that have been received must be the same as the meaning
intended by the sender. But since communication is a cyclic process in which each cycle of
interaction follows the previous one, in which problems or distortion in one cycle of
interaction follow the previous one, and in which problems in one cycle can affect the next,
this is difficult to achieve.
As Van Biljon (1997:149) states, it is crucial that the social worker or group leader be aware
31 SCK201-3/1
of the hindrances that can occur in communication and that he or she take the necessary
steps to rectify the situation. Brill (1990:59) notes the following points:
. The attitudes and feelings of both the helper and the group members can affect
communication and distort sending and reception. This can occur if clients/group
members distrust the helper or if the helper stereotypes clients/group members.
. Differences in age, gender, culture, social position, ethnic background, etc. will also
influence people's ability to communicate with one another. Be sensitive to and aware of
these differences in order to keep channels of communication open.
. The helper must also be aware of the client's/group members' ability to communicate
verbally and non-verbally, and to interpret symbols. Your group members may be illiterate,
hearing-impaired, have speech defects or may not be able to express themselves verbally.
It is therefore important to individualise communication and to use different forms of
communication.
. The tempo of communication must be adapted to the group members.
- - ././ : .//./, --./ // ,:o: // ././ : .//./, --./ // ,:o: //
/.: // /.: //
Although we have discussed communication and have indicated its effectiveness in social
work, you may still be asking yourself, ``Where is the counsellor/facilitator now?'' It is very
important that we concentrate on the communication process in the group work and welfare
contexts.
4.9.1 Communication as a process in a group 4.9.1 Communication as a process in a group
Du Toit and Spies (1997:52) make the following points in this regard:
. Firstly, it is important for helpers who want to understand communication in the context of
group work to realise that, when people come together in a group, they communicate.
Even when all the members keep quiet, they are still communicating something to one
another. Silence could, for instance, indicate that members no longer have any interest in
the group, that they are thinking about what was communicated previously (which may
mean that they disagree with what has been said) or merely that they are angry about what
has been said.
. Secondly, the helper must realise that the patterns of the communication process are
influenced by the reasons that members communicate. Toseland and Rivas (1984:58)
mention, for example, that patterns of communication may change if members want to
change other members' minds, are defending themselves, want to impress others, or are
trying to collect information (whether about other members of the group or about a
problem of their own).
. Thirdly, group members' values and norms play an important role in what is communicated
and how it is communicated. For instance, members will always try to find out what other
members, and especially the group leader, want to hear and how they want to hear it.
Individual members therefore assess themselves, other members of the group and the
group as a whole, and select their patterns of communication accordingly.
. Fourthly, the communication process is hampered if the members do not communicate in
their first language. In such cases, members struggle to communicate, use the wrong
words and do not always understand what is being said, especially when idiomatic
expressions are used. This leads to frustration and conflict, which may negatively affect
the process of communication.
32
. Fifthly, members should always be able to hear one another in the group situation.
Overlarge groups result in members struggling to hear what is being said. This can tire
them out and cause them to lose interest in the group, or it may even lead to the formation
of subgroups.
. Sixthly, in the context of group work, the communication process implies that the group
worker follows the pattern of communication between group members verbally and non-
verbally.
Du Toit and Spies (1997:53) give an example which confirms this process:
a Example
You have probably experienced the following during a conversation.
Someone is talking about the problems she and her husband have with their
children. Suddenly, one of the members of the group asks when the group is
going to Durban.
This example clearly indicates that someone is not communicating within the
communication process that is unfolding at that particular moment. The message that the
listener sends out does not fit in with the speaker's communication (message) about
problems with children. This example further illustrates that a group leader should be aware
of what is going on in the group, both verbally and non-verbally. Moreover, leaders should
facilitate these observations in such a way that every member wants to communicate further,
and this is no easy task. The following example supports our discussion:
a Example
(When reading through this example, think about why we say that
conversation is within the communication process.)
Your priest comes to visit you. His main duty is home visiting and part of this
entails reading the Bible and praying. You happen to be reading the soccer
results in the newspaper when he arrives. After greeting you, he asks who
won the game between Sundowns and Bloemfontein Celtics on Saturday.
You reply that Sundowns did. He asks whether it was a good game, and you
confirm that it was. He comments on the fight at the stadium and you also
give your opinion. He concludes by relating the events at the soccer match to
what is written in the Bible.
In my view, conversation falls within the communication process for two reasons (you will
probably have thought about this while reading through the example):
(1) The priest saw that you were reading the sports (soccer) results and adapted his
conversation accordingly by talking about soccer.
(2) The priest used the conversation to arrive at his purpose for reading a particular text from
the Scriptures and praying in a way that was acceptable to you. He respected you by
``tuning in'' to your needs.
You can relate this to your role as group facilitator. In other words, it is very important to
facilitate communication in a group in such a way that every member wants to talk further.
33 SCK201-3/1
In addition to becoming aware of communication processes, the worker must also consider
patterns of interaction which develop in a group (Toseland & Rivas, 1984:59). The following
patterns have been identified by Middleman (cited in Toseland & Rivas, 1984):
. The maypole, in which the leader is the central figure and communication takes place from
leader to member.
. The round robin, in which each member takes a turn at talking.
. The hot seat, in which there is an extended back-and-forth exchange between the leader
and a member while the other members watch.
. The free-floating pattern, in which all members take responsibility for communicating
according to what is being said in the group.
According to Grobler, Schenck and Du Toit (2003:123), working with groups does not take
place only within the offices of welfare organisations, but also in classrooms, on sports fields,
under trees, in the homes of group members, in hospitals, institutions and factories, and even
in restaurants or on hotel verandas. Group members are traced and are involved in various
ways. Frequently, potential members are identified by studying the files of organisations,
institutions and firms. Sometimes, advertisements are placed in newspapers or on notice
boards. Facilitators also receive frequent requests from other professionals, managers,
supervisors and doctors to undertake group work with people who they perceive as
experiencing problems. However, if the facilitator approaches potential members on the
basis of such perceptions, such a group may never succeed. By using communication skills
such as empathy, listening and attentiveness (which we will discuss later), members may
agree to group work. Examples 1, 2 and 3 in Grobler, Schenck and Du Toit (2003:124)
confirm this.
To facilitate communication with groups in the welfare context, it is also necessary to
understand that this is a multicultural context. You must consider the cultural backgrounds
of both leaders and members. Moreover, remember that you will be involved in group work
with culturally diverse populations and that it will be necessary to modify your strategies to
meet the unique needs of members. As Corey (1990:16) explains in discussing group
practice in a multicultural context, there are diverse issues such as race, ethnicity and
minority which must be considered. Pedersen (cited in Corey, 1990) defines these terms as
follows:
. Race refers to a shared genetic history or physical characteristics
. Ethnicity involves a shared socio-cultural heritage of religion, history or common
ancestry
. Minority identifies a group that has received differential and unequal treatment because
of collective discrimination
. Diverse issues, such as poverty, Aids, cancer, physical disability, gender issues and sexual
orientation issues also constitute the welfare context.
Willingness to put yourself in situations where you can learn about this diversity, gain
genuine respect for the differences between members of your groups, and learn from them
will go a long way towards building the trust that is necessary for bridging differences. The
following case study confirms this:
Case study
Frames of reference (culture) ? the importance of listening to other people
Three people, a psychologist, an engineer and a priest, were out birdwatching in a
remote area. After a whole day in the veld, they looked for a place to rest. They had
heard that people in the area were friendly and yearned for visitors.
34
Consequently, they looked for a house where they could rest for a while, and soon
discovered a house standing alone. They decided to approach the occupant. But
nobody was home. It seemed that someone was staying in the house though because
they observed a strange phenomenon: the coal stove was suspended midway between
the roof and the floor.
According to the psychologist, this could have been due to the fact that the person was
longing for the company of other people and was sleeping under the stove to feel the
warmth. The engineer disagreed with the psychologist and argued that this person
knew something about aerodynamics. He knew, for example, that the higher the source
of heat, the more evenly the heat will spread. The priest, in turn, disagreed with the
other two, stating that the person was a Christian because the Bible is full of examples
of Christians making a fire on a hill or in an elevated area when performing certain rites.
How would you explain the above phenomenon?
- /: - /:
In this study unit, you became familiar with the meaning of relevant concepts (terms) that
assist you in your facilitation of communication with groups. Within this framework, you
were assisted in distinguishing between these concepts. A detailed description of the
concepts ``communication'' and ``interaction patterns'' was given which will enable you to
help people in groups. Furthermore, we emphasised that groups cannot exist in a vacuum,
and that the welfare context constitutes the most important environment within which you
will operate. It is important to remember that groups can also be assisted in other contexts,
such as in industries, hospitals and schools.
35 SCK201-3/1
/1, / /1, /
./ o::/:1 .oo:./ .: . ./ o::/:1 .oo:./ .: .
//:/./ 1./ : :/, //:/./ 1./ : :/,
// oo/ ,:o: // oo/ ,:o:
[The contents of this study unit have been adapted from Van Dyk (1997), Introduction to
social work and the helping process. Only study guide for MSW1015.]
Learning outcomes
After completing this study unit, you should be able to:
. explain the rationale for selecting the person-centred approach as a theory and
philosophy for the helping professions and social work practice in South Africa
. discuss the basic conditions underlying the person-centred approach
. give an overview of the way, or ways, in which people can become person-centred
and of how the approach is being applied in practice
. discuss the obstacles to applying the approach in practice
. indicate the value of the person-centred approach (PCA) for group work and the
group worker
. use the relevant propositions of the person-centred approach to explain human and
group behaviour
//, . //:, .1 o::o/: : // //o, o:::: //, . //:, .1 o::o/: : // //o, o::::
.1 :./ :/ o:./ // -:. .1 :./ :/ o:./ // -:.
Why have we chosen the person-centred approach as the basic approach and philosophy for
your studies in social work?
Van Dyk (1997) explains that there are many texts which list and compare different theories
and models, all identifying slightly different configurations. One of the problems is that these
texts tend to include a whole range of theories, models and techniques, some of which are
more comprehensive than others. Almost all of the theories may be partly right in the sense
that they guide us towards different but useful events in the real world that may influence us
in helping clients solve problems and achieve objectives. Some theories may be more useful
than others, but each theory is a selective grouping of concepts that guide us in our
observations and in the meanings we ascribe to what we observe. Most of the theories or
approaches particularly the most dominant one in older social work texts, i.e.
psychodynamic theory are based on deterministic assumptions about human thought and
36
action, and have a tendency to adopt a ``scientific'' approach which views human beings as
objects to be changed rather than as people to be respected. The theory or approach which is
closest to the traditional social work philosophy and values is the person-centred approach
of Carl Rogers. In this study unit, we will focus exclusively on the person-centred approach.
A person-centred approach focuses on the individual's drive towards growth, stressing
feelings and emotions rather than intellect, emphasising the immediate situation rather than
the past, and appreciating the importance of the helping relationship itself.
In determining the extent to which the stated values of social work and other helping
professions are reflected in a theory, or theories, it is important to remember that the basic
assumption of these values is, in a sense, that human beings are viewed as individuals who
are free to make decisions and choices. These assumptions of individuality and freedom can
be regarded as the fundamental basis of democracy and related conceptions of morality
(Combs & Gonzales, 1994:54).
Choosing a person-centred approach as our foundation can also be seen as a product of
time, growth and change in the broader social context. As cultures in our country become
less homogeneous, they give less support to the individual. Individuals are no longer simply
able to rely on the ways and traditions of our society, but may find many of the basic issues
and conflicts of life centring in themselves. Each person must therefore resolve within himself
or herself those issues for which society previously took greater responsibility. It would,
however, be a mistake to explain our choice of the person-centred approach solely as a
product of cultural and political changes.
The person-centred approach embraces the beliefs, values, assumptions, norms and
standards that serve as the philosophical and moral foundation of our teaching, training and
practice in the Department of Social Work at Unisa.
A person-centred approach largely enables us to overcome the limitations or influences of
different cultures. In addition to this, such an approach can be applied in many other fields,
such as education and organisational development, in the study of group processes and
community development work, and in the analysis of interracial tension and other problems.
In a country where we have been dictated to for many decades, and where we have
depended largely on the control exerted by others, the person-centred approach offers the
opportunity to share power. Power over others, or authoritarian power, is the primary
political orientation in the world and in South Africa, and has in many ways led us to the
edge of destruction. The process of social transformation in South Africa, as well as the
democratisation of our society, also implies the need to change the definition and function of
power. The radically different view of power inherent in the person-centred approach offers a
morality of power as well as a methodology for arriving at that morality (Natiello, 1990:268
269). Power is vital to all of us. It is through the exercise of power that we are able to take
care of ourselves, to direct our lives, to grow and to survive. In itself, power is neither good
nor bad, but in its realisation it can lead either to destruction or to creative growth. A person-
centred approach provides us with a liberating, political, anti-authoritarian, pro-self-
determining, growth- and future-oriented philosophy of power.
You may be asking yourself whether a person-centred approach is possible, and whether it
can succeed. Can it facilitate lasting change? In a country that is plagued by violence,
injustice, prejudice, poverty and lawlessness, affirmative answers to these questions seem
almost too utopian to contemplate. We believe, however, that this may be the greatest
challenge to, and greatest opportunity for, social work and the other helping professions,
namely to resist assimilation into a system that rewards authority and status, to consistently
promote the democratic values of the approach, and to be committed to and patient with a
37 SCK201-3/1
process that has become desecrated by political rhetoric and plagued by contradictory
practices. Such a commitment takes courage, determination and often a willingness to be out
of step with mainstream society. We strongly believe that a person-centred approach and
paradigm for people-centred work with individuals, families, groups, developing
communities and learners-in-training will focus and release participatory processes and
methodologies. We wish to train learners who will grow into highly sensitive and competent
helpers, who are creative and critical thinkers, who are highly self-sufficient, and who are
information-rich and experience-wise.
Life, education and training are exhilarating precisely because we have to make choices and
decisions when faced with many competing demands. In choosing the person-centred
approach, we believe that we, together with other groups who subscribe to the same
philosophy, will be in a position to contribute in an important way to the transformation of
social work and the other helping professions, and to social transformation in South Africa.
. ./ o::/:1 .oo:./ / //o, . ./ o::/:1 .oo:./ / //o,
5.2.1 What is the person-centred approach? 5.2.1 What is the person-centred approach?
A theory such as the person-centred approach is shaped by the observations and
experiences of the theorist (the person who developed the theory). The person-centred
approach to facilitating psychological growth was developed by the American psychologist,
Carl R Rogers (19021987), as a result of his work in a variety of therapeutic settings. For
Rogers, formulating a theory was in itself a developmental process. His early professional
work was thoroughly clinical in nature. His first book on psychotherapy, Counselling and
psychotherapy (1942), was virtually devoid of theory. But it was not long before he started
to organise his clinical experience and thoughts into a theory (Seeman, 1990:375). As his
research into the process of therapy evolved, he developed a way of working with clients
which he initially called ``client-centred therapy''. Starting in the early 1950s, Rogers applied
his ideas about therapy to a wide range of fields and adopted the term ``person-centred
approach'' to describe his theory (Natiello, 1987:205). The term ``people-centred approach''
was later also adopted. The main dimension of his theoretical work, namely a formulation of
the key role of the self in the structuring of personality, was highlighted in his earliest
theoretical work and became a consistent theme in all other works that followed.
The basic thesis of Rogers' theory of selfhood appeared in its most systematic form in the
final chapter of his book, Client-centred therapy (1951). The first two propositions of the
theory provide the key to its structure; all the other propositions flow from the premises of the
first two. Rogers' two propositions are as follows (1951:483484):
. ``Every individual exists in a continually changing world of experience of which he is the
centre.''
. ``The organism (person) reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived. This
perceptual field is, for the individual, reality.''
What is so significant about these propositions is that they embody an approach which, as
we shall see, goes to the core of Rogers' whole way of looking at people's functioning,
namely a phenomenological approach. This understanding of people assumes that people's
behaviour is closely connected to their experiences. The way in which they experience the
world determines their behaviour, and this, in turn, tells us how they are trying to make sense
of the world, or how they create their own realities. For example, being a Buddhist, Christian,
Hindu, non-believer or believer in one's ancestors says something about one and about how
one makes sense of the world.
38
Irrespective of the sphere in which the approach is applied, people's tendency towards self-
actualisation forms the cornerstone of the approach and can be described as follows:
Individuals (group members) have within themselves vast resources for self-
understanding and for altering their self-concepts, basic attitudes and self-directed
behaviour; these resources can be tapped if a definable climate of facilitative
psychological attitudes can be provided (Rogers, 1980:115).
Rogers (1980:196) believed that the tendency for self-actualisation exists in every
individual, and that this tendency is facilitated in a climate where the following three
psychological conditions prevail:
. congruence or realness
. empathy
. unconditional positive regard
The appeal of many other approaches, for example psychoanalysis, Gestalt therapy and
behaviour modification theory, lies in the fact that, in most instances, the therapist is clearly
the expert, actively manipulating the situation, often in dramatic ways, for the client's benefit.
These approaches require ordering and forbidden persuasion, reassurance, advice and
intellectualised interpretation. The political and philosophical implications of these
approaches are, however, being questioned in democratic societies, and, increasingly,
people are looking for approaches which evoke self-directed change and which locate
power in the person, not the expert (helper). In the case of the people-centred approach, we
as helpers, facilitators and social workers will find it necessary to seek new ways to live and
interact. The old coping mechanisms of both domination and subordination are obsolete in
the person-centred approach, where there is no leader and no expert who has the answers.
All participants need to tap their personal power, respect the needs, values and ideas of
others, and find the way together if they are to sustain life in individual relationships, families,
groups or communities (Natiello, 1990:284). This necessitates that we examine carefully
what we mean by a person-centred approach. But before we do, let us complete the
following activity which may make us aware of some of our current ideas regarding power
and of obstacles to collaborative power.
D Activity 5
Answer the following questions:
(1) What do you expect from a lecturer or a leader?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2) What would you do if a lecturer did not live up to your expectations?
For instance, how would you respond/react if you had to passively sit
and listen to your lecturer instead of being actively involved in the
learning process?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
39 SCK201-3/1
5.2.2 5.2.2 The philosophy inherent in the person-centred approach The philosophy inherent in the person-centred approach
Inherent in the person-centred approach is a vision of what people were, are and could be.
Rogers (1985:138) describes this as follows:
Human beings, like every other living organism plant or animal have an inherent
tendency to develop all their capacities in ways that serve to maintain or enhance the
organism. This is a reliable tendency, which, when freed to operate, moves human
beings toward what is termed growth, maturity, life enrichment. Given a reasonable
climate for growth, the tendency to further actualize the organism can be relied on, even
to overcome obstacles and pain.
The most important feature of the person-centred approach is that it relies heavily on the
individual's drive towards growth, health and adjustment. Such an approach aims at
empowering or freeing one's client for normal growth and development. The emphasis on
unused human potential, on the urge towards self-actualisation, and on the release of
capacity in individuals, groups and communities constitutes the essence of the approach
(Hart & Tomlinson, 1970:vii). From this perspective flows an unshakeable belief that all
people are trustworthy, resourceful, capable of self-direction, and, consequently, able to
modify their views of themselves and of life, and to become more effective, productive and
fully functioning.
Within the context of helping, it is thus the clients/group members who know what hurts,
what direction to follow, what problems are crucial, and what experiences have been deeply
buried (Rogers, 1987:13). It must have occurred to you that, in order to be an effective
helper or social worker, you need to rely upon the client/group for the direction of movement
in the helping process. Hobbs (1964:158) reinforces this philosophy when he identifies the
following attitudes that characterise the person-centred helper/social worker:
To be effective in therapy, it is believed, requires a deep and abiding confidence in the
ability of most people to be responsible for their own lives. It requires some humility about
how much a person can do for others, aside from making it possible for them to realize
themselves. It requires putting aside tendencies to evaluate what is good and right for other
people. It requires a respect for their integrity as individuals, for their right to the strength-
giving act of making, and living by, their own choices. And it requires, perhaps above all, a
confidence in the tremendous capacities of individuals to make choices that are both
maturely satisfying to them and ultimately satisfactory to society.
Granting people and clients/group members the freedom that Hobbs (1964) refers to here is
not a method, it is a philosophy about people and their abilities. Unless you really believe that
clients/people can be trusted with responsibility, you will not be successful. You can thus
not artificially build the person-centred approach out of thin air you have to build it out of
a genuine system of belief regarding people.
D Activity 6
It is important for you to become aware of your own personal philosophy
about people. In doing this, you will also become aware of the extent to
which your own philosophy differs from the philosophy inherent in the
person-centred approach. You will also become aware of possible areas of
disagreement, and this, in turn, will indicate the extent to which you need to
grow and develop in order to become an effective, person-centred helper and
learner. Answer the following questions:
40
(1) Why do you think people behave in certain ways?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2) Why do you think some people change and others don't?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(3) You are sitting in a taxi/bus/car and you pass the local shebeen/bar/
bottle store where you recognise the faces of some regular customers. It
is eleven o' clock in the morning and some of them are already drunk.
What are the immediate thoughts that go through your mind regarding
these people?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(4) One of your fellow learners tells you that one of your lecturers is a
homosexual and has Aids. What are your immediate thoughts in this
regard?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Van Dyk (1997) warns that it is important that you do not accept this ``philosophy of
personal freedom'' if you are uneasy about it. It is better to have or grant the little freedom
with which you are comfortable than to try to go all the way in giving people responsibility
for their lives, only to begin to feel uneasy and try to demand it back. This can be disastrous.
It is better to take small steps that you really mean and can stand by in learning to be person-
centred than to try to apply the theory all at once. Giving people freedom means that they
(the people) may make mistakes in the handling of their responsibilities. Making mistakes
can be a very valuable way of learning, provided that people are empathically supported in
this process and are encouraged to examine what they have done.
5.2.3 5.2.3 Basic conditions for the person-centred approach Basic conditions for the person-centred approach
Although Rogers' belief system encourages individual style and personality differences
among helpers, it is crucial that helpers integrate basic ``conditions'' congruence or
realness, empathy and unconditional positive regard, as well as the principle of personal
power into their own way of being in order to bring these to the therapeutic relationship
or within the group context. In other words, such conditions must become part of your own
personal belief system and philosophy of life before you will be able to practise them. These
conditions are applicable to social workers, teachers, parents, managers, group leaders,
41 SCK201-3/1
religious helpers, nurses and administrators, and any others who practise the person-centred
approach.
As these basic conditions are so intricately connected, it is difficult to discuss them in
isolation. Congruence seems to be the pivotal condition. Personal power (autonomy) cannot
exist unless one is oneself. One can only be self-directing if one's own experiences have
been accurately understood and if one is readily aware of their significance. Without
congruence, positive regard and empathy are meaningless. Both empathy and positive
regard used in isolation become mere techniques, and, as such, can be manipulative,
controlling and distancing. We will now briefly examine each condition and its implications
for those who practise the person-centred approach.
5.2.3.1 Congruence
A condition of congruence exists when the experiences of the helper are accurately
symbolised and are readily available to his or her awareness. What does this mean? It means
that helpers are able to live, to be, and to communicate their experiences in personal
encounters with others where this is appropriate. Egan (1994:55) uses the word
``genuineness'' to describe this condition and views it as a set of attitudes and counsellor
behaviours. Rogers (cited in Natiello, 1987:206) argues that congruence is neither purely a
technique nor an attitude, but is instead part of the philosophy of the person-centred
approach and that of the helper. It is the state of realness and genuineness that exists in
people who have explored the experience of their own selves deeply and who have accepted
the truths which they have found in their explorations. Once these truths have been
accepted, the desire and ability to be emotionally and intellectually genuine and accepting in
relationships becomes possible, and the client is able to experience the helper as real,
trustworthy and humane. Congruent or genuine people are at home with themselves and
therefore can comfortably be themselves in all their interactions.
D Activity 7
To gain a better understanding of the concept of congruence, consider the
following:
Have you ever found yourself in a relationship with a friend (either male or
female) who told you that he or she cared about you, but who, at that
particular moment, you felt was not being honest? What was your
experience?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Have you ever listened to a politician/salesman and experienced himor her as
being unconvincing and not genuine? How did you react in such a situation?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
42
If your answer to either of these questions is in the affirmative, these might have been
situations in which the people concerned were not expressing congruency. What I am trying
to convey to you is that we, like our clients, have the ability to be sensitive enough to sense
when a person is not real, genuine or congruent.
Similarly, we may well consider whether we have the ability to sense when we ourselves are
not being real, genuine or congruent. Think of any situation in which you did or said
something which you knew was not what you really felt, thought or believed. After doing or
saying something like that, you probably felt a little uneasy; felt the need to change the
subject; immediately experienced some kind of distance between you and the other person;
felt like walking away; or were angry at yourself for being dishonest. Situations like these are
good examples of areas in yourself in which you still need to grow, or need to learn to
become congruent.
To maintain congruence, one needs a high level of self-awareness, self-acceptance and self-
trust, as well as a commitment to being congruent. One should not make a superficial or false
attempt at appearing to be congruent. This means that you do not become a congruent
person once you find yourself in a therapeutic setting, but that, instead, congruence should
become a part of your integrated self. However, as Rogers defines it, congruence does not
require that one should necessarily ``say what you feel'' (Coulson, 1984:1) in a therapeutic
situation. Congruence or genuineness does not require you to always express all your
feelings; it only requires that whatever you do express be real and genuine and not
incongruent.
Incongruence or hypocrisy undermines trust in relationships because your clients will sense
it, irrespective of their intellectual abilities. Why do I say this? Because helpers often work
with uneducated people and tend to think that they can manipulate them because they are
too confused or stupid to feel and to see through the helpers' facades. I guarantee you that
such people are not stupid, that they are just as capable as you, and that they may often be
more sensitive precisely because they have no formal education.
As helpers, we need to develop the sensitivity to know when it is important to give voice to
our own feelings and experiences. How can we attain this delicate balance? Certainly, the
purpose of a therapeutic encounter with an individual, group or community is not for a helper
to work through his or her own personal issues. Such issues may certainly announce
themselves. For example, you may have an alcoholic in your family and have to work with an
alcoholic; you may have been abused as a child and in your work have to deal with a child
molester; you may be experiencing marital problems and have a client who is going through
a divorce; you may have ambivalent feelings about homosexuality and have to work with a
group of homosexuals; and you may have grown up in poverty and have to work with a poor
community. Ideally, you should have worked through all these personal issues before you
became a practising professional. You must be aware of them and the potential they have to
affect your ability as a helper. There are thus times when some aspect of the helper's
experience has a special intensity and may interfere with his or her ability to be ``empathically
present'' for others.
5.2.3.2 Unconditional positive regard
The second facilitative condition for the person-centred approach to helping is referred to as
acceptance or unconditional positive regard. This condition can be said to exist when the
helper perceives the experiences of the client in such a way that neither the helper nor the
client is viewed as being more or less worthy of positive regard (acceptance). To immerse
himself or herself fully in the experiences of others, a helper needs to accept an individual,
group or community with which he or she is working at any given moment, and needs to
43 SCK201-3/1
accept all the feelings, attitudes and values of such an individual, group or community. Such
an attitude requires an acute awareness on the part of the helper of his or her own values,
biases and judgements, and an ability to suspend these during professional encounters with
others (Natiello, 1987:207).
Unconditional positive regard (or acceptance) and approval are not the same and tend to be
confusing. What do we mean by this? We mean that there is sometimes conflict between
congruence (the first condition) and unconditional positive regard, when these must
simultaneously be applied in practice. Helpers who call themselves people-centred may
suppress a strong emotional reaction to a client's input or behaviour because they feel they
should provide unconditional positive regard or acceptance. The resulting incongruence
between self-experience (the strong emotional reaction in the helper) and the expression of
only unconditional positive regard (acceptance), or worse, approval, is usually felt by the
client, and may create a sense of distrust. To gain a better understanding of this, consider the
following example given by Natiello (1987:208):
a Example
A 32-year-old divorced woman explained that she was involved with a
younger man who abused her on several occasions. When she said with
enthusiasm that she had decided to marry him, I experienced a strong adverse
reaction. I could not hold back my feelings. I told her it was difficult for me to
celebrate her decision because I was concerned for her safety and that of her
children. Once I had disclosed this, I was able to listen to her account of her
feelings and the basis for her decision without judgement. If I had not been
honest in my reaction, I feel sure she would have discerned this, and there
would have been a breach of trust between us.
It is a delicate and complex skill to express one's genuine or congruent reaction if it is
negative, and at the same time to convey one's unconditional valuing of the client as a
person.
5.2.3.3 Empathy
A third, necessary condition for the person-centred approach to helping is empathy, in other
words the perception of the internal experience of a client, group or community with all its
emotional content and meaning. In the process of empathic understanding, therapists often
discern meanings that lie just at the edge of the awareness of the person whose world they
enter. Very often these meanings are perceived only dimly by the client and are thus
expressed only non-verbally. The client's awareness may be expanded if such precognitive
meanings are reflected by a helper who can pierce the veil of verbalised experience to greater
depths. The parrot-like responses that are so often associated with a person-centred
approach have very little to do with the delicate process of gently and patiently coaxing out
the precognitive, barely articulated threads of experience that may be woven into the tapestry
of the client's life (Natiello, 1987:208209). Rogers cited in Giesekus and Mente
(1986:165), explains this as follows:
It is the counsellor's function to assume, in so far as he is able, the internal frame of
reference of the client, to perceive the world as the client sees it, to perceive the client
himself as he is seen by himself, and to lay aside all perceptions from the external frame
of reference while doing so.
44
Empathy is not merely a technique, it is a way of being with the client. It may be described as
an instrument of artistic virtuosity in the hands of a genuine, accepting, empathic listener. It
is a way of being with and listening to the client that makes it possible to be in practice what
is being proposed in the philosophy of the person-centred approach. Being empathic means
trying to determine whether your understanding of the client's inner world is correct,
whether you are seeing it as he or she is experiencing it at that particular moment. In other
words, empathy implies a verbal expression. This is hard work and does not mean that you
can merely sit there passively and look warm or friendly. Empathy must be communicated:
the client must experience, know and hear that he or she is being understood.
As the helping relationship deepens, insights that have been expressed in past helping
sessions can be integrated into advanced empathic responses at appropriate moments. Have
you ever observed how a person weaves a carpet? It is a gentle process, and, once started, it
is difficult to go back and undo what has been done. After a while, some kind of pattern
evolves and this pattern in turn becomes connected to other patterns, but in such a way that
they all fit together. We could say that the helping process is in many ways the same, and
expressing empathy is the weaving of the client's immediate experience with some relevant
piece of history that has been disclosed in such a way that it fits, and so that the pattern
which evolves makes sense in the end. These advanced empathic responses, or forms of
empathy the process of weaving together the fragments and threads of a client's
experience over a period of time result in an ever-increasing awareness of self for the
client, and enhance his or her wholeness. The client is given an opportunity to glimpse the
reality that he or she is. He or she may then become curious about what the empathic
responses reveal, and thus gain more inner knowledge, which, in turn, may enable him or her
to make appropriate choices. Rogers (1986:377) puts it as follows:
I can continue, from the therapist's point of view, to test my understanding of my client
by making tentative attempts to describe or portray his or her inner world. I can
recognize that for my client these responses are, at their best, a clear mirror image of the
meanings and perceptions that make up his or her world of the moment an image
that is clarifying and insight-producing.
A condition of empathy can exist only when there is relative freedom from judgement as
regards another's values, attitudes and behaviour (i.e. where there is unconditional positive
regard), and if the helper cherishes a deep trust in the ability of others to resolve their
problems and move in the direction of self-enhancement. Without such trust a deep belief
in the self-actualising tendency it is difficult to listen to a client's experiences without
trying to influence or redirect them. To be empathic you must lay aside your own judgements
and values in order to grasp, with delicate accuracy, the exact meaning the client is
experiencing rather than expressing (Rogers, 1986:377).
5.2.3.4 Personal power
The exercise of personal power or autonomy by both client and helper is another condition
believed to be integral to the person-centred approach (Natiello, 1987:210211). This may
be defined as the ability to act effectively in accordance with one's own intentions, will,
capabilities or conscious choice rather than according to external control. It is a state in
which the client is aware of and can act upon his or her feelings, needs and values instead of
looking to others for direction. The more sound the helper's personal power is, the less likely
he or she is to try to control others, and the more effectively he or she can help clients tap
their own sources of power and become as fully as possible the persons they are capable of
becoming. The solidity of the helper's personal power depends to a great extent on his or her
wholeness as a person. Rogers (1961:209) describes this as follows:
45 SCK201-3/1
The immature person cannot permit himself to understand the world of another because
it is different from his own and therefore threatening to him. Only the individual
reasonably secure in his own identity and selfhood can permit the other person to be
different, unique and can understand and appreciate the uniqueness.
A commitment to the concept of personal power, which is integral to the person-centred
approach, is an inevitable outgrowth of the belief in the actualising tendency of human
beings (the core principle inherent in the philosophy of the person-centred approach). To
refresh your memory, this principle implies that people can be trusted to direct their own lives
and solve their own problems. In practice, therefore, any effort to control or direct the
personal process of another is a violation of this core principle. By the same token, a helper
who is not autonomous and self-directing in his or her behaviour contradicts that same
principle. We can compare this to religion. Suppose you say that you are a religious person,
and there are certain principles inherent in your religion which you are supposed to integrate
into your behaviour. If you do not integrate these principles, then you are contradicting
yourself as well as the principles. This is also often an indication that your religious beliefs
have not yet become part of your integrated self (personal autonomy) and that you need to
grow in that area.
The helper does not become a passive or powerless person in a therapeutic setting. The
balance between maintaining one's own power and sharing power with someone else is a
delicate one. What this means is that personal power applies to both the client and the
helper. Person-centred helpers often find it difficult to translate the concept of personal
power into practice. This is often the result of confusion as to how much of one's self to
share, and of fear of taking over the client's power. This fear sometimes leads to disowning
one's power, or, worse still, denying it. Natiello (1987:212213) gives the following
example:
a Example
A person with whom I am closely connected, asked me to conduct a person-
centred workshop at her growth centre. The centre, which she had
established with two colleagues, was designed to have a non-hierarchical
structure, and, to her distress, she found people giving her power even
treating her like a guru.
During the workshop, I observed that she listened with total acceptance to
every person's struggle. She responded with genuine empathy to their
experiences. But she never shared her personal struggles around the issues
being raised never shared her real feelings and concerns. Her attitude was
one of kindness and understanding. She had obviously convened this group
for their sake. It did not take long to see that her consistent lack of self-
disclosure and personal engagement kept her apart from the others, made her
untouchable and invulnerable, and gave her all the power exactly the
opposite effect from the one for which she was striving. In her genuine
concern to share power, she had put herself and her power aside, and,
paradoxically, ended up a guru.
I hope this example makes it clear that we cannot ignore the power that our clients often give
to us. Being kind and accepting is not enough and can, in fact, create distance between
ourselves and our clients in practice. You must thus be more than just a helper; you must also
become a person to your clients a human being with feelings, belief systems and
46
weaknesses. Person-centred helpers need to be cautious about how they use themselves
and how visible they are. But denying the influence of their position, their experience, their
advantage of being familiar with the helping process or even the power given to them by
their clients may also result in confusion and distance between themselves and their clients.
You may thus even find yourself in a position where you feel you are ``above'' the helping
process, almost as if you were hanging from a parachute above a room, knowing exactly
what is going on, being there, but not really being part of the process.
This discussion has attempted to reveal some of the confusion around translating the
principle of personal power into practice. To facilitate a climate in which shared power and
dynamic autonomy prevail, you need to be comfortable with and clear about your own
power/autonomy. You need to be cautious about your level of participation and your
interventions. You need to let go of your safety parachute and dirty your hands.
D Activity 8
Next time you find yourself in a situation where you are listening to or
observing another person (e.g. your lecturer, the president, your priest or
pastor, or any other person who you regard as an expert), ask yourself the
following questions:
(1) What could this person be struggling with?
(2) Does he or she give any indication of his or her personal values, beliefs
and vulnerabilities?
(3) What can this person do to become more of a human being and less of
an ``expert''?
(4) Will my perception of this person change if I know that he or she, like
so many others, is also struggling with personal issues? How will it
change?
Let us now turn the focus to you as a person. Answer the following questions
in writing:
(1) How much of yourself are you able to share with other people?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(2) Identify areas or aspects of your life which you feel uncomfortable
about, and which you are not able to talk to other people about.
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
(3) What will have to happen before you are able to talk about these areas
or aspects?
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................................
Try to work on these areas as you continue with your studies.
47 SCK201-3/1
5.2.4 5.2.4 Becoming a person-centred helper and social worker Becoming a person-centred helper and social worker
A person-centred way of being in an educational situation is something that one grows into;
it is a philosophy, built on a foundation of the democratic way, which seeks to empower
every individual (Rogers, 1985:95). ``Way of being'' refers here to your personhood, who
you are. The consistent theme is to be what you want to be, without performance
expectations.
And a consistent theme running through the literature is that the helper's personhood is the
most important element affecting the outcome of the helping process.
Personhood here is defined as the state, condition or quality of being fully human (Boy &
Pine, 1990:308). It is the state of being that Rogers identified as ``necessary and sufficient''
to produce positive psychotherapeutic outcomes. Rogers emphasised that being expressive
of such personhood in his or her work with individuals, families, groups or communities
requires the helper to:
. be genuine and reveal congruency
. offer unconditional positive regard or total acceptance
. communicate empathetic understanding
The expression of these attitudes serves as the foundation for positive outcomes in the
helping process. The critical importance of the helper/social worker as a person will
constantly be reinforced during your study of social work. The concept is often denounced or
lost in a psychotherapeutic world that is more committed to diagnosis, treatment plans and
accountability procedures. Although these issues are important, we should never forget that
our development as people must always remain paramount in our priorities because of the
influence of our personhood on therapeutic outcomes. Unless this remains your priority, you
as a people-centred worker will have difficulty in maintaining a distinctive identity. This
focus is felt to be important because the current literature puts more emphasis on the use of
exercises and techniques, while the importance of the helper's personhood is lost among
these activities (Boy & Pine, 1990:309).
There is always a temptation to substitute strategies, techniques and exercises for the
personhood of the helper. The importance of the helper's personhood is often overshadowed
by an emphasis on strategies, techniques and exercises. Ohlsen, Horne and Lawe
(1988:312) state the following:
The emphasis on authentic and genuine encounter, coupled with the nondirective
orientation of person-centred work, makes this philosophy a difficult one to adopt. A
therapist who desires action, and who believes that more responsibility for the change
of the client lies with him/her than with the client, may not be well suited for person-
centred counselling.
A people-centred helper's personhood thus finds its expression not in the use of techniques
and exercises, but in the creation of a facilitative climate in which clients can move towards
self- and group-determined activities and goals. Other approaches do not emphasise the
creation of such a climate. Instead, they may rely on the leader's charisma or expertise, on
methods and exercises; or they may discredit or distrust entirely the value of self-direction.
Coulson, cited in Boy and Pine (1990:312), states that any method, strategy or technique
used in isolation is in reality a superficial attempt to manipulate how an individual client or a
group will respond:
The leader of an encounter group errs if he tries to make the group happen. He errs in
missing the opportunity to find out what people really are like when they are not being
manipulated. He errs in taking away from members the rare opportunity to be what they
48
want to be, without performance expectations. He errs also because it simply isn't
necessary to manufacture the events of the encounter.
5.2.5 5.2.5 Application of the person-centred approach in practice Application of the person-centred approach in practice
In our interactions with helping professionals, lecturers and learners who call themselves
``people-centred'' or ``Rogerian'', and in our experience in training helping professionals, we
have become aware that the theory of the people-centred approach is grasped quite readily,
but the translation of theory into practice tends to be problematically diverse or
oversimplified. Natiello (1987:203204) ascribes this to an egalitarian style of
professionalism that differs radically from other systems of psychotherapy which rely on the
expertise and authority of the therapist/helper/facilitator or social worker. Another reason is
that, over time, Rogers was less and less inclined to make statements that might have been
construed as a way of guiding or instructing others. We might even say that he did not
prescribe a specific method or steps for applying his theory in practice, and this made, and
still makes, helpers who are traditionally inclined to rely on a model uncertain as to how to
apply his theory in practice. In many different ways Rogers (cited in Meador, 1988:372) said:
I am not outlining a path for you to follow no matter what your occupation. You are
your own best teacher. I want to keep reminding you of that. The best leader is one of
whom his followers would say, ``He was not so important, we did it ourselves.'' Or he
would say, ``This is the way I do it; it may not be for you.''
Increasingly Rogers proposed that helpers rely on their own experiences as a way of
communicating with others (Seeman, 1990:379). Rogers (1961:2324) puts it as follows:
Experience is, for me, the highest authority. The touchstone of validity is my own
experience. No other person's ideas, and none of my own ideas, are as authoritative as
my experience. It is to experience that I must return again and again, to discover a closer
approximation to truth as it is in the process of becoming me.
To simplify this, we may say that Rogers focused on the process in therapy or helping in
general, and on the moment-by-moment experience of both the helper and the client in
practice. Such experience becomes the structure or unseen method whereby the therapeutic
process evolves. The very fact that helpers use widely differing techniques and yet
experience success suggests that method itself is not crucial to effective helping. Recent
research suggests that it is the ``purity'' (the essential conditions one associates with people-
centred work) with which a helper practises, not the method itself, that correlates with
success.
Please note
In a sense it may be said that the person-centred approach assumes that there is no
method or recipe for helping which is so accurate, inclusive or broad that it can blindly
be applied in therapeutic processes.
Difficulties in applying the person-centred approach in practice may, however, also be
attributed to a variety of myths and misconceptions that exist regarding the approach. The
following are some examples of these myths and misconceptions:
. ``All that person-centred helpers do is be empathetic.''
. ``A person-centred helper is a self-abnegating, passive and uninvolved person who
responds to others by simply mirroring their responses.''
49 SCK201-3/1
To confront these myths and misconceptions, it is necessary to look at the implications that
the theory has for practice. Or, in other words, we may ask how we apply the theory in
practice.
5.2.5.1 Structuring and nondirectiveness in the person-centred approach
Directive behaviour (here, a specific way of structuring) guides, advises or coerces a client,
group or community to proceed in a certain direction. Non-directive behaviour attempts to
support and involve clients, the group or community in (and enable them with regard to)
self-initiated and self-determined ways of being. The concept of directiveness/
nondirectiveness refers to the manner in which helpers choose to structure the helping
process. It therefore goes to the heart of the issue of the power balance between client and
helper. Directive helpers impose more or less structure (e.g. advice or instruction) on clients,
whereas non-directive helpers empower their clients by guiding them towards self-
determination. However, in group facilitation, and in work with individuals, families and
communities, a total absence of structure and complete nondirectiveness is impossible.
A person-centred approach is the least ``directive'' of the many psychotherapeutic and other
methods of behavioural intervention. The approach can, however, not be described as
entirely non-directive. We have already said that the basic philosophy of the approach lies in
a fundamental belief in the client's ability to find his or her own direction, and a belief that he
or she is in the best position to know what most troubles him or her. The function of the
helper is to facilitate or create a climate that enables clients to find their unique directional
pathways towards healing, learning and growth. Many people mistakenly assume that,
because the task of person-centred helpers is to create an environment in which clients can
empower themselves, the helpers' participation in the relationship should be minimal
(Natiello, 1990:274). They let the client talk and do not interrupt, look interested, or act in a
friendly way until they get the chance to ``intervene'' and to ``stimulate'' the therapeutic
process. In fact, nothing could be further from the truth. The concept of personal power
applies to both the helper and the client. Rogers (1977:15) clearly states his belief that
person-centred helpers are fully present in the helping relationship and very much in touch
with their personal power. The concept of congruence the ability and willingness to be as
fully one's real self as is possible cannot be viewed independently of personal power, and
implies that the helper cannot be passive in the helping relationship.
But what does it mean to be directive or non-directive, and how do person-centred helpers
structure the helping process? Rogers, cited in Coghlan and McIlduff (1990:14), was aware
of the lack of clarity regarding this concept and answered this question by indicating that the
person-centred approach requires helpers to be selective in their listening, and hence
``directive'' to some extent. What is important here is that a helper who is, for example,
listening to a group member is unquestionably far less interested in the details of the
member's quarrels with his wife (or the details of the member's experiences at work) than in
the meaning these experiences have for him, and the feelings which they still arouse in him.
It is these meanings and feelings to which helpers should try to respond.
Person-centred helpers often struggle with the tension between the need to share things
they themselves regard as valuable and exciting, and the principle of nondirectiveness. They
therefore hold themselves back from responding so that the clients can make their own
decisions and become more autonomous. Yet sharing one's ideas in an empathic and
facilitative way need not prevent helpers from having or expressing their own opinions.
When you hold back like this, you are assuming a position of superiority, to say nothing of
the fact that you are also acting incongruently. You then become locked in a position of
static autonomy and limited power (Natiello, 1987:214).
50
Clients are not empowered by the therapist or helper. Rather they have their own power
which is supported, actively encouraged, and in no way diminished by the helper's
behaviour.
The following are examples of non-facilitative helper attitudes and approaches that diminish
the quality of the client's participation in the helping process: exploitation, manipulation,
dogmatism, self-centredness, interpretation and superiority. Rogers (1970:6667) has
strong objections to the helper who exclusively uses exercises or activities, and who
periodically says, ``Now we will all ...''
Instead, Rogers (1970:6162) says the following about the use of structure in group
facilitation:
I try to avoid using procedure that is planned ... . If any planned procedure is tried, the
group members should be as fully in on it as the facilitator, and should make the choice
themselves as to whether they want to use that approach ... . It is possible to outline a
procedure to group members, but what happens is up to them ... . To me nothing is a
``gimmick'' if it occurs with real spontaneity. Thus, one may use role playing, bodily
contact, psychodrama ... and various other procedures when they seem to express what
one is actually feeling at the time.
In analysing what is being said here, you will see that the issue is not so much an antipathy
towards the use of structure, but rather a concern for how it is employed and from where it
originates. Rogers wanted to make it clear that the helping process needs direction, but that
it is a client-determined direction. Procedures, exercises and structure that spontaneously
arise fromthe process of helping individuals, groups or communities are clearly acceptable. A
non-directive, person-centred helper can structure, systematise and enlarge the scope of
people's thinking without reverting to a directive, instructional approach. The important
thing is to keep it in line with the basic conditions required for the person-centred approach,
namely that in using it (a structure) people are in no way guided or forced to accept any
specific ideas or conclusions from the helper's own frame of reference. At the core of any
discussion of structured experiences or exercises lie questions concerning their function or
purpose, how they are introduced, how they are used, and, finally, their effectiveness in
relation to the ultimate purposes of self-initiated and self-directed learning. If structuring
facilitates client or group self-determination in communities, then this accords with the
person-centred approach.
A person-centred use of structure does not attempt to direct a client or group towards a
particular outcome; rather, it attempts to facilitate a process which enables clients, groups or
communities to achieve self-direction more easily. The following example indicates how
structuring can be integrated with a genuine desire to be person-centred.
a Example
A social worker was invited to facilitate at a two-day meeting of a group of
voluntary workers at a centre for people with Aids. These workers wished to
reflect on particular issues of their work and on the processes which operated
within the centre. The social worker reported as follows:
I met the group in advance of the meeting and listened to the concerns and
issues they regarded as important to examine. I then designed a structure
which seemed likely to facilitate discussion and exploration of these issues.
At the start of the meeting I offered the initial step in this structure; and they
accepted. This step involved the use of a diagram from which group members
51 SCK201-3/1
could determine and then share how they perceived themselves and others in
the group. When that activity was completed, I invited the group to
participate in a second exercise, which they also accepted. This exercise was
an invitation for each member to spend some time alone reflecting on an
occasion when he or she felt most in tune with the essence of working with
people with Aids. Subsequently, the group began to explore other relevant
areas. Accordingly, I judged that the people in the group were beginning to
take responsibility for their own process and abandoned my intended
structure so as to follow the flow of the group. I continued to facilitate, and
intervened to clarify, summarise, support and monitor time. The group
worked through its issues in its own way, and at the end stated that the entire
process had been very worthwhile. During discussions there were frequent
references to what had emerged during the initial ``structured'' sessions. In a
review at the end of the first day, one member expressed how he had initially
felt angry with me because he had expected me to provide ``tricks and
exercises'' for the group. Now he was feeling glad that this had not
happened, and that the group itself had entered into its central issues.
(Adapted from: Coghlan & McIlduff, 1990:25)
This example clearly illustrates the differences and compatibility between structuring and
nondirectiveness. It is clear that the group had its own agenda. The social worker, after
exploring the group's needs, designed a structure in order to enable the group to achieve its
goals. She provided a fairly clear structure for initial sessions and had other structured
activities at hand to use throughout the two days. In her interaction with the group, she
offered these structures to the group one by one in a manner that allowed for acceptance or
rejection. She did not wish or attempt to control the content or outcome of the group's work.
After the initial exercises, the group seemed to develop its own momentum, and the issues
which the members wished to discuss began to emerge spontaneously. To maintain the
directional flow of the group, the social worker adapted her way of being by abandoning her
structure and going along with the group. Group members appreciated the initial exercises
and were glad the process had been allowed to flow thereafter.
Cain (1989:13) summarises the essence of the person-centred or non-directive use of
structure very well:
Our clients are not likely to experience any manipulative or controlling intent on our part
if whatever we offer (eg, exercises, strategies, tools and techniques, information,
structures) derives from our understanding of their individual needs and is done in a
manner which clearly communicates ``this is an option you may wish to consider''. If we
truly trust our clients' capacity to recognize and choose what they need to move forward
in their lives, then we are more likely to feel free to offer our personal and professional
resources to them.
The logical conclusion is that person-centred helpers have no aversion to activities when the
desire for these activities comes from clients themselves. Person-centred helpers thus tend to
question therapeutic processes that focus on planned strategies, techniques and exercises
devised by a helper/social worker, and which are introduced to the client/s by the helper.
They further question whether the use of exercises may not in fact impair honest,
interpersonal communication, because such activities often tend to produce superficial and
predictable responses from clients.
52
But when an activity emerges from the clients themselves, it possesses a self-determined and
real quality that produces an affective (emotional) involvement by individual clients, groups
or communities. There are distinct moments when various individuals involved in the helping
relationship have a strong influence on the direction in which the individual/group/
community moves. However, their influence grows out of moments of extreme congruence
and openness, wisdom, vision or experience, and influence shifts from one participant to
another at any moment (Natiello, 1990:276).
It should be clear to you that structuring and directiveness/nondirectiveness are not one and
the same concept. Whereas some structuring is inevitable, the degree to which a helper is
directive is manifest in observed behaviours and has its underpinnings in the attitudinal
dispositions and motivation of the helper. What is important in the person-centred approach
is how clients, groups or communities perceive themselves to be controlled or not controlled.
The central point at issue is therefore delicate and subtle structuring, which helps generate
spontaneous responses, insights and new learning relevant to the needs of the client, group
or community.
Flexibility with regard to responses and interventions is the essence of effective helping,
once it is grounded in person-centredness: especially those aspects which highlight an
authentic willingness to enhance client self-determination, self-actualisation, choice and
self-generated insight and learning. The subtle use of structuring and a non-directive or
person-centred mode can be employed validly without abandoning the principles,
philosophical foundations or practices that underscore the person-centred approach
(Coghlan & McIlduff, 1990:28).
We can thus see that, irrespective of the intensity of the helper's commitment, his or her
attitudes are not sufficient to turn the tide of a group or community culture, or to bring about
change in an individual. Much more is involved than merely attitudes, activities and skills,
however valuable they may be. The ultimate outcome of a helping relationship depends on
the ability of all participants to practise the principles and conditions inherent in the person-
centred approach.
5.2.5.2 How the person-centred approach deals with diversity
The person-centred approach does not address the issue of the existence of meaningful
individual differences in any systematic way. It acknowledges and values the uniqueness of
people, yet it does not specify how the differences in clients might affect therapeutic
practice. Rogers and most other practitioners of the approach offer little in terms of how
helpers might modify their response styles to meet specific client needs or preferences. This
can be readily understood because, as we have already indicated, Rogers tried to move away
from the heavily method- and technique-oriented therapeutic approaches such as
psychoanalysis and behaviour modification. On another level, however, helpers do often ask
for specific ways of (recipes for) dealing with specific clients, simply because they feel
uncertain, are uncomfortable with the uncertainty of the helping process, or want short cuts
and quick fixes, instead of going through the process of being person-centred.
We must acknowledge the reality that important differences between clients (people)
necessitate modifications in helpers' responses if helpers are to be optimally effective in
helping their clients. A basic issue facing the person-centred helper is to identify ways of
understanding people which are accurate, and which acknowledge the complexity and
diversity of their being. Diagnostic categorisation is clearly not the answer in a country such
as South Africa, which is characterised by multidimensional cultures, religions and ethnic
groups, and a multitude of differences in values and existing problems. Not only would we
need a comprehensive list of categories, but the very categorisation of people focuses one's
53 SCK201-3/1
attention on dimensions of the person that are too limited and limiting. A more
comprehensive and differentiated view of people as active and developing beings is needed.
Obviously this is a tall order, but the person-centred approach offers appropriate possibilities
for the helping professions.
The person-centred approach views people as unitary phenomena, in other words the same
therapeutic attitudes and response styles are believed to be appropriate and effective for all
clients. Rogers, cited in Cain (1990:93), used to say that ``that which is most universal is
most personal''. This is not to say that Rogers and other person-centred helpers were not
aware of the great variety of differences in clients. Rather, they presumed that helpers who
have fully integrated the person-directed approach into their personal lives, and comprehend
the philosophy and theory underlying it, would be able to make the necessary modifications
in practice. Let us try to make this more understandable and practical.
It is true that certain therapeutic attitudes or conditions and response styles are appropriate
and effective for all clients, irrespective of whether they are male or female, young or old, rich
or poor, educated or uneducated; and regardless of whether they are alcoholics, child
molesters, people dying of terminal illnesses, prisoners, etc. Similarly, they can be applied to
individuals, groups or communities, organisations and societies as a whole. An essential part
of being person-centred does, however, imply that we recognise the fact that people have
different needs, are in different phases of development, are experiencing their problems in
unique ways, have different learning styles and different personalities, and present
themselves in different ways. Another way to honour the diversity among people is to
acknowledge differences in the way they learn and the specific conditions in their
environment (context) which optimise/inhibit learning. But how do we apply this in
practice?
Firstly, all people are viewed from within the person-centred approach as having the
potential to change. When facing a client, a group or a community, we as person-centred
helpers see them as people with potential, irrespective of whether they are confused,
unwashed, poor, withdrawn, dependent, aggressive or unmotivated; and again regardless of
whether they are murderers, vagrants or drunkards. Secondly, we make sure that, in
approaching them, we consistently apply conditions that optimise learning and change,
namely congruence, unconditional positive regard, empathy and personal power.
Valuing diversity does not mean that we need a specific method, technique or strategy for
each and every culture, race and religion, or for the variety of problems that we deal with in
the helping professions. It means that we do not apply these conditions in routine, recipe-
like or stereotypical ways.
With each and every client, group or community we need to find out for ourselves who
exactly our clients are, what their needs are, how they define their problems, what
environments they come from, how they prefer to solve their problems, and how they learn
and prefer to grow. This is important because two poor communities may, for example, look
the same from the outside, but be entirely different from the inside. On another level, two
people may indeed have the same problem, for example may be Aids sufferers or dependent
on alcohol, but, in attending to their problems, one might well find that they have completely
different needs and expectations.
The implication here is that helpers constantly modify their styles to suit their clients.
According to the person-centred approach, a helper's primary concern is to adapt to, and
accommodate, the specific needs of the client. The helping process needs to be
individualised if we are to be optimally helpful to our clients. To do this means that helpers
attempt to see through their clients' eyes, hear through their clients' ears, and learn from their
clients what will work (Cain, 1990:99).
54
5.2.6 The value of the person-centred approach 5.2.6 The value of the person-centred approach
Many learners who have been trained in the person-centred approach, and clients who have
been involved in person-centred therapy, groups or community development, are no longer
satisfied with prevailing styles of human relations. They have learnt that self-disclosure and
the expression of feelings are facilitative rather than ``weak''. They have seen that
cooperation rather than competition enhances both individual and group development. They
have begun to accept differences their own and those of others as a resource for
creativity rather than something deviant. They have experienced the exhilaration of making a
difference, of using themselves more fully, and of personal empowerment (Natiello,
1990:283).
Most person-centred helpers have experienced the extraordinary interconnectedness,
positive direction and creative energy of individuals, groups and communities where the
philosophy and conditions inherent in the person-centred approach have been applied. This
does not happen by accident, and is not solely the result of the helper's attitudes (Natiello,
1990:276).
A person-centred approach may be described as a double-edged sword in that it sets in
motion a series of experiences that ultimately not only produces positive changes in the
client, but also in the broader context in which the client functions. As the experiences
continue, a capacity for healing begins to emerge. Self-acceptance occurs and represents the
beginning of change, facades are broken down, the client receives feedback, is challenged,
and is engaged in helping relationships with others, positive feelings and closeness are
expressed, and behavioural changes are observed (Rogers, 1970:1537).
A person-centred approach contributes to the ability of clients to take responsibility for
themselves, moving from a state of dependence to increasing independence, from the
expression of negative feelings to positive ones, from confusion to insight, and from being
paralysed to taking action. They develop an empathic understanding for other people, for
example their families and members of the group or community to which they belong. It
enables them to recognise the personalised nature of their own belief systems or realities. In
doing this, they become less judgemental of others, assume greater leadership, move away
from stereotyping others, become more concerned with the here and now rather than with
dwelling on the past or projecting into the future, move away from being competitive
towards a cooperative style of participation, and replace their feelings of separateness with a
sense of integration with others.
Person-centred helpers often report that their own personal growth has been fostered by
their understanding of those with whom they work. It is clear that there is much to be gained
from focusing completely on another person, from doing one's best to see the world through
another's eyes (Giesekus & Mente, 1986:164).
The person-centred approach can be applied to a variety of fields. It is applicable to groups,
and can be used in cross-cultural workshops, for conflict resolution and mediation, and in
developmental work within communities.
Within the broader context, the result of a shift in authoritarian and political power is a
change in values. Interdependence, caring, compassion, cooperation and non-violence
replace the fierce independence, dominance, competition and potential violence that often
characterise prevailing and previous authoritarian structures, for example the nuclear arms
race, Third World dictatorships, the suppression of the Beijing student uprising, and the
previous apartheid system in South Africa.
55 SCK201-3/1
5.2.7 Obstacles to applying the person-centred approach 5.2.7 Obstacles to applying the person-centred approach
The seemingly desirable viewpoint inherent in the person-centred approach, namely that
clients have within themselves vast, untapped resources for self-directed growth, initially
prompted tremendous criticism and upheaval, and was met with rejection by many people in
the helping professions (Cain, 1987:285286). No other aspect of the person-centred
approach came under such vigorous attack. It seems to be genuinely disturbing to many
professional people to have to entertain the thought that the client, upon whom they have
been exercising their professional skills, actually knows more about his or her inner self than
they (the professionals) can possibly know, and that the client possesses constructive
strengths that make the constructive push by the therapist seem puny by comparison
(Rogers cited in Kirschenbaum, 1979:139). Rogers' view of human nature is in marked
contrast to professionalism-oriented systems that encourage leader-dependence rather than
self-dependence. The ``professionalised'' orientation is difficult to overcome, even for many
who have great respect for its views. Person-centred work is often threatening to helpers,
since it places responsibility on the helper as a person, not on the helper as an expert using a
wide range of techniques supposedly selected on the basis of dealing with specific client
problems or diagnoses. In summary, this approach was never the most rewarding vehicle for
the ambitious professional looking for money, power and prestige.
Many warm-hearted and well-meaning people with beautiful, vague ideas feel attracted to
the person-centred approach. But although they see themselves as person-centred
practitioners, they often do not proceed from a sound theoretical base. They may have
succeeded in learning the theory through rote learning, but they have not incorporated the
approach and its principles into their way of being. They artificially try to apply the
conditions inherent in the approach in practice, but fail in their attempts because of a gross
misunderstanding and oversimplification of the approach.
Hierarchical, authoritarian values are firmly entrenched in our society and have been through
most of recorded history. We live in cultures that idealise authority and expertise.
Conventional education prepares us to know the answers, to play the role of ``expert''. Many
people in the helping professions are trained in typical clinical curricula which emphasise a
diagnostic style of thinking about people almost as objects to be kept at arm's length, and
which also emphasise the categorisation or labelling of people. In such settings, learners
become incapable of adopting a frame of mind conducive to the person-centred approach.
In the past, some social work practitioners in South Africa also struggled to uphold the
values inherent in social work in the midst of broader, oppressive, discriminatory policies. It is
therefore easy to explain why the person-centred approach the approach which best
gives expression to traditional social work values is underdeveloped as a comprehensive
theory for social work practice. The conditions under which social work was practised in the
past (and under which many are also currently practised) did not lend themselves to the use
of approaches and techniques based on humanist values or assumptions about clients as
rational agents (Banks, 1995:61). Social workers are often constrained by law or agency
policy, usually have to operate with limited time and resources, and are bound by
bureaucratic procedures which are more conducive to treating the client as a ``case'' than as
a person. A concern to establish social work as a profession based on a sound and
``scientific'' knowledge base also encourages the use of approaches and techniques that
have their origin in the positivist conceptions of the natural sciences (technical and
objective) rather in than the more humanistic views of the social sciences (intentional and
subjective).
The philosophy inherent in the person-centred approach, the strong commitment to sharing
power and the general ``way of being'' proposed by such an approach take a great deal of
time and practice to understand, to believe in, and to integrate personally and professionally.
56
Because it is so difficult to shift into a completely different paradigm of power, our natural
tendency is to recreate the very structures in which we have lived (Natiello, 1990:277281).
South Africa is undergoing transformation in which it is evident how difficult it is to change
the authoritarian values entrenched in our society; and this despite us now becoming a
democratic society.
Similarly, you have presumably come to the University with the same deeply socialised
expectations of domination and subordination, and, to complicate this, so have your
lecturers. The commitment to shared power inherent in the person-centred approach requires
an orientation that is at odds with the style of relationship that we have all learned in our
socialising and cultures. To make teaching and learning people-centred is a difficult and
fragile process indeed. It is difficult for all of us who have been socialised in the values of
authoritarian power to make the jump from one frame of reference to another. Natiello
(1990:283) emphasises that the people-centred approach and shared power require a new
set of coping skills and a new style of interpersonal relationships which are often at odds
with our traditional way of interacting. She puts it as follows:
It is frightening to give up the security of our accustomed ways of taking care of
ourselves and getting what we need. To let go of control, for those who are used to
having authoritarian power, or to claim personal power, for those who have learned to
live subordinately, challenges our deepest expectations about security. Some may
decline the challenge ... .
It can be extremely painful and difficult for participants to deal with the completely different
values around power facilitated in person-centred group experiences.
Some of you may wish to view people as the person-centred approach would have you do,
but your personal experience with people may have left you doubtful. Integrating and
adopting the approach is contingent on many factors. These include your own implicit or
explicit values, the type and extent of your training and past experiences, and the rationale
for your decision to become involved in the helping professions. Espoused and articulated
values are often not the ones seen in actual practice, and these values, in themselves, do not
always lead to congruent behaviour. You therefore need to become sufficiently self-aware to
attend to your own inner dynamics. You may also end up adopting a therapeutic approach
consistent with your own view of the person and the process of change.
Those of us who subscribe to the person-centred approach have developed a belief system, a
theoretical base as well as some experience that enables us to continue with the struggle to
practise it and to support one another in becoming, and being, person-centred. We realise,
however, that you (our learner) may find it painful to adapt to this approach and that you
may have little support. We will therefore strive to be as empathic and sensitive to your
struggle as we are to our own.
a Self-study
(1) A practising social worker asks you why the person-centred approach
forms the foundation of your studies in social work. How would you
answer this question?
(2) What constitutes the person-centred approach?
(3) Explain the philosophy underlying the person-centred approach.
(4) Discuss the basic conditions necessary for practising the person-
centred approach.
57 SCK201-3/1
(5) How is the person-centred approach applied in practice (relate this to
the group context)? Pay specific attention to the use of non-directive
structuring and the valuing of human diversity.
(6) List the values espoused by the person-centred approach.
(7) Explain what obstacles might be experienced in applying the person-
centred approach in practice, and illustrate your answer using examples
from your own experience.
./ o:o:/: // o::/:1 .oo:./ .1 //: ./ o:o:/: // o::/:1 .oo:./ .1 //:
./ o/., ,:o //.: ./ o/., ,:o //.:
Grobler, Schenck and Du Toit (2003) state that in helping group members to help
themselves the social group worker has to change his or her attitude. This change of attitude
is focused on people. A change of attitude, as Grobler et al. (2003) put it, means that group
members have to be seen in a positive light, and achieving this may demand a lot of you as a
group worker. Rogers formulated 19 propositions on human behaviour. Grobler et al. (2003)
give an exposition of these propositions and divide them into seven main aspects. It must be
emphasised that these propositions will influence your thinking about group members and
will facilitate group processes.
Propositions
(Adapted from: Grobler et al., 2003)
Ways of thinking about people (Propositions)
Section A
Chapter 4: Human experiences at conscious and unconscious level (1)
Chapter 4: Human perceptions (2)
Chapter 4: Wholeness/unity (3)
Chapter 1: Self-determination (4)
Chapter 4: Needs and behaviour (5)
Chapter 4: Emotions (6)
Chapter 5: Frames of reference (7)
Chapter 1: The self (8)
Chapter 1: Significant others and the self (9)
Chapter 4: Values (10)
Chapters 2 and 3: Conscious and unconscious experiences (11)
Chapter 2: Self and behaviour (12)
Chapter 3: Behaviour and unconscious experiences (13)
Chapter 3: Psychological tension (14)
Chapter 6: Reconstruction of self (15)
Chapter 3: Defence of self (16)
Chapter 5: Conditions for facilitation (17)
Chapter 6: Acceptance of self and others (18)
Chapter 6: Developing your value system (19)
(See Grobler et al. (2003) for more information on the propositions.)
58
5.3.1 5.3.1 Proposition 1: Human experiences at conscious and unconscious Proposition 1: Human experiences at conscious and unconscious
level level
Every individual exists in a continually changing world of experience of which he is the
centre (Rogers, 1987:483).
Grobler et al. (2003:47) assert that the implications of this proposition for group work are
twofold. Firstly, the group itself, and not the group facilitator or any outside institution,
determines which issue needs to be addressed. The group facilitator, therefore, explores the
nature of the experiential world of each individual and of the group as a whole by means of
individual interviews and pre-group meetings.
Secondly, because each member's experiential world and the experiential world of the group
as a whole may change in seconds, the group facilitator may find long-term programme
planning for the group to be fraught with difficulties. Programmes decided on earlier by the
group may be rejected at later meetings because the number of members may have increased
or present members may have experienced something that they want to discuss more than
the planned programme, e.g. death of a member or family member. (See the example on page
5 of your prescribed book.)
5.3.2 Proposition 2: Human perceptions 5.3.2 Proposition 2: Human perceptions
The organism reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived. This perceptual field
is, for the individual, reality (Rogers, 1987:484).
In the words of Grobler et al. (2003:51), each person is unique and every group is unique.
This unique nature is brought about by the way the person or the group perceives reality. It
would therefore be wrong to base group work on a single member's perception of a problem.
The dilemma occurs when programmes have been specifically planned according to the
perceptions of the facilitator or of the organisation where the facilitator is employed (see the
example in Grobler et al., 2003:52). The example confirms that if we are unaware of group
members' different perceptions, we will not be able to identify shared experiences,
perceptions or themes. But awareness can be achieved by finding out exactly what members
want.
5.3.3 Proposition 5: Needs and behaviour 5.3.3 Proposition 5: Needs and behaviour
Behaviour is basically the goal-directed attempt of the organism to satisfy its needs as
experienced in the field as perceived (Rogers, 1987:491).
Grobler et al. (2003:59) use an example to explain this proposition. According to them, an
unknown educationalist once said that children in schools are almost forced, so to speak, to
exhibit naughty or problem behaviour. The reason for such behaviour is to gain recognition
(and therefore need satisfaction). Because the average child receives no attention in class, he
or she aspires to being included in the gifted group, which is perhaps impossible. The child
59 SCK201-3/1
consequently moves downward to join the group of ``problem children'', where he or she will
receive recognition or attention even if such attention is negative (such as punishment). As a
facilitator, you should instead establish the advantage that such behaviour offers the
member, or find out what the member is trying to tell you through that behaviour.
a Example
A teenage boy was always trying to be the centre of attention in a group.
When the group played cricket, for instance, he had to bat and bowl. This
behaviour had a negative influence on the group and the facilitator felt it best
to exclude him from the group. After an in-depth discussion with the
supervisor, the facilitator realised that the boy was seeking recognition. Once
he was granted recognition by the group, who put him in charge of certain
activities (such as being captain of the team), he became more sharing and
even started voluntarily assuming a subservient role in respect of the other
members.
5.3.4 Proposition 6: Emotions 5.3.4 Proposition 6: Emotions
Emotion accompanies and in general facilitates such goal-directed behaviour, the kind
of emotion being related to the seeking versus the consummatory aspects of the
behaviour, and the intensity of the emotion being related to the perceived significance
of the behaviour for the maintenance and enhancement of the organism (Rogers,
1987:492).
According to Grobler et al. (2003:62), when taking proposition 6 into account, the group
facilitator must also concentrate on the emotions expressed by group members and the
group as a whole. These feelings will be expressed both verbally and non-verbally. The
facilitator must observe body movements, facial expressions or gestures, and must listen to
the expressed emotions. By intensely observing the emotions of all members, the facilitator
will also note to which issues attention should be paid within the group. Such issues may
then be successfully incorporated into the group process. Grobler et al. (2003:63) emphasise
that, in group work, strong feelings can be expressed and demonstrated during the closing
phase. These feelings may vary from anger to despondence, and if these are not dealt with
the success achieved with the group may be undone. The facilitator must display an attitude
of genuine caring and a sincere desire to understand the world of group members; in this
way, the group members can express their feelings freely.
5.3.5 Proposition 8: The self 5.3.5 Proposition 8: The self
A proportion of the total perceptual field gradually becomes differentiated as self
(Rogers, 1987:497).
Grobler et al. (2003:11) indicate that this proposition relates to the group members as well as
to the group. An identity is built up which both the individual and the group perceive as the
60
self. This self must be respected by the group facilitator (see example 1.2 in Grobler et al.).
Proposition 8 also helps the facilitator to guard against ignoring the group's self-
determination. For example, if a facilitator undertakes directive action and sees the group in a
negative light, whereas group members consider themselves in a positive light, the
facilitator's directive action will be detrimental to the motivation and functioning of the
members.
This proposition also warns the facilitator that, in institutions where various groups are
involved, care should be taken not to allow the self of groups to lead to competition between
the various groups. If this happens, the overall functioning of the institution might be
affected. This places greater responsibility on the facilitator to ensure that the group's self
develops and changes in such a way that it will not harm, but instead strengthen, the overall
functioning of the institution.
5.3.6 5.3.6 Propositions 9 and 10: Significant others and the self; values Propositions 9 and 10: Significant others and the self; values
Pro Proposition 9 position 9
As a result of interaction with the environment, and particularly as a result of
evaluational interaction with others, the structure of the self is formed an organized,
fluid, but consistent conceptual pattern of perceptions of characteristics and
relationships of the ``I'' or the ``me'' together with values attached to these concepts
(Rogers, 1987:498).
Grobler et al. (2003:13) emphasise that the self is shaped through interaction with the
environment, and, particularly, with other people. It is a fluid yet organised picture of the
attributes and relationships of the self, as well as the values attached to that picture.
Proposition 10 Proposition 10
The values attached to experiences, and the values which are a part of the self structure,
in some instances are values experienced directly by the organism, and in some
instances are values introjected or taken over from others, but perceived in distorted
fashion as if they had been experienced directly (Rogers, 1987:498).
Values attached to experiences and forming part of the self may be shaped by the individual's
own experience, but they may also be taken over from others and be assimilated into the self
as if they had been experienced personally.
As Grobler et al. (2003:67) explain, the main issue is that no group exists in isolation, but
continually interacts with other groups. A group of teenagers, for example, comes into
contact with various family groups, peer groups, their schools and formal groups (such as
welfare organisations). By means of pressure, these groups may alter a member's perception
of himself or herself. The implications for the facilitator are as follows:
. The group facilitator must realise that values may influence the functioning of groups.
(Think about the role of culture in this instance.)
. The group facilitator may to a large extent be able to determine the influence of values on
61 SCK201-3/1
the functioning of the group if he or she knows the groups with which the group members
have contact.
. Because groups and group members do not exist in isolation, their attitudes towards the
group and themselves may change from one group meeting to the next.
5.3.7 Proposition 12: Self and behaviour 5.3.7 Proposition 12: Self and behaviour
Most of the ways of behaving which are adopted by the organism are those which are
consistent with the concept of the self (Rogers, 1987:507).
This proposition emphasises that each individual in a group, as well as each specific group, is
unique. Therefore a programme which has been used successfully with one specific group
might be a failure with the next. Factors such as the uniqueness of the group owing to its
self-concept and the composition of the group should always be considered. For example, if
you have a group consisting of males and females and the role expectation of their society is
that women should play a minor role, it will be difficult for you (the facilitator) to have equal
participation.
5.3.8 5.3.8 Proposition 11: Conscious and unconscious experiences Proposition 11: Conscious and unconscious experiences
As experiences occur in the life of the individual, they are either (a) symbolised,
perceived, and organized into some relationship to the self, (b) ignored because there
is no perceived relationship to the self structure, (c) denied symbolization or given a
distorted symbolization because the experience is inconsistent with the structure of the
self (Rogers, 1987:503).
Any programme presented or made available to the group depends in the final analysis on
what the group does with it. It is truly impossible to predict the outcome, especially in the
long run. In group work, it is therefore important to involve members of the group in planning
the programme. A programme that may be useful to a particular group with family problems
may not be useful to another group because of different experiences. Similarly, a programme
may be useful at a particular point in time, but may be completely useless for the same group
two weeks later. The only people who can ensure the usefulness of group programmes are
the group members themselves (see example 2.1 in Grobler et al., 2003:25).
5.3.9 5.3.9 Proposition 13: Behaviour and unconscious experiences Proposition 13: Behaviour and unconscious experiences
Behaviour may, in some instances, be brought about by organic experiences and needs
which have not been symbolized. Such behaviour may be inconsistent with the
structure of the self, but in such instances the behaviour is not ``owned'' by the
individual (Rogers, 1987:509).
It is important to remember that groups can put additional stress on a group member, for
example by changing the role he or she must play in a group. These changes may cause
62
stress because they do not fit in with the self of the member (Grobler et al., 2003:35). This, in
turn, may cause the member to respond in ways which are not expected of him or her. It may,
for example, happen that a timid and self-controlled person becomes aggressive in the
group, or an honest member may deny things he said. When dealing with stress issues, the
facilitator must enable the member and group members to understand the change in
behaviour.
5.3.10 Proposition 14: Psychological tension 5.3.10 Proposition 14: Psychological tension
Psychological maladjustment exists when the organism denies to awareness significant
sensory and visceral experiences, which consequently are not symbolized and
organised into the gestalt of the self-structure. When this situation exists, there is a
basic or potential psychological tension (Rogers, 1987:510).
Unsymbolised or distorted experiences within a group not only give rise to stress for the
particular member involved, but also create problems for the group because the member
consciously or unconsciously denies that there is a problem. As a result of such denial, the
member cannot act naturally within the group, which causes frustration and stress for the
member as well as other members because they can sense that something is wrong. The
member may also endeavour to focus communication on other members and their problems.
In so doing, he or she becomes an advisor. As a facilitator you should guard against attempts
to simply change the behaviour of members by acting rigidly, and should instead pay
attention to all experiences and new perspectives. Each member should be given the
opportunity to participate actively in the group so that he or she can have new experiences
and can develop new perspectives.
5.3.11 Proposition 16: Defence of self 5.3.11 Proposition 16: Defence of self
Any experience which is inconsistent with the organization or structure of self will be
perceived as a threat, and the more of these perceptions there are, the more rigidly that
self-structure is organized to maintain itself (Rogers, 1987:515).
Experiences that conflict with the individual's self-perception are considered threatening to
the self. The greater the number of such experiences, the more intent the self-structure is to
maintain itself. Grobler et al. (2003:40) assert that proposition 16 may also be modified to
read that experiences which are in conflict with the group's perception of itself are
experienced as a threat to the group and its survival, and must be counteracted. The
implication is that the facilitator who describes a group as ``unmotivated, difficult,
uncooperative and aggressive'' may do so from his or her perspective and not from the
perspective of the group. Groups will act aggressively, especially if a member does not
acknowledge that his or her actions are contrary to the group's perception. This does not
mean that the group members are not prepared to change their perceptions, but merely that
perceptions cannot be changed suddenly (see examples 4.6 and 4.7 in your prescribed
book).
63 SCK201-3/1
5.3.12 Proposition 3: Wholeness/unity 5.3.12 Proposition 3: Wholeness/unity
The organism reacts as an organized whole to this phenomenal field (Rogers,
1987:486).
In terms of this proposition, the facilitator should regard each individual and group as a
whole and not concentrate only on one aspect, such as behaviour. This implies the need to
determine, during the pre-group phase, which other characteristics of a member, such as
emotions, desires, aspirations, attitudes, perceptions and values, may become part of the
group. Behaviour within the group should not be viewed in isolation, but must be seen
within a particular context (see example 4.8 in Grobler et al.).
5.3.13 Proposition 4: Self-determination 5.3.13 Proposition 4: Self-determination
The organism has one tendency and striving to actualize, maintain and enhance the
experiencing organism (Rogers, 1987:487).
Grobler et al. (2003:18) explain that one of the objectives of working with groups is to
enable group members to grow or develop in terms of their self-actualisation; in other words,
group work should enable group members to feel good about their role fulfilment and about
themselves. The process of group work further assumes that the group members can grow
and develop when they are enabled to do so. The facilitator must merely facilitate the
members' actions. This means that the group members themselves decide on the objectives
for the group, as well as the programme whereby the objectives are realised. The facilitator
must create a safe and trusting environment in which the facilitator and group listen to one
another. Example 1.5 on page 19 of Grobler et al. (2003) is of great assistance in explaining
this proposition.
5.3.14 Proposition 7: Frames of reference 5.3.14 Proposition 7: Frames of reference
The best vantage point for understanding behavior is from the internal frame of
reference of the individual himself (Rogers, 1987:494).
According to Grobler et al. (2003:70), proposition 7 emphasises the following two issues for
the group facilitator:
(1) The facilitator has to talk to the members of the group in order to determine their frame
of reference. This process can be time-consuming and group facilitators are often
tempted to try to speed up the process. This may happen when group facilitators listen
only until they think they understand the situation, or until they hear something which
fits their perspective and which they believe presents a solution. Group members may
respond to this behaviour of the facilitator by saying, ``You didn't listen to me'', or by
acting passively or aggressively.
(2) Group members may also attempt to gauge the group facilitator's frame of reference. If
they can establish what it is, members may try to communicate within the facilitator's
frame of reference in order to be accepted by him or her. This occurs more often in the
64
initial phase of dealing with groups. The facilitator must hone his or her listening skills.
Example 6.3 in the prescribed book will give you a more practical idea of what is
required.
5.3.15 Proposition 17: Conditions for facilitation 5.3.15 Proposition 17: Conditions for facilitation
Under certain conditions, involving primarily complete absence of any threat to the
self-structure, experiences which are inconsistent with it may be perceived and
examined, and the structure of self revised to assimilate and include such experiences
(Rogers, 1987:517).
The group facilitator is guided by this proposition to treat members who are experiencing
stress and pain. It is important that the group hold no threat for its members. Not only should
members not feel threatened, but they should feel that they are being accepted totally. To
accept a group member, you (the facilitator) need to enter and deal with the member's life
world. The facilitator should have skills such as empathy (we will deal with these skills in
study unit 3 of section B).
D Activity 9
Turn to page 70 of Grobler et al. (2003) and read through example 5.3.
Discuss how one can apply proposition 17 in the case study.
5.3.16 Proposition 15: Reconstruction of self 5.3.16 Proposition 15: Reconstruction of self
Psychological adjustment exists when the concept of the self is such that all the
sensory and visceral experiences of the organism are, or may be, assimilated on a
symbolic level into a consistent relationship with the concept of self (Rogers,
1987:513).
A person becomes well adjusted (with concomitant stress reduction) when all or a maximum
of experiences can be symbolised congruently with the person's self-perception. Proposition
15 recognises the importance of certain situations, including the group situation. According
to this proposition, group members will be able to deal with the group situation if it is in
agreement with their own perspectives and reconstruction of the self. This emphasises the
importance of the maintenance objectives in the group; in other words, the objectives that
attract members to the group (Grobler et al., 2003:78). As far as the task objectives are
concerned, the group is precisely one of those places where people can share their
experiences both positive and negative in a safe environment and atmosphere, and
where they can symbolise their experiences and consequently make them more acceptable to
the self. For instance, when a group of handicapped people symbolises its problems, it may
search more consciously for solutions as it sees them. Because the group may be regarded as
a support group, the proposed solutions will be sincere and creative. The opposite, however,
is also true. If handicapped people symbolise their handicap as a problem, their functioning
in the group may be affected differently. For example, chaos erupted in a group of stroke
65 SCK201-3/1
patients, who progressed smoothly in solving the problem of socialisation, the moment the
group discussed the matter of not being allowed to hold driver's licences. It formed a
pressure group to try to change the relevant legislation (Du Toit et al., 1998:66).
5.3.17 Proposition 18: Acceptance of self and others 5.3.17 Proposition 18: Acceptance of self and others
When the individual perceives and accepts into one consistent and integrated system
all his sensory and visceral experiences, then he is necessarily more understanding of
others and is more accepting of others as separate individuals (Rogers, 1987:520).
When the individual is able to symbolise most of his or her experiences and to integrate them
into a total self-concept, such an individual will display greater understanding of others and
will be able to accept them as separate, unique individuals. Grobler et al. (2003:80) assert
that the application of this proposition will contribute to the realisation of the general
objective, which is to assist members to grow or to develop in terms of their self-
actualisation. Groups could therefore help members to develop enough confidence to
empower themselves. The process of developing self-confidence may be hampered in group
work if the group facilitator pursues his or her own specific objectives in respect of the group,
not allowing members to do things on their own. Such behaviour by the group facilitator
may result in:
. group members becoming passive and dependent during group sessions, and this may
perhaps hamper the communication process in the group because the communication will
not be between the group members, but between the facilitator on the one side and the
group on the other
. members never becoming self-sufficient and therefore never becoming self-empowered
5.3.18 Proposition 19: Developing your value system 5.3.18 Proposition 19: Developing your value system
As the individual perceives and accepts into his self-structure more of his organic
experiences, he finds that he is replacing his present value system based so largely
upon introjections which have been distortedly symbolized with a continuing
valuing process (Rogers, 1987:522).
As Grobler et al. (2003:81) state, this proposition is the final result of group work. The
members have developed their own value systems, and are capable of working
independently and of evaluating their own functioning. In addition, the members are able to
solve, manage and control their own problems. As soon as group members display these
attributes, it is an indication to the group facilitator that he or she has become superfluous
and should, or may, leave the group. It is not a question of terminating or dissolving the
group. As far as the facilitator is concerned, the group has been terminated, but, for the group
members, the working phase may only just have started, due to the fact that the formal group
may now become an informal group.
66
- /: - /:
After studying this study unit, many of you may wish to view people as the person-centred
approach would have you do, but your personal experiences with people may have left you
doubtful. Van Dyk (1997:69) states that integrating and adopting the approach is contingent
on many factors. These include one's own implicit or explicit values, the type and extent of
one's training and past experiences, and the rationale for one's decision to become involved
in the helping professions. Self-awareness is essential in enabling you to attend to your own
inner dynamics.
67 SCK201-3/1
/1, / : /1, / :
/./: .1 //./ ::: / /./: .1 //./ ::: /
:/, // ,:o: :/, // ,:o:
Learning outcomes
After completing this study unit, you should be able to:
. explain the meaning of values and indicate the role they play in the process of
rendering assistance
. define the values of respect, individualisation, self-determination and confidentiality
. explain how these values are operationalised in working with groups
. discuss ethical and professional issues when working with groups
: /:1/ : /:1/
Toseland and Rivas (2005:6) explain that the focus of group work practice is influenced by a
system of personal and professional values. These values affect the style of intervention of
the group worker and the skills he or she uses in working with groups. They also affect the
group's reactions to the efforts of the helper/worker. These two authors define values as
beliefs that delineate preferences about how one should or should not behave. They add that
a value refers to some goal that is or is not worth attaining. It is interesting to note that
Toseland and Rivas (2005:6) agree that there is no such thing as value-free group work
practice. All group workers operate on the basis of certain specific assumptions and values
regarding the nature of human beings, the role of group members and the role of the leader.
Values influence the methods used to accomplish group and individual goals. Even a leader
who is completely non-directive and person-centred reveals the values embodied in such an
approach.
Loewenberg and Dolgoff (1992:18) point out that there are many definitions of values, and
explanations of how to apply them in practice. These two authors define values as follows
(adapted from the definitions given by various authors):
. permissible formulations of behaviour drawn up by individuals and groups
. conceptions of preferred and admirable things/characteristics of people, images of the
world as it should be, and of the way people should normally act
. one's faith, preference for and acceptance of what is regarded as good for one
. preferred conceptions of people, preferred outcomes for people, preferred instrumentalities
for dealing with people
The context in which the group functions affects the values exhibited in the group.
Contextual sources include the values of society, the values of the agency sponsoring the
68
group, and the values of the social work profession. Grobler et al. (2003:86) indicate that
values reflect the facilitator's entire attitude to humankind. Professional values more
particularly reflect the facilitator's attitude towards his or her clients (group). Such values are
applied in practice and form the basis of the total process of rendering assistance. It is
therefore important for every facilitator to try to examine his or her own values in terms of the
people he or she is involved with. Many facilitators feel awkward when reference is made to
people in need mixed feelings of pity and superiority are often experienced by people who
cannot cope with their situations or with life. Du Toit and Spies (1997) state, for example,
that if you experience plumbing problems in your home, it makes sense to call in a qualified
plumber; if you want to cut your hair, you visit a hairdresser. Nobody feels pity for you if you
do this, but if you experience psychosocial problems people immediately react differently.
D Activity 10
(Adapted from: Grobler et al., 2003)
Analyse your attitude to other people.
(1) Who do you respect? Are there people you do not respect?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2) Do you believe in their potential to function independently? If not, why
not?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3) If you do believe in their potential, how do you demonstrate this?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
In practice, the facilitator is confronted with many obstacles which may hamper the
application of professional values. These obstacles are discussed in Boy and Pine (1982:93
95) and can be summarised as follows:
. The values that facilitators internalise in a programme of studies do not seem operable in
the real world.
. All groups that pressure the facilitator to do more and to do different things are well
intended. They identify certain needs.
. Groups insist that the facilitator is in the best position to meet their needs.
According to Boy and Pine (1982), the problem is that institutions and pressure groups
which influence the organisational behaviour of institutions often identify human needs that
are not the actual needs of clients within the community. Such institutions and groups often
identify needs which are politically expedient, flow into the interests and competencies of
staff, are in concert with the interests of funding agencies, have a certain ethical or moral
bias, and have become popularised by the mass communication media. This not only places
greater demands on the facilitator's time and energy but creates a psychological burden for
the facilitator. Toseland and Rivas (2005:7) confirm this by stating that the organisation and
the community which sponsor the group are also part of the contextual value system that can
influence a worker's stance towards the group. The facilitator needs to remember that
69 SCK201-3/1
community standards and values differ widely; hence it is important to consider how these
influence the group and its members.
Glassman and Kates, cited in Grobler et al. (2003), speak not only of values, but emphasise
human values which incorporate aspects such as support, cooperation, voluntary
participation and respect for differences between people. Konopka (1983), cited in Toseland
and Rivas (2005:7), identifies the following values which are basic to group work practice:
. participation and positive relations among people in the group who differ as regards
colour, creed, age, national origin and social class
. the value of cooperation and mutual decision-making embodied in the principles of
participatory democracy
. the importance of individual initiative within the group
. the importance of freedom to participate, including expressing thoughts and feelings
about matters of concern to individual members or the group as a whole, and having the
right to be involved in the decision-making process of the group
. high individualisation in the group so that each member's unique concerns are addressed
:. :. 2/: // ./: ::o/ 11./:./ 2/: // ./: ::o/ 11./:./
:/1/:-./ .1 1/.//, :/1/:-./ .1 1/.//,
6.2.1 Respect 6.2.1 Respect
Grobler et al. (2003:89) point out that for any person who really believes in the person-
centred approach and who wants his or her clients to experience it, showing respect is of
central importance. Rogers (1987:19) strongly warns against the habit of using respect as a
method or technique. According to him, respect is more an attitude which is supplemented
by certain techniques and methods. In other words, if you show respect for a group (client),
you allow people to decide what they really want to do. This is facilitated by your belief (as
facilitator) in the abilities of people, and by trying to understand them, their self-definition
and their purpose in life.
6.2.1.1 Respect and the group
Grobler et al. (2003:92) cite Gordon (in Rogers, 1987:338) who explicitly states that the
group facilitator shows respect when he or she accepts the values of group members and
also accepts the differences in their values. To this end, the facilitator realises that he or she
cannot use (abuse) influence or lead members to achieve their objectives/values. Gordon
also mentions that group members are people who do not want someone with superior
qualifications and values to prescribe to them. For Grobler et al. (2003), the group-centred
facilitator sees the group as an organisation which exists for its members, offering its
members the opportunity to express themselves and to satisfy their needs. Gordon provides
group facilitators with guidelines for determining for themselves whether they have respect
for the group.
According to Gordon, the following are questions which the facilitator should answer:
. Do I trust the capabilities of the group, and of the individuals in the group, so that the
problems with which we are faced can be dealt with, or do I essentially trust only myself?
. Do I free the group for creative discussion by being willing to understand, accept and
respect all attitudes, or do I find myself subtly trying to manipulate group discussion so
that it emerges my way?
70
. Am I willing to be responsible for those aspects of action which the group has delegated
to me?
. Do I trust the individual (group member) to do his or her job?
. When tension occurs, do I try to make it possible for it to be brought out into the open?
Grobler et al. (2003:93) emphasise that respect is present in the group when the facilitator:
. listens carefully to what the members are saying (see chapter 13 of Du Toit et al., 1998, for
more guidance on how to listen)
. tries to understand what is being said by group members; this entails viewing what
members say within the appropriate context or in terms of group members' frames of
reference
. understands what group members are saying
. accepts what members are saying (examples 8.1, 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4 in Du Toit et al. are
helpful in clarifying this aspect)
D Activity 11
(Adapted from: Grobler et al., 2003)
You (a black facilitator) are acting as the facilitator for a group of white
elderly people and are trying to enable them to function independently within
their community. A visit by community leaders and the Minister of Social
Development has been planned for the next meeting. The group has decided
to serve refreshments (tea and cake) for the visitors. Arrangements have also
been made about who will bring what. You are aware that some of the
members are forgetful and may forget to bring tea or cake.
Discuss how you would ensure that the members concerned meet their
obligations without you prejudicing their self-respect in the group.
6.2.2 Individualisation 6.2.2 Individualisation
According to Rogers (1987:29), if you accept the value of individualisation, you assume the
internal frame of reference of the client in order to perceive the world as the client sees it, to
perceive the client himself or herself as he or she sees himself or herself, to lay aside all
perceptions from the external frame of reference while doing so, and to communicate
something of your empathic understanding to the client.
6.2.2.1 Individualisation and the group
As Grobler et al. (2003:99) indicate, individualisation of group members is emphasised by
virtually all authors who have written on groups:
. According to Douglas (cited in Grobler et al., 2003), one of the basic principles that can
be formulated from the philosophy and knowledge of group work is genuine acceptance
of each individual with his or her unique strengths and weaknesses.
. Corey (1990:20) states that ``thoughts, feelings, beliefs, convictions, attitudes and actions
are all expressions of the uniqueness of the person''.
. Glassman and Kates (cited in Van Dyk, 1997) are of the opinion that interaction in which
respect is shown for the differences between group members is a prerequisite for a
democratic, communal help system such as a group. This interaction is reflected in the
members' abilities to listen to, to respond to, and to incorporate different opinions, values,
71 SCK201-3/1
cultures and personalities without requiring adherence to a narrow ideology and narrow
spectrum of permissible behaviours.
. Konopka (cited in Du Toit and Spies, 1997) states that the group facilitator must realise
that each member is different from everyone else, or from any other person in the group, as
regards the past, present and future. According to Konopka, no teenager is just another
teenager, and no elderly person is just another elderly person; everyone is a unique
individual with specific behaviours, needs, experiences, etc.
In group work, the facilitator should bear in mind that he or she cannot apply any
generalisations, but should work with the specific characteristics, behaviour and needs of
each individual or group; in other words, individualisation. (Examples 8.1, 8.2 and 8.3 in
Grobler et al. (2003) will assist you to gain a clearer understanding of individualisation.)
D
Activity 12
(Adapted from: Grobler et al., 2003)
You are employed by POWA (People Opposing Women Abuse) and various
programmes have been drawn up for working with groups of abused women.
Taking individualisation as a value into account, would you use such
programmes in your group? If so, explain how. If not, give reasons why not.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
6.2.3 Self-determination 6.2.3 Self-determination
Angyal, cited in Rogers (1987:489), indicates that ``life is an autonomous dynamic event
which takes place between the organism (client) and the environment''. Life processes do
not merely tend to preserve life but transcend the momentary status quo of the organism,
expanding themselves continually and imposing their autonomous determination upon an
ever-increasing realm of events.
6.2.3.1 Self-determination and the group
Grobler et al. (2003:106) point out that, in the human sciences, clients are often portrayed as
passive, isolated and unable to help themselves. If people are allowed to speak on their own
behalf, social science can reveal, rather than mask, their realities. Corey (1990:261) defines
self-determination as having the freedom to choose between two possibilities. People are
therefore responsible for the pattern that their lives follow. The group members also have a
right to self-determination.
Biestek (1961:109110) defines self-determination as the practical recognition of the right
and need of clients to freedom in making their own choices. He amplifies this definition by
stating that this value can become a meaningless cliche if the client is not balanced
realistically with the limitations to that right:
72
A person's freedom to choose and decide is not synonymous with license. The rights of
one individual are circumscribed by the rights of other individuals in society. The right of
one individual is accompanied by the duty to respect the rights of others. Human
freedom is a means, not a goal in itself; it is a means for attaining the legitimate,
proximate and ultimate goals in life. It cannot, therefore, sanction self-injury or injury to
others.
a Example
(Adapted from: Van Dyk, 1997)
You are facilitating a session and break for tea. One of the group members
confides in you that he has stolen R50 000 from his employer and intends
stealing more. What should you do? Would you allow the member to
continue with this behaviour (i.e. allow him self-determination) or would you
consider alternative action?
Glassman and Kates (cited in Van Dyk, 1997) agree that group members cannot be forced to
change their behaviour or to participate in a group programme that does not interest them.
Their right to decision-making and self-determination must always be taken into account at
group sessions. (Complete the activities in Grobler et al., 2003:107, to gain greater
clarity on this aspect.)
6.2.4 Confidentiality 6.2.4 Confidentiality
Grobler et al. (2003) state that confidentiality is a much-debated and controversial issue.
Van Dyk (1997:109) adds that, in the past, confidentiality was described as a value in social
work, but that in more recent social work literature it is seen as one of the elements of the
relationship, or an aspect of rendering a service which is negotiable. The implication is that
confidentiality should be seen in the light of the problem or information presented and of
possible alternatives that may exist to solve the problem. It is an important aspect of the
helping relationship which should be discussed between the client and the worker. Corey
and Corey (1989:184) define confidentiality as not divulging information transmitted by a
client, except in certain limited circumstances. The underlying ethics involved concern the
individual's right to privacy. Corey and Corey (1989) further state the following:
The ethics of confidentiality rests on the assumption that the client/helper relationship
is a deeply personal one and that clients have a right to expect that what they say/reveal
will be kept private.
6.2.4.1 Confidentiality and the group
To maintain confidentiality in a group, the group facilitator as well as the group members
must be confidants. This means that they must have the ability to keep secrets which have
been discussed in the group. In this instance, the worthiness of group members as human
beings must be respected. Grobler et al. (2003) explain that even the group facilitator who
does respect the group members sometimes unconsciously breaches confidentiality by:
. using the names of group members in reports
. asking members too soon after the group has been formed to reveal personal information
to the other members
. not obtaining members' consent to make reports available to other institutions
73 SCK201-3/1
. not obtaining members' consent to discuss their actions in the group with other
professionals, such as case facilitators
. passing on group information about minors to their parents without the consent of such
minors
. not obtaining a member's consent to reveal certain information to a group (where that
member has discussed something with the facilitator outside the group)
. making audio and video recordings of groups without the consent of members
. putting pressure, and even group pressure, on members to reveal personal, confidential
information about themselves to the group before they are willing to do so
(Refer to example 10.1 in Grobler et al., 2003.)
a Example
(Adapted from: Grobler et al., 2003)
In a group consisting of women experiencing marital problems, the group
facilitator expected members to discuss their marital problems as early as the
second meeting. One of the members suggested that the group rather discuss
the behaviour of a well-known person who was experiencing problems in her
marriage.
How would you deal with this situation?
As Grobler et al. (2003:113) explain, the facilitator in the example was wrong to expect the
group members to reveal personal information which they did not want to discuss. Because
the particular member wished to remain in the group, she made a counter-proposal which
she felt would be less personal. A member who did not attach much value to the group
would simply have left. Confidentiality is especially important in certain group situations. For
instance:
. where group members are in regular contact with one another outside the group
. where people are in institutions where the release of confidential information may be
misused not only by other residents, but also by the staff of the institution
. where the group has been formed in a work situation where management may use
confidential information against the facilitators or group members
(Refer to example 10.3 in Grobler et al. (2003). Consider how you would deal with the
situation.)
a Example
(Adapted from: Van Dyk, 1997)
Graciela Castex: I think one of the most painful experiences that I ever had in
social work came when I worked at the hospital in Miami. I worked on the
thirteenth floor. I got into the elevator, a crowded elevator, and two medical
interns were talking very loudly. One said, ``I wish that dammed woman in
1310 would die now, she is a pain in the '' At that point, a woman who was
standing next to me said, ``That is my mother.'' We completed our ride down
to the first floor, which took about forty hours! The elevator was dead quiet.
We got down there, she got a security person to lock us in the elevator, she
called a hospital administrator, and right then and there we had to give
depositions.
74
I ended up having to go to court to testify about what these two physicians
had discussed. They were kicked out of medical school. I always tell this story
when I talk to my students about confidentiality. You just don't do that as a
professional; you don't talk like that. I learned very early what you do
ethically; I learned very early what confidentiality is and its ramifications for
you as a professional, as well as for the individual client system involved
(Pierce cited in Van Dyk, 1997).
Van der Kolk (cited in Van Dyk, 1997) states that confidentiality should receive attention as
early as the pre-group phase. During this phase, the group should be asked whether it would
like to discuss the exact meaning of confidentiality and why it is important at all times. This
strengthens mutual trust. Corey (1990:30) agrees that confidentiality should be negotiated
in the group. Confidentiality and trust are reinforced when the group facilitator shows that he
or she is serious about confidentiality. The group must decide how to handle issues relating
to confidentiality. Corey (1990:104) also believes that the group facilitator may breach
confidentiality in certain circumstances, such as in the following cases:
. If a member's behaviour poses a threat to himself or herself, or to the community, the
group facilitator may release information for the protection of the community. This
information may, however, be revealed only after consultation with the group member,
and with his or her consent.
. Information may be released to those parents who have consented to their children
attending the group session, but the children should be present when the information is
conveyed.
D Activity 13
(Adapted from: Grobler et al., 2003)
How would you act in each of the following three situations, taking
confidentiality into account? Give reasons for your answers.
. The headmaster of a high school asks you (the facilitator) to provide him
with the names of group members who may be taking drugs. The
headmaster needs the names in order to take disciplinary steps against the
pupils.
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
. A probation officer calls and asks you (the facilitator) to evaluate a group
member. The information will be used to determine whether the group
member needs to continue serving his sentence.
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
. A member has admitted to the group that his parents are supplying him
with drugs. He then sells some of the drugs to other children.
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
75 SCK201-3/1
: : //./ .1 o:::./ ::: / :/, // ,:o: //./ .1 o:::./ ::: / :/, // ,:o:
Van Dyk (1997:104) defines ethics as a systematic and rational study of what is right (what
ought to be) and what is wrong in human behaviour. Siporin (1989:425) defines a system of
ethics as follows:
It represents a vision of how people can act rightly in relationship to each other and live
together for their common good. It is an ideal and a set of guidelines for social worker
relationships and actions with and for clients that are right and effective.
In her discussion, Van Dyk (1997) explains that values form an important part of ethics.
Through a systematic process of putting these values into practice and making them part of
society's institutions, they become part of a profession's code of ethics. Ethics embraces
those values at issue in interactions between the profession and the community, the
facilitator and the profession, and the facilitator and the group (client). Corey (1990:23)
points out that, in his view, those who seek to be professional group leaders must be willing
to question both their ethical standards and their level of competence. It is also important to
remember that every profession is bound by an ethical code of conduct (in South Africa,
Social Service Professions register with the South African Council for Social Service
Professionals). Toseland and Rivas (2005) also hold similar views, which include informed
consent, leader competence and training, and the appropriate conducting of group meetings.
6.3.1 6.3.1 The rights of group participants The rights of group participants
Corey (1990:24) indicates that those who enter groups are frequently unaware of their basic
rights as participants, as well as of their responsibilities. He warns that there are exceptions to
these rights, as there are many variables that determine their range. Toseland and Rivas
(2005) link up with what is said by elaborating on the following:
. It is important to tell members about the purpose and goals of the group and to provide
them with information, for example on the potential risks of participation, the cost, timing
and duration of sessions, whether participation is voluntary, what is expected of group
members during meetings, the procedures to ensure confidentiality, and screening and
termination procedures.
. Group members have to know what they are getting into before they make a commitment.
Consequently, they should be given the following:
a clear statement regarding the purpose of the group
a description of the group format, procedures and ground rules
a pre-group interview to determine whether the particular group with its particular
leader is at the present time appropriate for their needs
an opportunity to seek information about the group, to pose questions and to explore
concerns
a statement describing the education, training and qualifications of the leader
information concerning fees
information about the psychological risks involved in group participation
information about issues relating to confidentiality, and about those circumstances in
which confidentiality must be breached because of legal, ethical or professional
reasons
clarification regarding which services can and cannot be provided within the group
help by the group leader in developing personal goals
a clear understanding of the division of responsibility between leader and participants
the opportunity to discuss the rights and responsibilities of group members
76
. There must be freedom from coercion and undue pressure. Leaders must make it genuinely
acceptable for members to abstain by mentioning this option.
. As regards experimentation and research, members should be informed of any research
involving the group and their written consent for such research should be obtained.
. Members have a right to expect that they will be able to make optimum use of the
resources within a group.
. Confidentiality should be a central issue in group work (this has already been discussed).
. Psychological risks associated with the group (such as life changes that cause disruption,
hostile and destructive confrontations, scapegoating and harmful socialising among
members) should be clarified.
. Concerning the personal relationship between leaders and members, leaders should avoid
abusing their power and misusing their professional roles. Leaders should be aware of
how their values influence their leadership styles.
. As regards legal liability and malpractice, leaders should practise within the code of ethics
of their profession and should abide by legal standards. (This will reduce the chance of
them being sued.)
(Read Corey, 1990:2451, for greater clarity on these aspects.)
:- //./ 1/--.: :- //./ 1/--.:
Van Dyk (1997:106) asserts that ethical conflict and ethical dilemmas are two factors that
cause stress in the helping professions. Because of stress caused, helpers may suffer from
burnout and may consequently become disillusioned with the helping process. They may
even end up in a situation in which they are found guilty of unprofessional conduct. It is
important for helpers to realise that they will be confronted with decision-making on a daily
basis and that ethical problems may arise. Compton and Galaway (1994:197) define an
ethical dilemma as:
... one in which you cannot simultaneously meet your obligations to two different
parties in the role set without violating your ethical commitment to one or the other.
Siporin (1989:47) emphasises the importance of developing professional skills, and states
that dealing effectively with ethical conflict and making sound discretionary judgements are
essential skills for the professional helper. Such effectiveness includes dealing with the
stresses concerned and the often emotionally troubling experiences involved.
: /: : /:
It is important to remember that very little has been written about South African cultures, and
that most of the literature consulted is based on Western culture. When dealing with values
and ethics, we need to consider the diverse situation reflected in the South African
environment. An understanding and valuing of diversity is therefore critical for effective
helping. (This will be dealt with in section B.)
77 SCK201-3/1
/1, / /1, /
.: :///: : .//./, .: :///: : .//./,
--./ ,:o: --./ ,:o:
Learning outcomes
After completing this study unit, you should be able to:
. discuss the basic skills required to facilitate communication in groups
. define empathy, and discuss its nature and value
. discuss the ways in which one can pay attention to feelings, and relate these to a
group setting
. identify various types of probing and how these can be used in group work
. paraphrase and summarise appropriately when working with groups
. discuss silence as a means of communication, and partialisation as a technique; and
then indicate how the two may be used in group work
/:1/ /:1/
Du Toit and Spies (1997:64) explain that when we speak of the ``skills'' of the group worker,
we mean the behaviour of and activities performed by the group worker to help the group
achieve its aims. Although a group worker may also possess natural communication skills, it
is important that he or she develop these further and acquire new skills. Unlike casework
(covered in the counselling skills module), individuals in a group have greater freedom to
decide:
. whether they wish to participate in communication within the group
. with whom they wish to communicate
. how they are going to make use of other members in order to communicate their ideas to
the group
Some group worker skills place greater demands on the social worker than do casework
skills. Consider, for example, the skill of listening: as a group worker, you must be able to
listen to more than one person at a time. In the counselling skills module, we dealt with
listening as it applies to only one person or to a family. A family is a natural group with
already-established relationships. Lewis (1989:155) refers to the interaction between the
members themselves and with the group leader. As he explains:
A group leader's basic tools in promoting interaction are the kinds of responses he
makes to the comments of the group members. Criticism, an authoritative opinion, or a
long-winded speech by the leader will stop the group in its tracks. But there are certain
kinds of leader responses which actively stimulate further intercommunication.
78
Please note
Since the basic communication skills are discussed in your counselling skills module,
we will examine them only briefly here and will endeavour to discover how they can be
implemented within the context of group work.
We will make particular use of Grobler et al. (2003), Du Toit and Spies (1997:6485)
and Van Biljon (1997:196245).
. . -///:: --./ // ,:o: -///:: --./ // ,:o:
Attentiveness in groups is related to two aspects; firstly to what group members say and how
they say it, and, secondly, to the behaviour of members individually and to the behaviour of
the group as a whole (Grobler et al., 2003:130). These two aspects are discussed in more
detail below.
7.2.1 7.2.1 Verbal communication in the group Verbal communication in the group
Members of the group may feel that the facilitator and other members are not hearing what
they are saying. They may sense that the facilitator is not focusing on the group when he or
she asks too many questions, talks too much, or forces members to talk. The facilitator is also
not being attentive when he or she thinks of what to say only once the present speaker has
finished, listens selectively (hears only what he or she wants to hear) or develops counter-
arguments.
7.2.2 The behaviour of group members 7.2.2 The behaviour of group members
The facilitator must become familiar with the verbal and non-verbal behaviour of each group
member and of the group as a whole. Such behaviour is a prompt indicator of when
something is wrong, for example a friendly member becomes grumpy or an active member
becomes inactive.
Du Toit and Spies (1997:65) add that paying attention in group work requires ``giving
attention'' to more than one person, and treating each member as an individual. The two
authors cite Egan (1994) who remarks that paying effective attention enables workers to be
good listeners. We encounter attention-giving on three levels:
. micro skills: attitude, openness, leaning forward and making eye contact
. bodily attitude: being aware of the signals transmitted by the client's body, such as anger
and tension
. quality of presence: social-emotional presence
79 SCK201-3/1
a Example
(Adapted from: Du Toit & Spies, 1997:68)
Tebogo: ``I get very upset when my parents don't want to listen to my opinion
or how I feel about something.''
Group worker leans forward, makes eye contact with the group member and
says in a friendly tone: ``I hear you saying that you feel you are not entitled to
your opinion and that this upsets and hurts you. I noticed Lesego and some
of the others nodding their heads while you were talking. Let's see if any of
the others have had a similar experience and feel the same about how they
are treated at home.''
Comments
By reflecting on Tebogo's feelings and taking note of the reactions of the
other members, the group worker has managed to pay attention to Tebogo
and Lesego as well as to the rest of the group.
/:/, /:/,
7.3.1 7.3.1 How is listening related to the person-centred approach? How is listening related to the person-centred approach?
Grobler et al. (2003:141) state that in order to understand the client's experiential world
(proposition 1) and his or her perceptions and reality (proposition 2), we first need to listen
carefully to what the client is experiencing and how he or she is experiencing it. One should
therefore listen to what the client is saying in relation to the total person (proposition 3); in
other words, in terms of the person's:
. experiential world (proposition 1)
. perceptions and thoughts (proposition 2)
needs (proposition 5)
behaviour in order to satisfy needs (proposition 5)
emotions accompanying needs and behaviour (proposition 6)
. self who the client is as he or she experiences himself or herself (proposition 8)
. values those arising from own experiences and those adopted from others
. all the experiences which should be heard and understood from within the person's frame
of reference (proposition 7)
. unsymbolised and distorted experiences
Corey (1990:70) confirms what Grobler et al. (2003) have to say when he describes active
listening as the process of listening out for and understanding the verbal and non-verbal
behaviour of group members without judging or evaluating it. The person in totality is thus
listened to, and an understanding for the total person is demonstrated. A group worker who
listens effectively should be able to answer the following questions:
. What is the essence of the message?
. What themes can I hear?
. What is most important to the members?
80
. What are the members' views?
. What do the members want me to understand?
a
Example
(Adapted from: Du Toit & Spies, 1997)
Situation: The group members are discussing aspects of relationships with
the opposite sex. Some members feel that boys should ask them where they
would like to go on a date; others feel that boys should open doors for them
or stand back to let them go through a door first, etc. In short, there are
various opinions.
Facilitator's reaction: ``I wonder if I'm hearing that, as young girls, you want
to be treated with more respect by boys. Perhaps you want to feel more like
young ladies.''
(You can read more about ``listening to groups'' in Grobler et al., 2003:145.)
- -o.//, - -o.//,
(Also study Grobler et al., 2003.)
7.4.1 Definition and description 7.4.1 Definition and description
Empathy, as a form of communication, includes listening, understanding and imparting to
the client the concept of understanding. The way in which the helper responds to the client is
the result of attending and listening. This response may be an empathic response.
Martin (1989:3) states that empathy is ``communicated understanding of the other person's
intended message'', which implies that merely comprehending what someone has said is not
enough the helper also has to hear what the person intends to say (i.e. ``the intended
message''). It also does not suffice to merely understand at a deeper level, for this
understanding has to be communicated in some way. The other person has to feel that he or
she is being understood. The aspect of feeling or emotion is important here: the underlying
feelings of the message have to be heard, comprehended and communicated.
People have feelings about themselves and about their problem situations; they have feelings
about making decisions and about carrying out actions; and they have feelings about their
feelings. All of these are linked to the matter of defining their problems and solving them. If
these feelings that surround the problem, the expression of a need, the taking of a decision,
or the carrying out of an action are not addressed openly, such feelings will become
stumbling blocks in the work group as well as in the relationship. Information is likely to be
distorted, and there will not be much progress towards achieving the set objectives.
According to Middleman and Wood (1990:59), feelings are ``potent forces in the lives of
people, simultaneously pulling them in different directions, skewing their perceptions,
hurting and frightening them. If work is to be more than illusory, and problem solving more
than a cherished ideal, the worker must deal with feelings.''
81 SCK201-3/1
No social worker can convey his or her understanding of the client's life-world to the client
without getting in touch with this life-world. Hall (1995:58) relates a personal experience.
He had to undergo bypass surgery and people who had undergone this operation came to
visit him. Some of them remarked, ``I know what you are going through.'' This upset him,
because he felt that, while they knew something about the operation, they knew nothing
about his emotions or his state of mind. He did not experience their input as empathy, but
rather as an attempt to make him feel good. He felt that he needed someone who would
listen to him when he spoke about his own anxiety and fear.
Like respect, non-possessive warmth, sincerity and congruence, empathic skills should be
seen as the key skills, the facilitating conditions, as well as the central ingredients of the
helping relationship.
Rogers (1987) describes such skills as follows:
It is the counsellor's function to assume, in so far as he is able, the internal frame of
reference of the client, to perceive the client himself as he is seen by himself, and to lay
aside all perceptions from the external frame of reference while doing so.
This skill may be described as the helper's ability to become accurately and sensitively
aware of the client's feelings. This is the first step, the second being to convey this
understanding to the client in language the client is able to understand. The first step is
therefore a precondition for the ability to reflect the feeling accurately.
Sheafor (1994:310) states the following with regard to empathy:
(Empathy) means entering the private world of the other and becoming thoroughly at
home in it. It involves being sensitive, moment to moment, to the changing felt
meanings which flow in this other person, to the fear or rage or tenderness or confusion
or whatever, that he/she is experiencing. It means temporarily living in his/her life,
moving about it delicately without making judgements, sensing meanings of which he/
she is scarcely aware.
Schulman (1982:290) considers empathy to be, in effect, a special kind of observation,
experience and communication. While the helpers stay who they are, they look at the world
through the eyes of the client, and listen with the ears of the client. They get into the client's
shoes or, as the expression goes, they ``get into someone's head'', and attempt to experience
the world of the client so that they may be aware of the client's feelings. Although it is never
possible to understand fully someone else's point of view/world, the helper should try to get
as close to this concept as he or she possibly can. This is a critical faculty without which it is
very difficult to comprehend the fear and anger of an abused wife, the feelings of guilt of a
parent who has abused his or her child, or the grief of a mother who has lost a child.
It is very important that the helper does not get overwhelmed by these feelings as this may
cause him or her to lose perspective, in which case he or she will either show sympathy or
identify with the client. Empathy is something else. It implies that the helper, having once
experienced the events as though he or she is actually the client, will get back into his or her
own shoes and give the client some kind of feedback on what he or she has heard, seen and
felt.
In Compton and Galaway (1994:281), Johnson tells how a seasoned cowboy succeeded in
tracking lost horses:
I understand that he did this by working at the job of trying to feel like a horse. He asked
himself, ``Now what kind of reason would I have for wandering away if I were a horse?
With such a reason, where would I go?'' Apparently, it is possible for a cowboy to
empathise with a horse to feel like a horse to a surprising degree.
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At any rate, the cowboy would imagine that he was a horse, that he had the horse's
reason for going, and then he would go to the place he would go if he were a horse
and usually he could find the horse.
The cowboy finds the horse because he is capable of thinking like a horse to feel and
reason in the same way he imagines that the horse thinks and feels. However, he does
not become a horse; that is why he is able to bring the horse home. Once he has stepped
into the horse's hoofs and this action has helped him to achieve his goal, he gets back
into the reality of his own pair of cowboy boots.
The authors make the following connection between the story above and Rogers' definition
of empathy:
the perceiving of the internal frame of reference of another with accuracy, and with the
emotional components which pertain thereto, as if one were the other person but
without ever losing the `as if' condition
There is a demand for the helper to communicate in the client's own language. This means
that the helper must have the ability to understand the feelings and meaning of the language
with accuracy and sensitivity, and to demonstrate and communicate this total understanding.
So, the helper does not say in words, ``I understand'', but demonstrates this understanding
by responding empathically. The client feels that he or she is accepted and understood, and
this feeling leads to a greater clarity of consciousness in respect of his or her feelings and
experiences.
7.4.2 The value of empathy 7.4.2 The value of empathy
(1) Empathy contributes greatly to the creation of the relationship as well as to the helper's
ability to assist the client. Treating the client with empathy reduces, on the part of the
client, possible feelings of being under threat. It also conveys interest and the intention
to help, and provides the climate within which the working relationship can flourish
(Hepworth & Larsen, 1990:114).
(2) It creates the atmosphere in which the client will be prepared to take the chance to
explore personal ideas and feelings. Hepworth and Larsen (1990:115) cite research
which indicates that empathy is also effective in cases where the helper and the client
have different ethnic and cultural backgrounds. To be able to utilise empathy effectively
in these circumstances, helpers will have to be conscious of and sensitive to cultural
factors. Other research shows that clients will be more willing to continue in the
counselling relationship if the helper is empathic than if this is not the case.
(3) It stimulates self-exploration as well as self-awareness. Having an empathic listener will
make it easier for the client to listen to his or her inner experiences and to be less
defensive. With an empathic listener the client will also be more willing to explore and
reveal himself or herself more fully. Empathy may be said to empower the client to
advance his or her personal growth more effectively. He or she becomes, in a sense, his
or her own therapist. Clients try to find solutions to problems in their lives, and the
helpers are on hand to help the clients face up to thoughts and feelings that they may
find painful to face alone (Martin, 1989:69).
(4) Empathy tests understanding and checks perceptions. There are times that the helper
may believe that he or she understands what the client is saying, but when he or she
checks by means of an empathic response, it may appear that this is not the case; hence
the matter can be rectified.
83 SCK201-3/1
(5) It provides support. Since empathy is a method by means of which the helper can stay in
touch with the client's feelings, behaviour and experiences, it provides an opportunity
for support as well as the possibility of communicating with the client from the
perspective of his or her own field of experience. The client does not feel so isolated,
because he or she knows that there is someone else who understands and cares.
(6) It serves as a ``lubricant'' for communication, because it promotes dialogue.
(7) It focuses the attention. It gives both the helper and the client the opportunity to
understand the client's feelings, behaviour and experiences. Gendlin (cited in Hepworth
& Larsen, 1990:115) uses an analogy to illustrate the importance of empathy in the
process of staying in touch with the client. He observes that driving a car involves much
more than merely keeping the car on the road and watching the road. The driver does
many things while driving, such as steering, braking, changing gears, taking in the
scenery, and thinking personal thoughts. When conditions change, for example visibility
decreases or there are obstructions, the driver ceases all other activities and concentrates
on keeping the car on the road. Just as some drivers become careless, fail to keep a
proper lookout and have an accident, some helpers may neglect to pay full attention to
the changes in the client's state of mind and responses, and may wrongly believe that
they know what all the circumstances are. The result of this is that they will not succeed
in identifying the most important feelings, or that the client may perceive them to be
disinterested and may want to discontinue the relationship.
(8) It prevents the helper from doing futile things such as asking the wrong questions and
giving inappropriate advice.
(9) It empowers the helper to respond to non-verbal messages. Refer to the previous section
and consider once again the significance of non-verbal communication. Empathic
responses that tune in accurately to, and are in the same key as, the client's non-verbal
experiences will encourage the client to begin to talk about these feelings. Enhancing
the client's non-verbal message is an important skill.
7.4.3 The implementation of empathy 7.4.3 The implementation of empathy
Something that is emphasised repeatedly, for example by Egan (1994), is that empathy is
very important, but remains a skill that can be acquired. Its quality can be improved and it is
not an esoteric (secret; only for the initiated) ability that belongs exclusively to professional
helpers. Although it is a complex skill, one should not elevate it and consider it to be the be-
all and end-all of everything. It should be integrated into a model and used as one of the
therapeutic responses available to helpers. Gaylin (1989:273) emphasises the following in
this regard: ``It requires rigorous attention and concentration to foster and maintain. While
some come by it more naturally than others, empathic ability is nonetheless a skill that cannot
be taken for granted. Like musical virtuosity, it requires both talent and continuous practice.''
(1) Preparatory or anticipatory empathy. Empathy is an essential ingredient in the
whole process of rendering help. It begins in the preparatory phase of the process (even
before the helper and the client meet one another), when the helper ponders the
objective and subjective realities relating to the client with a view to devising
preparatory or anticipatory empathy. During this phase, the helper tries to get in touch
with the client's feelings and the cares he or she will bring to the organisation. The
helper does this by going through certain steps. The following steps are relevant here:
(a) Identification, by means of which the helper attempts to experience how the client
feels and thinks. The helper places himself or herself in the shoes of the client and
tries to look at the world through the eyes of the client. It is an affective process. In
other words, it is a process involving feelings and is not an intellectual process.
Helpers try to think of themselves in situations similar to those in which the client
finds himself or herself now.
84
It can be very difficult for a helper to identify with circumstances he or she has not
experienced, for example abject poverty, retrenchment, being a battered wife, or
losing a limb. On the other hand, personal experience of such circumstances (for
example also having gone through a divorce) may lead to the projection of one's
own feelings onto the client. We repeat the earlier advice in respect of moving into
the life-world of the client while retaining the ``as if'' quality.
(b) Incorporation, where the client's situation is experienced as if it were the helper's,
and where the helper tries to get in touch with his or her own feelings on the matter.
The helper has to be attuned to the client at various levels and must also consider
the theory and knowledge on different topics. For example, if the helper is working
with an adolescent he or she should first try to step into the position of an
adolescent. The helper thinks about the categories of problems that adolescents
experience in general, basing such thinking on his or her own experiences as well
as on relevant literature on the subject.
Secondly, he or she will focus on a particular client, for example the adolescent boy
who gets into trouble with the law: what is his background, the nature of his
actions, his relationship with other members of his family?
Thirdly, the helper directs his or her efforts to the particular phase of the work, for
example the adolescent boy who has been committed to an institution: what will he
ask, feel, worry about?
(c) Reverberation, a phase during which the helper recalls personal life experiences
which may possibly contribute to a better understanding of the client's experiences.
For example, the helper herself will have gone through the adolescent phase when
she was a young girl, or perhaps she has adolescent children, or her friends or
relatives may have adolescent children.
(d) Disengagement, the final step in preparatory empathy when the helper has to make
a rational analysis of the client's circumstances and needs. It is important for the
helper to be aware of his or her own feelings and thoughts, so that he or she will be
able to foresee possible characteristic ways of dealing with certain people,
situations and problems. This final step empowers the helper to take a more
objective view of the client's situation, and to acknowledge that it is just a tentative
assessment of the information, knowledge and empathy at hand.
What remains very significant is that the helper's preparatory empathy should be flexible,
individualised and multidimensional. Preparatory empathy is precisely what the term
says, and is never a rigid prescription. Empathy is never isolated from all the other skills.
In the following example, taken from Germain and Germain (1996:65), a social work
learner describes how she prepared for an interview with Mr S, whose wife was
terminally ill with cancer. To what extent do you think that this learner succeeded in
applying preparatory empathy?
In preparing for the first session, I considered how to introduce the likely issues that
might be of concern to Mr S. I also tried to anticipate his reactions. The interview
itself confirmed my anticipation. However, I stopped short of dealing with his wife's
approaching death, and failed to invite discussion in this area. At the time, I was
aware of what I was doing, yet I continued to avoid the painful topic, thus
undermining my intentions to help. In preparing for my interview and Mr S's
possible reactions to his wife's death, I had not included my own reactions. I
``forgot'' to consider how the loss of a loved one would make me feel.
85 SCK201-3/1
(2) A precondition for empathy is applying the nineteen propositions of Rogers.
Compare the essence of Rogers' propositions with that which follows. You will notice
that the statements we make in respect of empathy consist largely of putting into
operation Rogers' nineteen propositions.
(3) Empathy is only possible if the helper is non-judgemental in respect of people's
values, attitudes and behaviour, if he or she respects people, and if he or she believes in
and is convinced of their ability to solve their own problems and to bring about their
own self-actualisation. Without these qualities, it would be impossible for a helper to
respond to a client's feelings, behaviour and experiences, and to try to influence these or
to steer them on a different course.
(4) The next prerequisite is paying attention and listening.
(5) Respond with understanding.
(a) Listen with care to the total message of the other person, in other words to the
words, the non-verbal messages and the vocal clues.
(b) Try to identify the feelings the client expresses, as well as the experiences and
behaviour that gave rise to these feelings in the first place.
(c) Communicate this concept, as well as the sources from which the feelings arise, to
the person, in respect of what he or she feels.
When a client experiences a problem and shares it, it is not necessary to try to bring
to light a solution. It is much more important to show understanding for the person
with the problem. Although this is not all that needs to be done, it is a very
important part of the action. Nobody would be willing to discuss a problem or to
reveal himself or herself to someone who gives the impression of being unwilling to
understand.
(d) To convey the concept to the client, the helper needs to be aware of two things:
. what the person feels
. the experiences and behaviour that underlie these feelings
This is considered to be basic empathy. If the perceptions prove to be correct, it is
also accurate empathy.
(e) This concept or perception now has to be articulated.
The response must be formulated in such a way that it is not merely a repetition of
what the client said.
. The helper should ask himself or herself what the key messages are that the
client/group member is conveying in respect of his or her feelings, experiences
and behaviour. He or she should ask what the most important message is.
Once this has been established, the concept is conveyed to the client/group
member, and is checked with him or her.
(f) There are different ways of doing this, for example by using one of the following
ways of concentrating on the feeling:
. by using one word that will convey the right feeling and the right intensity
(``You feel angry ...'')
. by using various phrases or expressions (``You are in the clouds ...'' or ``You are
totally in the dark ...'')
. by describing what is happening to the person (``You feel loved ...'' or ``You
feel he cares ...'')
. by describing what the person would like to do (``You feel like giving up ...'' or
``You would like to sing and dance ...'')
86
Egan (1994:111) illustrates the points listed above by giving the following
examples:
One word: ``happy''
Phrase: ``like you are floating among the clouds''
A sentence: ``You feel that he loves you.''
A sentence to describe what the person would like to do: ``You feel like taking a day
off to celebrate.''
Beginners are advised to start with the one-word approach. Once they have
mastered this, they can begin to experiment with the other possibilities.
Sometimes the client may convey more than one message (often contradictory) at
the same time. We may reflect it as follows: ``You feel ..., but you also feel ...''
Different introductions may be used. For example:
``You feel ...'' or ``To me it looks as if you feel ...''
``You are really/really feel ...'' or ``It sounds as if ...''
``You are ...'' or ``I conclude that you ...''
``If I hear you correctly, you are saying ...'' or ``I wonder if you are saying ...''
. Martin (1989:41) refers to the ``skilful tentativeness'' that the helper should
communicate in the first few words, or in the introductory words of the
empathic response. Hammond, Hepworth and Smith (1977:114) recommend
that helpers have a repertoire of introductory words with which they are
comfortable, rather than limiting themselves to a few introductions such as,
``You feel ...'', ``I hear that you are saying ...'' or ``You feel ... because ...'' The
authors consider these to be training aids which can be used to focus both the
feeling and the content of the message.
These authors have also compiled a list of empathic, introductory responses
and recommend that helpers use these in role play, and also when they do the
exercises in the book, so that these responses can become tools of their trade.
Here are a few examples taken from Hammond, Hepworth and Smith
(1977:114115):
. Empathic response leads:
. Kind of feeling ...
. Sort of saying ...
. As I get it, you felt that ...
. I'm picking up that you ...
. Sort of feeling that ...
. If I'm hearing you correctly ...
. To me it's almost like you're saying ...
. I sort of hear you saying that maybe you ...
. Kind of made (makes) you feel ...
. The thing I feel most right now is sort of like ...
. So, you feel ...
. What I hear you saying is ...
. So, as you see it ...
. As I get it, you are saying ...
. What I guess I'm hearing is ...
87 SCK201-3/1
. I'm not sure I'm with you, but ...
. I somehow sense that maybe you feel ...
. You feel ...
. I really hear you saying hat ...
. I wonder if you're expressing a concern that ...
. It sounds as if you're indicating you ...
. I wonder if you're saying ...
. You place a high value on ... It seems to you ...
. Like right now ...
. You often feel ...
. You feel perhaps ...
. You appear to be feeling ...
. It appears to you ...
. As I hear it, you ...
. So, from where you sit ...
. Your feeling now is that ...
. I read you as ...
. Sometimes you ...
. You must have felt ...
. I sense that you're feeling ...
. Very much feeling ...
. Your message seems to be ...
. You appear ...
. Listening to you it seems as if ...
. I gather ...
. So your world is a place where you ...
. You communicate (convey) a sense of ...
(6) To be accurate in the emphatic response, the helper has to capture, in his or her
response, the content and feeling encapsulated in the client's/group member's message.
The helper does this by identifying the feeling, as described above, and then adding the
experiences as well as the behaviour. The following framework may be useful to you:
``You feel ... (word of feeling/adverb of condition) as/since/because of ... (the
behaviour and experiences underlying the feelings/emotions).''
For example: ``You feel dejected because your parents are going to move, and that
means that you will have to leave your friends behind.''
The helper may choose to be selective and concentrate on, or reflect, feelings,
experiences or behaviour. Egan (1994:112) explains that this depends on whether the
essence of the message relates to the person's feelings, experiences or behaviour. What
is at issue here is the ``spirit'' of the concept relating to that which the client feels, thinks
or experiences. Some clients feel threatened if the initial focus in the interview is too
strongly on feelings, in which case the helper should first deal with experiences and
behaviour, and then gradually work around to feelings.
(7) To be able to respond effectively, the helper needs to have two skills, i.e. good hearing
and the ability to articulate a rapid response. Both of these are complex skills and helpers
should work hard at developing them so that they come naturally and comfortably.
The ability to respond accurately to emotions and feelings depends on the helper's
awareness of the variety of emotions and feelings, as well as on his or her emotional,
expressive and metaphorical vocabulary for reflecting accurately not only the feelings,
but also the intensity of those feelings.
88
Hepworth and Larsen (1997:100) point out that there are numerous descriptive words
one can use to express anger. Let us look at some: ``irate'', ``cross'', ``irritated'', ``to see
red'', ``seething'', ``furious'', ``upset'' and ``resentful''. It is not often that beginners in
social work possess a rich and varied vocabulary, but it is essential to develop one as a
halting vocabulary limits the helper's ability to capture and reproduce a particular feeling
or emotion.
Jacobs (1985:43) explains that there is an important reason that the helper should use
precise language to describe feelings, and this is that if a word is too strong, the client
will be inclined to deny the feeling. On the other hand, a word of feeling that does not
do full justice to the feeling will result in a lost opportunity as far as acknowledging the
true feelings is concerned. Martin (1989:17) states that he often listens to tape
recordings of interviews and then asks the learner or helper who is still a beginner to
consider what the client must have thought at a particular moment during the interview.
The learner is often able to identify the feeling accurately, but usually answers by saying,
``I knew that, but I couldn't find the words to say it right.'' Fortunately, Martin then
responds with, ``With practice (and only by practice, by the way), though, you will get
better at this; articulating responses is a trainable skill.''
In Hepworth and Larsen (1997:101104) there is a list of words of feeling under
different columns, and helpers are advised to read through this list and to commit to
memory at least a few of the words in each series. This list is also useful in exercises the
helper does himself or herself. The helper should also practise, in daily conversation,
determining (or trying to determine) the precise word for a feeling he or she identifies.
This almost mechanical way of extending one's vocabulary does not lessen the
importance of, for example, sensitivity and understanding, as described previously, but
broadens the helper's ability to reflect the full intensity and range of feelings manifested
by clients.
a
Self-study task
During the course of the semester, part of your task will be to compile a list of
words that describe feelings. Begin by making a list of all the words
describing the feelings you know. Then add to the list by listening to the
media and jotting down words and expressions that people use in
conversations with other people.
Compile your list using the following headings:
Words expressing positive feelings, such as happiness, caring, love and
satisfaction
Words expressing negative feelings, such as depression, despondency,
insecurity, anxiety, fear, tension, anger, resentment, loneliness, guilt,
embarrassment
You may modify the intensity of your response by inserting words such as
``very'', ``slightly'' and ``extremely''.
Also compile a list of expressions and metaphors.
89 SCK201-3/1
The following case study illustrates the use of metaphors in therapy/counselling:
Metaphor therapy
P group member
F facilitator
G group members
The group consists of men who are reluctant to talk with their wives about their
(wives') problems of not completing their tasks.
Mr P: We have more unfinished projects around our house than a fly has eyes.
She can't seem to finish anything.
F: Are other members having the same problem?
G: Yes.
F: Have you discussed how you feel with your wives?
G: No. We do not want to open up a can of worms.
F: When you think of opening up a can of worms, what images come to mind?
P: Um. Well, I see them squirming out of the can and crawling all over the
place.
F: Would you like to describe the scene in more detail?
G: Um, let's see. We are running around trying to catch them. We get some of
them back in the can, but some wriggle through our fingers. Others crawl
under the furniture and stuff and disappear.
F: What happens next?
G: Nothing. That's it.
F: If you could change the image so that it would be better for you, how
would you change it?
G: We guess we would open the can slowly and let out only one or two worms
at a time.
F: What similarities do you see between the image of opening up a can of
worms and talking about your concerns to your wives?
G: Well, we guess we are worried about things getting out of hand. The worms
crawled all over the place and we are worried that our wives will get upset
and things will be worse; so it's not worth the trouble to bring up the issue.
But we guess we could try to focus on one issue at a time; that doesn't feel
scary.
(8) Beginners often fear that they can do harm either to the client/group members or to the
relationship if the empathic response is not correct. The client, however, is not likely to
be put off if the helper lacks accuracy of expression, as long as he or she is aware of the
fact that the helper cares and is with him or her. The client/group members will either
remain silent, or will inform the helper that this is not what he or she or they meant, and
will then express the appropriate feeling.
Doing the following may be of value:
(a) Give yourself time before you respond. Weigh up what the client/group member
has said, and try to identify the key message before you respond. Resist the
temptation of jumping into a pause in the flow of conversation. Go and have
another look at the theory on silences and their use, and bear it in mind.
(b) Timing: Respond regularly. Sometimes it is necessary to interrupt a client/group
member in order to respond, and so as not to have to give too many responses
simultaneously. The danger of a catalogue of responses is that they may be
90
inaccurate. It is also sometimes necessary to interrupt a long-winded client by
saying something like, ``I have to interrupt for a moment so that I can be certain that
I understand what you are saying. As I understand it, you feel ...'' or ``Can we wait
just a moment before we discuss it? I want to be sure that I understand what you
mean.''
(c) Respond with appropriate intensity. Try to keep the emotional tone in a similar key
as the vocal quality. You may also use non-verbal gestures and expressions
according to the client's/group member's feelings. In Hammond, Hepworth and
Smith (1977:120), there is an example of an incident: A person who is livid with
rage, gnashing his teeth and sitting with clenched fists hits his own leg and says, ``I
am so angry at the way my boss lectures me, I feel like knocking him down!'' To
this, the helper may respond, ``You are so cross that you have difficulty controlling
yourself.'' Although the words are appropriate, their effectiveness will depend on
how they are spoken. The utterance cannot be empathic if the helper speaks in a
flat, toneless voice, and sits still, showing no variation of facial expression.
(d) Use plain, understandable language that takes into consideration the client's
linguistic abilities.
(9) Avoid the following:
(a) No response at all. The test of effective listening lies in response. A helper who
believes himself or herself to be a good listener, yet seldom says anything, is likely
to be a person who finds it hard to be active and to establish closeness in personal
relationships. Helpers are advised to respond often, both verbally and non-verbally,
and to avoid long periods of silence.
(b) A question. The implication is that it ignores feeling. It is a poor substitute for
understanding. Helpers who do not know how to respond with understanding
often have to fall back on questions, and it is very difficult to break out of this
pattern and return to empathic responses.
(c) Cliche s or trite expressions that have lost currency because they have become so
common. For example, ``Most people feel like that at some stage of their lives.'' Or
``I understand.'' It is better not to respond at all than to use a cliche in a callous or
negligent way, as this creates distance between the helper and the client.
(d) An inadequate or shallow response. If this happens, it indicates a lack of
understanding of the client/group member, and the client may well get the idea that
he or she hasn't said anything that is worth responding to.
(e) An interpretation. For example, ``You are very possessive.'' This is a response that
has neither use nor merit, and it will never bring the helper and the client/group
member closer together.
(f) Advice that is used as a substitute for understanding. For example, ``Why don't you
explain the matter to her?'' In most cases, the client/group member has neither
asked for advice nor wants any. You have to ask yourself if the giving of advice will
contribute materially to mutual understanding.
(g) Pretending to understand. It is always better to be honest and to admit that you do
not understand, and that you will be grateful for further explanation.
(h) Mechanical repetition. For example, mechanically repeating the last sentence or
utterance by the client/group member, especially after the client/group member has
shared an intensely emotional experience with the helper.
(i) Sympathy/agreement. For example, ``Yes, life is really hard on you!''
(j) Sermonising/moralising. ``It is your duty to respect your parents.''
(k) An overly long response. Rather consider carefully what you want to say and
identify the essence. This will enable you to keep the response brief, ``lean'',
concrete and accurate.
91 SCK201-3/1
D Activity 14
Fill in the group worker's response to each of the following statements by the
group member:
Group member: ``I don't want to go to boarding school. Why should I?''
Group worker:
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Group member: ``I don't want to go home any more. Everyone fights all the
time.''
Group worker:
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Group member: ``My mother just lies on her bed. I wonder if she's ill?''
Group worker:
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
-1.1 -o.//, -1.1 -o.//,
What we are dealing with here is the communication of the client's feelings, behaviour and
experiences which lie below the surface and of which even he or she is not always aware. To
be effective, this communication has to be accurate, or it may so easily sound like either an
accusation or a confrontation. The focus in advanced empathy is not only on problems, but
also on the resources that sometimes lie hidden and forgotten deep within the client.
Grobler et al. (2003) list the questions the helper should set so as to explore deeper while
also listening to the client:
What is it that the person is more or less trying to say?
What is he or she hinting at?
What is he or she saying in a confused manner?
What do I hear behind the explicit message?
Advanced empathy occurs in various forms, including the following:
92
(1) Help the client to clarify and make explicit that which he or she implies. Very often it is
possible to attach both a superficial and a deeper meaning to what people say. The
deeper meaning is often hidden and requires a kind of interpretation because the client's
statements have to be placed within a larger picture. The helper's response should assist
the client to see the matter more clearly, so that he or she may feel the need to start
behaving differently. The client must, however, be readied to receive the advanced
empathy, or the advanced empathy should be given tentatively, as it may not fit with the
client.
(2) Help the client to identify themes. This refers to emotional themes such as feelings of
depression, anxiety, and a tendency to be hurt; themes of behaviour such as blaming
others, controlling others and workaholism; and themes of experience such as being a
victim or being feared. As soon as a helper identifies such a theme, he or she should
work with the client and attend to it immediately. This presupposes considerable
assertiveness, empathy and tact.
(3) Help the client to make connections by linking islands of feelings, experiences and
behaviour. Use, as missing links, the data that becomes available as a result of your
exploration. It is important that the helper be accurate when he or she makes these
connections, and that he or she discusses his or her assumptions with the client.
(4) Advanced empathy is meant to empower the client to move from less to more. If the
client feels uncertain about a matter, if a matter is not clear to him or her, or if he or she is
confused, the helper should assist the client by talking directly, clearly and openly, and
by facing the issues squarely. (You will find more examples in your workbook for the
counselling skills module, and in your textbook by Grobler et al., 2003.)
Responding empathically at this high level facilitates the client's exploration of feelings and
problems in much greater breadth. This level of empathic response is not expected of learners
at second-year level but is one of the objectives at third- year level.
: :/, .1 :/, : :/, .1 :/,
7.6.1 General 7.6.1 General
Interviews generally consist of questions and answers, and it is usually the interviewer who
asks the questions. Martin (1989:79) reports that the moment he forbids students from
asking questions, they feel that they are no longer able to ``keep the interview going''. It is
easy to ask questions because questions elicit answers, and this sequence gives the helper
the feeling that there is progress and that things are moving along. Questioning is a useful
technique, but as it appears to be a technique that is used too often it may be detrimental to
the helping relationship and to the steps in the helping process. If information is forced out of
clients, the interviewer is controlling the interview. This means that the client will play an
ever-decreasing part in the interview and a helping relationship will be completely out of the
question. This is contrary to the very essence of the person-centred approach as well as to
the values of social work. The social worker who wants to play detective, and who seeks
evidence, asks a lot of questions. If this is the model of assistance which the client
encounters right at the outset of the interview, we can hardly expect him or her to advance to
self-exploration and self-disclosure at a later stage.
Schulman (1994:186) warns that questioning becomes a weapon when the client is
overwhelmed by the type, extent or procedure of questioning. If this happens, the client is
likely to withdraw behind a screen of silence rather than become involved in the interaction.
Research has shown that the non-empathic helper is inclined to ask many more questions
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than the empathically skilled helper. However, questioning as a technique does have its own
definite place in the scheme of things. Egan (1994:147) has this to say about the use of
questions: ``Prompts and probes are the salt and pepper of communication in the helping
process. They should remain the condiments judiciously used and not become the main
course.''
Egan (1994) and other authors make it clear that we should see questioning in terms of a
continuum with, at the one end, statements and requests which are designed to encourage
the client to talk and explain, then remarks and interjections that help the client to focus, and
then questions that assist the client to speak freely and in more concrete terms. As far as
questioning itself is concerned, we may place the types of questions on a continuum from
open-ended questions to closed and leading questions.
In the sections that follow we will acquaint you with the various types of questions that can
be employed.
7.6.2 The aims of probing and questioning 7.6.2 The aims of probing and questioning
The aims of probing and questioning are as follows:
(1) To encourage the client to talk
(2) To change the subject
(3) To explore different topics at various levels
(4) To clarify/explain the situation (This applies to both the interviewer and the client.)
(5) To broaden and deepen the scope of the interview
(6) To stimulate the client so that he or she will supply factual and effective information
(7) To encourage the client to tell his or her story, and to tell it in his or her own way
(8) To get the client to enlarge on what he or she has already said
(9) To stimulate problem-solving thought and feelings by thinking about problems
explicitly and systematically
(10) To provide an opportunity for considering alternatives
(11) To obtain feedback from the client
7.6.3 7.6.3 Different types of probing and questioning Different types of probing and questioning
7.6.3.1 Statements and requests
It is not necessary for the probe to be in the form of a question. A statement or a request may
be used to clear up a matter.
a Example
Helper: ``I can see that you feel hurt, and I have an idea what it is about, but
perhaps you want to tell me.''
Helper: ``You sound most upset, but I am not sure what it is all about.''
7.6.3.2 Interpolations/interjections
Here, no questions are asked either. A word or a phrase is used to focus the client's attention
on the discussion and to enlarge on the subject.
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a
Example
Client: ``I become very depressed at work.''
Helper: ``Depressed at work.''
``Depressed.''
``You mean ...''
Client: ``Then I was a little annoyed with her.''
Helper: ``A little annoyed.''
Client: ``Well, actually I was furious.''
7.6.3.3 Questioning
(1) Open-ended questions
The following discussion is based mostly on Kadushin (1990:180186):
Open-ended questions and closed questions occur on a continuum and vary from very open-
ended questions such as, ``Tell me why you are here'' to closed questions such as, ``How
many children do you have?'', with in-between questions such as, ``Tell me what is bothering
you?'', which is a relatively open-ended question, and ``What is it about school that makes
you unhappy?'', which is relatively closed.
Open-ended questions place no limit on the length of the reply and give the client/group
member a measure of control over the answer. They convey to the client/group member the
fact that he or she has a fair degree of responsibility, and freedom, to participate in the
interview. Moreover, open-ended questions determine the course and scope of the
interview.
Open-ended questions also allow the client/group member more scope for attaching his or
her own interpretations to the question. This allows the interviewer to learn much more
about the client than would have been the case if he or she had set a series of closed
questions.
Furthermore, open-ended questioning provides a client/group member with the opportunity
to mention far earlier in the interview things that are important to him or her than would have
been the case if the interviewer had asked closed questions.
The result of open-ended questioning is that the client/group member may feel positive
about the interview, because he or she can tell the story as he or she wants to tell it, and this
may have the very positive effect of making the client feel that he or she is considered
competent enough to explore his or her own situation. Open-ended questioning can also
convey a sense of respect for the client's individuality.
An appropriate place to use open-ended questioning would be at the beginning of the
interview.
``What'' and ``how'' questions provide information which explains the situation.
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a Example
``What is it about his behaviour that made you feel that ...?''
``What do you feel when you talk about this?''
``How do you know that?''
``How do you plan to find out if that is indeed the case?''
``How did that make you feel?''
``Where'' questions provide information regarding the place.
a Example
``Where was your child when he was assaulted?''
``When'' questions provide information about time.
a Example
``When did you last receive your maintenance allowance?''
``When do you feel like that?''
Disadvantages of open-ended questions
(a) Open-ended questions are vague and their specific purpose is to encourage the client to
talk. This may cause anxiety among some clients/group members.
(b) Open-ended questions may also be a threat to the inexperienced interviewer because he
or she does not know how to stay in control if the client/group member responds to the
open-ended question by beginning to speak as the mood takes him or her.
(c) Open-ended questions may not be advisable if a client/group member speaks a lot and
there is a time restriction, if a client reveals a high degree of resistance, or if a client is
anxious.
(2) Closed questions
Closed questions are directed at obtaining factual information, and they can be used when
one has obtained basic information and more specific information is required. The closed
question is useful if one needs to have more control over the interview, for example when
someone speaks constantly on an unproductive topic, or when a client/group member has to
be kept on course. One can also use closed questions to ``cool off'' the emotionally charged
interview, or if one believes that the intensity of feeling is likely to make it difficult to achieve
the aim of the interview.
Closed questions are useful for introducing a subject that is sensitive, and in respect of which
the client may need some prodding. They are also useful for retrieving information that may
have been forgotten. If there is a time limit, the helper may deliberately choose to make use of
the closed-question technique.
96
a Example
Helper: ``For how long has this been going on?''
``What is the name of the last doctor you saw?''
``How many times has it happened so far?''
``What time suits you best for an appointment?''
``Tell me about your youngest child's behaviour.''
Disadvantages of closed questions
(a) Closed questions limit the client's response to a few words or to just ``yes'' and ``no''.
(b) Closed questions may obstruct the communication process and be irrelevant to the
helping process, as they may make the client feel that he or she is being bombarded with
questions.
By referring to the advantages of open-ended questions, the disadvantages of closed
questions will become clear.
(3) Probing questions
Probing questions are used to clarify inconsistencies and to ensure that significant yet
general statements are not accepted as such, but are followed up so that both the client/
group members and the helper can view the situation in greater detail. For example, when a
potential foster mother says that she is fond of children, the helper should follow up by
asking probing questions in order to ascertain the following: what contact she has already
had with children, what she enjoyed about the contact, what presented problems for her,
which children she likes best, how children respond to her and to one another, and so on.
Suppose someone says, ``My relationship with my child is very complex.'' The helper can
then ask probing questions to find out exactly what the person means by this.
Probing questions can also be used where the relevance of the information is not clear, if the
information is incomplete, or if it differs from information received previously.
The following are some types of probing questions that one may ask:
(a) Completions: These are used when the information is inadequate or when the contents
are insufficiently covered. For example, ``And then?'' or ``What happened then?''
(b) Enlarging: This encourages the person to supply more information on a particular topic.
For example, ``I would like to hear more about this.'' This may then be followed by a
probing question for the purpose of clarification.
(c) Clarification: This is used to get a clearer picture of the situation, because the interviewer
senses that the client will say more if he or she is encouraged.
a Example
``Are you able to give me an example of this?''
``Do you mean that ...?''
``When you say that your husband is cruel, what exactly do you mean?''
(d) Reaction: This concentrates on the client's own thoughts and feelings, and is aimed at
more emotional depth.
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a Example
``How did you feel about it?'' or ``What do you think of this?''
``How do you feel when you fail?''
``What do you experience while you are talking about it?''
``Can you tell me a bit more about your feelings towards your daughter/
mother/child?''
(4) Funnel questions and inverted funnel questions
By making use of the funnel-type question, the helper begins with the general and
progresses to specifics. Consequently, the first questions are not limiting but, as the interview
progresses, they become more specific and narrow down to the particular goals of the
interview.
For example, the helper may begin by saying, ``Tell me about your problem.'' As the interview
progresses, he or she will focus on more specific areas of the problem.
In the case of inverted funnel questioning, the questioning progresses from particulars to
more general areas. For example, the helper will say, ``You are looking very upset today. Let's
talk about it.'' Later on in the interview, he or she can broaden the questioning to cover more
general issues.
(5) Direct and indirect questions
Direct questions have a place in the interview when the helper urgently requires particular
information or when the client is anxious and appears to need additional support. Direct
questions end in question marks.
The indirect method of questioning remains the more desirable, as it places the client in
control of the answer. It explores without necessarily having a question mark at the end. Also
refer to the section on statements and requests.
a Example
Direct: ``What do you think of ...?''
Indirect: ``I'm sure you have many ideas on ... ''
Direct: ``How do you feel about ...?''
Indirect: ``I would like to hear your views on ...''
7.6.3.4 Mistakes commonly made during questioning
(1) Leading questions
Leading questions may be described as questions that have hidden agendas and by means of
which a helper attempts to persuade clients/group members to agree with a particular
approach, solution or point of view. In reality, as Hepworth and Larsen (1997:187) maintain,
they actually stand in the way of the real concerns the helper should be dealing with. What
happens is that the helper presents his or her feelings or opinions by way of a leading
question, and this makes it very difficult for the client/group member to respond freely or to
differ from the helper. Should the client/group member wish to give an answer that differs
98
from the general drift of the helper's question, he or she really has to oppose the helper's
question. The other problem with this type of questioning is that the client/group member is
not usually misled by this ploy, and he or she is likely to demonstrate resistance to an order
that is delivered in the guise of a question. There is yet another possibility, and that is that the
client/group member will be so anxious that he or she may agree to everything the helper
says.
Kadushin (1990:192) indicates that there are various types of leading questions, such as the
following:
Suggestive questions: ``Do (Don't) you think foster care would be best for Annie?''
Negative formulation: ``I assume you have not considered getting a job while your children
are still so young.''
By omitting an alternative: For example, in the case of a pregnant, unmarried adolescent,
``Which would you prefer: abortion or adoption?'' The option that the girl may keep and raise
her child is not even mentioned as an alternative.
By creating associations: ``You are a son who obviously cares deeply for your mother. Do you
really think that she will be happy in a home for the aged?''
Where there is a foreseen implication: ``If you really feel that a parent should not neglect his
child, do you still believe that you should have stayed in the bar until that hour?''
Where the interviewer conveys his or her dismay: ``What on earth made you think that a
hiding would do the child any good?''
Questions implying criticism: For example, ``Don't you think that ...?'' or ``Shouldn't you
have ...?'' or ``Wouldn't it have been better if ...?'', or ``Aren't you still too young to go and live
on your own?''
(2) Closed questions
Closed questions lead to either a ``yes'' or a ``no'' answer. This means that any further
explanation is prevented, and that the helper has to ask yet another question. Questions that
begin with ``Did ...'', ``Is ...'', or ``Was ...'' often lead to a ``yes/no'' reply.
Hepworth and Larsen (1997:152) provide the following example of a closed question as
opposed to an open-ended question:
a Example
Closed:
Helper: ``I met your mother yesterday. Did she come all the way from
Polokwane to see you?''
Client: ``Yes.''
Open-ended:
Helper: ``Tell me about your mother's visit.''
Closed:
Helper: ``Did you talk to her about the possibility of a home visit?''
Open-ended:
Helper: ``How did your mother react when you discussed the possibility
of a home visit?''
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(3) Double questions
Double questions occur when more than one question is asked consecutively in the same
sentence. The client/group member may respond by answering only one of the two
questions, and the one he or she chooses to answer may be the one that is the less
threatening. The question answered may also be the last one (that he or she remembers), or
the answer may be given in such a form that it is not clear which question has been
answered.
(4) Confusing questions
Here it is not clear what the helper means. The client/group member will not know how to
answer the question.
(5) ``Why''/``wherefore'' questions
If the client/group member has the insight to answer this type of question, it would probably
not have been necessary for him or her to approach the organisation for support and
assistance in the first place. Such questions require the client/group member to justify
himself or herself rationally, which he or she is usually unable to do. The ``why''/``wherefore''
question often seems to apportion blame, and this may intimidate the client/group member,
causing him or her to rather try to defend himself or herself than try to understand the
situation. Asking a ``what/how question may prove to be more effective.
7.6.3.5 Effective questioning
Kadushin (1990:200) makes the following very important statement about questioning:
The best questions are those which are never asked because the answers are provided
by the interviewee in response to a facilitating atmosphere which stimulates the
interviewee to share freely. The best answers to questions which never have to be asked
are those which are almost spontaneously provided out of what the interviewee is
saying. Facts and feelings are not so much actively sought as they are permitted to
emerge.
Please recognise Kadushin's statement throughout. Pay attention to the following:
. Use questions sparingly. If there are too many questions, the client may feel that he or she
is under cross-examination, which will definitely be detrimental to the relationship. Egan
(1994:124) believes that all too often the relationship is disadvantaged by too much
questioning. Where questions are asked, they should always be followed by an empathic
response. The reason for this is that the effective question always elicits information that is
worth listening to and which the helper should try to understand. Essentially, it is the
answer that is important, and not the question.
. Ask questions that are productive and useful to the client/group member, in the sense that
they will challenge him or her to think; and do not ask questions merely to obtain
information.
. The focus must always be on the client. For example, get the client/group member to ask
the question himself or herself. Egan (1994:126) gives the example of the helper and the
client/group member who are busy discussing how the disability of the latter, who has lost
a leg to cancer, prevents him from going on with his life. Then the helper says, ``If you
could ask yourself just one question, what would that question be?''
Client (after a long pause): ``Why are you opting for the coward's way out? Why are you just
giving up?''
100
The helper's question is essentially a challenge to the client to accept responsibility for his
part of the session.
. The question has to be consistent with the client's knowledge and developmental level.
This means that the question has to be formulated in such a way that the client can
understand it.
. Questions have to be neutral, and must be open-ended as far as possible.
. Make use of a combination of probing and empathy. Once the helper has put a question,
he or she should attend closely to the answer, and then respond empathically to the
feelings, experiences and behaviour that emerge from the answer.
. Besides questions, there are other techniques too, in the form of statements, that the
helper may use. Some of these will be discussed below.
F-./ :.,:: F-./ :.,::
Minimal encouragers include short, encouraging responses such as ``Mm'', ``Yes'' or ``Go
on'', which indicate that the interviewer is attending to and is interested in the client, and is
also involved. They may be completely non-verbal, for example a nod, a facial expression or a
small gesture. The value of these minimal encouragers is that they do not interrupt the client
and do not change the subject, yet they convey the helper's interest and involvement.
Verbal minimal encouragers are effective in getting the client to keep on talking, thus actively
involving him or her in the communication. Kadushin (1990:126) states that verbal minimal
encouragers ``lubricate the interaction''. During this time, the helper is the listener and the
client does all the talking. This implies that the helper will be listening actively in order to be
attuned to the client's train of thought. This has an encouraging effect on the client, because
he or she finds the helper's response rewarding.
Kadushin also states that one may use such encouragers as a slowing-down technique. This
gives the helper an opportunity to build up a picture of his or her client while the client is
talking, and it deters the helper from doing or saying anything before he or she has had the
time to learn something about the client. It also gives the helper time to think before having
to take decisions, while still giving the client the assurance that he or she has the helper's
complete attention.
Helpers must be aware of the following pitfalls:
(1) It is possible to use minimal encouragers, whether they are appropriate or not,
automatically and constantly in response to each of the client's utterances. This applies
to both verbal and non-verbal minimal persuaders, for example when the interviewer
keeps on nodding.
(2) Different minimal encouragers have different meanings, for example:
``Uh ...Uh'' and ``Mm ...mm'' are neutral and convey the message that the helper is
interested in what the client says, and acknowledges his or her opinions.
``I see'' conveys the message that the helper understands the client.
``Yes'', ``All right'', ``OK'' or ``Naturally'' convey approval of that which the client has
said.
``Carry on'' or ``Go ahead'' compel the client to go on talking.
What is important about minimal encouragers is that the helper should use them consciously,
all the while being aware of the possibility that different words may affect people differently.
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/:/./ //, :///: .1 :, :///: /:/./ //, :///: .1 :, :///:
7.8.1 Paraphrasing 7.8.1 Paraphrasing
During paraphrasing, the helper rephrases, in his or her own words, the essence or crux of
the client's message. Schulman (1994:317) mentions this as being a form of ``translation''. It
is an accurate, abbreviated summary within the client's frame of reference. It is not merely a
repetition of what the client has said (that would sound parrot-fashion), but is rather a
process of singling out meaningful aspects of the client's communication.
For the most part, paraphrasing concentrates on the cognitive aspects of the message, i.e.
situations, ideas, objects and persons. The emphasis, therefore, is not so much on the
affective, although the occasional reference to the most obvious feelings would not be out of
place (Hepworth & Larsen, 1997:149).
One makes use of paraphrasing for the following reasons:
(1) To reassure the client/group member that the helper is attuned to his or her needs, and is
listening
(2) To ensure that the helper has heard and interpreted the client's/group member's
principal thoughts correctly. The client/group member may choose to accept the
feedback, or to modify it.
(3) To make the client/group member understand what he or she indicated in order that he
or she may enlarge upon it. Thus paraphrasing provides a sounding board that can make
people reflect on, and possibly add a new dimension to their thoughts.
(4) To emphasise an idea or situation for further consideration by the client/group member
How does one do this?
(1) By means of statements, not questions
(2) Neutrally ? there is neither rejection nor acceptance
(3) By way of various introductions:
``In other words ...''
``To me it sounds as if ...''
``I hear you saying the following: ...''
(4) Paraphrasing should be used sparingly, and in conjunction with other facilitating
responses, to encourage the client/group member to talk.
(5) Paraphrasing is not a suitable device to use when clients/group members are talking
about feelings. In such cases, it would be better to make use of empathic responses.
a Examples
Client: ``I wish it wasn't so difficult for me to concentrate properly on my
work, but my father is in hospital, and I cannot help but worry
about him all the time.''
Helper: ``The fact that you are worried about your father makes it difficult
for you to give your undivided attention to your work.''
Client: ``I do not want to go and live at a place where I will not be able to
make my own decisions any more.''
Helper: ``So your independence is very important to you.''
102
7.8.2 7.8.2 Summarising and recapitulating Summarising and recapitulating
(1) Description
. This technique covers the same area as paraphrasing, the difference being in the volume of
material covered. It should really be seen as extended paraphrasing. Paraphrasing covers
the remarks a client/group member has just made, while summarising has to do with the
substance of that which was covered in part of a session, a whole session, or several
sessions.
. It is selective in its nature, calling for the need to screen everything and to retain that which
is most relevant and significant the chaff should be separated from the wheat. It is
therefore of the utmost importance that the process be a joint effort on the part of the
helper and the client/group member, with the onus on the client/group member to ensure
that the helper has an accurate understanding of matters. No information is added, but the
existing material is put on the table and is condensed by exploration in the sense of ``let's
see if I understand this so far'' (Martin, 1989:38).
. The helper can also ask the client/group member to summarise matters as he or she sees
them from his or her perspective.
(2) Making use of a summary
Summarising can be used as follows:
(1) To give direction to a session that appears to be going nowhere. The worker makes a
summary of central issues as he or she believes the client/group sees them, and then he
or she decides, in conjunction with the client/group, on a new course or on the steps
they should take.
a Example
``It is difficult to know what to do next what we have achieved so far, in
my opinion, is ...'' (Summarise what has been said and done so far.)
(2) To summarise or encapsulate contents, ideas and feelings
(3) To summarise the content and give feedback on it, thus enabling one to clarify exactly
what the client/group has said
(4) To assist the client/group member to organise his or her thoughts. For example, if an
impasse develops and the client/group member does not know how to get past it, the
helper can ask the client/group member to summarise the main points, thereby placing
the onus on the client/group member. The summary will then in all likelihood give all
concerned the opportunity to decide on the direction the interview has to take from that
point onwards.
(5) To help organise the interview/session so that the aspects that have not yet been
covered may be attended to, or so that areas that stand out as themes can receive
attention
(6) To send the client/group member a message that the helper has been listening actively,
and understands
(7) It may be useful at the beginning of a session, especially if the client/group member is
uncertain about where to start, for the helper to present a summary of a previous session.
The helper's summary should convince the client/group member that the helper has
indeed listened to him or her. The client then has the opportunity to add or correct
information he or she thinks the helper has omitted or has summarised incorrectly. This
means that at least part of the responsibility for progress is with the client, and
summarising gives him or her a chance to take the initiative.
103 SCK201-3/1
(8) To proceed from one phase or topic to the next. Towards the end of a session or a series
of interviews a more comprehensive summary can be made in order to give an overview
of what has taken place. The summary and/or synopsis that is made at the end of an
interview/session can serve as a link with the next interview.
(9) During the conclusion of an interview/session, a summary can give both participants a
perspective on the interview/session, and indicate the relationships between the various
parts of the interview/session, the decisions made, the issues still to be addressed, and
further action to be taken.
This is done by saying, for example, ``To summarise what we have been talking
about ...'' or ``The past few minutes we have been discussing ...'' or ``I would like to
make sure that you understand ...''or ``As I understand your situation, the following are
the feelings you have on this matter: ... ``There is also a possibility of the helper asking
the client/group member to summarise.
Summary of the contents: The summarising of themes can take place at the beginning, at the
end, or during the course of the interview/session. If summarising takes place at the
beginning of the interview/session, the main ideas underlying the previous interview or
interviews/session are recollected, so that the interview can begin where the previous one
ended. This is especially useful in the case of a client/group member who finds it difficult to
start talking. The helper's introduction may be, ``Last time, if I remember correctly, you
said ...'' or ``Can you remember what we talked about last time? Let us summarise the
previous discussion briefly, and proceed from there.''
Summary of feelings: The accuracy with which the helper summarises feelings will depend
on how sensitively the helper has been attuned to the client's/group member's feelings, and
whether he or she has understood these feelings correctly. Empathic understanding is
required here. This technique reminds one of the reflection of feelings, but differs in respect
of the time scale during which it runs its course, as well as regards the range of feelings it
covers. In summarising feelings, it is possible to cover the feelings identified in one session,
or even in a series of sessions, while in the case of reflection of feeling, one concentrates just
on the immediate response. This may be done as follows: ``As I see it, what you told me today
was how you feel about ...'' or ``The feelings you have been expressing recently make me
think that you ...''
(Schulman, 1994:320).
7.8.3 Silence 7.8.3 Silence
(1) The value of silence
. Speech is the medium used during interviews, and speech makes up a major part of the
social worker's activities. Silences during an interview can also be important forms of
communication, but these may be very intimidating to inexperienced helpers, because they
may feel that they are not achieving the objectives they have set for the interview/session.
They may also experience silence as a sign of rejection. The reason for this is the existence
of the social convention which states that it is rude to remain silent in company.
Consequently, it may happen that a helper breaks the silence prematurely. The outcome of
this is that the helper has to accept an unnecessarily large part of the responsibility for the
verbalisation of the interaction. This may, in turn, create an undesirable pattern, i.e. that the
client/group member is led to believe that it is the duty of the helper to keep the interview/
session going while he or she becomes unnecessarily passive and dependent.
. Should the silence be left undisturbed, it may happen that the client/group member will
decide on the next step in the interview/session, and this is likely to give the helper an
indication of what is important to the client/group member. Jacobs (1985:36) mentions
104
an interesting tendency found among teachers, namely that ``they wait on average
for no more than 0,7 seconds for an answer after having set a question, and this means
that only the swift learners in the class get a chance to reply. The others, among whom
there may be many who also know the answer, never get a chance, because they are ``too
slow''. By waiting for just a little while longer, the percentage of class participation rises
significantly.`` Jacobs applies this principle to the silences in the interview/session. If a
helper is prepared to wait just that little bit longer before breaking the silence, the client/
group member will, in many cases, continue on his or her own. Silence can present the
client/group members with the opportunity to choose the topic for discussion, instead of
always leaving it to the interviewer to determine the course.
. It is very important for a helper to know that silence is not necessarily negative. On the
contrary, there are times when the use of silence can be the most effective of techniques.
This is especially true if the helper believes in Schulman's (1982:269) approach, namely
that silences should not be considered as absence of communication, but rather as a
particular form of communication which has to be grasped within the context of the
relationship between the helper and the client/group members. Kadushin (1990:253) calls
this ``a period filled with nonspeech, in which the interviewer and the interviewee
participate'', and goes on to state that ``not talking is a special way of talking''.
. The helper has to decide whether it is in the best interests of the client/group members to
maintain or to break the silence. There are times when silence is likely to cause anxiety for
the client/group members, and then it is of no use. On the other hand, there are also those
times when breaking the silence too soon will rob the client/group members of the
opportunity to express his/her/their thoughts. The responsibility for identifying not only
the type of silence but also its meaning, and acting accordingly, rests with the helper.
(2) Reasons for silence
The problem with silence is that it is often hard to determine exactly what the client/group
member is ``saying'' by way of the silence. On the one hand, the client/group member may be
pondering something that has already been said, and, on the other, he or she may be busy
with painful thoughts that are reeling around inside, which means that the silence indicates
an ambivalence where the client/group member is at odds with himself or herself ``Should
I talk about this, or should I rather keep the silence?'' (Schulman, 1994:121). There are
diverse reasons for silence, so it follows that one cannot deal with all silences in the same
way. In this kind of situation, helpers have to allow their individual interpretations and
``reading'' of particular situations to guide them, and this means that they should pay close
attention, particularly to non-verbal communication.
There are a number of reasons for pauses and silences, including the following:
(1) Differences in social position between the helper and the client/group member, which
cause the client/group member who is below the helper on the social scale to be
uncertain as to whether he or she has the right to speak or not. The helper will, in cases
like this, have a greater responsibility to break the silence. Pauses and silences may also
occur if there are cultural differences between the helper and the client/group member,
and may then indicate that the client/group member is uncertain about customs and
habits.
The helper can deal with these situations easily by laying down ground rules. For
example, ``You have the right to speak, so whenever you are ready, you can tell me how
you feel or think about a matter.''
(2) The client/group members may use silence to control the interview/session,
demonstrating non-verbally that he/she/they is/are passive-aggressive. This is often
true in the case of an unwilling client/group members. In a case like this, the helper
105 SCK201-3/1
should not see the silence as a threat or an attack, but rather as an opportunity to convey
his or her acceptance of the client/group members.
a Example
``You have become very quiet in the last few minutes. Do you want to tell me
what is on your mind?''
(3) The topic has been exhausted, the client/group member has nothing more to say, and he
or she is keeping quiet and considering various possible courses along which to
continue.
(4) The silence is being used to organise and/or sort out emotions, and to get them under
control, especially if emotions have been stirred up by the matters under discussion at
the time.
(5) The client/group member may be making use of the silence to think about a particular
interpretation.
(6) The client/group member is experiencing anxiety and is terror-stricken. He keeps quiet
because he believes that he can avoid rejection by keeping his silence, or he is not yet
ready to express his feelings in words, or he has difficulty in verbalising his ideas. It is
very important that the helper provide the client/group member with acceptance and
encouragement to enable him to talk.
a Example
``I can see that it is very difficult for you to talk about this.'' The helper should
then go on to convey his or her non-verbal support.
Schulman (1982:118) calls this ``reaching inside for silences''.
(7) The helper may have decided to make use of silences to get the client/group member to
talk, or to keep the client/group member talking. If the helper keeps quiet for long
enough, but not for too long, a client/group member will usually begin to talk, because
he or she ``reads'' the helper's message that talk is expected. The silence provides the
client with a neutral, non-verbal persuader to select the topic to be discussed.
(8) The helper may use silence to retard the tempo of an interview/session, thereby creating
a more relaxed atmosphere in which the client/group members feel at ease.
(3) Dealing with silences
Kadushin (1990:259) indicates a number of ways in which the helper can respond in varying
degrees to silences. The idea is that such a response should be individualised and used in the
client's/group member's interest once the silence has been ``read''. The helper's non-verbal
communication should be a model of acceptance and encouragement throughout, as
indicated below:
Minimal encourager, such as ``Mm''
Repetition of the final word or phrase
Repeating the last sentence and adding a question mark
Making use of a summary
Using ``And?'' or ``But?'', as if more is expected
106
Concentrating on the hindrance, ``It is difficult for you to talk?'' or ``I wonder why it is
difficult for you to talk?'' or ``I wonder why you aren't saying anything?''
Here are some more: ``Perhaps you don't know what to say?'' or ``Perhaps you are upset?'' or
``Perhaps you are afraid of saying something because you don't know what my reaction will
be?'' or ``Are you possibly thinking what my reaction is going to be?'' The helper is
responsible for dealing effectively with silences and for using them as opportunities that
contribute to the achievement of interview/session objectives.
Taking into consideration everything we have just discussed, it appears that the most
important thing the inexperienced social worker should concentrate on is to learn to sit
through silences without too much discomfort. This in itself is already a major assignment!
7.8.4 Partialisation 7.8.4 Partialisation
``Partialisation refers to the process of separating out from the universe of problems brought
by the client/group member and/or identified by the worker the specific problem or problems
that are to become the focus of worker-client attention'' (Compton & Galaway, 1994:358).
The reason for this is that nobody can deal with a whole lot of problems simultaneously,
because this is simply too overwhelming. All that happens is that there is a lack of focus, a
feeling of desperation on the part of the client, and high levels of stress that tend to
immobilise the client/group member. Once the problem has been broken down into smaller
pieces, the client/group member is able to ``digest'' it piece by piece. As soon as success is
achieved in one area of the problem, this serves as motivation to tackle the next part of the
problem.
According to Perlman (1957:149), deciding which part of the problem to tackle first is based
on the following:
The problem with the highest degree of immediacy; in other words, the problem/
concern staring the helper and the client/group member right in the face
Representation; in other words, the problem, or part of a problem, that is related closely
to the larger problem
Manageability; in other words, the problem, or part thereof, that the client/group
member will be able to tackle successfully
Part of the relationship is that the helper and the client/group member should pose the
following questions as partners: ``Where do we go from here?'' and ``What are you going to
do, and what am I going to do?''
In the opinion of Middleman and Wood (1990:67), partialisation of feelings is a skill by
means of which emotional experience is broken down into smaller, more manageable units.
It is applicable whenever there are too many feelings, or when all the feelings that are present
simultaneously are too complex. The authors define partialisation of feelings as the process
during which the helper assists the client/group members to divide the compound feelings
into separate feelings, and then attend to them one by one. In one of the examples they use,
they mention mourning, which tends to generate complex emotional processes. These may
include sadness, together with anger, isolation and fear, and possibly also a feeling of having
been cheated. Such chaos of feelings has the potential to overwhelm the person and inhibit
the normal, everyday processes of adjustment. If it were possible to separate each of these
feelings from one another, and to acknowledge, understand and accept each of them, the
person's sense of being overwhelmed would diminish, enabling him or her to go through the
normal process of mourning.
107 SCK201-3/1
TABLE 4.1
Skills Description Aims and desired outcomes
Active listening Attending to verbal and non-verbal
aspects of communication without
judging or evaluating
To encourage trust and client self-
disclosure and exploration
Restating Saying in slightly different words
what a participant has said to clarify
its meaning
To determine if the leader has
understood correctly the client's
statement; to provide support and
clarification
Clarifying Grasping the essence of a message at
both the feeling and the thinking
levels; simplifying client statements
by focusing on the core of the
message
To help clients sort out conflicting and
confused feelings and thoughts; to
arrive at a meaningful understanding
of what is being communicated
Summarising Pulling together the important
elements of an interaction or session
To avoid fragmentation and give
direction to a session; to provide for
continuity and meaning
Questioning Asking open-ended questions that
lead to self-exploration of the ``what''
and ``how'' of behaviour
To elicit further discussion; to get
information; to stimulate thinking; to
increase clarity and focus; to provide
for further self-exploration
Interpreting Offering possible explanations for
certain behaviours, feelings and
thoughts
To encourage deeper self-exploration;
to provide a new perspective for
considering and understanding one's
behaviour
Confronting Challenging members to look at
discrepancies between their words
and actions or body and verbal
messages; pointing to conflicting
information or messages
To encourage honest self-
investigation; to promote full use of
potentials; to bring about awareness
of self-contradictions
Reflection of
feelings
Communicating understanding of the
content of feelings
To let members know that they are
heard and understood beyond the
level of words
Supporting Providing encouragement and
reinforcement
To create an atmosphere that
encourages members to continue
desired behaviours; to provide help
when clients are facing difficult
struggles; to create trust
Empathising Identifying with clients by assuming
their frames of reference
To foster trust in the therapeutic
relationship; to communicate
understanding; to encourage deeper
levels of self-exploration
Facilitating Opening up clear and direct
communication within the group;
helping members assume increasing
responsibility for the group's
direction
To promote effective communication
among members; to help members
reach their own goals in the group
Initiating Promoting group participation and
introducing new directions in the
group
To prevent needless group
floundering; to increase the pace of
the group process
108
Skills Description Aims and desired outcomes
Goal setting Planning specific goals for the group
process and helping participants to
define concrete and meaningful
goals
To give direction to the group's
activities; to help members select and
clarify their goals
Evaluating Appraising the ongoing group
process and the individual and group
dynamics
To promote better self-awareness and
understanding of group movement
and direction
Giving feedback Expressing concrete and honest
reactions based on observation of
members' behaviours
To offer an external view of how the
person appears to others; to increase
the client's self-awareness
Suggesting Offering advice and information,
direction, and ideas for new
behaviour
To help members develop alternative
courses of thinking and action
Protecting Safeguarding members from
unnecessary psychological risks in
the group
To warn members of possible risks in
group participation; to reduce these
risks
Disclosing oneself Revealing one's reactions to here-
and-now events in the group
To facilitate deeper levels of group
interaction; to create trust, to model
ways of revealing oneself to others
Modelling Demonstrating desired behaviour
through actions
To provide examples of desirable
behaviour; to inspire members to fully
develop their potential
Linking Connecting the work that members
do to common themes in the group
To promote member-to-member
interactions; to encourage the
development of cohesion
Blocking Intervening to stop counter-
productive group behaviour
To protect members; to enhance the
flow of the group process
Terminating Preparing the group to close a
session or end its existence
To help members assimilate, integrate,
and apply in-group learning to
everyday life
Adapted from: Corey (1990:7172)
/: /:
It remains very important to remember that insight and expertise are not just about the
acquisition of knowledge, and that spirited handling of skills as such is not an end in itself.
The purpose of all this knowledge and all these skills is that they should be utilised in the
best interests of the client (group), to enable the members to better deal with their problem
situation and/or to develop and utilise their opportunities to the full.
Egan (1994:128) warns that the concept of communicative competence and how it fits into
the helping process is one thing. Becoming adept at it is something else altogether.
Practising one's craft is essential, and this means doing the exercises, working at the
exercises in groups, listening to interactions between people, and using the skills in one's
mind, for example thinking of relevant empathic responses.
109 SCK201-3/1
/1, / /1, /
//: // :/ .1 //: // :/ .1
:/, // ,:o: :/, // ,:o:
Learning outcome
After completing this study unit, you should be able to:
. evaluate the self in relation to working with people in groups
/:1/ /:1/
In working with people in groups, it is important for the group worker (facilitator) to reflect
on what he or she has done in group work. This is almost like a marriage between practice
(communicating with people in groups) and theory (reflecting on or thinking about what
you have studied), with the two impacting on one another. To this end, a group worker can
integrate theory and practice into a personal way of working with people.
Every study unit in this section (section A) should have challenged you to experience and
discover the sometimes exciting, sometimes daunting moments of working with more than
one person. You should also be able to reflect meaningfully on what you have done and how
you experienced it. I personally think that it is incumbent on you as a learner to evaluate how
you are involved in the course (i.e. in self-study questions, exercises and examples) and the
experience it has offered you. It would also be of great benefit to us to know how you
experienced this section. Answer the following questions as well as those at the end of this
study unit:
. More than one text was used to compile this section. Did you find it confusing to study
and read so many conflicting and divergent thoughts/points of view?
. Are we asking too much of you by requesting that you complete self-study questions?
. Did you find the examples and exercises relevant to issues of daily living (both in South
Africa and globally), or are the texts too Westernised?
To conclude section A, we will now briefly reflect on the self and on working with groups.
. . ./ :/ .1 :/, // ,:o: ./ :/ .1 :/, // ,:o:
Mary Catherine Bateson (cited in Carter & McGoldrick, 1999) states:
Like the concept of zero in mathematics, a concept of self is pivotal in organizing
experience, useful as an idea as long as it is not mistaken for a thing. Yet, even though
we regard the self as logically central to any way of experiencing the world, we are
110
trained to look through it like a pane of glass, only noticing when it becomes blurred or
cracked. The Western insistence on a separate self carries its own blindness, its own
non-recognition of necessary connection ... The very self we set out to affirm can
become a hostage to fortune.
Carter and McGoldrick (1999:27) define the concept ``maturity'' as self in context, that is as
our ability to live in respectful relation to others and to our complex and multifaceted world
while being able to control our own impulses; and as our ability to think and function for
ourselves on the basis of our own values and beliefs, even if others around us do not share
them. In this conceptualisation, maturity requires the ability to empathise, trust,
communicate, collaborate and respect others, and to negotiate our interdependence with our
environment (friends, families, communities and society).
Developing a self in the context of group work prescribes your way of thinking for yourself
and of being emotionally connected to others. It is important to remember that we also need
to establish a sense of our unique selves in the context of our connections to others (such as
working with groups). If we review our work with groups and what we have studied, it is
evident that there are many challenges to be faced because we are different from one
another. In other words, what you aspire to will differ from what group members aspire to.
This is applicable to diverse issues such as race, religion, language, beliefs, gender, sexual
orientation and social class, all of which have an impact on how we communicate and
interact with others. The following are important basic questions that we need to ask
ourselves if we wish to work with people in groups:
. Do I have the ability to feel safe in the context of the familiar and the unfamiliar/different?
. Am I able to ``read'' emotions in others, to practise self-control, to empathise, and to
engage in caring for others and being cared for?
. Do I have the ability to accept myself while simultaneously accepting differences in others,
to maintain my values and beliefs, and to relate generously to others, even if I am not
receiving support from them?
/: /:
Having worked through section A, do you feel that you are able to find your way without
confusion? (See the questionnaire at the end of the following references.)
111 SCK201-3/1
:: ::
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--/: :/ - --/: :/ -
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Complete this form and post it to:
Prof CJ Schenck
Department of Social Work Unisa
PO Box 392
Unisa
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examples or viewpoints that should be considered for inclusion here:
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/
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Prof CJ Schenck
For a dialogue let's listen first, and then, listen
(Antonio Machado)
Prescribed books for this section Prescribed books for this section
You need to buy the following books for this section of the course. It is worthwhile to invest
in these books now as you will use them until fourth-year level.
Grobler, HD, Schenck, CJ & Du Toit, AS. 2003. Person-centred communication theory &
practice. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Tolan, J. 2003. Skills in person-centred counselling and psychotherapy. London: Sage.
Swanepoel, H & De Beer, FC. 2005. Community development: Breaking the cycle of poverty.
4th edition. Cape Town: Juta.
Hope, A & Timmel, S. 1997. Training for transformation: a handbook for community workers:
Books 1, 2 & 3. Gweru: Mambo.
According to the document submitted to the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA)
by the Standard Generating Body (SGB) for Social Work, some of the aims of this module in
Social Work are to equip learners with:
. skills to challenge structural sources of poverty, inequality, oppression, discrimination and
exclusion
. the ability and competence to assist and empower people to enhance their social
functioning and problem solving capacities
. the ability to promote, restore, maintain and enhance the functioning of people by
enabling them to accomplish tasks, prevent and alleviate distress, and use resources
effectively
. an understanding of, and the ability to demonstrate, social work values and the principles
of human rights and social justice, while interacting with and assisting the range of human
diversity
. the ability to implement the social development approach in social work services
. an understanding of the main social needs in the social welfare context and the social
worker's role and contribution
The above aims are based on the internationally accepted definition for Social Work:
The social work profession promotes social change, problem solving in human
relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well being.
Utilising theories of human behaviour and social systems, social work intervenes at the
points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and
social justice are fundamental to social work.
Exit-level outcomes and assessment criteria for this module Exit-level outcomes and assessment criteria for this module
Exit-level outcomes Assessment criteria
1. Develop and maintain
professional social work
relationships with client
systems
1.1 Professional relationships are characterised by the
purposeful implementation of social work principles at
the individual, group and community level.
1.2 Professional relationships clearly demonstrate an
understanding of ethical parameters.
1.3 Enabling environments are created for client systems to
develop their full capacity.
2. Demonstrate social work
values while interacting
with human diversity
2.1 Practice demonstrates awareness of different viewpoints
and values, and the ability to appreciate these in relation
to one's own views and values.
3. Appraise and implement
the ethical principles and
values of social work
3.1 Practice demonstrates awareness of and the ability to
implement social work values and ethical principles.
3.2 The potential impact of personal life experiences and
personal values on social work practice is clearly
recognised.
4. Raise awareness and
develop critical
consciousness
4.1 The ability to engage individual, group and/or
communities in critical and reflective discussion
4.2 To demonstrate the ability to assist individuals, groups
and/or Communities to enhance their self esteem
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Exit-level outcomes Assessment criteria
5. Plan and implement
appropriate techniques on
micro, mezzo and macro
levels
5.1 Interventions reflect the appropriate application of a
range of communication skills.
5.2 Skills are appropriately implemented in accordance with
corresponding theoretical assumptions (person-centred
approach).
6. Produce and maintain
records of interventions,
processes and outcomes
6.1 Records contain accurate details of all intervention
activities, processes and outcomes according to agreed-
upon or prescribed formats.
121 SCK201-3/1
/1, / /1, /
/:1/ / .//./, /:1/ / .//./,
--./ // oo/ --./ // oo/
--/: : // o:o: --/: : // o:o:
/// ./ /// ./
Learning outcomes
After completing this section (section B) of the study guide, you should understand
and be able to explain the following:
. the theory and values of participatory communication with people and within
communities (Exit level outcome [ELO] 2 and 3)
. the importance of a professional relationship with the people in the community
. the facilitation of participatory communication with individuals and groups in
communities, and among individuals and groups in the community (Exit level
outcome 5)
. the different skills that can be used to facilitate communication in a person-centred,
participatory manner(ELO 5)
. the criteria which the facilitator can use to evaluate whether the various skills and
techniques will facilitate person-centred and participatory communication
. reflection on the ``self'' of the facilitator in communication (see chapter 19 of Grobler
et al., 2003)(ELO 4)
. the importance of becoming a reflexive practitioner and facilitaria reflexive
communication/change (ELO 4)
/:1/ /:1/
Without communication, there is no community.
What makes a group of individuals a community is that they communicate, and through
communication they build relationships and develop interdependence. Professionals
facilitate change in communities through communication, by communicating with the
individuals and groups of people in the community, and by facilitating communication
among the people in the community.
Communication (consisting of various forms) is the tool by which we facilitate change in
communities. Through verbal communication, non-verbal communication, playing, theatre,
122
drama, drawing, etc. we facilitate awareness empowerment, participation, capacity building,
and reflection on our and the community's growth and development.
This section of the study guide deals with communication with people in communities for
the purpose of collective action. In short, this section is about communicating with people in
communities who collectively want to bring about change in their lives not only for personal,
individual reasons, but also to improve the quality of their lives and those of their families and
the community. This section also forms the theoretical basis for participatory development,
which will be covered at third-year level.
. For those of you who will continue with your studies in social work, this course will
prepare you for the course in facilitating participatory community work (level 3).
. For those of you who have enrolled for this course out of interest or as part of another
programme, it is hoped that this section will enable you to view people differently and
communicate with people in communities in a participatory, empathic manner, and to
facilitate communication with communities.
Please note
In this section of the study guide, the process of communicating with people in
communities will be discussed at the following three levels (also see figure 1.1):
. On one level there is the participatory communication between the facilitator and the
members of the community. You as facilitator communicate with the community and you
facilitate the communication process in a participatory manner.
. On another level, the facilitator facilitates communication between the members and
groups of the community (or within the community).
. There is also a third way of communicating with people. This is less participatory and is
referred to as appropriate communication. Appropriate communication occurs when
people use visuals and expressive aids in communication such as posters, comics and
drama to convey certain messages to the people in communities. It can also be used by
members of the community to communicate to other members of the community. Here we
think of the awareness campaign about eg Hiv/Aids.
D Activity
Take a look in your own community (or any other community). Are there
``awareness campaigns'' about a certain issue on billboards, posters, dramas
etc. Write them down here.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
According to your own criteria: Do you think they are effective? Motivate
your answer.
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123 SCK201-3/1
The following figure illustrates the processes I include whenever I refer to communication
with and within the community:
FIGURE 1.1
Communication with the community Communication to the community
Communication among the community
D Activity 1
Read through chapter 9 in your textbook by Swanepoel and De Beer (2005)
on the need for information in decision-making.
There is a place for each manner/way of communication when facilitating change.
Facilitating communication involves essentially the application of theory to practice. And
theory and practice constitute a whole the one cannot exist without the other. Only when
124
the two are consciously combined are we able to reflect critically on our thinking (theory),
values and actions (practice).
Freire (1998:30) has the following to say about theory and practice:
Critical reflection on practice is a requirement of the relationship between theory and
practice. Otherwise theory becomes simply ``blah, blah, blah'' and practice, pure
activism.
. ,/::.:, . ,/::.:,
The following glossary contains terms that you will come across throughout this section and
in the prescribed and recommended books. You will also hear and read about these terms
regularly in the media. Obviously, these terms differ in the meanings that we have attached to
them. You are welcome to differ with me regarding the meanings given and to let me know if
you come across more appropriate descriptions.
People-centred approach People-centred approach
The people-centred approach places people at the centre of the process. This means valuing
and respecting people, their thinking, experiences, values, needs, knowledge, skills, abilities,
and so forth. (Also see Swanepoel and De Beer, 2005:26 on human orientation.)
Community Community
A people-centred perspective of community emphasises the following:
. The people in the community and the sense of community among the people
. ``Sense of community'' refers to the sense of mutuality, togetherness and belonging, the
sharing interchange, and shared realities and joint responsibility created through
interaction and communication.
. The fact that people live together does not make thema community as such. ``Community''
here refers to a ``community of mind''.
. Although there may be a sense of community, the members of the community are still
unique individuals with their own unique experiences.
Collective action Collective action
Collective action implies people communicating and working together. By communicating
and working together, people learn to rely on one another and to become interdependent
rather than dependent on one another. Dependence makes people weak. Interdependence
and collective action, however, make people stronger than when they stand alone.
Community development Community development
Community development is an inclusive concept with many meanings, depending on what is
meant by community and development. It involves intervention at a community level and is
practised by different disciplines.
Chambers (1997:xiv) refers to development as ``good change''.
125 SCK201-3/1
Participatory development (PD) Participatory development (PD)
Participatory development is a way of communicating and working with people that uses the
expertise of different participants, of which the expertise of the people in the community is
the most important. Participatory development is a collective, evolutionary, learning,
communication process directed towards transformation and change. (See the features of
the participatory procession p 169.)
Facilitative communication Facilitative communication
Facilitative communication with and within communities not only involves communicating
information to the people, but is a horizontal, interactive, dialogical and self-reflexive process
between the facilitator and the people in the community and among the members of the
community. The purpose of this type of communication is to facilitate change,
transformation and/or development.
Empowerment Empowerment
The description of the concept ``empowerment'' which I prefer is that provided by Iutcovich
(1993:96), who sees empowerment as the facilitation of the enhancement of justice and
people's sense of control over their own destiny. This means that they free themselves of the
restraints that bind them so that they have more choices. Empowerment comes from within.
Three concepts embedded in the concept of empowerment should be highlighted, namely
justice, choice and control (over their own matters).
Lee (2001:34) gives a very logical and clear outline of empowerment. According to her,
there are three interlocking dimensions of empowerment:
(1) the development of a more positive and potent sense of self (If) this does not happen,
empowerment is not taking place.)
(2) the construction of knowledge and capacity for a more critical comprehension of the
web of social and political realities of one's environment
(3) the cultivation of resources and strategies for functional competence
(Also read Swanepoel, 2005:29)
Facilitator/facilitation Facilitator/facilitation
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1990:419) defines facilitator as one who makes something
easy or less difficult, or easier to achieve. The opposite of facilitate is to hinder, complicate
and discourage. To facilitate means to make free, simplify, encourage, inspire. We have to ask
ourselves constantly when endeavouring to facilitate communication whether we are making
it
easier for people
easier to communicate/change
easier to express themselves
easier to act
easier to understand
easier to access resources.
126
~ / : //: :/ ~ / : //: :/
This study guide is an interactive one. Please complete all the activities as you work through
the study guide. Some of the activities will also be used during workshops.
- - ././ : .//./ --./ // .1 // ././ : .//./ --./ // .1 //
--/: --/:
a Activity 2 (also small-group activity)
Why do you think any professional would communicate with people in
communities? For what purpose would the following people communicate
with individuals and groups of people in a community?
Politicians ...............................................................................................................
Missionaries ............................................................................................................
Health workers .......................................................................................................
Development workers ...........................................................................................
Adult educationalists .............................................................................................
Agricultural extension workers ............................................................................
Add your own: .......................................................................................................
There may be different reasons that professionals have to, want to or need to communicate
with individuals and groups in communities, or want to facilitate communication within
communities. Some politicians have to communicate with and to the people to get the
people to vote for them; some health workers communicate with communities in order to
convey information on health matters to the communities, for example on how to prevent
HIV/Aids; some professionals communicate with communities in order to implement adult
education programmes, such as literacy training programmes; there are missionaries who try
to bring religion to communities; some agricultural extension workers communicate with
people in communities in order to inform them of which produce will be the best to grow,
and how to grow it, and they also advise them about new products and research. Thus
professionals and non-professionals have different reasons for communicating with people
in communities.
This study guide on communicating with and within communities is written from a
participatory community development viewpoint.
In the helping professions, we communicate with people in communities in order to facilitate
social change and transformation. No community can exist without dialogue, and there can
be no dialogue without people. People are connected through dialogue/communication
(Rahim, 1994:11). When we approach in communities we connect with people through
multi-way, multi-direction dialogue. The time has passed when we talked to the community,
conveying information to it without the community responding. Communication with and
within the community is a circular process in terms of which the users are seen as
participants in the communication process, are as active as the sources of communication,
and affect the outcome of the communication (Chattopadhyah & Rao, 1995:81).
127 SCK201-3/1
Over the years, many people involved in participatory practices or in participatory ways of
working in communities have worked out different ways to facilitate communication with
and within the community.
This section provides ideas on listening to and facilitating the voice and experience of people
in communities. Our aim is to facilitate communication to make it safe for people to speak
and to express themselves freely; and we then have to listen, learn and share. This allows
people to speak about any aspect of their lives, to open up important new fields, and to
reveal hidden voices and hidden spheres of experience, thereby enabling people to share
social, cultural and economic activities and practices. In short, to tell us their stories.
Communication is always important. Through it we create and co-create the world, and in
the development field in particular it is viewed as important for facilitating the voices of the
poor (Freire 1998; Slim & Thompson, 1993). Chambers also views communication as
important with regard to those people who are never seen or heard. People tend to speak for
the poor. The collective voice of any community tends towards generalisations and
simplifications, and is dominated by the loudest voices. We want to get to the heart of the
people. At the community level, therefore, the testimony of individual voices reveals the
experience of hidden groups and counters the bias of those who speak for or ignore them.
Participatory communication has the capacity to break down generalisations and
misinformation about people in communities as it brings forward the uniqueness of each
community.
In this course we will consider the different ways of facilitating communication.
D Activity 3
Value questions that immediately come to mind are the following:
Who gives us the right to facilitate change in any particular community?
Are we not imposing?
Are we allowed to move into the community without the community inviting
us in or approaching us?
May we approach people in communities?
Discuss the above questions in your small group, or discuss them with
another person.
Write down the ideas that emerge.
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Write down other value questions that may arise.
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128
/1, / . /1, / .
./:/./ 1./ : ./:/./ 1./ :
.//./ --./ // .1 .//./ --./ // .1
.-, oo/ --/: .-, oo/ --/:
. . :- o://-: / . oo///:/./ : :- o://-: / . oo///:/./ :
An engineer takes a problem and fixes it. A humanist takes a problem and celebrates its
complexity.
(Unknown author)
Please take a moment to think about the implications of the above saying.
Most definitions of the concept of development refer to action plans, strategies and
programmes aimed at improving the situation of what are termed the ``less-developed
countries''. Many development efforts commenced after the Second World War when
European countries such as Britain, France and Portugal started withdrawing from African,
South American and Asian countries that they had colonised. At that time, most definitions
focused (and today most still do focus) on economic growth and material welfare, and
implied a linear process. On a continuum, one would therefore find the traditional, simple
and underdeveloped societies at the one end, and the modern, complex and differentiated
societies at the other. This way of reasoning gives rise to the belief that the world and its
people must also be approached from other points of departure.
Over the past decade, the focus in development work has shifted from problem-centred to
people-centred community work. In other words, the wisdom of conventional experts,
outsiders and technocrats with their blueprints and pre-planned projects has been
challenged and exposed as being out of touch with the needs and experiences of people in
communities, and often as obstructing people's real hopes for change and improvement in
their lives. Participatory, people-centred community development is now regarded as an
appropriate approach for facilitating change, as it allows people to become agents, and not
objects, of change, who take charge of the process themselves.
In the course following on this one (level 3), we will discuss participatory, people-centred
community work in more detail.
Carl Rogers, whose ideas you will encounter in your prescribed books by Grobler et al.
(2003) and Tolan (2003), had the following to say about top-down, expert programmes that
are implemented in communities:
129 SCK201-3/1
... attempts to produce (these) changes for the community by means of ready-made
institutions and programs planned, developed, financed and managed by persons
outside the community are not likely to meet with any more success in the future than
they have in the past. This procedure is psychologically unsound because it places the
residents of the community in an inferior position and implies serious reservations with
regard to their capacities and their interest in their own welfare. What is equally
important is that it neglects the greatest of all assets in any community, namely the
talents, energies and other human resources of the people themselves ... What is
necessary, we believe, is the organization and encouragement of social self-help on a
cooperative basis.
This does not mean that the master plans are the only reason for the failure, but only that
something is definitely wrong. By viewing development as a matter of overcoming problems
of insufficient economic growth, inadequate political participation and restrictive social
structures, it becomes impossible to understand its complexity (see Coetzee, 1996:140).
Currently, the different definitions or descriptions of development include concepts that will
allow for the personal growth of every person involved in the process. According to Coetzee
(1996:141), development efforts have to be based on the assumption that all people value
being respected, regarded as worthy and treated with dignity. This is the basis of human/
people-centred development a process that includes all aspects of life within a
community and of people's relationships with other people.
This section will introduce you to the ideas of various authors on participatory, people-
centred thinking. These authors made a significant contribution to the shift from problem-
centred ideas to participatory, people-centred ideas.
.. .. ./ -o:/. //:, ./ -o:/. //:,
Before we can consider whether a theory is necessary or useful, we need to have an idea of
what is meant by ``theory''. A simple explanation of theory is that it is:
a system (a set of assumptions) explaining something. It also has explicit or implicit
underlying values and is used to guide action.
People not only do things (act/behave), but they also think about what they do and try to
understand their actions and make sense of them. These ideas or this understanding is
systematised into theory or knowledge with underlying values that guide further action. Note
the three words that constantly emerge when discussing theory:
Thinking about people
Values regarding people
Actions such as communication
Korten (1990:113-114), who you will get to know more about later on, gives the following
reasons that theory is so important for working with people in communities:
. A theoretical approach explains phenomena. It helps us to understand and to direct our
thinking.
. A theoretical approach directs the facilitator's actions or the way he or she communicates
with people. Theory directs how one deals with a given situation in a community.
. A consistent theory enables the facilitator to facilitate change in a consistent and
accountable way.
130
. Without a clear theoretical framework, there is a danger that facilitators may unknowingly
reinforce or encourage the very things that cause problems in communities, such as not
being accountable for one's actions.
The difference between doing intuitively and doing professionally lies in being aware and
consciously communicating from a theoretical framework that has specific concepts
(thinking), values and practices (actions). We are working (communicating) professionally
and accountably when our actions (communication) are guided by theory.
D Activity 4
Read through Tolan's (2003:1) description of the importance of theory and
make a summary for yourself.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
. . ./:, : o::./ ./:, : o::./
Although we discuss people-centred theories in this study unit, not all of you may find them
acceptable or consider them to make sense. Some of you may think, ``This makes sense.''
Others of you may think, ``This is ``soft stuff.'' Still others of you may think that a particular
theory does not make sense at all. Theories are not general, universal realities. If a theory fits
in with your ideas and values, it will make sense. We therefore refer to theories as being
personal.
We also personalise theory. Neither you nor I can be another Rogers, Freire, Chambers or
Korten. We can only accept some of their ideas and make them our own in a way that fits our
own self-structure. I hope that you will think seriously about the ideas of these people and
integrate some of their ideas in ways that fit you as a unique human being. How you perceive
people and communities will determine your eventual way of communicating in the
community and how you see your role.
If you are studying in the human sciences, you will come across many different theories
about people and about change.
D Activity 5
Answer the following questions, giving your own explanations for these
actions:
Why are some people in the community poor?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Why are some communities poor?
...................................................................................................................................
131 SCK201-3/1
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Discuss these questions with other people to hear their explanations
(theories) about these topics.
Are people's explanations similar or different?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Why are they similar or different?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
OR
Complete the activity in chapter 3 of Hope and Timmel (1997) on the causes
of poverty. How does your answer differ from other answers?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
For further reading, consult Hope and Timmel (1997), book 3, chapter 9, on
the different theories on poverty and the associated actions.
Also read chapter 1 of Swanepoel and De Beer's (2005) book for a view on
poverty.
Compare the theories on poverty and write down your own views on poverty
after you have read and heard what has been said about poverty.
.- .- .:/o./:, oo//:1 //:: .:/o./:, oo//:1 //::
Schenck (1999) has analysed a number of participatory practices (participatory
development, participatory learning, participatory research, participatory communication and
participatory management) and concludes that they all share specific assumptions (ways of
thinking) about people and their behaviour. They also all share the same set of values and
basic practices.
In all participatory practices, the helper/facilitator works not only from his or her frame of
reference but also from the people's frames of reference and their realities, values, traditions,
experiences, perceptions and behaviours. These participatory practices require the facilitator
to respect and accept, to believe in and to trust the potential and self-determination of
people. The basic assumptions are the enhancement of social justice and people's ability to
grow independently and change in a way that is meaningful to and consistent with their self
132
(see the person-centred approach in Grobler et al., 2003). Such a method requires dialogue
and conversation, discovery and joint decision-making (Schenck, 1999).
Schenck concludes that the underlying, but not explicit, theory in these participatory
practices is consistent with the ideas of the authors you will be introduced to, as well as with
the person-centred approach.
There are many formalised approaches or theories that can provide a frame of reference for
our perceptions of human beings/people, and that offer explanations of people's behaviour
and interaction. These approaches can all serve as a theoretical framework for participatory
community development. We have chosen a few theories and ideas from different people,
namely Carl Rogers with his person-centred approach, Paulo Freire, Robert Chambers and
David Korten, to explain participatory communication for community development.
This process of reflecting on the theory on which we base our participatory community
development provides us with ideas and guidelines for how to move forward so as to
improve our participatory practices.
2.4.1 2.4.1 The person-centred approach The person-centred approach
This section will introduce you to Carl Rogers' person-centred approach (PCA). This theory
provides a way of thinking about and valuing people through which you may develop
sensitivity to people and accountability for your actions. This approach will help you to
facilitate processes by communicating with people in different participatory ways, because
community development is a conscious process of facilitation and communication to achieve
change within a community.
D
Activity 6
Carl Rogers (1986) himself made the link between Paulo Freire's ideas and
his own person-centred approach. For the more adventurous learner who
may be interested in the comparisons, read the book Carl Rogers on personal
power: inner strength and its revolutionary impact (1986).
Jules Pretty and Robert Chambers, two people who have made a significant contribution to
the field of participatory development and who come from an agricultural background
(1994:201) came to realise the importance of the ``theory and knowledge of the person'' in
working with people in communities. They see knowledge and understanding of personal
behaviour and attitudes as being ``the blind spot'' for people such as agricultural extension
workers and other development professionals. They continue:
The quality and sensitivity of personal interactions are critical. In training for
participatory methods, it has been found that listening, learning and low-key facilitation
are more important than the methods.
Rogers himself also indicates the relevance of his theory for communicating with groups and
communities. He states that the conditions for a climate that promotes individual growth and
development apply to any situation that is meant to encourage human development. These
conditions therefore also apply to communication with and within communities.
133 SCK201-3/1
Communities consist of individuals and groups of people, and if Rogers'' principles apply to
the development of the individual, they will logically also apply to communities (which
consist of individuals and groups of people).
Some background on Carl Rogers Some background on Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers was trained as a psychologist. The theories he was exposed to were Freudian
and behaviourist, which placed the helper in the expert position. According to Rychlak
(1981:578), Rogers concluded that these directive, modernistic approaches could not really
help people to change. He ultimately came to believe that all individuals have within
themselves the ability to guide their own lives in a manner that is both personally satisfying
and socially constructive.
Rogers, therefore, became a ``quiet revolutionary'' and one of the pivotal figures in the much
larger debate concerning the prediction and control of human behaviour. He believed, as you
will discover, that the facilitator cannot change people. Instead, we, the helpers, can facilitate
change by creating a relationship with people, and in this relationship the client can change
from within. Rogers trusted him/her with his/her own power. Rogers challenged the usual
concepts on which our society is based, i.e. that power is power over, and strength is
strength in order to control. He stated the paradox that the influence one has is actually
gained when power is shared and that control is more constructive when it is self-control.
Rogers' theory Rogers' theory
Rogers formulated his theory on the person and behaviour using 19 propositions, which are
explained in your prescribed book by Grobler et al. (2003). These propositions explain the
development of the self of the person and behaviour (actions).
D
Activity 7
(1) Before reading further, study section A in Grobler et al. (2003) on
thinking about people.
(2) Study each proposition carefully especially as it applies to
understanding the community.
(3) Add an example from your own experience that may illustrate the
proposition, explain or help us to understand what happens within the
community, and explain how change may take place. Use idioms from
your own language that may make this exercise fun and relevant!
Rogers' 19 propositions Rogers' 19 propositions
As stated in the prescribed book (Grobler et al., 2003:5), the propositions will be discussed
thematically. To help you gain a better understanding of the application of the propositions,
some additional idioms and examples are given below.
134
Theme 1: The development of the self (Grobler et al., 2003, chapter 1)
Read proposition 8: The self
Read the example in Grobler et al. (2003) about the community in the Richtersveld. One of
our former students called me while she was still a student and after she had read the above
example in the book. She told me that she had lived in the Richtersveld and confirmed that
people are in fact labelled as insiders (boorlinge) or outsiders (inkommers). She was
regarded as an inkommer because she had not been born there, but in the Eastern Cape. Her
son went to the local high school and was elected as head boy. There was tremendous
disappointment in the community that the school had allowed an inkommer to be head boy.
She also added that in one town in the Richtersveld the people speak Nama and Afrikaans,
but that as soon as an outsider enters the community they only use Nama until they trust that
person.
Additional examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
This proposition motivates the importance of the people's participation in the processes to be
able to understand them and know the self of the community. Whatever processes are
facilitated should fit with the self of the community.
Read proposition 9: The self and significant others
This proposition motivates networking with others within and around the community,
participation, and the facilitator as significant other. Building a strong resource and support
network is important for the sustainability of the community and the change processes.
Additional example
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 4: Self-determination
Mavalela (1999:11) compares this proposition with the Northern Sotho idiom, Kodumela
moepa thuts e ga go le le ts wago kgauswi, which means that people naturally strive hard and
search for what they want, regardless of how difficult it may be.
Self-determination of the community is inevitable. The members may do what outsiders want
them to do, but this will not be sustainable if it does not fit the self of the community. This
proposition then motivates participation, respect and individualisation.
Additional examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
135 SCK201-3/1
Theme 2: Experiences that fit with the self (Grobler et al., 2003, chapter 2)
(Compare with Korten on ``fit'' with the community.)
Read proposition 11: Dealing with experiences on a conscious level
Compare with Freire's concept of conscientisation (in this study guide) and the action-
reflection process.
Participation, respect, self-determination, individuality are motivated by this proposition.
Additional examples:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 12: Self and behaviour
This proposition explains that the community decides for itself what suits the self and the
values of the community. The Northern Sotho idiom for this is Mmapelo o ja serati
sekghethelwa ga a se nyake. An international aid organisation bought bicycles for a home-
based care project for terminally ill patients. The care workers walked long distances to reach
their patients and so the aid agency introduced bicycles. Most of the care workers were
elderly women and they regarded the bicycles as a joke. They could not see themselves
riding bicycles. Consequently they gave them to the school children.
Additional examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Values and skills motivated are: Respect, individualisation, self-determination, participation
Theme 3: Experiences that do not fit with the self (Grobler et al., 2003, chapter 3)
Read proposition 11: Dealing with experiences on an unconscious level
Values and skills motivated are: Empathy, advanced empathy, listening, respect, participation
Additional examples:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 13: Behaviour and unconscious experiences
Compare with Freire and his ideas about conscientisation. Also read Hope and Timmel
(1997) book 1, chapters 1 to 3.
Additional examples:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
136
A student told me that her eldest sister looked after them after her parents died. According to
the children, she abused them, but the sister denied this and said she only disciplined them.
Values and skills: motivated by this prospositia are:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 14: Psychological tension
Compare with Freire's ``culture of silence'' in this study guide.
Values and skills motivated are:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Additional examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 16: The defence of self
Values and skills motivated are:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Additional examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Theme 4: Specific experiences (Grobler et al., 2003, chapter 4)
Read proposition 1: Human experiences at a conscious and unconscious level
Compare with Chambers' ideas on whose reality counts; also see Grobler et al. (2003:148)
on Chambers' six biases.
Additional examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
There is a Northern Sotho proverb Batho ke meriti ya diphao meaning that ``as the shadows
of fence poles point to the west in the morning and to the east in the evening, so people
change their minds''.
A horticulturist was training a group of women in Mamelodi to grow vegetables. She taught
them that when the carrots are still small, the plants should be thinned out so that the carrots
can grow bigger. The following week when she arrived at the garden, she noticed that the
women had not thinned out their carrot seedlings. They informed her that they could not thin
out the carrots before they knew what to do with those that they had pulled out. According
to them, one cannot throw away food.
137 SCK201-3/1
Own examples and idioms:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Values and skills motivated are:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 2: Human perceptions
Keep comparing to Chambers in this studyguide.
Mavalela (1999:9) records that, in her interaction with a community, she realised the
different meanings that people can attach to something. She, an outsider to the community,
found the roads and infrastructure to be non-existent and deemed this to be a possible need
in the community. She discovered, however, that the community used oxen and donkeys to
travel, and that the members felt there was no immediate need for proper roads. In their
opinion, there were other, more urgent, needs. They could not afford cars, therefore no need
for better roads. Similarly in another community, the community prefer the bad roads. It kept
strangers from moving into their community.
Own examples and idioms:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Values and skills motivated are:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
D Activity 8
Read through the case study in Swanepoel and De Beer (2005) on Lady
Najafi (chapter 17, pages 149 to 155).
Which proposition, skills and values did she apply to gain access to the
community and learn what was important for the community?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 3: Wholeness
At third-year level you will be introduced to Max-Neef, a Chilean economist who developed
a model for holistic development called human-scale development. Human-scale
development (HSD) is a holistic, people-centred theory. It departs radically from the narrow-
minded, materialistic and economically biased theories of development and presents a
comprehensive and qualitative perspective on human well-being. Max-Neef identified nine
fundamental human needs which he regarded as a holistic system.
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Ann Hope (Hope & Timmel, 1997) illustrates the nine fundamental human needs in the form
of a (holistic) wheel (see illustration below) meaning that you cannot change or touch only
one fundamental human need. If we want to bring about change we need to attend to all
needs or address the needs that complete the wheel. Similarly if you change one need the
others will also be affected. A tenth one has been added by Swart (2002), namely
transcendence.
FIGURE
The Wheel of Fundamental Human Needs
D Activity 9
Think of any problem/project in your own community and evaluate the
project according to the fundamental human needs. How many of the needs
are addressed? Does it attend to the problem holistically or only to some of
the aspects? Are the aspects/need attended to or have they already been
addressed
Write down your answer here:
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Additional examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
139 SCK201-3/1
Nthuthe (2000) relates how a health worker tried to introduce an educational programme on
hygiene to women in a community. According to the health worker, the women bathed only
when they menstruated, and she wanted to educate them to bath more frequently. The
women, however, indicated to her that when they bathed their husbands suspected them of
having been unfaithful. Even when the health worker tried to include the men, she realised
that this behaviour was value- and culture-based. We cannot separate behaviour, values,
culture and experiences.
D Activity 10
Read page 5 in Swanepoel and De Beer (2005) on the illustration of
Chambers' poverty trap. Also read Max-Neef's wheel of needs in Hope and
Timmel (1997).
What are the implications of the above for holism?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Own examples and idioms:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Values and skills motivated are: networking, no single one-level interventions:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 5
Additional examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Nthuthe (2000) cites the example of the Basotho people (Southern Sotho) who believe that
the young male adult who becomes ready for marriage is not allowed to express in words his
desire to marry. One way in which he can convey this message is to allow the calves to drink
all the milk from the cows, and not to leave any milk for the family to use. Outsiders may see
his behaviour as naughty or undisciplined, but the Basotho regard his behaviour as
purposeful and needs-driven.
In Northern Sotho there is a proverb, ``Manna o dira ka boomo.'' Translated directly it says
that ``man acts with intent''. There is always a purpose, conscious or unconscious behind
our actions.
Reread the case study on Lady Najafi in Swanepoel and De Beer (2005) as regards the
people's behaviour and Lady Najafi's reactions to it.
140
Read case study 3 in Swanepoel and De Beer (2005). Would you understand the woman's
behaviour if she went to the point of killing them and committing suicide?
Also read case study 4. Is the opening of the day care centre needs-driven and is it linked to
proposition 4 on emotions?
Own examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Values and skills motivated are:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 6: Emotions
Compare with Freire on relevance.
Own examples and idioms:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Values and skills: motivated are:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 10: Values (own and adopted from other people)
Compare with Freire on the ``culture of silence''.
Additional examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Mavalela (1999:14) gives the following Northern Sotho proverbs for this proposition:
``Moeng o naka dimaripa'' or ``Phukubje ya tshela moedi ke mps ane'', which means,
according to Mavalela, that if you are an outsider you must show respect for, learn from and
do what others are doing. You cannot impose your ideas on the community. What you can
do is sit, listen and learn how people carry out their everyday activities within the particular
community (compare with the communication skills discussed earlier). Facilitate
communication to allow people to tell you about them and their values.
Own examples and idioms:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Values and skills motivated are:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
141 SCK201-3/1
Theme 5: Conditions for facilitation (Grobler et al., 2003, chapter 5)
Read proposition 7: Frames of reference
Compare with Chambers on whose reality counts and his belief in the people's potential and
abilities.
Also compare with Freire's belief, faith and trust in people.
Additional examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
. Once somebody asked a Xhosa man where his home was and he answered that his home
was where his father's home was.
. Someone came across a group of people. All the men in this group had had their small
fingers cut off at the first joint, and the ring fingers of all the women in the group had also
been cut off at the first joint. They believed that this sacrifice would help them to live
longer. (Also compare proposition 5)
. A group of women, mainly seasonal workers on neighbouring farms, approached the
development worker in a rural community of the Limpopo province to help them launch
income-generating projects because their husbands earned very little and did not bring all
the money home. The women asked the chief's permission to start these projects. The
chief agreed on condition that they were not so successful that they no longer respected
their husbands! Otherwise, they were allowed to take their own decisions.
In the example above, the community developer tried to find a fit between the community
and its values, and the women's needs. This group of women found the chief's condition
acceptable, and they agreed with this point of view. Sometimes, however, women do not
share men's perceptions of their rights. This means that community developers should
respect the cultural values of not only one group (for example the men), but of all groups in
the community (for example women, children and other citizens). It is up to women to
decide whether or not they want to subscribe to men's ``cultural values''. The community
developer is always a facilitator who enables women to take their own informed decisions
and to execute these decisions. The developer assists them in the decision-making to be
aware of the consequences of their decisions and to make informed decisions. Facilitators
cannot decide for the women, however much they may be tempted to do so.
Own examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Values and skills: Respect, self-determination, individualisation, participation, decision-
making processes
Proposition 17: Conditions for facilitation
Compare with what Freire, Chambers and Korten see as important conditions for change.
Also read Tolan (2003), chapter 1, as well as p 178 in this study guide, on the conditions for
facilitating change. Make a short summary of your understanding of the conditions.
142
Theme 6: Reorganisation of the self and its implication (for change) (Grobler et al.,
2003, chapter 6)
This theme explains Rogers' ideas on change. Compare these with the ideas of Freire,
Chambers and Korten on change.
Read proposition 15: Reconstruction of the self
Additional examples:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Mavalela (1999:17) compares this proposition with the Northern Sotho idiom, ``Go hlanama
ga go elwe mosate'', meaning ``a wise man always changes his mind''.
She also adds an example of a cre che that was built in a rural community by an outside
agency that did not consult the community about the need for the cre che and where it
should be built. Consequently, it was built in an area that was not really accessible to the
children, as they had to cross a river to get to the cre che. The community was furious about
this. After discussions among members of the community, they ``restructured'' the problem,
considering the cre che to be an asset that was to be used for other meaningful purposes.
Own examples
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Values and skills motivated by the propositions:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 18: Acceptance of self
Own examples and idioms:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Values and skills:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Read proposition 19: Developing your value system
Own examples and idioms:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
Values and skills:
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
143 SCK201-3/1
Summary of Rogers' thinking about people Summary of Rogers' thinking about people
Realities, experiences and perceptions differ and can change.
The realities, perceptions and experiences of people differ and can change. Rogers focuses
on the realities of the individual and states that each person reacts to reality as perceived.
He also continues by saying that social group realities are created/constructed. ``Reality is
basically the private world of individual perceptions, though for social purposes (like a
community or a group in the community) which have a high degree of commonality among
various individuals. The desk is real because most people in our culture have a perception of
it which is similar to my own'' (Rogers, 1989:425). This does not mean that people in a
community have the same experiences or realities. They may have shared realities.
According to Rogers (1978:428), the important aspect of shared realities in communities
and between individuals in communities is the following:
If we accept as a basic fact of all human life that we live in separate realities, if we can see
these differing realities as the most promising resources for learning all history of the world,
then we can live together in order to learn from one another without fear; if we can do all this,
then a new age could be dawning.
The development of the self (of the individual and the community) is central to
the person-centred approach and a holistic process.
The self develops holistically in interactions with others. This includes the development of
self (identity) of the community as its members interact with one another and with people
from other communities. The community members function as a whole and have the ability
to determine their own lives. The self of the individual and the community is the main focus
of this approach. All the processes we facilitate in the community should focus on the self of
the people in the community and the self of the community.
People's behaviour is needs-based.
People's behaviour is always needs-based, in their attempts to self-actualise and maintain
themselves. It is based on experience, and on their perceptions of the world around them and
of themselves in interaction with others.
What is change, according to the person-centred approach? What is change, according to the person-centred approach?
Change, according to the person-centred approach, implies the following:
. People (and communities) are naturally in a process of continuous change and can and
want to change, implying that growth and development are always possibilities. The focus
of development should be people and their growth, not a problem or a programme or a
solution (see Swanepoel's work, Principles of human orientation, 2005:26).
Perceptions, experiences and needs can change and do change to the extent that the other
elements will also change (holism).
According to Natiello (1990:238), the most fundamental form of change is transformation
or a paradigm change:
Change occurs when there is a deep, inclusive change in the thoughts, perceptions and
values that have formed the prevailing vision of reality.
. People can change as a result of their interaction/communication with other people. We
facilitate change through communication (compare with Freire's dialogue).
Communication is seen by Rogers as more likely to be momentary (moment to moment)
144
than predictable and pre-planned. This means that it is a continually responsive process of
listening and empathically understanding. (see Study unit 3 the feature of participatory
communication)
. When a person symbolises unsymbolised experiences (becomes aware) and integrates the
symbolised experiences into a self-structure, the self-structure changes.
. Behaviour, including cultural practices, that developers (as outsiders) may not understand
is always directed at meeting people's needs in some way. Behaviour is always an attempt
to maintain, enhance and develop the human organism. Behaviour is considered
meaningful if it is perceived as suited to people's needs.
. People change in a context under non-threatening conditions in a specific kind of
relationship of acceptance, warmth and congruence. If we as facilitators create these
conditions and facilitate change, we become ``a companion to the client (community) in
his journey'' (Kirschenbaum & Henderson, 1990:12). We make it possible for people to
change. Later, Rogers (1986) also added personal power and presence as conditions
for change. Personal power is the premise that human beings can basically be trusted, are
capable of evaluating themselves and their situation, can understand themselves in
context, and make constructive choices and act on those choices (Rogers, 1978:15).
Rogers also states that conditions for a climate that promotes individual development apply
to any situation meant to encourage human development. We can, therefore, conclude that
the same conditions apply to community change/development. Rogers himself has actually
applied this approach to small groups and communities (see Rogers, 1977). The
assumptions of the person-centred approach and those underlying statements about change
are, therefore, important for participatory development.
. People (and communities) have enormous potential for growth and development
(change) under facilitative conditions. This is because Rogers believes that every person
has vast resources for self-understanding, for altering his or her self-concept, his or her
attitudes, and his or her self-directed behaviour.
. Change is a moment-to-moment, incremental process, and it cannot be predicted what
the outcome will be. Change moves from fixity to fluidity.
Change is not a single event but a process over time. Change can be a spontaneous or
facilitated process. (Compare with Korten on change as a learning process.)
. Rogers' view of change implies that the facilitator is part of the change process in the
community by virtue of the use of communication. The facilitator and the people in the
community construct the process together through communication/dialogue. Change is
therefore a participatory process, and a communication process.
. Change is related to the perception of the self and values. Only change consistent with the
person's values is possible.
Real change is only possible to the extent that the community's own values and self-
understanding permit it. This is why it does not work if the worker imposes a pre-planned
project or programme on the community from the outside. We communicate continuously
with the community during this process.
Change that means that people's perceptions of themselves have to change is threatening
and will be resisted. Change that is threatening to the self can take place more easily when
the external threats are removed or decreased.
Self-initiated change involving experience, values and feelings, as well as the intellect, is the
most lasting and permeating.
145 SCK201-3/1
How does a community developer facilitate change? How does a community developer facilitate change?
According to Rogers, it is not the techniques or skills as such that bring about change, but
``their way of being''. Only skills that enhance the facilitative context/relationship will be able
to help people to bring about change themselves through facilitating (making easier)
processes of conscientisation, new ways of thinking, accessing resources, networking,
capacity building selfdevelopment.
D Activity 11
If we regard the person-centred approach as a ``way of being'' or a
psychosocial posture, which propositions support this statement?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Discuss your understanding of what is meant by ``a way of being''.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Discuss your understanding of the condept ``facilitation''.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
2.4.2 2.4.2 The ideas of Paulo Freire The ideas of Paulo Freire
We are moving into an era where development workers have to facilitate participatory and
healing processes, and it may therefore be worthwhile to revisit Freire's ideas in order that we
may reflect critically on our own perceptions/thinking about and valuing of people, and on
our own ``way of being'' before entering into working with people. The thinking of Paulo
Freire links specifically to the exit level outcome no 4 as stated previously.
Read the following article:
Schenck, R. 2002. Revisiting Paulo Freire as a theoretical basis for participatory practices for
social workers. Maatskaplike Werk/Social Work, 38(1). (Appendix A in the study guide.)
D Activity 12
Summarise Freire's ideas in your own words.
...................................................................................................................................
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146
What values about people underlie these ideas?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
What is there that you do not understand?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Source: Pitt & Michell, 1992:125
D Activity 13
Translate Freire's description of the concepts ``consciousness'' and
``conscientisation'' into your own words.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
147 SCK201-3/1
Reflecting on Freire's paradigm Reflecting on Freire's paradigm
Some notes on Freire as a person:
His ``way of being'' as seen by others: Our being in the world is far more than just
``being''. It is a ``presence'' that is relational to the world and to others (Freire, 1998:25).
(compare what Freire said with Rogers)
. Freire was always ready to learn and change.
. His wife, Ana Maria, illustrated the action of wholeness by saying that he was somebody
who touched people physically and emotionally. He liked touching her and holding hands.
He liked to touch people on the shoulder when talking to them. He listened patiently,
paying attention to everybody. She said:
Paulo transformed the acts of touching, looking and listening into moments of deep
communication, a communicative dialogue, and therefore into moments of knowing.
. It was from his ability to listen, to open himself up without prejudice to others, that he
constructed his theory of knowledge. In addition to these qualities, he also possessed
humour and passion.
Ana Maria said that Freire regretted that so many intellectuals had lost themselves in their
marriages and in their lives as a whole without dichotomies, because they did not stop
their work to live moments such as simply being with their wives or going grocery
shopping. Freire was living his life being human, experiencing and sharing on all levels of
his life. Ana Maria also said that she learned a world of things fromFreire, but above all she
learned not to dichotomise reason and emotion (wholeness). Do not hide your emotions
when you write ? say what you feel; a scientist is not, never was, neutral.
About Freire's faith and trust in people, Ana Maria said the following:
When he died of a massive heart attack in hospital, Paulo left, full of faith in God and
certain that men and women will still build a better world, more just, more beautiful,
happier ( ``menos feio, menos malvado, menos desumano'' less ugly, less cruel, less
inhumane'').
. According to Olson (1997:324), Freire managed his office collectively. He practised
democratic principles in everyday life.
The process of action-reflection was part of his ``way of being''. Freire was always open to
challenges, new ideas, self-criticism and reflection, and to the reconsideration of his
assumptions, his arguments and his language.
Paulo Freire was a man who loved and who could not understand life's existence without
love and without knowing (holism). He lived love and tried to know and reflect critically
on his principles and practices. He was constantly curious and asking questions of himself.
. The immediate results of Freire's ideas of conscientisation and reflection posed a threat to
the Brazilian military regime and he was jailed for five years, after which he was ``advised''
to live in Chile. In principle, his paradigm poses a threat to any form of power and control.
(Freire's Pedagogy of the oppressed, 1972, was also banned in South Africa.) as well as
Hope and Timme l books that are based on Freire.
. Carl Rogers confirmed this in his comparison between himself and Freire. Rogers counted
himself lucky that he lived in a democratic society. As he said (1986:106):
I have often said that if a dictatorship took over this country (USA) one of their first
acts if they were at all intelligent would be to jail me and others who hold a
person-centred point of view.
(Remember that Rogers was referred to as ``the quiet revolutionary''.)
148
A person-centred point of view is seen as radical and threatening to any person/s for whom
power is important. This paradigm changes the relationship between the oppressed and the
oppressor, the trainer and the trainee, the researcher and the researched, the helper and the
client, the community and the professional. It results in equality in relationships and in
communication with one another. In this regard, we should reflect on our own position
regarding power in relationships.
The long-term effects of Freire's influence extend well beyond those who have read his work.
His pedagogy has been the foundation of an entire body of theoretical work for popular
education, participatory practices and revolutionary movements (Keough, 1997:157;
Godono, 1998:33).
D Activity 14
If you read through the description of Freire's paradigm, what guidelines do
you find for facilitating change in a liberating and dignified way?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Why can this approach/way of thinking be a threat to those for whom power
is important?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Freire on the ``culture of silence'' Freire on the ``culture of silence''
Before discussing Freire's ideas about change, it is important to add his thoughts about what
he called the ``culture of silence''.
Freire coined the term ``culture of silence'' to explain the apathetic silence that sometimes
characterises so-called underdeveloped communities.
To understand what is meant by a ``culture of silence'' we need to understand that culture is
the way people structure their experiences conceptually, so that they may be transmitted as
knowledge from person to person and from one generation to another. This knowledge is
also based on their perceptions of the world around them and how they adapt to this world.
Culture is formed over a long time, over generations, and the origins of the perceptions and
practices that emerge later on are sometimes unknown and irrelevant.
Freire refers to the development of a culture of silence as a process of ``cultural invasion''
where the invaders penetrate the cultural context of another group. A progressive cultural
subjugation of the local population, their rejection of their own views of reality, a loss of their
humanity and voice, and their acceptance of the views of the dominant society take place.
This involves accepting the dominant political social and economic institutions as well as the
values and traditions of the director class. Showing disrespect for the latter's potentialities,
the invaders impose their own views of the world and reality upon those they invade, and
inhibit the creativity of the invaded by curbing their expression.
The development of the culture of silence takes place as follows:
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Freire explains that there are two groups of people in any society: the oppressors or invaders
and those oppressed or invaded. The oppression takes place gradually, directly and
indirectly, through explicit and implicit messages from the oppressors. In different ways, the
invaders emphasise the differences in the levels of development of the two groups: that the
invaded are of an inferior social class and that their position is unchangeable. Some people
are born superior, others are born inferior and that is, according to the oppressors, how it is!
Those who are oppressed suffer in silence.
In this way, the invaded are subtly influenced to accept the invaders' perceptions of the
world and of them. The subtle comparison between the two groups leads the invaded to be
irresistibly attracted to the culture, underlying value systems and perceptions, riches, and
sometimes educational status, of the invaders, which are often highly visible. For the cultural
invasion to succeed, it is essential that those who are invaded consider themselves to be
inferior, begin to believe the invaders to be superior, and adopt the values of the invaders. As
the invasion progresses, the invaded want to be more like the invaders. This is often also
reinforced by the technological, financial and scientific resources available to the invaders.
There are also measures to prevent those invaded from sharing in the wealth, education and
resources available to the invaders. Separate (inferior) facilities are created for those invaded.
Their so-called backwardness becomes more apparent, and they are excluded from
participating in any decision-making structures. Over time, those invaded start thinking of
themselves as unworthy, without an opinion or voice (and vote). The crux of the culture of
silence lies in those invaded believing that ``we are not worthy because we are not like
them''. Submerged in the culture of the oppressor, the alienated person finally sacrifices his
humanity and dehumanises himself because of his inability to see himself as a human being
in his own right. For himto be human, he comes to believe that he must be like his oppressor,
have the same attitude and values, use the same language, and live a similar lifestyle.
Behardien (1989) states that ``this uncritical unreflective acceptance of the dominant view of
reality is one of the most striking features of the culture of silence''.
Colonisation and military dominance are conducive to the development of the culture of
silence.
The culture of silence leads to dependence and internal opression. Because those invaded do
not understand the values they have adopted or how to live in the new way, they become
dependent on the invaders to guide and lead them. They are always behind the invader and
can, therefore, never participate as equals. This becomes further proof to the invaders of the
backwardness of those invaded. The dependence leads to exploitation, and if carried too far
can lead to resistance, conflict, violence and revolt, which have no advantages for the
oppressors. For the oppressors, passivity, apathy and silence of the oppressed are important
and must be maintained. If the oppressed are passive, alienated and silent, it is in the interests
of the oppressors that alienation remain.
The culture of silence is broken through the process of conscientisation.
Freire's principles of change Freire's principles of change
Essentially, Freire's approach to change is that change is a liberation from all that holds
people back from a full human life. Freire's principles of change are as follows:
Radical transformation
Change is perceived as a radical transformation that entails transformation at many levels, i.e.
in individual lives, the community, the environment, and society as a whole. It is a change
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based on the hope that it is possible to change life for the better. It is also based on the vision
of a new, more just society where the values of co-operation, justice and concern for the
good are operative.
This change is facilitated through a process of action-reflection, is collective, and recognises
that each person and community, if empowered, can make a contribution to a society in
which people can satisfy their fundamental human needs.
Relevance
Change must be relevant, which means that it must be based on issues that are important to
the community.
Paulo Freire bases this on the link between emotion and motivation to act. He accepts that
emotion motivates and that strong feelings will provide people with the impetus for action. If
we initiate a change process, we must start with the issues people feel strongly about. These
are known as generative themes.
Generative themes are those issues that recur in conversations and about which communities
feel so strongly that they are able to generate enough energy to break through apathy, and
stimulate initiative and collective action among members in order to bring about change
(Hope & Timmel, 1995, Book 1, page 53). These are the situations about which people
experience emotion and that will motivate change of behaviour to satisfy perceived needs
(compare with propositions 5 and 6). Unless this energy is gathered, channelled and
directed it can waste away.
It is natural for people to strive to satisfy their needs. For this, they need energy. This energy
lies in emotions/feelings about issues. So we listen for the issues about which people have
the strongest feelings. The issues people feel strongly about will be the things that they are
willing to act on. We cannot ask people directly what they feel strongest about. We need to
listen to what they are worried about, happy about, sad about, angry about, fearful about,
and hopeful about as they share their experiences, perceptions and ideas about their life in
general.
A generative theme can be recognised when the group suddenly comes to life. The
atmosphere becomes alive with emotions such as excitement, anger, worry, joy, hope, fear
and the desire to participate. This is the energy that can lead to action.
The strongest feelings are often those in respect of situations in institutions, and the roles
and practices related to areas of life that every group of people living together is constantly
concerned about. These generative themes are about satisfying basic needs, relationships
between people, community decision-making processes and structures, education and
socialisation, reaction, and beliefs and values. To identify generative themes, a community
worker should listen for the feelings and topics that are implied in the stories people tell and
the things they talk about.
Unfortunately, a community developer cannot just go to people and ask them what they feel
most strongly about or what it is that they are worried, sad or happy about. To identify these
generative themes, a community developer should listen attentively as people talk
spontaneously. Once community developers have identified the generative themes, their
tasks are to present to the community, in a logical and challenging way, those topics that the
community has been talking about in a confused way. Through this process, the community
can begin to become critically aware of its dynamics and can be facilitated to develop new
perspectives and to take action (Hope & Timmel, 1995, Book 1, chapter 2).
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Dialogue
(Also see Hope and Timmel.)
Change develops through dialogue and local participation. Dialogue is a frank discussion
between equal participants where situations are not merely accepted, but are questioned,
challenged and analysed. The underlying causes and relationships are exposed. This leads to
further thinking and a richer understanding. This has already been dealt with in the article by
Schenck and will not be discussed here. Dialogue must however be included in a discussion
of Freire's approach to change.
D Activity 15
Summarise in your own words Freire's ideas on dialogue as mentioned by
Schenck (2002).
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Problem posing
(Also see Hope and Timmel 1995 Book 1 chapter 3.)
In problem posing, people actively seek solutions to problems. The facilitator sets up a
process in which the group is enabled to look for the answers and solutions itself. This is
built on the assumptions that people can think, and are able to act so as to change situations.
The core problem found in the generative themes of a community is presented back to the
community in a concrete way so that the community realises that it enters into dialogue on
the issue. This can be done by means of pictures, plays, songs, stories and simulation games,
also called codes. A code is a concrete presentation of a problem familiar to the community
(Hope & Timmel, 1995, Book 1:75). An effective code directs the problem back to the
people, giving momentum to the discussion. It agitates the people and gives rise to questions
and discussions. It does not provide solutions! If it provides solutions, it is an illustration
and not a code.
The facilitator can also use questions to help the group to describe and analyse (reflect on)
the situation by looking at the causes. The facilitator then challenges the group to find
solutions, sometimes even offering alternatives to be considered. The facilitator definitely
does not give answers or provide plans as this would be following a banking approach in
which the community is passive. Reflection on the problem should provide the foundation
for planning (see Schenck, 2002).
Change is never neutral.
Change is never neutral or objective. The facilitators of change must be aware of their own
values and of how they may be trying to shape others to change accordingly. Are their
actions (i.e. the actions of the facilitators) domesticating, maintaining the existing situation,
and perpetuating the dominant culture and values? Or are their actions liberating and helping
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people to think for themselves, to be creative, to think critically, to be active and to be
responsible?
Reflection and action
Cycles of reflection and action are central to the whole process of community transformation
(Hope & Timmel, 1995, Book 1:20-21).
Schenck (2002) maintains that Freire sees action without reflection as activism, and
reflection without action as useless verbalising. By connecting reflection and action as a
whole so that they interact with each other, they become, together, a complementary process
of change.
Reflection
action
= change
Reflection gives meaning and purposeful direction to action to bring about change; and
action is the substance for reflection.
Action-reflection process
Change can be brought about by facilitating this action-reflection cycle. The entire
community development change process as outlined in Swanepoel (2005) can be seen as
continuous cycles of action-reflection through which change emerges.
In the social analysis, and when making contact with a community, the community situation
is reflected upon so as to find generative themes. Change begins when a community
experiences dissatisfaction with some aspects of its life that it wants to take action about (a
generative theme). The facilitator then provides a situation (e.g. a meeting or workshop) in
which people come together to reflect critically on the situation. They may then identify new
inputs they need, get this information (through training, etc.), plan action, and then take
action. This first plan of action often only changes some aspects of the situation. The process
is then repeated by reflecting on the action that was taken, and new plans are made.
. Once an action group is formed in the community, any action that takes place, whether by
the worker or the action group, should be reflected upon. At first, the facilitator probably
needs to facilitate and initiate the reflecting process to facilitate further planning and
action. As the group becomes familiar with, and skilled at, reflecting and planning, it can
facilitate the reflection and planning itself.
. The process of implementation becomes a learning process as an action group or
committee continuously reflects on its actions and improves as it progresses. Firstly, the
group learns to be effective as it starts implementing planned action; then, through further
reflection, it will improve on its actions and, in so doing, learn to be more efficient.
Gradually, through further reflection, it will learn to expand its actions by addressing more
issues and even including more people. A continuing cycle of action-reflection-planning
therefore contributes to learning and to the sustainability of community efforts and
development.
. Ongoing evaluation or monitoring at every meeting and a final evaluation can be done by
means of reflective discussion facilitated by the facilitator.
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. A regular, ongoing cycle of reflection and action helps a group to become aware of its
successes and critically analyse the causes of mistakes and failures, and in so doing learn
from them. The group increasingly becomes more capable, effectively transforming its
daily life.
. Repeated rounds of action and reflection throughout, and at different levels in, the process
of change or project development help the process stay on track and also enable it to move
forward. For instance, by reflecting on the present situation or action taken with the
community (initially, probably with individuals, but later with the action group and
committee), it becomes clear and understood what changes are wanted, and the next
action that must take place can then be planned. In this way, reflection helps to move the
process forward.
Report writing can be used consciously to reflect on action and to increase practice
effectiveness. In writing a process report, a facilitator should briefly record details on the
significant action that took place. This is, in itself, a reflective action, but may be expanded if
further reflection takes place consciously. The next step is to consider why this is so and then
to set objectives and plan for further action.
Facilitating reflection
Reflection starts with a description of the situation or action. This is then followed by looking
back at the action and asking questions that agitate (stir up interest or concern) and break
the accepted pattern of thinking about the situation. Hope and Timmel (1995, Book 1:20
21) suggest that the facilitator help the discussion by asking questions such as the following:
What did you see? (Description of action or situation)
Is it positive or negative? (Give basic meaning)
Why is it happening? (The interplay of processes and parts)
What is the effect of the situation or action? (Understanding the impact/effect)
What are the causes of this situation? (Understanding possible causes)
What inputs do we need? (Identifying inputs)
What can we do about it? (Identifying the changeable and planning)
Other methods that can be used to facilitate reflection are the following:
. Codes and stories, ``but why'' questioning, shape the world, SWOT analysis, force field
analysis, balance sheet, mapping (Pretty et al., 1995:235; Hope & Timmel, 1995; Egan,
1998). Many other known and improvised methods can be used to stimulate reflection.
These will be covered in more detail in your third year of study.
. The following story illustrates some of Freire's ideas:
What is shaped like a brick and is made from trees?
In the early 1970s, John Medcalf, a mild-mannered young English Catholic priest, was fresh
out of Kent and missionary college when he found himself plunged head first into the horror
of Lima's exploding shanty towns and the grinding rural poverty on the Northern Andes
mountains around the Cajamarca valley. These include some 50 000 square kilometres of
the toughest mountainous terrain. This is a subsistence economy with no electricity or
telephones.
John Medcalf was overwhelmed and depressed by what he found there and was on the
verge of giving up when a young boy arrived at his door one evening. Leonardo was 13 but
looked much younger. He had heard that John was a priest and had brought something that
he, Leonardo, and his friends wanted John to see. It was shaped like a brick and made from
trees. There were words inside and it taught you things.
154
John told himthat he was describing a book and asked Leonardo if he could read. He said he
could read a little. So John lent him a book. It was a pamphlet on the history of the region.
John also gave him a pen and some paper. John asked him to read what he could and to
come back and tell him what he did not understand.
At six o'clock the next morning John was woken by Leonardo banging at the door. He had
read enough to want to talk about it, and wanted another book. And so the rural library was
born!
The task was massive but the spirit was at least as strong (see Rogers' proposition 6 on
emotions). The idea was revolutionary in the context of rural Peru. It was at this time that the
Brazilian, Paulo Freire, was arguing that, while the western models of schooling might
succeed in lifting a few bright children out of poverty, they could never reach the great
masses of peasants who could not afford to educate their children as long as they were
needed to help work the land. For education to be effective in such places, the system would
have to be tailored to the people, instead of the people to the system.
In this context John realised that reading and books could improve life, make a practical
difference, and create not only a greater appetite for literacy, but a sense of self-esteem to go
with it.
Peru was also a country where for the native population the book had long been
synonymous with conquest and oppression. The thing shaped like a brick and made from
trees had first arrived with the conqueror. In 1532 in the small Cajamarca square the Inca
king, Atahualpa, received a prayer book from a Dominican friar. Although the Inca civilisation
was sophisticated in many ways, it had no writing. They had never seen a book before. The
king looked at the book and dropped it to the ground. This gave the Spanish the excuse they
had been looking for to attack.
That afternoon the soldiers killed thousands of unarmed Incas and took the king prisoner. It
was the beginning of the end of the Incan empire; and a brutal introduction to the written
word.
A farmer librarian has remarked: For centuries native Peruvians had been afraid of books
because they walked hand in hand with those in control. Priests, landowners, judges and all
those who had control over the peasants used the book to hold onto that power. To keep the
peasants illiterate was to keep them quiet. This is the reason that the rural library became so
important; it was a way of putting an end to the conquest. It had given a voice to the people.
Today this area is served by 600 voluntary farmer librarians, who travel down the valley of
Cajamarca, collect up to 14 books at a time and return with them to their remote homes,
often as far as a three-day-journey away.
On their backs they carry copies of the Peruvian constitution, books on law, medicine, local
agriculture, plant remedies and history, as well as stories and customs of the region: all for
people who could never in a million years afford to buy them and who would otherwise
never see them.
The librarians are passionate about what they do. These 600 men and women are the
``barefoot'' doctors of the movement. Their work is voluntary and unpaid. They are elected
from and by the community for this task. They are highly esteemed and respected by the
community.
The result of this project was an empowered and informed community. The project grew
from the community.
(Source: Mail and Guardian, July 2430, 1998:1819)
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In summary Lee (2001:36) said that Freire's ``radical pedagogy'' is an underpinning of
empowerment practice in social work services.
2.4.3 2.4.3 The ideas of Robert Chambers The ideas of Robert Chambers
Robert Chambers, a development researcher/practitioner from the University of Sussex in the
UK, gained extensive experience in Africa, Asia and South America. Chambers became well
known after the publication of his first book, Rural development: putting the last first (1983).
In this work, he proposed a participatory approach that resulted in a role reversal between
professionals and the members of the community. This implied that the professionals are not
the only experts but should listen to, and learn from, the community, for the people in the
community are the experts on their situation. The people's knowledge and expertise must be
recognised. The people are not ignorant, they can do things professionals cannot do, and
they have skills professionals do not have. Chambers also became very aware of the poor
people who are not seen and not heard.
Professionals cannot communicate to people but need to communicate with them, learn
from them, learn from one another and share knowledge.
FIGURE
The people have knowledge and skills we don't have
Source: Schmidt (2000)
D
Activity 16
Read Grobler et al. (2003) on Chambers' six biases that prevent professionals
from seeing and hearing the community.
What is the implication of these six biases for communicating with people
and facilitating communication within the community?
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156
Chambers' ideas about people Chambers' ideas about people
The following views of Chambers result in a reversal of the roles between the professional
and the people in the community, and compel the facilitator to learn from and listen to the
people.
1. People are knowledgeable and skilful and have strong value systems
People in communities have skills they have developed over the years. They might not have
the same skills as you and me, but they can, for example, build a mud house, build a mud
oven and thatch a roof. They possess traditional knowledge, skills and values. They know
about the weather in their area. They know when it will rain, and how the river flows. They
know what clothes to wear when they have meetings, how to dress respectfully, and how to
greet one another. How to behave and dress during funerals and weddings. Both the people
in the community and the professionals are regarded as experts.
Matose and Mukamari (1994:69) state that, as regards the area of forestry in Zimbabwe,
knowledge of forestry has been extended to the Zimbabwean rural community without any
serious attempt at understanding what farmers already know. People have been telling
farmers what trees to plant without taking note of their knowledge and beliefs about trees.
Matose and Mukamuri found that people know trees are important but attach different
values to them. Some people protect trees because they believe that they bring rainfall by
stopping the clouds. Then there are religious groups who believe that big trees should be
conserved, because the cuckoo bird (hwaya) sings for rain and likes to rest in such trees.
Ancestral spirits (midzimu) also come to rest in these trees when they attend rainmaking
ceremonies. And the people believe that they will be punished if they cut down these trees.
2. People can grow and develop
Like Freire and Rogers, Chambers believed that people have the potential to change because
they are constantly growing and developing.
3. People and communities are complex, diverse and risk-prone
Chambers urged professionals to move away from the idea that people are uniform or
standardised. Nothing can be generalised or duplicated. Each person, each group of people
and each community is unique and has different realities. But more importantly, communities
consist of different, unique people with different, and even conflicting and competitive,
ideas, experiences and perspectives, and this makes them diverse and complex communities.
We can never know the community from the outside, or from our perspectives. We can never
talk on behalf of a community. And nobody inside the community can talk on behalf of the
whole community. Different groups of people within the same community may have different
perceptions and experiences.
At this point, you may be asking, ``What then do we do with this diversity?''
D Activity 17
Go to any group of people and ask them to discuss a topic, e.g. abortion,
Viagra, the death penalty or Aids.
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Write down the reactions and perceptions of the different people.
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Were these reactions similar or did they differ?
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Can we appreciate all the different view points? If yes, how?
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Chambers emphasises the existence of different and multiple realities, and that realities
change all the time. Realities do not stay the same.
He indicates that professional people tend to be caught up in their own realities and
perspectives and are not self-critical. We have to be able to ``affirm and celebrate multiple
realities, local diversity and personal and social potentials'' (Chambers 1997:196).
D Activity 18
Let's think about this for a moment. Think about your own perceptions about
issues. Have your perceptions stayed the same? Which issues have changed?
Which have stayed the same? Have your ideas about your children, parents,
friends' religions and marriage changed?
Chambers added to the paradigm shift, by shifting from the thing paradigm to the people
paradigm. He focused on people, their realities, perceptions, ideas, emotions and values,
and not on things. He communicated with people and listened to them, contributing to the
emergence of participatory practices in community development.
Chambers' actions or ways of communicating Chambers' actions or ways of communicating
Most important of all, according to Chambers (1997:129), is learning that the facilitator's
behaviour and attitudes matter more than methods and skills. It is important to be skilful,
but not without values and attitudes of respect, trust and being open to learning.
Chambers places strong emphasis on the following actions/skills:
Listening to people's stories and values
Learning from the people
The self-reflection of the facilitator
Chambers focuses on the importance of self-reflection on the part of professionals. In his
1994 book, Challenging the professions: frontiers for rural development, he challenged the
professionals regarding their own paradigms and how they think about people. He stated
that the challenge is up to us to:
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. turn our old values on their heads, to invent and adopt new methods, and to behave
differently
. question our values and viewpoints
. be self-critically aware, to see simple as optimal, to stay in villages and to learn from and
with rural people
. use participatory approaches, methods and procedures, to put people first before things
. celebrate diversity and complexity and to work inclusively and not exclusively
. work from the people's frame of reference and experience
Chambers developed quite an extensive group of participatory learning and action skills/
techniques in which learning, listening, respecting and role reversals take place.
Not one of these actions which Chambers suggests is easy to implement or operationalise.
They can in fact be quite painful for professionals who have studied so hard to become
experts. They can be threatening, but also liberating, for the professional. To break out, to
learn to unlearn, and to welcome uncertainty is a liberating act (Chambers, 1994:ix).
According to Chambers, the main question that we need to ask constantly when
communicating with the people in the community is, ``Whose reality is it?'' From whose
frame of reference, perceptions, values, beliefs and experiences am I communicating? Am I
listening to and including the different voices?
D Activity 19
What similarities can you find between Rogers, Freire and Chambers
regarding facilitative communication with and within communities? Briefly
write down the concepts.
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Some of Chambers' important ideas on change Some of Chambers' important ideas on change
With these ideas, Chambers has given a new meaning to participation and working with
communities (or as he would say, with the poor). Participation means to work from
inclusivity their reality or frame of reference and with their expertise. Participation implies
more listening than telling, and learning from the communities. He applies this particularly to
research. He regards development research conducted on the poor as unethical if it is not
accompanied by action that leads to improvement. Instead of research on which to base
development, he fostered the development of rapid rural assessment/appraisal (RRA),
participatory rural appraisal/assessment (PRA) and participatory learning and action (PLA).
Chambers therefore leaves us with the idea that change is a participatory process in which
there is role reversal, with community members being the experts of their situation, and from
whom the community developer learns. The community's realities are very important.
159 SCK201-3/1
2.4.4 2.4.4 The ideas of David Korten The ideas of David Korten
David Korten, who worked mainly in South East Asia, is one of the people who added to the
paradigm shift/change towards focusing on people instead of the problem. He called his
approach the people-centred approach, and a learning process approach. Let us reflect on
the words he used to describe his approach.
. He refers to a people-centred approach, meaning that the person is central and the focus
of development, and not the task, thing or problem.
. He refers to change as a learning process, meaning that both the people and the facilitator
and organisation learn during this process. He introduces the concept learning
organisation, which refers to the perceptions and attitudes of the agencies which
implement development projects in communities.
. He refers to process, meaning that it is the facilitation of a process through which learning
or change takes place.
In their major work, Korten and Klauss (1984) contrasted the two paradigms as follows:
TABLE 10.2
Problem-centred/blueprint People-centred/learning-
approach process approach
Focus Things People
Direction of the development Top-down Bottom-up
Approach Blueprint Learning process
Ways of working Standardised Diverse, complex and
plural
From one way informing/telling
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To participative inclusive communication
Source: Hope & Timmel (1995, Book 3:82)
Korten's facilitation of the learning process approach with communities was one of the major
new approaches which started to replace the blueprint approach in terms of which people
are seen as things and projects can be standardised. This learning process approach believes
in people's capacity to grow and develop and it recognises and respects the individuality and
diversity of each community. It also promotes inclusivity.
Change according to Korten Change according to Korten
Korten states that change is a people-centred process, meaning that the focus is on people,
(the self) not the problem, and that change is a learning process. A learning process
approach means that any situation in the process of bringing about change should be
approached as a learning opportunity and not as a situation where a blueprint plan should be
implemented.
Learning process approach Learning process approach
The first concept introduced in the learning process approach is that of ``fit'', which implies
suitability or appropriateness. In contrast to a pre-planned blueprint approach to planning, a
programme or action emerges out of a learning process. The community and community
developers share their knowledge and resources in order to create a programme that achieves
a fit between the needs and capacities of the community and the organisation providing
assistance. Achieving ``fit'' means that a programme is responsive to beneficiary needs at a
particular time and place and to the organisation. To obtain this fit, the organisation and the
community must regard the planning as a learning process and must be flexible so that
adaptations can be made. The organisation becomes a learning organisation that
increasingly learns to make responsive and anticipatory adaptations. Any learning
organisation or application of a learning process approach implies the ability to:
embrace error
plan with the people
link knowledge-building with action
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We will now explain these three basic propositions of a learning process approach:
Embracing error. This means that it is accepted that mistakes will be made in the
process of change or implementation of projects. These need not be denied, but should
be discussed openly. A learning approach embraces (symbolises) error and regards
mistakes as learning opportunities. Errors are regarded as vital sources of data for
making adjustments and for making new plans to achieve a better fit in the future.
(Compare with Freire's action-reflection process)
People come first. In planning or any other action, the action must take place with
the people. This means that the community's potential contribution of knowledge and
skills, its capacity to change, and its scepticism of developers and development are
recognised and accepted. Any action should be with the people, primarily built fromand
enhancing community capability. Outside assistance may be used but efforts are made
to reduce the risks associated with outsiders.
Integrated roles. Knowledge is linked to action. This means that the roles of
researcher, planner and administrator are integrated, and are not separate, as in the
blueprint approach.
In its ideal form, the learning process moves through three stages, namely learning to be
effective, learning to be efficient, and learning to expand.
The three stages of learning
Stage 1: Learning to be effective
The main concern in this stage is to develop a programme with the community that has a
high degree of ``fit''. This phase is resource-intensive and needs much intellectual input and
freedom. It is a time of learning to know what is needed. It involves basic learning about
community dynamics and learning through an action-reflection process. High error rates are
normal, though decreasing. Efficiency is low.
Stage 2: Learning to be efficient
The main concern here is with reducing the input requirements through careful analysis of
the stage 1 experience. Activities that are not essential are eliminated, and essential activities
are routinised. The number of people involved may increase or decrease. In this phase the
programme becomes stabilised, people are trained, and basic management systems are
developed.
Stage 3: Learning to expand
The main concern in this phase is with orderly expansion as organisational refinements take
place. When this stage is completed, the organisation is ready to address new needs or
problems.
Throughout the learning process, the community developer is a capacity builder using
knowledge and data to help improve the community's performance. Action research or the
action-reflection process is basic. This means that decisions are made, action is taken, results
are studied, lessons are learnt, and new plans and further action take place.
In each stage, there are likely to be trade-offs between effectiveness, efficiency and
expansion, which will lead to some loss of effectiveness as efficiency increases and to losses
in both the stages of effectiveness and efficiency when expansion kicks in.
162
In working with communities in general, there is often a lot of instruction or education, for
example on Aids, abuse and women's rights. This means that a learning process approach or
learning principle is not being adopted. Rather, the process is one of imposing information,
not of learning.
Other writers Other writers
There are two other writers that we should take note of:
Anisur Rahman (Asia)
Stan Burkey (Uganda)
They emphasise that although the West may view Third World people as poor and
uneducated, these people are rich in resources, knowledge, creativity and ideas. Rahman
(1993:25) explains this idea on the basis of his experiences in Zimbabwe, where he
encountered the wealth in human creativity.
I was deeply moved thereafter as villagers came to me to thank me saying that they were
not poor as I had helped to lift a deeply pressing burden from their backs.
The title of Rahman's book is People's self-development: perspectives on participatory
action research (1993).
The title of Burkey's book is People first: a guide to self-reliant participatory rural
development (1993).
The titles of these two books indicate the authors' perceptions about people. Both authors
focus on the strengths of people.
D Activity 20
After reading all this theory about people, do the following:
Write down your feelings on all this reading.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Share these with somebody.
Write down the following:
The parts of the theory that were the easiest to understand
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
The parts of the theory you could identify with (fit)
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
163 SCK201-3/1
The parts of the theory you liked least
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
The parts of the theory that were difficult to identify with
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Anything else you wish to add ...
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
Look closely at the ideas of the authors about people in communities, and
then list the communication skills which you think are needed to facilitate
change.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
. /: . /:
In this study unit, we provided a theoretical foundation for facilitative communication with
and among people in communities. We also developed a theoretical orientation for change.
Some participatory change practices were discussed. If community development is to be
practised professionally and in an accountable way, it is essential that it be done from a clear
theoretical orientation.
We need to ask how all this theory forms the foundation for communicating with people in
communities. The theories discussed guide the following:
. Our thinking about people
. Our values in respect of the people in the community
. Our ways of communicating with people in communities
. Our facilitation of communication with and among people in communities
164
/1, / /1, /
.//./ --./ // .//./ --./ //
oo/ --/: oo/ --/:
./ -o:/. .//./ --./ --/: ./ -o:/. .//./ --./ --/:
Without communication there is no community, and no culture. Without facilitative
communication there is no change, and there are no participatory processes.
Trough communication a group of individuals become a community because they
communicate, build relationships, develop culture and acquire interdependence.
Communication can be seen as that which determines the life or existence of a community or
group (such as an action group). Communities, groups and relationships exist and survive as
people communicate among themselves and with other individuals and groups. The more
people interact and share common circumstances, activities and experiences, the more
connected they become. They also become interdependent and effective at meeting their
existence needs. The more communication takes place, the more a common life with, for
example shared values, perceptions and goals, emerges and recurs. This process posits a
widening area of commonality and interrelatedness. It intricately connects individuals and
families, through various groupings, into networks that comprise communities and societies.
The outcome of the communication is that the groups and individuals accommodate each
other in relationships that become more or less stable arrangements.
Relationships tend to become structures as they are consensually formalised. Over time and
through continual social interaction between people, patterns of behaviour, beliefs, values
and norms in individuals, organisations and communities emerge (``the way we think around
here''; ``the way we do things around here'') and are referred to as culture. This also refers to
the self of the community. (See Grobler et al., section A, proposition 15.)
. //: .1 --/, . //: .1 --/,
To facilitate development, community workers should have some understanding of culture in
general and the culture of the people they are working with. They need to take the time and
make the effort to become aware of a community's culture, values, relationships and
communication processes.
D Activity 21
Read Grobler et al. (2003) and Swanepoel and De Beer (2005) on culture.
165 SCK201-3/1
What are the main points the authors make about culture, values and
communication?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Culture is formed through communication and is also ``an integrated pattern of
communication among people with a common history, language and place, that results in
common values, behaviour patterns and expectations that are communicated and
transmitted across the generations'' (Bloom, 1984:23). Different groups of people have
different ways of satisfying their fundamental needs, for example their needs for protection,
clothing or shelter (Max-Neef, 1991:20). These behavioural patterns are closely linked to
their context and environment. One example related to culture is the choice of food and how
it is prepared and eaten. Think of the staple food of different people living in different areas.
Rice, maize, wheat and potatoes are the basic foods of different groups of people. A specific
food originally became the staple food because of its availability/affordability to a specific
group of people in a specific area. The same process applies to the culture of relationships
and communication.
Culture is formed through communication but is simultaneously a system that influences
structure, relationships and communication (Egan, 1998:123).
Wildervanck (1989:55) adds that a person's culture influences his lifestyle, his way of
thinking, how he perceives problems and how he responds to them.
Culture and facilitation of a participatory process with a community or Culture and facilitation of a participatory process with a community or
action group action group
Just as individual people differ, so too every community differs from every other community
and has its own ``culture''. Even if community workers are part of the same broad cultural
group as the community they will be working with, the principle is always to be aware of the
culture and to respect it, learn fromit, and be alert to ways in which it can be used to facilitate
the development process. The community worker should not make assumptions and judge
communities and their cultures on the basis of their being familiar or unfamiliar. The
community worker should assume the role of learner and be willing to be guided by the
people through their community, customs, history, knowledge, views, needs, joys, sorrows,
wants and potential. A worker will need to communicate with the people in order to
understand how they perceive the community, discover the things they feel strongly about,
understand what the people define as problems and needs, and learn how these problems
are described by various people in the community. The worker must try to understand the
ideas, concepts, words, phrases, etc. that people use (Henderson & Thomas, 1989:65, 95).
The indigenous wisdom, knowledge, history and culture of a community should be regarded
as resources in participatory community development. For example, facilitating a community
to enquire about its own local history can help it become aware of how its history relates to
the history of its country. Through their history people can discover the elements and social
forces of the past that were useful to their community then and that could be recovered to
facilitate change in present-day conditions. Techniques that are useful for this purpose are
oral tradition and story telling (Rahman, 1993:147). Freire's approach to adult literacy is that
people should first be helped to read and write the words they use most, and then to extend
166
their reading and writing skills. Folk stories have been used in participatory/popular
education where people were encouraged to tell their stories. These stories were then written
down, and they became the basic reading material of literacy education. They can associate
with the reading material.
The culture of people can also be recognised in order to enhance the development process
by paying attention to, and making use of, local music, sport, games, beliefs, myths, folk
tales, etc.
The following are known examples:
Idioms
Chindongo, a development worker in Malawi, learnt and used traditional local wisdom as it
was found in proverbs. He pointed out that rural people in particular often use proverbs in
their communication. He suggests that it is very important to learn the proverbs commonly
used by a community. People told him that by using proverbs he had created the feeling that
they were being given the opportunity to reflect on issues affecting them in a language they
were at home with. This then enhanced their interest and participation. He was also able to
inform them more effectively of the approach he used when he used idioms (Chindongo,
1997:125135).
Music
Music can be used in many ways. In the programmes of the care group that promoted
primary health, local melodies and instruments were used. A familiar melody can be used to
teach principles of basic nutrition, hygiene or treatment of a disease, etc. (through personal
observation and communication).
A social work learner helped a group of unemployed people who were receiving food parcels
from a church congregation to develop a number of small income-generating projects. One
of these projects was candle making. Once the candles had been made, they had to be sold.
One of the members lived in an informal settlement. She took her share of the candles home
and advertised them by engaging two groups of people to compete in a singing competition
in front of her shack. The singing drew the people's attention. They came to see what was
going on and saw the candles that were for sale.
Messages are conveyed through songs.
D Activity
Identify some songs in your own community in which messages are
conveyed.
--: .//./ --./ :/, // oo/ --: .//./ --./ :/, // oo/
The aim of communication in working with people is to facilitate to make it safe and easy
for people to speak and to express themselves freely (i.e. to break the culture of silence). We
as facilitators then have to listen, learn and share (compare with Chambers).
This allows people to speak, and to tell us their stories and experiences.
Before discussing the different facilitative communication skills, we need to summarise the
aims of facilitative communication.
167 SCK201-3/1
If we reflect once again on the ideas of Rogers, Freire, Chambers and Korten, we see that
through communication we facilitate change in the community by doing the following:
. Restoring human dignity, self-worth, confidence, pride, initiative, creativity and a belief
in oneself
Does my way of communication restore human dignity?
. Celebrating and acknowledging diversity and differences
Do I communicate openness to differences? Do I see differences as a resource? According
to Bawden (1994:262), coherence can be reached through difference. (Compare with
South Africa's new ``unity in diversity''.)
. Breaking the ``culture of silence'' (Freire)
In communicating with people, we listen and learn. We have to ask ourselves whose voice
we are listening to. Are we listening to the people in the community? (Compare with
Chambers.)
. Developing the self
According to Nturibi (1982:106) and Rahman (1993), development is an internal process.
This process increases people's access to resources, knowledge, skills and self-worth in
order to be able to grow and develop. We need to constantly ask ourselves whether our
communication provides information and/or whether it facilitates self-development.
. Thinking critically/liberating the mind
According to Rahman (1993:195), only with a liberated mind which is free to enquire can
people take charge of their own lives, plan and take action, and release their creative
potential. This also requires critical thinking. (Compare with Freire's ideas.)
Oakley (1992:260) quotes a community member as saying the following:
An outsider who comes with ready-made solutions and advice is worse than useless. He
must first hear from us what our questions are, and help us to articulate the questions
better, before helping us to find solutions. Outsiders also have to change. He alone is a
friend who helps us to think about our problems on our own.
This inevitably leads to the following aim:
. Independence, self-reliance and self-management
This is the main aim and end result of communicating with people in communities in order
to facilitate change. Here, ``change'' means independent, self-reliant and self-managed
change.
- - :o: .//./ --./ :o: .//./ --./
2 400 years ago, Confucius declared:
``What I hear, I forget.
What I see, I remember.
What I do, I understand.''
Facilitation is seen as the opposite of presentations where the audience or receivers are
passive and receive information verbally, and perhaps visually, but do not participate in the
process.
2::o/ // o/ .//./ 2::o/ // o/ .//./
The concept ``facilitation'' has its origins in the word ``facile'', which derives from the Latin
``facilis'' meaning ``easy''. It means making learning, communication or change processes
168
easier or less difficult for the participants. A facilitator uses active, participatory, participant-
centred methods. This involves bringing out, and focusing on, the wisdom of the people as
they create something new or work out solutions to a problem/s themselves. The facilitator
regularly reflects on the process and stimulates dialogue and interaction between the
participants. Essentially, facilitation skills will aid the social worker as facilitator to
communicate with people more effectively and, in a larger variety of ways, to guide people
through learning and change processes.
: - //:/./ o:o/: : .//./ : - //:/./ o:o/: : .//./
Features of the facilitation process
Based on the theoretical principles, the facilitation process is seen as having the following
features:
Feature 1 A people-centred process
The focus is to listen to people's experiences, needs, perceptions, knowledge, skills and
values. Their own way of learning is important. (Compare with Rogers' propositions 1 and
2.)
Feature 2 An unpredictable, open-ended and unique process
The facilitation process is not a pre-planned process. The end result is unpredictable and so
is the time it will take to achieve. Each person will gain differently from the process. The
outcomes will be unique to each participant.
Feature 3 A dialogical, multi-way process
The facilitator and members of the community are involved in dialogue, sharing, learning,
reflecting and co-evolving. The dialogical process is based on a relationship of trust and
understanding. ``Dialogue'' according to Freire (1972:62) ``requires an intense faith in
human beings; their power to make and remake, to create and recreate''.
Feature 4 An experiential and incremental learning process
The community and the facilitator learn experientially, or learn by doing. They learn based on
their own knowledge, skills and experiences. Learning also comes from learning from
mistakes and then making improvements. Korten and Klauss (1984) refer to this as
``embracing error''. Linney (1995:17) quotes Carmen as stating `` a human being does not
only learn to walk by walking but also learns lessons by falling''.
Feature 5 An inclusive participatory and democratic process
We have entered the postmodern era where differences and pluralism are appreciated. The
facilitator focuses on inclusivity rather than exclusivity. It is the variety of differences
between viewpoints that make them a rich resource. People have the right to be part of
processes, and the right to access to resources.
Feature 6 An indigenous, local and relevant process
This means that the process stems from the heart of the community and expresses the
creativity and equality of people. It is based on the values and culture of the people.
Feature 7 A needs-based process
Participatory work is based on the needs of the people, that is on what is important to them
and what they feel strongly about. (Compare with Rogers' proposition 5.)
169 SCK201-3/1
Feature 8 A micro/small group process
No community is a homogeneous unit. Mamelodi, Venda and even a rural village cannot be
seen as homogeneous units. In participatory practices, the focus is on small, reasonably
homogeneous groups such as groups of women, youths, men belonging to street
committees, fishermen and farmers. Do not think for one moment that a group is
homogeneous. It is a group of unique individuals who at least have a similar need and can
plan together for the benefit of each person. Everyone in the group should be able to
participate. Rahman (1993:222) states that people in a certain community in Zimbabwe
indicated that two processes took place in small groups. They refer to these as ``uakana''
(``building each other'') and ``uglolana'' (``sharpening each other''). People do not
participate in something that does not have any meaning to them. (Compare with Rogers'
propositions 5 and 6.) The facilitation process happens through groups of people, as they are
rich resources of knowledge and expertise.
Feature 9 A problem posing process
Based on Paulo Freire's critical conscientisation process, the communication process with
the community should be problem posing rather than problem solving. If we believe that
people are self-determined, then we should rather pose questions that encourage them to
look for their own answers. In Freire's words, the people learn to ``read the world''.
Feature 10 Co-evolutionary process
Participatory practices and communication are co-evolutionary, meaning that both members
of the community and the facilitator are part of the process of creating the community's story,
and are part of the process of change.
Feature 11 A unique reflexive process
The process of people-centred communication involves repeated rounds of action and
reflection (as illustrated below) or a cycle of looking, thinking, planning, doing/
experiencing, reflecting and planning action.
Figure
The action-reflection cycle
(Reflect)
THINK THINK
PLAN PLAN LOOK
(experience
perception)
LOOK
(Reflect)
DO (action) DO
170
People-centred communication is also described as an ongoing, reflexive, cyclical, open-
ended and flexible process. Each cycle is collectively planned, implemented and reflected
upon, and these activities are used as the basis for planning the action-reflection cycle.
./ //.:/./: // .//./: ./ //.:/./: // .//./:
The role of the development worker/social worker when working with people in
communities is to be a facilitator of change. Facilitation means to make possible and
easier. This process relates to the facilitator's acceptance and knowledge of his or her own
self. ``The more I am open to the realities in me and in the other person, the less do I find
myself wishing to rush in to fix things'' (Rogers cited in Kirschenbaum & Henderson,
1989:23).
Facilitation implies that development workers/social workers manifest the following
behaviour:
. Creating a warm, congruent, accepting and understanding context in which people can
grow, risk, learn, make mistakes and change in ways that are consistent with their self-
structure. There should be no threat to the people.
. Accepting and respecting people. This safe context will facilitate learning and growing
from within the person.
. Putting the values of respect, individualisation, self-determination and confidentiality
into practice
See Grobler et al. (2003), section B, on values. It is no easy task to work according to
these values.
. Respecting the people and their ideas by working from their reality and frames of
reference experiences, perceptions, values and needs
. Believing in the community's potential to grow and develop, and respecting, discovering
and developing the community's unacknowledged knowledge and expertise (Rogers,
1977:6)
The community may be unaware that it actually possesses the ability to bring about
change. This means that members should develop an awareness of their abilities.
Community members are, or can be, the experts on themselves by making their own
decisions, believing in their potential to find their own answers, and not providing answers
but posing critical questions/reflecting.
. Attending and listening to and empathising with (understanding) the community
See section C in Grobler et al. (2003), especially those parts on the community.
. Encouraging and creating opportunities for the community members to exercise self-
determination and make decisions themselves about matters that affect their lives
Community workers should not try to change the community from the outside or do things
for the community that it is able to do itself (Swanepoel & De Beer, 2005). Self-criticism
and self-evaluation rather than external evaluation facilitate independence, creativity and
self-reliance. Information and models from external sources can be made available and
must not be imposed for the purpose of evaluation and decision-making.
. Creating opportunities for participation and non-threatening conditions as already
described
The facilitator enters into and builds relationships through communication, as such
relationships and communication are important for facilitating any constructive change
within communities.
171 SCK201-3/1
. Creating opportunities for participation in decision-making throughout the process of
change, including situation analysis, planning, implementation and evaluation
. Creating opportunities for skills development/capacity building through experiential
and participatory learning
The development process must be facilitated as a learning process where people learn to
deal with ever-changing conditions.
. Creating opportunities for a continuous process of action-reflection planning on the
part of the community itself (Freire)
. Creating opportunities to access possible resources knowledge
. Enabling and encouraging people to fully contribute their ideas, skills and knowledge
. Encourage networking
. Acknowledging contributions and including all ideas and perceptions
. Focusing equally on group processes and content
. Presenting directions for exercises clearly and enthusiastically
. Reflecting critically on your own values, attitudes and stereotypes
. Having fun and building healthy relationships
. Guiding without imposing or steering too much
The list is not complete. Please add any others you can think of
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
D Activity 22
Reread the above actions or behaviours of the facilitator. What conclusion do
you reach if you look critically at these actions/behaviours?
Facilitating, on the other hand, is not:
. interrupting
. being impatient
. completing people's sentences for them
. attacking those who disagree
. sending negative non-verbal messages
. lecturing
. deciding for people
. educating top-down
. being critical
Add more actions that do not fit with the role of the facilitator:
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
To summarise: The facilitator encourages creativity and reflection on the part of the
172
participants. He or she becomes the co-learner, co-communicator in this journey of
participants discovering their own voice and abilities. Successful facilitators are as aware of
what is going on inside of them as they are of group dynamics. This awareness helps them
make decisions about whether and when to intervene. A ``tuned-in'' facilitator is a good
facilitator. Using a popular metaphor, the role of a facilitator is to orchestrate the process of
the group. Without awareness of his or her own internal process, a facilitator is reading from
only half the musical score.
Becoming a reflective facilitator
To become a facilitator of change processes implies becoming a reflective facilitator. Louw
(2002:122) refers to Cookingham who describes a reflective facilitator/communicator.
Reflective facilitation means to:
. think critically about our thoughts, values and actions during the facilitation process
(What am I doing? Why am I doing it? What does it mean to me?)
. continuously identify what was effective and what was not effective with the community
. continuously identify what was consistent/inconsistent with one's theory (See the criteria
set by Schriver, 1995.)
What else should we reflect on?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
- / .1// /.:::/o.:/o./: - / .1// /.:::/o.:/o./:
Guila Muir gives the following guidelines about adult participants. In the community we deal
mostly with youths (teenagers) and adults. When facilitating change, please remember the
following about working with adults:
Make it respectful, challenging, and present it simply.
Provide opportunities for participants to discover things themselves. Don't feel compelled to
explain everything. Act as a facilitator to their process. The process should respect them as
adults who are knowledgeable.
Make it fun.
People are far more open to learning when they're having a good time and when they are
actively involved.
How does one ensure the learning process is fun? Guila Muir says that part of the answer is
to have a good time yourself. If you consistently don't enjoy what's happening, then
something is wrong. When you provide engaging, relevant learning activities (not ``fluff'')
people have more fun. And you will too.
173 SCK201-3/1
D Activity 23
Read Hope and Timmel (1997), chapter 4, on adult learning.
What principles do you gather from the authors?
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Patterson (1995:60) writes that, in an interview Rogers indicated that he viewed the role of
the facilitator as being similar to that described by the Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu. He
referred to the following as the ``little quotation I treasure'':
A leader (facilitator) is best when people hardly know that he exists
Not good when people obey and acclaim him
Worst when they despise him
But of a good leader (facilitator) who talks little
When his work is done, his aim fulfilled, they will say ``we did it ourselves''
The less the leader (facilitator) does and says
The happier his people
The more he struts and brags
The sorrier his people
A sensible man says
If I keep from meddling with people, they take care of themselves
If I keep from commanding people, they behave themselves
If I keep from preaching to people, they improve themselves
If I keep from imposing on people they become themselves
.//./ --./ // ,:o: --/: : // .//./ --./ // ,:o: --/: : //
o:o: /// ./ o:o: /// ./
People working in a community interact and communicate with groups of people in the
community. We facilitate change through small groups of people. You seldom work with a
large group of people. These groups are either spontaneously formed groups such as street
gangs, burial societies, stokvels, neighbourhood groups, groups of aged people and groups
of youths, or deliberately formed groups such as working committees, self-help groups,
social action groups and street committees. These groups come together for a limited time
and on the basis of the assumption that the particular problem/need they are trying to
address can best be dealt with by pooling the resources of energy, intelligence and skill
possessed by several people.
In section A you learnt about communicating with small groups which exist temporarily for
the benefit of the individual. In this section, we focus on communicating with the individual
and groups not only for the benefit of the individual but for the benefit of the group and the
wider community.
174
D Activity 24
Find out whether your friends, family members or others you know belong to
a group.
. Why do they belong to that specific group?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
. What do they gain from belonging to the group?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
. Why do you think people belong to groups for the purpose of community
change/transformation?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
. What makes a group a group?
...............................................................................................................................
...............................................................................................................................
What is a group?
A group may be described as a collection of people who engage in face-to-face
communication. This communication affects them. Individual members experience a sense of
belonging and other members usually regard them as belonging. They share time and space
in order to meet and communicate. In the broadest sense, the word ``group'' implies more
than one person working together and communicating to attain a joint goal. Families,
businesses and churches can also be described as groups, as can people who come together
with a joint goal in mind. In community work, we communicate with groups of people who
come together and who have a joint goal or need which they wish to address collectively.
Such a group then becomes the vehicle for change.
The process of group formation
As you studied the group process in section A, we will not discuss this process in detail here.
A valuable framework for describing processes is the one provided by Johnson (1994). This
framework will assist us when facilitating communication with and within the group to know
what type of communication to expect in a certain stage of group development. Always
remember that these phases are not rigid, but will differ from group to group. People and
groups are unique. Each phase can involve a few group meetings. In communities, you may
also have to work with existing groups which have already gone through the forming,
norming and storming phases. For example, working with an existing stokvel or a burial
society.
175 SCK201-3/1
Forming
Groups go through the process of forming, in other words they come together and define
themselves as a group. They develop some kind of identity based on a need or concern, for
example unemployment, housing or water. They come together as individuals, with each
individual having his or her own agenda, expertise and expectations. Through
communication with one another, individuals become a group with a common goal. Some
people may join the group only to find that they do not share the common goal or identity,
and they may then leave.
In groups in communities, the group's size can be important for participation in the
communication process. According to Pretty et al. (1995:44), if the group comprises:
. 3 to 6 people, everyone will speak
. 7 to 10 people, almost everyone will speak
. 11 to 18 people, 4 or 5 people will speak a lot, and 3 or 4 will join in occasionally
. 19 to 30 people, 3 or 4 will dominate
. 30 or more people, there will be little participation
It is therefore important to subdivide the group into smaller groups to allow individual
members to speak out and to be heard.
If we communicate with a group of people in a community, it is preferable to break up the
group into smaller groups because this facilitates good participatory communication among
the members of the group. An important aspect of facilitating communication is to encourage
small groups to discuss something and to give feedback to the larger group.
Norming
Part of the process of becoming a group or a unity is defining who we are and how we will
operate. This often results in specific patterns of interaction. People interact in a particular
way, and they structure meetings in a specific manner. For example, even down to what
people should wear, what they should do, the rituals they should follow, when they should
meet and where they should meet. They develop certain expectations of one another. In the
course of this process, groups often lay down rules and norms that will guide them. Norms
help groups to strengthen their identity and to regulate interaction and behaviour in the
groups. (Remember that this process does not always occur on a conscious/symbolised
level.)
Storming
Conflict within groups almost always arises at some stage. We cannot predict when this will
happen and why. Conflict may arise when members have difficulty understanding one
another, when distrust develops, when members feel disrespected, and so forth. Conflict
usually develops when the personal values and self of the person are threatened or
challenged (compare with the person-centred approach). Dealing with conflict then
becomes crucial (see Grobler et al., 2003).
It is not easy to deal with conflict in groups because subgroups often form and a facilitator
can easily be caught between opposing parties. If there is too much conflict and discord
within the group, the group will collapse or some members will leave. If some common
ground can be found without loss of uniqueness or autonomy, then the group will have
greater cohesion and a greater sense of purpose.
176
The facilitation process needs to be listened to well, and all the differences need to be
acknowledged.
Conforming
Conforming or consensus in groups often develops when the groups have determined their
needs and objectives and have developed a common identity. However, group cohesion
does not guarantee peace or the absence of conflict (see the two case studies in the practical
guide), but it helps to develop trust in relationships that will assist in resolving conflict more
easily. When group members trust one another and develop strong relationships, conforming
becomes easier. But members sometimes conform simply to avoid conflict. In such cases, the
conflict still exists within the member, and this can be very harmful to the group. If group
members cannot communicate with one another, they often leave the group because of
unhappiness or something which could have been dealt with through communication and
trust.
Performing
According to Pretty et al. (1995:40), the group has now reached the stage where it is
characterised by maturity and maximum productivity. The group members have become a
team. This stage cannot be reached if the group members did not go through the previous
stages successfully. Group members now take on roles designed to perform group activities
because they have learnt to relate to one another. Roles become more flexible and functional,
and the energy of the group is channelled into identified tasks. The members will also be able
to reflect critically on themselves so that they can plan, act and replan repeatedly until the
goal is reached. They will even take risks and take on new ideas as they become more
confident.
FIGURE 4
A group working together
Source: Pretty et al. (1995)
177 SCK201-3/1
Adjourning/expanding
We sometimes think that community projects or groups in communities must go on
endlessly. But projects do end or change. In some instances, projects are completed and the
group disbands, or the group can continue on its own, or the project changes into a
business, cooperative or network, or it expands and the characteristics of the working
relationships change. Such relationships may then become looser, more formal, more legal,
or closer (compare with Schmidt, 2000:83; also compare with Korton & Klauss, 1984).
Those of you who continue with the social work course will study group processes in greater
depth during your third and fourth years of study.
.//./ --./ :///: // .1 // .//./ --./ :///: // .1 //
--/: / /:, .// :./ /., --/: / /:, .// :./ /.,
Participation is impossible without communication (Bordenave, 1996:11).
We will now consider the communication skills that will assist us in facilitating
communication with people in communities as well as in facilitating communication within
the community to bring about change in a participatory way.
These skills include the basic and advanced skills that are dealt with in your prescribed books
and will therefore not be discussed here. Study these skills in Grobler et al. (2003) and Tolan
(2003). Also study the rest of the content which is dealt with in this study unit.
There are also other skills that the facilitator can use to communicate with people and/or to
facilitate communication within the community to bring about change in a participatory way.
These skills will be discussed in this study unit.
D Activity 25
Study Tolan (2003) on how people change. Summarise the main points.
Reread the discussions on Rogers, Freire and Chambers in study unit 2 of this
section and list the things they consider as constituting change.
Skills for facilitating communication for change in a participatory way
The basic communication skills include the facilitation of conducive relationships as context
for communication, attending, listening, probing and basic empathy.
./ :/./:/o .: // : --./, // oo/ ./ :/./:/o .: // : --./, // oo/
// --/, // --/,
For people to participate in their development, they need to be able to voice their opinions
and make themselves heard; and they need to be listened to. This is in itself an act of power.
Slim, Thompson, Bennett and Cross (1993) see ``speaking out'' as already an act of power.
To enable people to speak out, the facilitator needs to create a non-threatening context.
178
D Activity 26
Read Grobler et al. (2003), section B, on the values of the facilitator.
Read what Rogers (proposition 17) and Freire say about the relationship in
which we facilitate change.
Read Tolan (2003) on the necessary and sufficient conditions for facilitating
change.
List the concepts here:
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
According to Taylor (2001) the relationship is at the heart of development itself. The
facilitation process takes place through the relationship. The nature and quality of the
relationship will have a significant effect on the quality of the facilitation process, and to the
development practitioner the establishment, building, sustaining and terminating of
relationships is central to their practice.
The CDRA's annual report (2004/2005:11) states that as regards relationships we live, learn
and develop within three types of relationships which are experienced differently, i.e. the
relationship with self, the interpersonal relationship with people around us and the
external relationship with the rest of the world. These three levels span the inner and
outer experiences of human beings, and so it is at these levels of relationship that we find the
work of helping people to free themselves. Power is held in relationships. The CDRA say that
in healthy and free personal and interpersonal relationships people are empowered by their
own and each other's humanity and are able to learn together, cooperate and provide for
their needs to a much greater degree. They develop mutual responsibility even to tackle
outer restrictions or oppressive relationships. Simply put, we need healthy relationships
through which we can develop ourselves and help each other as primary purpose and as a
condition for further healthy development.
Taylor (2001) lists the following qualities and abilities required of the facilitator in order to
establish a ``developmental relationship'' with the people in the community:
1. An in-depth knowledge of yourself, and the agency you represent, including the power
you have and your own needs that you will be meeting through the relationship
2. Sensitivity to how you are perceived and experienced by the people and what you
represent to them (hope, congruency, trust)
3. The ability to articulate clearly and honestly who you are, your purpose and intentions
(congruency)
4. The ability to listen consciously, deeply, actively and with empathy in order to appreciate
the purpose and intentions of others (empathy)
5. The ability to build trust through being worthy of trust in all that you do and undertake
to do (trust)
6. The ability to negotiate agreements (contracts) that honestly reflect the interests of all
parties and encourage co-ownership (trust)
7. The ability to allow and encourage your relationships to change over time
179 SCK201-3/1
Taylor (2001) says that ``an inescapable reality is the fact that forming and maintaining
trusting relationships not only takes time but also takes quality time''.
Please note
When working with people in a community we build relationships with individuals and
groups, and we build networks. The more time spent with people individually the more
effectively you will be able to facilitate change in the community. We never stop
building relationships with people.
Freire (1972:41) regards trust as the most critical aspect in the relationship: ``They (helpers)
talk about people but they do not trust them; and trusting people is the indispensable
precondition ... A real humanist can be identified by his trust in people.''
Rogers regards respect as the most significant attitude of the facilitator.
D
Activity 27
Study Tolan (2003:87109) on the psychological contract. This will receive
further attention during the workshops.
Study Tolan (2003) on congruence.
Study chapter 6 on unconditional positive regard (in Tolan)
List all the conditions mentioned by Grobler et al., Tolan, Freire and the other
authors.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Critically reflect on the qualities and abilities of the facilitator as mentioned in
p 179 in this study guide.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
The application of values and the building of relationships are the most important aspects
that you will be assessed on.
. -oo/./ ./: / // --/, . -oo/./ ./: / // --/,
Study Grobler et al. (2003) on values.
These will be discussed during the workshops.
180
:/:. : :///: : o.:/o./:, --./ :/:. : :///: : o.:/o./:, --./
Any skill that is used should be measured against the following criteria to determine whether
the skill is appropriate for a participatory approach:
. Does the skill enhance the dignity of the person?
. Does the skill show respect for the people?
. Does the skill create trust?
. Does the skill enhance the appreciation of diversity and does it bring out the different
voices in the community?
. Does the skill enhance the context for growth and development of the person?
. Does the skill empower the people?
- - 2./, // :,-//:1 o:: /.: --./ :///: 2./, // :,-//:1 o:: /.: --./ :///:
3.14.1 Attending 3.14.1 Attending
D Activity 28
Study Grobler et al. (2003) on attending. Summarise the main points.
Measure attending against the above criteria.
Which proposition motivates attending?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Let us now summarise what has been said about attending in Grobler et al. (2003).
Attending seems to have the following components:
. Having no need to get your own ideas across (no top-down approach in communities, set
programme or preconceived need)
. Focusing on the other person; focusing on each person with whom we interact in the
community
. Trying to understand the people in the community through attending to their meanings,
experiences, perceptions and behaviour
3.14.2 3.14.2 Listening, learning and understanding Listening, learning and understanding
It is important to listen in order to understand one another, ourselves, our context and our
resources. The facilitator has to first listen and then create different and appropriate settings
or contexts in which people can share and the facilitator can listen. Taylor (undated)
confirms this by saying that listening, in particular, has enormous power within:
Real active listening can inspire people to see and hear things themselves that they were not
conscious of. (Only listen to themselves and one another.)
D Activity 29
Study chapter 12 in Grobler et al. (2003) on listening to people. Then
summarise the main points.
181 SCK201-3/1
a Example
Prakash and Esteva (1998:46) cite the case of one, Anthony Marcos, who
went to a community of Chiapas in Mexico to ``educate'' them. Instead of
educating the people, however, Marcos learnt from them how to become a
``part of the mountain'', a part of ``this world of ghosts, of gods that resurrect,
that take the shape of animals or things''. He learned to listen. He tells the
following story:
``They have a very curious way of handling time. You don't know which
time they are talking about. They can be telling you a story that could
have happened a week ago, 500 years ago or when the world started.''
Good listening implies listening to what people have to say, to what they are
not saying, and to implied messages. To be able to listen, we have to provide
people with the opportunity and forum to talk and tell us their stories. Marcos
goes on to describe the process by means of which Peruvian farmers shared
their knowledge about the potatoes they grow with scientists and with one
another. The scientists wanted to help the farmers to grow the ``ultimate''
potato. They discovered that potatoes had already been grown for over 4 000
years and that there were hundreds of hybrids in existence. They organised a
workshop with the farmers in which the delegates described the known
``customs'' regarding the growing of potatoes. Some farmers collected
different varieties grown in their communities and explained in detail the
name of each variety, where they came from, where they grew them, when
they were sown, the different cultivation procedures, when they were
harvested, and so on. The farmers each brought between 14 and 35 identified
varieties. They also told stories about the potatoes the myths, the rites, and
the humour.
a Example
Van Huysteen (1997:68) entered a community on an agricultural research
farm. Read what she did to create different settings in order to be able to
listen to the different groups of people in the community:
The committee
The people on the farm had already elected a committee. The members of this
committee were the gatekeepers of the community and she met them during
one of their regular meetings, negotiating her entrance and asking for
guidance. They told her that she should meet the men in the single quarters
first.
Men in the single quarters
Members of the committee took her to the men in the single quarters,
introduced her to them and gave the men permission to talk to her.
Married women at home
The committee advised the facilitator to visit the married women at home and
182
individually. She then moved from home to home visiting them and having a
cup of tea with them. The women enjoyed these conversations and felt she
was really interested in them.
The married men
The married men preferred a more formal meeting. They felt it was more
``professional''.
The children
The children were all together in one school on the farm. She visited them at
school and, by drawing pictures, she communicated with them about their
community.
Good listening also leads to understanding and respecting of values.
a Example
Prakash and Esteva (1998:52) tell the following story about a community's
values that were not respected in Guatemala. This particular community
resisted the idea of capitalism and the imposing of an external economy that
threatened their own. Teachers who came to the community wanted the
community to buy school uniforms and shoes for the children. The
community resisted because it had its own distinct cultural patterns for
making and using clothes. The same was true of all the other goods that they
nourished and cherished. Everything was made within the community and
was not bought or sold. To buy something was to abandon the autonomy of
the ``economy of gifts''. If the teachers had listened to and learned from the
community, they would have been able to respect these and other values of
the community. The end result was that the teachers were abandoned by the
community.
What are the results of good listening? The results of good listening may be summarised as
follows:
. Good listening encourages people to talk.
. Good listening to people in communities will result in understanding and in learning
from the community.
. Good listening shows respect for a person, and develops trust and the relationship.
(Compare with Rogers and Freire.)
. Changing our role from one of expert to one of facilitator and co-learner will make
community members the experts.
. When people are listened to, they gain new confidence. They feel free to tell their stories
(Hugo & Slim, 1993:15).
. Good listening helps people to listen to themselves.
. Salas (1994:68) also indicates that good listening helps us to develop a common
language (understanding) with the community. For example, an Indian Social Work
learner at Unisa is an Indian traditional dancer who has developed a ``common'' language
183 SCK201-3/1
with her Zulu-speaking community in Natal by dancing her Indian dances to its Zulu
music.
. Good listening captures personal experiences and perceptions. One person's
perception represents one particular perspective and not an overview.
. Good listening results in hearing the implied messages of the community. For example,
often when a group of women indicate that they would like to embark on an income-
generating project, the implied message may be that they wish to care for their children
and lead a dignified life. (Compare with Rogers.)
. Good listening highlights and respects the diversity within groups and the community
with regard to human experience, values and aspirations. (Compare with Chambers and
Rogers.)
. The process of listening does eventually result in action, and those people who have
given of their time to talk know that their words have been taken seriously. (Compare with
Freire.)
D Activity 30
Listening is written about in the helping professions and even in books for
parents, managers, volunteers, etc. It is also written about in every book
written on, for example, helping skills, parenting skills, managing skills,
therapy skills and facilitating skills. Why then is it that helpers still struggle to
listen?
(1) What makes it so difficult to listen? Write down your ideas.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2) To which proposition(s) can you link listening? Briefly explain your
answer.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(3) In your experience what happens when you are really listened to?
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(4) After reading up on listening in Grobler et al. (2003) and in this study
guide, reflect on listening in terms of the criteria set out on page 181.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(5) Also reread the case study on Lady Najafi in Swanepoel and De Beer
(2005) regarding contact making and how she listened to the people.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
184
How else can we listen to communities other than by listening to individuals? We can listen
through the following:
. observation, e.g. participant observation
. listening to the radio and watching television
. reading local newspapers
. listening to their songs, theatre plays, poems, etc.
Other ways of listening?
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................
a Example
Prakash and Esteva (1998:46) cite the case of one, Anthony. The following
were contributed by a third-year social work learner, Twinky Mogata, who
``listened'' to an artist's sketches about life in Marabastad. Look carefully at
the sketches and see what they reflect. (Next page)
3.14.3 3.14.3 Probing Probing
Probes, according to Egan (1998:101), are verbal and sometimes non-verbal ways of
encouraging people to talk about themselves. They encourage people to describe their
concerns more concretely by way of specific experiences, behaviours and feelings, as well as
discussions of the themes that emerge from an exploration of these. Probes encourage the
client to explore more fully and enable the facilitator to gain a better and deeper
understanding.
Different forms of probes
The following are some of the different forms of probes that can be used:
. Minimal encouragers such as single words or phrases. Here, the facilitator can lean
forward, listening attentively, so as to encourage the person to continue. Or he or she can
use an encourager such as ``mm-mm'' ( ``go on''), or ``Tell me more, I'm listening.''
. Request. ``I am not certain what you mean. Please help me to understand this.''
. Question. ``What'', ``how'', ``where'' and ``when'' questions are sometimes of great
importance when we want to clarify what people are saying or when they plan their
actions. Who will do what, where, when, and how?
. ``But why'' questions. The ``but why'' question is really at the heart of the process of
conscientisation (Freire) and helps the community to develop a wider awareness of the
situation. Getting to know the community's needs requires thorough analysis of the
community's ``solutions''. This means that the ``need for the cre che'' (see earlier example)
should be explored. Different people could be asked why they believe a cre che is needed.
This can be done in various ways. For example, an opinion poll could be conducted, or
there could be a conversation directed by ``but why'' questioning with the use of empathy
and probing responses. (See Grobler et al., 2003:172.)
185 SCK201-3/1
186
187 SCK201-3/1
a Example
Question: ``Why would you like to have a cre che?''
Answer: ``I want my child to be properly cared for.''
Question: ``Why do you want proper care for your child?''
Answer: ``Because I go to work every day, and I worry if my child is
alone at home.''
Question: ``Why are you not satisfied with your present arrangement''?
Or ``What do you see as proper care?'' etc.
Perceptions of causes and effects and the extent of the situation should be explored until the
worker and the participants have a more comprehensive understanding of the situation and
have reached an agreement on the need.
Afterwards, different possibilities of addressing the larger situation should be explored and
then prioritised, and only then should planning follow (Patel, 1992:98).
Appreciative inquiry (Meyers, 1999)
Appreciative inquiry means using questions in a way that is more than a method. It is a way
of viewing the world positively. This type of question appreciates and nurtures what is
working, and this provides energy for further effort. It also helps to avoid the continuation
and retrying of things that are not working.
It approaches work with a community from a position of respect and belief in the
community's strength, ability and potential. It seeks to identify that which is positive. The
basic assumption is that even the poorest communities have some health, vitality and life-
giving social organisation. It stands in contrast to a problem solving approach, which looks
for what is wrong or missing (needed). Instead, it looks for what is working, successful and
life-giving and attempts to see additional possibilities.
Problem solving questions Appreciative (strength) questions
What is the problem? What is working and creating life and value?
What is missing? What do people do that enables them to survive?
What hinders? What did we do successfully in the past?
What helps? What would be best for us?
What is the solution? How did you manage to survive up to this point?
The key characteristic of an appreciative approach is an emphasis on strengths. See the
underlined words.
The appreciative approach can also be applied to evaluation. Rather than finding out what
went wrong and seeking solutions, the following questions are asked:
. What went right?
. What created energy and excitement?
. What emerged that people affirm as good?
. How can this be expanded?
The shadow side of questions
However, be careful how you use questions. If overused and if not used sensitively,
questions can lead to interrogation. Sometimes, helpers tend to ask too many questions,
especially when they do not know how to proceed.
188
People then feel that they are being ``grilled'' and exploited instead of being understood and
appreciated. In Northern Sotho they refer to this as ``go betas motho ka mantsu''. Directly
translated, it means ``to throw words at somebody''. This is not probing!
When do we use probes/probing?
Egan (1998:102) indicates that probes can be used in the following situations:
. When we want to get clarity on vague statements
. To fill in missing parts/pieces
. To move on from what is being said
In our view, the main aim of probing is to encourage dialogue, understanding, critical
thinking, awareness and appreciation of the community's strengths. Probing should never be
used to satisfy the facilitator's curiosity for factual or sensational information, and should not
interrupt the flow of the communication. It should not turn into interrogation.
D Activity 31
Reflect on probing in terms of the criteria set out on page 180 181
Other probing techniques, such as PLA (participatory learning and action) techniques and
nominal group techniques will be discussed at a later stage.
3.14.4 Basic empathy 3.14.4 Basic empathy
D Activity 32
Study Grobler et al. (2003), chapter 13.
Study Tolan (2003) on empathy.
(1) Summarise basic empathy for yourself.
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................
(2) Think of empathic responses for the following situations:
. A group of women share their misery with you of not having money to
care for their children
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
. A group of women share their situation with you of not having money
to care for their children
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
189 SCK201-3/1
. The chief in the community shares with you his concern about the
well-being of the community, which is very poor, and states that he
feels responsible for providing for the community
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
. The women tell you that they have to walk five kilometres every day to
fetch water and that the closest clinic is eight kilometres away
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
. A group of women meet for the first time with the facilitator and tell
her that they have to open the meeting with a prayer, and that she
must dress appropriately when attending these meetings
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
Why do you think these basic skills can already bring about some form
of change? Explain your answer.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
How do we show empathy to community members other than
individuals in communities?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
Practise some role plays during the workshops in order to listen to
what a group/ individuals (women, men, youths, the aged, the kgotla,
etc.) have to say. Give empathic responses.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
Which proposition(s) motivate/s basic empathy? Briefly explain your
answer.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
Reflect on basic empathy in terms of the criteria given on page 181.
190
2./, // :,-//:1 o:: .1.1 2./, // :,-//:1 o:: .1.1
--./ :///: --./ :///:
Advanced skills facilitate the symbolisation of unsymbolised experiences. Such skills are
founded on respect and trust between the members of the group and between the group
and the facilitator. They require self-reflection on the part of the facilitator and will hopefully
enhance self-reflection on the part of the individuals in the group/community. Advanced
skills are part of the action-reflection process and are built on basic empathy. Taylor
(undated) says that it is of little help to gather information if you do not have the ability to
use it to help others make more sense of their own situation. Here we need to develop our
abilities to separate elements and then bring them back together in pictures that people can
understand in new and more meaningful ways. We need to help people grasp the whole
rather than baffle them with breaking everything up into smaller parts. This can also be done
using pictures, stories, songs, etc., which will be discussed later.
The following metaphor can be used to describe the process. Imagine a sandwich, such as a
cheese and ham sandwich. It consists of two pieces of bread, with slices of cheese and ham
in-between. The two pieces of bread can be linked to basic empathy; that is, you start with a
slice of bread (basic empathy), then add slices of cheese/ham (advanced empathy), and
then you add another slice of bread (basic empathy). This second slice of bread reflects the
facilitator's understanding of the people's newly symbolised experiences. For example, if you
listen to a group of women who indicate they need income to have a better life.
First slice (basic empathy): The facilitator will reflect their pain and the discomfort of
being poor.
Cheese/ham (advanced empathy): The facilitator reflects the implied message of feeling
unworthy; the people will feel deeply understood or the facilitator will facilitate the process
of conscientisation. ``But why'' questions delve deeper for the community members to
understand their own needs and behaviour.
Second slice (basic empathy): The facilitator reflects that the people know, feel heard
and understood, and have discovered new meaning.
D Activity 33
Study section D in Grobler et al. (2003) on advanced empathy.
The advanced skills aim at dealing with unsymbolised experiences and the
facilitation of change in communities.
What do you regard as an unsymbolised experience of people in
communities, and why should it be symbolised?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
191 SCK201-3/1
3.15.1 3.15.1 Advanced empathy Advanced empathy
D Activity 34
Read chapter 14 in Grobler et al. (2003) on advanced empathy.
Read Tolan (2003:3742).
How, in your opinion, does a facilitator use advanced empathy when
communicating with people in communities? How can we reflect on people's
collective experiences, perceptions, needs, values and implied messages?
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
Martin (1983:3), in discussing basic empathy as a skill, states that, ``for any other thing to
work, you must first make your client feel deeply understood''. When communicating with
people, it is essential that they feel that they are being listened to and that they are deeply
understood. Advanced empathy focuses on communicating understanding as well as on
transformation or change. According to Egan, such advanced empathy has as a further
function the mobilising and activating of people by triggering a different thought process.
The aim of advanced empathy is to facilitate change: to change perceptions, experiences and
ideas so as to facilitate the symbolisation of the unsymbolised. To be able to use advanced
empathy, we first have to be able to listen very well. Individuals in the group share their
individual experiences, and the facilitator has to listen carefully to each member's
experiences as well as to the shared experiences of members. The facilitator has to hear the
implied messages and the unsymbolised experiences. He or she then needs to give feedback.
For example a group of women may indicate that they need income to feed their children. By
listening well, the facilitator also hears their needs for respect, dignity and recognition. They
are therefore trying to be good, caring mothers who want to be respected and regarded as
worthy people.
In communities skills such as appreciative enquiry, appreciative questions, mapping, ``but
why'' questions, river of life and metaphors can facilitate the symbolisation of unsymbolised
experiences.
3.15.2 Immediacy 3.15.2 Immediacy
D Activity 35
Study immediacy in Grobler et al. (2003), chapter 15.
Summarise the most important concepts about immediacy here.
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................
192
Immediacy is an important communication skill which can be used in various circumstances.
It is placed under advanced skills because it is also related to implied messages and to
unsymbolised experiences in relationships. Immediacy has to do with the unsymbolised
experiences in the relationships between the people involved (including the facilitator). It
refers to what is happening between members of the group and between members of the
group/community and the facilitator. Egan (1994:186) refers to it as ``direct, mutual talk''
about relationships.
Immediacy that focuses on the relationship
When working with communities, we work with the group as a whole, but also with
individual members. There is also the relationship/interaction between the members of the
group. This relationship may become stressful. There may be misunderstandings,
competition, intrusion and distrust, but there may also be support and caring for one another.
When the facilitator has observed the various relationship issues, he or she can respond by
way of an immediacy response. For example:
``I sense that you trust one another enough to take risks.''
Or
``I am uncomfortable at the moment. I don't know if I am imposing my ideas.''
Or
``I may be wrong but I sense that something is making the relationship between you and
me difficult.''
What is being done here is that the facilitator is bringing the relationship issues, for example
differences and tensions, out into the open, whereas before the differences, tensions and
positives were below the surface and were unsymbolised. Note the tentativeness of the
statements as well as the fact that the facilitator is speaking from the ``I'' position.
Note that there are three points included in any immediacy statement - ''me'', ``you'' and the
relationship.
Here-and-now immediacy
This form of immediacy is useful when the facilitator has to deal with an immediate situation.
In group discussions, individual conversations or even in community forums, incidents
sometimes occur where it is not clear what process is at work. In such cases, the facilitator
could say something like the following:
``I am not sure what is happening at the moment. Can we discuss this?''
Or
``Correct me if I am wrong; what I see happening here is ...''
This kind of immediacy can be very useful when a facilitator is caught in an awkward
situation and does not know how to proceed.
``I am lost; I don't know what we should do next.''
Note the ``I'' message and the congruency of the facilitator.
Self-based statements
These might be positive, personal statements which the facilitator makes about the
community, the group, or the individuals.
193 SCK201-3/1
``I can see that this experience is very meaningful to you.''
``The way you all deal with differences is a learning experience for me.''
Note the ``I'' message as well as the fact that these messages have to convey honesty on the
part of the facilitator.
Golden rules of immediacy
The facilitator always talks from the ``I'' position, and whatever the facilitator says must be
honest and congruent with his or her own experiences.
The ``I'' messages make it impossible for the facilitator to blame the people or the group,
because he or she is simply communicating his or her own experiences of the particular
situation. What the facilitator says is relative and tentative, and allows the other party to
disagree.
Immediacy is implicitly true to the person-centred approach. It recognises every person's
own frame of reference, asks for congruency and attempts to symbolise the unsymbolised
experience in terms of significant others. If what we reflect/convey back to people is not a
genuine experience or response, it will come across as patronising and false.
D Activity 36
. Formulate two sentences from the ``I'' position. Formulate the same
sentences starting with ``you''. Why is it important to formulate them from
the ``I'' position?
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. Which proposition/s motivate/s immediacy? Explain your answer.
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. Reflect on immediacy in terms of the criteria set out on page 180.
A note on communication with children in communities
Most of the time we as adults speak for children. The same happens in communities. We tend
to communicate with the adults and not with the children, to listen to the adults' frames of
reference and their perceptions and experiences. It is common in the case of participatory
learning and action techniques (you will learn about these at third-year level) to involve the
children in order to discover their perceptions, experiences, ideas, skills and knowledge.
Remember they can draw, act, play, sing, dance and write. They usually have a different
perspective on what is happening, and on what should change or not change. Create
opportunities to listen to the children.
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3.15.3 3.15.3 Ethical issues in communication with communities Ethical issues in communication with communities
D Activity 37
Study section B in Grobler et al. (2003) on values.
(1) Write down the main concepts and ideas that you come across.
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(2) Read Freire's discussion on ideas and values in this study guide as well
as the discussion of these topics by other authors. Indicate which values
emerged from their theories.
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Slim et al. (1993:151) maintain that it is a personal process to talk to people and
communicate with them. It means that we have to ``intrude'' in their lives. We therefore have
to respect people and their cultures, and what they share with us.
The central issues in a discussion of ethical values are the rights of narrators to privacy and
confidentiality, as well as the extent to which community/development workers have the
right to enquire about and document the knowledge and experience of the people with
whom they work.
Ownership and authorship
It is important to respect transparency and to discuss with the community what should
happen to the information, and who owns it. The relationship between the facilitator and the
community, and between the members of the community, is therefore important, as is
respecting and trusting one another. The community always has the right to decide what
should happen to information. Ideally, the people themselves should share the information
they feel it is safe to share.
When do we (facilitators) move in?
This is another ethical debate when working with communities. When are we allowed to
move into communities and facilitate the communication process?
Are we allowed to move in only when invited?
: --./ .1 o:/ 1/o-/ : --./ .1 o:/ 1/o-/
Communication is the essential ingredient of development, of every project and any structure
for development (Swanepoel & De Beer, 1996: ix &1).
Communication is always important. Through it, we create and co-create the world.
195 SCK201-3/1
In community development, in particular, communication is viewed as important for
facilitating the voices of the poor (Freire; Slim et al.). Chambers also views communication
as important with regard to those people who are never seen or heard. People tend to speak
for the poor. The collective voice of any community tends towards generalisation and
simplification and is dominated by the loudest voices. We want to get to the heart of the
people. At the community level, therefore, the testimony of individual voices reveals the
experience of hidden groups and counters the bias of those who speak for or ignore them.
Participatory communication has the capacity to break down generalisations and
misinformation about people in communities.
Most of the activities that are used in facilitating projects with the community make use of
communication in one way or another.
Through communication, relationships are formed with the aim of doing the following:
. communicating facilitatively and purposefully so that people will emerge who will take
action to bring about change, so improving the quality of people's lives
. enabling the action group (to take action); in taking this action, it utilises its
communication skills, relationships, structures and knowledge about the culture
purposefully in order to realise the project and reach the goals it has set for itself
Much of a community worker's time is spent on interpersonal face-to-face communication
during interviews in many different relationships.
The following are some of the relationships community workers may be involved in:
. between the community worker and individuals in the community
. between the community worker and different individuals who are in some way or another
connected to the community
. between the worker and smaller and larger groups
. between the community members
. in the committee with one another (meetings)
. between the committee and the action group
. in the action group among themselves
. between the committee, the action groups and the wider community
. between the committee and other resources, individuals, organisations, etc.
The above include three levels of communication with communities.
. On one level there is the personal people-centred communication between the facilitator
and the members of the community. You as facilitator communicate with the community.
. On another level, the facilitator facilitates personal people-centred communication
between the members and groups of the community, or within the community.
. There is also a third way of using and facilitating communication with people. This
facilitative communication occurs when people use visual and expressive aids to
communication such as posters, comics and drama to convey certain messages to the
people in communities. These can also be used by members of the community to
communicate to other members of the community. They can stimulate communication
between the members of the community and between the community and the facilitator,
depending on the manner in which the facilitator applies these skills.
In order for the worker to prepare to engage in such communication, he or she first needs to
understand the way of communication in a community to be able to find the most effective
ways of communicating and facilitating communication. Community workers should take
time to become aware of communication in a community. How are ideas, information and
196
news disseminated within the area? What are the most effective ways of communicating with
key people in the area? What channels and means of communication carry weight among
particular groups of people and contribute to the shaping and changing of people's
perceptions? These may include informal, person-to-person verbal contacts, formal
channels, written channels, mechanical channels, electronic channels, the mass media (such
as fliers, newsletters, newspapers, radio and television), and the graphic and performing arts.
Being aware of communication systems in a community or group can help us to understand
the existing influence of power structures and leadership. Communication systems probably
reflect rather than create power relations, and the existing and visible interaction merely
reflects the influence.
Professionals facilitate change in communities through communication, by communicating
with the individuals and groups in the community, and by facilitating communication
between the people in the community.
/: /:
In participatory community development, we cannot take communication for granted. We
must pay much attention to it because it is the lifeblood of participatory change through
which change is facilitated.
Effective communication depends to a considerable extent on the quality of the relationships
between the people involved. In situations where there is fear, distrust, disrespect and
disregard in relationships, communication is less effective than in situations where there is
respect, trust and attention and where people listen to each other. It is therefore clear that
communication is much more than the mechanical process of receiving and transmitting
messages. A specific climate or conditions must be created where people feel safe, respected
and valued, do not harbour any fears and are not anxious. When people feel equal and
appreciated, they can express themselves. Trust cannot be imposed or bought. It is gradually
built through close working relationships, openness, genuineness and through experiencing
reliability and respect.
We have seen that communication is a complex process that has the potential to facilitate
growth, development and change. Through communication, knowledge, opinions and
attitudes are formed and changed. It is much more than, but includes, the process by which
information, decisions and directives are transmitted between individuals, groups,
communities and organisations.
197 SCK201-3/1
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