P361: Electromagnetic Theory

Patrick Sibanda

Vectors Divergence and Stokes Theorem

Vector analysis

Multiplication of vectors
!! Two different interactions (-- the difference?)
"!Scalar or dot product :
!!the calculation giving the work done by a force during a displacement !!work and hence energy are scalar quantities which arise from the multiplication of two vectors !!if A!B = 0
! The vector A is zero ! The vector B is zero ! ! = 90

A ! B =| A || B | cos! = B ! A

"!Vector or cross product :

is the unit vector along the normal to the plane !!n containing A and B and its positive direction is determined as the right-hand screw rule
!!the magnitude of the vector product of A and B is equal to the area of the parallelogram formed by A and B !!if there is a force F acting at a point P with position vector r relative to an origin O, the moment of a force F about O is defined by : !!if A x B = 0

A ! B =| A || B | sin ! n

A ! B = -B ! A

L=r!F
A

! The vector A is zero ! The vector B is zero ! ! = 0

Commutative law :

A! B = B! A A ! B = -B ! A
Distribution law :

A ! (B + C) = A ! B + A ! C A ! (B + C) = A ! B + A ! C
Associative law :

A ! BC ! D = (A ! B)(C ! D) A ! BC = (A ! B)C A ! B " C = (A ! B) " C A ! (B ! C) " (A ! B) ! C

Reminder --unit vector relationships

Some important relations between the unit vectors along , y and z the axial directions in terms of the unit vectors x

! y =y !z =0 =z ! x x !x =y ! y =z ! z =1 x

+ Ay y + Az x A = Ax x + By y + Bz z B = Bx x A ! B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz x A " B = Ax Bx y Ay By z Az Bz

!x =y ! y =z ! z =0 x !y =z x !z =x y =y ! x z

Differentiation of vectors
If a vector r is a function of a scalar variable t, then when t varies by an increment !t, r will vary by an increment ! r. ! r is a variable associated with r but it needs not have either the same magnitude of direction as r :

dr dx dy dz = x+ y+ z + yy + zz thus ! r d r but r = xx lim = dt dt dt dt !t !0 ! t dt NOTE:

d dB dA ( A ! B) = A + B dt dt dt d dB dA ( A " B) = A " + "B dt dt dt

As t varies, the end point of the position vector r will trace out a curve in space. Taking s as a variable measuring length along this curve, the differentiation process can be performed with respect to s thus:

dr dx dy dz = x+ y+ z ds ds ds ds

! dx $ ! dy $ ! dz $ dr = # & +# & +# & " ds % " ds % " ds % ds ( dx )2 + ( dy )2 + ( dz )2 = =1 ds

dr is a unit vector in the direction of the tangent to the curve ds dr d 2r is perpendicular to the tangent . 2 ds ds
d 2r The direction of ds 2 is the normal to the curve, and the two vectors defined as the tangent and normal define what is called the osculating plane of the curve.

Partial differentiation of vectors

!!Temperature is a scalar quantity which can depend in general upon three coordinates defining position and a fourth independent variable time.
"! is a partial derivative. "! is the temperature gradient in the x direction and is a vector quantity. "! !T is a scalar rate of change.
!t
!T !x !T !x

Scalar field and vector field

!! A dependent variable such as temperature, having these properties, is called a scalar point function and the system of variables is frequently called a scalar field.
"!examples are concentration and pressure.

!! There are other dependent variables which are vectorial in nature, and vary with position. These are vector point functions and they constitute vector field.
"!Examples are velocity, heat flow rate, and mass transfer rate.

The symbol "

--The Hamilton operator

-- is read as del operator and is expressed as : ! =

" " " +y +z "x "y "z

--it is of vector form and can be used if we wish to know how a continuous and differentiable function (e.g T(x,y,z)) changes over infinitesimal distance dl

"T is a vector in the direction of the most rapid change of T, and its magnitude is equal to this rate of change.

The operator " is of vector form, a scalar product can be obtained as :

$ # # #' +y +z + Ay y + Az z ) " ( Ax x ) ! " A = &x #y #z ( % #x #Ax #Ay #Az = + + A ! B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz #x #y #z

application The equation of continuity :

! ! ! !! ( !ux ) + ( !uy ) + ( !uz ) + =0 !x !y !z !t

where # is the density and u is the velocity vector.

# " ( $u ) +

!$ =0 !t Output - input : the net rate of mass flow from unit volume

"$A is the net flux of A per unit volume at the point considered, counting vectors into the volume as negative, and vectors out of the volume as positive.

!! Gradient
Definition. is a vector point-function that derives from a scalar point-funtion

" Consider !(x,y,z) a differentiable scalar field $ $ $ grad ! = $ ! ( x, y, z ) = l $ $ dr $ # grad !

% " ' $ ' $ ' $ ' = (! , with ( = $ ' $ $ !! ' ' $ !z & # !! !x !! !y

! !x ! !y

% ' ' ' ' ' ! ' ' !z &

Physical meaning: grad ! dr is the local variation of ! along dr. "! Is a vector whose magnitude and direction are those of maximum space rate of change of !

!! Divergence
Definition is a scalar point-function derived from a vector point-function ! It is the spatial derivative of a vector field Consider

v( x, y, z ) v( x + dx, y, z )

v( x, y, z ) -a differentiable vector field then #v x #v y #v z div v = ! " v = + + #x #y #z

Define divergence of vector field v at a point as the net outward flux of v per unit volume as the volume tends to zero

x+dx

P(x,y,z)

v " ds # ! div v = lim

s dv!0

dv

! The value of vx at the center of the right hand face -taken to be the avrge over face ! Can show that the flux d! of vector v thru right hand face is # "vx dx & ! And that thru the left hand face is ! Adding all the faces up leads to
d! R = % vx + ( dydz $ "x 2 ' $ #v dx ' d! L = " & vx " x ) dydz % #x 2 ( # "v "v "v & d!tot = % x + y + z ( dxdydz $ "x "y "z '

Ain

Aout

!" A> 0
The flux leaving the one end must exceed the flux entering at the other end. The tubular element is divergent in the direction of flow. Therefore, the operator "$ is frequently called the divergence : Divergence of a vector

! " A = div A

! Net outward flow thru surface bounding the volume indicates presence of source

Divegernce Theorem
! The volume integral of the divergence of a vector field equals the total outward flux of the of the vector through the surface that bounds the volume

! " v dv = ! # v " ds
s

!! Curl
Consider

a(x,y,z) is a differentiable vector field

x # #x ax y # #y ay ' ) z # ) ) #z ) az ) (

$ & & curl a = ! " a = det & & & %

curl v = 0

" !az !ay % " !ax !az % " !ay !ax % $ $ $ =x + + + '+ z '+ y ' # & ! y ! z ! z ! x ! x ! y # & # &
Physical meaning: curl v is related to the local rotation of the vector field:

curl v ! 0

Curl a is defined as a vector whose magnitude is the maximum net circulation of a per unit area as the area tends to zero and whose direction is a normal to the direction of the area

 x # !" A= #x Ax

y # #y Ay

z # #z Az

is the curl of a vector ;

! " A = curl A
True if the line integral runs in the + dir of xy-plane

! Can be derived starting from the line integral (e.g for an infinitesimal path in the xy-plane)

" A! dl = ! "A !

dx + ! " Ay dy

% #Ay #Ax ( =' $ * dxdy #y ) & #x

What is its physical meaning?

Assume a two-dimensional fluid element

B
!y
uy

!ux ux + !y !y
ux !x

y # #y uy

z % #uy #ux ( ' 0 =z $ * & #x #y ) 0

# !uy ! " u = #x uy + !x !x u
x

Regarded as the angular velocity of OA, direction :

"ux !uy Thus, the angular velocity of OA is z similarily, the angular velocity of OB is ! z "y !x

The angular velocity of the fluid element is the average of the two angular velocities :
"u u + !y "y
v

B
!y
u

v+
!x

"v !x "x

1 # !v !u & % " (z 2 $ !x !y '

%

! " u = 2! z
This value is called the vorticity of the fluid element, which is twice the angular velocity of the fluid element. This is the reason why it is called the curl operator.

x # !"u = #x u

y # #y v

z % #v #u ( ' $ * 0 =z & #x #y ) 0

Stokes Theorem
! We showed earlier that
% #Ay #Ax ( A ! d l = $ ' * dxdy " ! #y ) & #x

If we chose a vector dS pointing in the direction of advance of a right-hand screw turned in the direction chosen for the line integral then we can write
% #Ay #Ax ( $ * dxdy = ( + , A) ! dS " A! dl = ' ! # x # y & )

True only if path is so small that ! " A is nearly constant

! Otherwise we divide the surface into elements of area for which this holds ! The sum of the many areas is then the integral of the (! " A) # dS over the finite surface ! Thus

" !

A! dl =

"

( # $ A) ! d S

! Where S is the area of any open surface bounded by the curve C ! This is Stokes Theorem

!! Laplacian: definitions

1 Scalar Laplacian. !(x,y,z) is a differentiable scalar field

2 2 2 # ! # ! # ! 2 !! = " ! = div( grad ! ) = 2 + 2 + 2 #x #y #z

2 Vector Laplacian. v(x,y,z) is a differentiable vector field

! "2 v x "2 v x "2 v x 2 #$ vx = + + 2 2 # "x "y "z2 # "2 v y "2 v y "2 v y # # 2 + + %$ vy = 2 2 "x "y "z2 # # 2 2 2 #$2 v = " vz + " vz + " vz z # "x2 "y2 "z2 # &

+ !v y y + !v z z ! v = !v x x

!! Laplacian: physical meaning

&(x) As a second derivative, the one-dimensional Laplacian operator is related to minima and maxima: when the second derivative is positive (negative), the curvature is concave (convexe). x In most of situations, the 2-dimensional Laplacian operator is also related to local minima and maxima. If vE is positive:

convex

concave

'(

!" = # vE : maximum in E ("(E) > average value in the surrounding) !" = vE : minimum in E ("(E) < average value in the surrounding)

Coordinates other than cartesian

!!Cylindrical(r, !, z) & Spherical (r, ! , " ) coordinates
!! the edge of the increment element is general curved.

, z are unit vectors defined as point P : , ! "!If r

+ ! zz + r!"" ! r = ! rr
dr ! " =
dr = ! r ! 0

" 1 " " + != r !+ z "r r "! "z

The gradient of a scalar point function U : in Cylindrical --

and z Assuming that the vector A can be resolved into components in terms of r , !

"U 1 "U "U + !U = r !+ z "r r "! "z

+ A z + A!! A = Ar r z
1 ! 1 ! ! !" A = (rAr ) + ( A! ) + Az r !r r !! !z
% 1 #Az #A! ( % #Ar #Az ( 1 % #(rA! ) #Ar ( +' !" A=' $ r $ !+ ' $ z * * * & r #! #z ) & #z #r ) r & #r #! )
1 ! ' !U $ 1 ! 2U ! 2U (U= + 2 %r "+ 2 2 r !r & !r # r !) !z
2

The gradient of a scalar point function U : in Spherical

"U 1 "U 1 "U + !U = r !+ z "r r "! r sin! ""

and " , ! Assuming that the vector A can be resolved into components in terms of r :

+ A " + A!! A = Ar r "

1 ! 2 1 ! 1 ! ! " A = 2 (r Ar ) + ( A! sin! ) + A" r !r r sin! !! r sin! !"
( 1% # 1 %# #A! ( 1 % #Ar # #Ar ( !" A= ( A sin " ) $ r + $ sin " ( rA ) " + (rA ) $ " ' * ' ! ! * ! ' * r sin! & #! #" ) r sin! & #! #r #! ) ) r & #r
2 1 # # U 1 # # U 1 # U ) & ) & * 2U = 2 ' r 2 + sin " + $ 2 ' $ 2 2 r #r ( #r % r sin " #" ( #" % r sin " #! 2

3. Differential operators
!! Summary
Operator grad div curl Laplacian
a scalar (& a vector) a scalar field (& a vector field)

is

a vector

a scalar

a vector

concerns

a scalar field

a vector field

a vector field

Definition

!!

!"v

!"v

! 2! & ! 2 v

Stokes Theorem

" !

A! dl =

"

( # $ A) ! d S

Gauss Divergence Theorem

" !

A! dS =

" # ! A dv
v

Useful equations about Hamiltons operator ...

! " UA = U! " A + A " !U ! " UA = U! " A # A " !U " # A! B = B #"! A $ A #"! B " $ ( A $ B) = B ! "A + A" ! B # A ! "B # B" ! A

A $ (! $ B) = A " B! # A " !B B $ (! $ A) = B " A! # B " !A

"A # B = B # A" + A # B" = A # "B + B # "A + A ! (" ! B) + B ! (" ! A)
A is to be differentiated
A=B

1 "A 2 = A # "A + A ! (" ! A) 2

! " (! " A) = !! # A $ ! 2 A !"! # A = ! #!" A = 0 ! " !U = 0

valid when the order of differentiation is not important in the second mixed derivative