Religious studies is the academic field of multi-disciplinary, secular study of religious beliefs, behaviors, and institutions.

It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizing systematic, historically based, and cross-cultural perspectives. While theology attempts to understand the nature of transcendent or supernatural forces (such as deities), religious studies tries to study religious behavior and belief from outside any particular religious viewpoint. eligious studies draws upon multiple disciplines and their methodologies includinganthropology, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and history of religion. eligious studies originated in the nineteenth century, when scholarly and historical analysis of the !ible had flourished, and "indu and !uddhist textswere first being translated into #uropean languages. #arly influential scholars included $riedrich %ax %&ller, in #ngland, and 'ornelius (. )iele, in the *etherlands. )oday religious studies is practiced by scholars worldwide. In its early years, it was +nown as 'omparative eligion or the Science of Religion and, in the ,-., there are those who today also +now the field as the "istory of religion (associated with methodological traditions traced to the ,niversity of 'hicago in general, and in particular %ircea #liade, from the late /012s through to the late /032s). )he field is +nown asReligionswissenschaft in 4ermany and Sciences des religions in the $renchspea+ing world. )he term 5religion5 originated from the 6atin noun 5religio5, that was nominalized from one of three verbs7 5relegere5 (to turn to constantly8observe conscientiously)9 5religare5 (to bind oneself :bac+;)9 and 5reeligere5 (to choose again).:/; !ecause of these three different meanings, an etymologicalanalysis alone does not resolve the ambiguity of defining religion, since each verb points to a different understanding of what religion is. :<; =uring the %edieval (eriod, the term 5religious5 was used as a noun to describe someone who had >oined a monastic order (a 5religious5). =espite this change in meaning, it is important to note the term 5religion5 is primarily a 'hristian term. ?udaism and "induism, for example, do not include this term in their vocabulary.
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o o o o o o o o o

/ )heology < Intellectual foundation and bac+ground @ "istory @./ .nthropology of religion @.< 'ultural anthropology of religion @.@ #conomics of religion @.A 4eography of religion @.1 "istory of religion @.B 6iterary approaches @.C *eurological approaches @.3 Drigin of religion @.0 (sychology of religion

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@./2 -ociology of religion A %ethodologies A./ (henomenology A.< $unctionalism A.@ 6ived 1 'riticism B Influential figures C -ee also 3 eferences 0 $urther reading /2 #xternal lin+s /2./ .cademic societies /2.< Dnline Wor+s and -ources eligion

Theology[edit]
Western philosophy of religion, as the basic ancestor of modern religious studies, is differentiated from theology and the many #astern philosophical traditions by generally being written from a third party perspective. )he scholar need not be a believer. )heology stands in contrast to the philosophy of religion and religious studies in that, generally, the scholar is first and foremost a believer employing both logic and scripture as evidence. )heology according to this understanding fits with the definition which .nselm of 'anterbury gave to it in the //th century, credo ut intelligam, or faith see+ing understanding (literally, 5I believe so that I may understand5). )he theologian then has the tas+ of ma+ing intelligible, or clarifying, the religious commitments to which he or she subscribes. )he scholar of religious studies has no such allegiances.

Intellectual foundation and background[edit]

!efore religious studies became a field in its own right, flourishing in the ,nited -tates in the late /0B2s, several +ey intellectual figures explored religion from a variety of perspectives. Dne of these figures was the famous pragmatist William ?ames. "is /02< 4ifford lectures and boo+ The Varieties of Religious Experience examined religion from a psychologicalphilosophical perspective and is still influential today. "is essay The Will to Believe defends the rationality of faith. %ax Weber studied religion from an economic perspective in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (/02A-1), his most famous wor+. .s a ma>or figure in sociology, he has no doubt influenced later sociologists of religion. Emile =ur+heim also holds continuing influence as one of the fathers of sociology. "e explored (rotestant and 'atholic attitudes and doctrines regarding suicide in his wor+ Suicide. In /0/< he published his most memorable wor+ on religion, The Elementary orms of the Religious !ife.

History[edit]

%ax %&ller

Interest in the general study of religion dates bac+ to at least "ecataeus of %iletus (ca. 112 !'# F ca. ACB !'#) and "erodotus (ca. A3A !'# F A<1 !'#). 6ater, during the %iddle .ges, Islamic scholars studied (ersian, ?ewish, 'hristian, and Indian religions. )he first history of religion was theTreatise on the Religious and Philosophical Sects (//<C '#), written by the %uslim scholar %uhammad al--hahrastani. (eter the Generable, also wor+ing in the twelfth century, studied Islam and made possible a 6atin translation of the HurIan. *otwithstanding the long interest in the study of religion, the academic discipline eligious -tudies is relatively new. =r. 'hris (artridge notes that the 5first professorships were established as recently as the final Juarter of the nineteenth century.5:/; In the nineteenth century, the study of religion was done through the eyes of science. %ax %&ller was the first (rofessor of 'omparative eligion at Dxford ,niversity, a chair created especially for him. In his "ntroduction to the Science of Religion (/3C@) he wrote that it is 5the duty of those who have devoted their life to the study of the principal religions of the world in their original documents, and who value and reverence it in whatever form it may present itself, to ta+e possession of this new territory in the name of true science.5 (artridge writes that 5by the second half of the twentieth century the study of religion had emerged as a prominent and important field of academic enJuiry.5 "e cites the growing distrust of the empiricism of the nineteenth century and the growing interest in non-'hristian religions and spirituality coupled with convergence of the wor+ of social scientists and that of scholars of religion as factors involved in the rise of eligious -tudies. In the /0B2s and /0C2s, the term 5religious studies5 became common and interest in the field increased. *ew departments were founded and influential >ournals of religious studies were initiated (for example, Religious Studies and Religion). In the forward to #pproaches to the Study of Religion, *inian -mart wrote that 5in the #nglish-spea+ing world :religious studies; basically dates from the /0B2s, although before then there were such fields as Ithe comparative study of religionI, the Ihistory of religionI, the Isociology of religionI and so on...5

In the /032s, in both !ritain and .merica, 5the decrease in student applications and diminishing resources in the /032s led to cut bac+s affecting religious studies departments.5 ((artridge) 6ater in the decade, religious studies began to pic+ up as a result of integrating religious studies with other disciplines and forming programs of study that mixed the discipline with more utilitarian study. (hilosophy of religion uses philosophical tools to evaluate religious claims and doctrines. Western philosophy has traditionally been employed by #nglish spea+ing scholars. (-ome other cultures have their own philosophical traditions including Indian, %uslim, and ?ewish.) 'ommon issues considered by the (Western) philosophy of religion are the existence of 4od, belief and rationality,cosmology, and logical inferences of logical consistency from sacred texts. .lthough philosophy has long been used in evaluation of religious claims (e$g$ .ugustine and (elagiusIs debate concerning original sin), the rise of scholasticism in the //th century, which represented 5the search for order in intellectual life5 ( ussell, /C2), more fully integrated the Western philosophical tradition (with the introduction of translations of .ristotle) in religious study. )here is some amount of overlap between subcategories of religious studies and the discipline itself. eligious studies see+s to study religious phenomena as a whole, rather than be limited to the approaches of its subcategories.

Anthropology of religion[edit]
)he anthropology of religion is principally concerned with the common basic needs of man that religion fulfills.

Cultural anthropology of religion[edit]

)he cultural anthropology of religion is principally concerned with the cultural aspects of religion. Df primary concern to the cultural anthropologist of religions are rituals, beliefs, religious art, and practices of piety.

Economics of religion[edit]
4allup surveys have found that the worldIs poorest countries may be the most religious. Df those countries with average per-capita incomes under K<222, 01L reported that religion played an important role in their daily lives. )his is contrasted by the average of ACL from the richest countries, with incomes over K<1222 (with the ,nited -tates brea+ing the trend by reporting at B1L).:@;-ocial scientists have suggested that religion plays a functional role (helping people cope) in poorer nations.:@;:A; )he *ew Mor+ )imes offers a graphic illustrating the correlation (not necessarily causation) between religion and poverty.

eography of religion[edit]
)he geography of religion is principally concerned with the spatial elements of religious practice and embodiment. In the /0B2s and /0C2s, geographers of religion such as Wilbur Nelins+y and =avid -opher were mostly associated with the 5!er+eley school5 of cultural geography and focused mostly on the cultural imprints of religion on the landscape. -ince the turn in the new cultural geography of religion through the wor+ of ?ames =uncan on the 'ity as )ext, geographers of religion have focused on what 6ily Oong has called the 5politics and poetics5 of religion, especially in relation to the political geographies of secular nation-states. ecent interest in the geography of religion has focused on how religious practitioners enact

sacred space through their embodied sacred practices as well as the relationship between religion and geopolitics.

History of religion[edit]
See also% &istory of religion )he history of religions is not concerned with theological claims apart from their historical significance. -ome topics of this discipline are the historicity of religious figures, events, and the evolution of doctrinal matters.:1;

!iterary approaches[edit]
)here are many approaches to the study of sacred texts. Dne of these approaches is to interpret the text as a literary ob>ect. %etaphor, thematic elements, and the nature and motivations of the characters are of interest in this approach. .n example of this approach is 'od% # Biography, by ?ac+ %iles.

"eurological approaches[edit]
)he temporal lobe has been of interest which has been termed the 54od center5 of the brain. ( amachandran, ch. 0) *eurological findings in regard to religious experience is not a widely accepted discipline within religious studies. -cientific investigators have used a -(#')scanner to analyze the brain activity of both 'hristian contemplatives and !uddhist meditators, finding them to be Juite similar. :B;

#rigin of religion[edit]
(ain articles% Evolutionary origin of religions) Evolutionary psychology of religion) and Revelation )he 5origin of religion5 refers to the emergence of religious behavior in prehistory, before written records.

$sychology of religion[edit]
)he psychology of religion is concerned with what psychological principles are operative in religious communities and practitioners. William ?ames was one of the first academics to bridge the gap between the emerging science of psychology and the study of religion. . few issues of concern to the psychologist of religions are the psychological nature of religious conversion, the ma+ing of religious decisions, religion and happiness, and the psychological factors in evaluating religious claims. -igmund $reud was another influential figure in the field of psychology and religion. "e used his psychoanalytic theory to explain religious beliefs, practices, and rituals in order to >ustify the role of religion in the development of human culture.

Sociology of religion[edit]
(ain article% Sociology of religion )he sociology of religion concerns the dialectical relationship between religion and society9 the practices, historical bac+grounds, developments, universal themes and roles of religion in society.:C;)here is particular emphasis on the recurring role of religion in all societies and throughout recorded history. )he sociology of religion is distinguished from the philosophy of religion in that it does not set out to assess the validity of religious beliefs, though the process of comparing multiple conflicting dogmas may reJuire what (eter 6. !erger has described as inherent 5methodological atheism5.:3; Whereas the sociology of religion broadly differs from

theology in assuming the invalidity of the supernatural, theorists tend to ac+nowledge sociocultural reification of religious practise. It may be said that the modern formal discipline of sociology *egan with the analysis of religion in =ur+heimIs /30C study of suicide rates amongst 'atholic and (rotestant populations. )he wor+s of %ax Weber emphasised the relationship between religious belief and the economic foundations of society. 'ontemporary debates have centred on issues such as secularization, civil religion, and the cohesiveness of religion in the context of globalization and multiculturalism. )he sociology of religion also deals with how religion impacts society regarding the positive and negatives of what happens when religion is mixed with society. )heorist such as %arx states that Preligion is the opium of the peopleQ - the idea that religion has become a way for people to deal with their problems. .t least one comprehensive study refutes this idea. esearch has found that secular democracies li+e $rance or -candinavia outperform more theistic democracies on various measures of societal health. )he authors explains, 5(ressing Juestions include the reasons, whether theistic or non-theistic, that the exceptionally wealthy ,.-. is so inefficient that it is experiencing a much higher degree of societal distress than are less religious, less wealthy prosperous democracies. 'onversely, how do the latter achieve superior societal health while having little in the way of the religious values or institutionsR5 :0;
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%ethodologies[edit]
. number of methodologies are used in eligious -tudies. %ethodologies are hermeneutics, or interpretive models, that provide a structure for the analysis of religious phenomena.

$henomenology[edit]
(ain article% Phenomenology ,philosophy(henomenology is 5arguably the most influential approach to the study of religion in the twentieth century.5 ((artridge) )he term is first found in the title of the wor+ of the influential philosopher of4erman Idealism, 4eorg Wilhelm $riedrich "egel, entitled )he (henomenology of -pirit. (henomenology had been practiced long before its being made explicit as a philosophical method by#dmund "usserl, who is considered to be its founder. In the context of (henomenology of religion however, the term was first used by (ierre =aniel 'hantepie de la -aussaye in his wor+ 56ehrbuch der eligiongeschichte5 (/33C). 'hantepieIs phenomenology catalogued observable characteristics of religion much li+e a zoologist would categorize animals or an entomologist would categorize insects. In part due to "usserlIs influence, 5phenomenology5 came to 5refer to a method which is more complex and claims rather more for itself than did 'hantepieSs mere cataloguing of facts.5 ((artridge) "usserl argued that the foundation of +nowledge is consciousness. "e recognized 5how easy it is for prior beliefs and interpretations to unconsciously influence oneSs thin+ing, "usserlSs phenomenological method sought to shelve all these presuppositions and interpretations.5 ((artridge) "usserl introduced the term 5eidetic vision5 to describe the ability to observe without 5prior beliefs and interpretations5 influencing understanding and perception. "is other main conceptual contribution is the idea of the epoche7 setting aside metaphysical Juestions and observing phenomena in and of themselves, without any bias or commitments on the part of the investigator. )he epoche, also +nown as phenomenological reduction or

brac+eting, involves approaching a phenomenon or phenomena from a neutral standpoint, instead of with our own particular attitudes. In performing this reduction, whatever phenomenon or phenomena we approach are understood in themselves, rather than from our own perspectives. In the field of religious studies, a contemporary advocate of the phenomenological method is *inian -mart. "e suggests that we should perform the epoche as a means to engage in cross-cultural studies. In doing so, we can ta+e the beliefs, symbols, rituals etc. of the other from within their own perspective, rather than imposing ours on them. .nother earlier scholar who employs the phenomenological method for studying religion is 4erardus van der 6eeuw. In his Religion in Essence and (anifestation (/0@@), he outlines what a phenomenology of religion should loo+ li+e7 $irstly, argues van der 6eeuw, the student of religion needs to classify the religious phenomena into distinct categories7 e.g. sacrifice, sacrament, sacred space, sacred time, sacred word, festivals, and myth. -econdly, scholars then need to interpolate the phenomena into the their own lives. )hat is to say, they need to empathetically (#inf&hlung) try and understand the religion from within....)he life examined by the religious studies scholar, insists van der 6eeuw, needs to 5acJuire its place in the life of the student himself who should understand it out of his inner self.5 )hirdly, van der 6eeuw stresses perhaps the fundamental phenomenological principle, namely epoch, the suspension of value->udgements and the adoption of a neutral stance. $ourthly, scholars needs to clarify any apparent structural relationships and ma+e sense of the information. In so doing, they move towards a holistic understanding of how the various aspects of a religion relate and function together. $ifthly, this leads naturally to a stage at which 5all these activities, underta+en together and simultaneously, constitute genuine understanding :Gerstehen;7 the chaotic and obstinate IrealityI thus becomes a manifestation, a revelation5 (eidetic vision). -ixthly, having thus attained this general grasp, there is a continual need to ma+e sure that it tallies with the up-to-date research of other disciplines, such as archaeology, history, philology etc. $or van der 6eeuw, as for other phenomenologists, the continual chec+ing of oneSs results is crucial to the maintenance of scholarly ob>ectivity. In order to avoid degeneration into fantasy, phenomenology must always feed on facts. $inally, having gone through the above six stages, the phenomenologist should be as close as anyone can be to an understanding of the ImeaningI of the religious phenomena studied and be in a position to relate his understanding to others. )he sub>ectivity inherent to the phenomenological study of religion ma+es complete and comprehensive understanding highly difficult. "owever, phenomenologists aim to separate their formal study of religion from their own theological worldview and to eliminate, as far as possible, any personal biases (e.g., a 'hristian phenomenologist would avoid studying "induism through the lens of 'hristianity).

)here are a number of both theoretical and methodological attitudes common among phenomenologists7source (henomenologists tend to oppose the acceptance of unobservable matters and grand systems erected in speculative thin+ing9 (henomenologists tend to oppose naturalism (also called ob>ectivism and positivism), which is the worldview growing from modern natural science and technology that has been spreading from *orthern #urope since the enaissance9 (ositively spea+ing, phenomenologists tend to >ustify cognition (and some also evaluation and action) with reference to what #dmund "usserl called #videnz, which is awareness of a matter itself as disclosed in the most clear, distinct, and adeJuate way for something of its +ind9 (henomenologists tend to believe that not only ob>ects in the natural and cultural worlds, but also ideal ob>ects, such as numbers, and even conscious life itself can be made evident and thus +nown9 (henomenologists tend to hold that inJuiry ought to focus upon what might be called 5encountering5 as it is directed at ob>ects and, correlatively, upon 5ob>ects as they are encountered5 (this terminology is not widely shared, but the emphasis on a dual problematics and the reflective approach it reJuires is)9 (henomenologists tend to recognize the role of description in universal, a priori, or 5eidetic5 terms as prior to explanation by means of causes, purposes, or grounds9 and (henomenologists tend to debate whether or not what "usserl calls the transcendental phenomenological epochT and reduction is useful or even possible.

&unctionalism[edit]
$unctionalism, in regard to religious studies, is the analysis of religions and their various communities of adherents using the functions of particular religious phenomena to interpret the structure of religious communities and their beliefs. . ma>or criticism of functionalism is that it lends itself to teleological explanations. .n example of a functionalist approach is understanding the dietary restrictions contained in the (entateuch as having the function of promoting health or providing social identity (i$e$ a sense of belonging though common practice).

!i'ed Religion[edit]
li'ed religion is the ethnographic and holistic framewor+ for understanding the beliefs, practices, and everyday experiences of religious and spiritual persons in religious studies. )he name lived religion comes from the $rench tradition of sociology of religion 5la religion veUue5.:/2; )he concept of lived religion was popularized in the late <2th century by religious study scholars li+e obert .. Drsi and =avid "all. )he study of lived religion has come to include a wide range of sub>ect areas as a means of exploring and emphasizing what a religious person

does and what they believe. )oday, the field of lived religion is expanding to include many topics and scholars.

Criticism[edit]
. group of scholars have criticized religious studies beginning in the /002s as a theological pro>ect which actually imposes views onto the people it aims to survey. (rominent voices in this critical view include obert .. Drsi, )imothy $itzgerald, )alal .sad, )omo+o %asuzawa, 4... Dddie, ichard Oing, ussell ). %c'utcheon, and =aniel =ubuisson. )heir areas of research overlap heavily with postcolonial studies.://;