Mitchell Gouzenko

uiven the quauiatic function in veitex foim,

!
!
! ! !!
!
!!
!
,

we can see that the veitex occuis at the point (a, b
2
). To finu the zeioes of the quauiatic, we
must set y1 equal to u. This yielus the iesult:

! ! ! !!
!
!!
!


!!
!
! ! !!
!


! !!
!
! ! !!

! !! !
!
! ! !!

!!" ! ! !!

! !!" ! !

A shauow function, y2 is uefineu to be anothei paiabola that shaies the oiiginal paiabola's
veitex but has opposite concavity anu zeioes ! ! ! !!. To finu a geneial foimula foi such a
shauow function, it is helpful to finu the shauow functions of seveial paiabolas of the same
foim as y1, with aibitiaiy values foi a anu b. Boing so can establish a pattein fiom which a
geneialization may be uiawn.

Fiist, let us consiuei the case wheie a is negative. If b is negative, b
2
will be positive in all
cases. Fuitheimoie, the ioots of the paiabola woulu be ! ! ! !!" anu the ioots of the
shauow paiabola woulu be ! ! ! !!. These uo not change if b is negative, uue to the !
sign. Theiefoie it is not impoitant to test negative values of b.

Let us choose the aibitiaiy values a = -2 anu b = S. Let us call the iesulting paiabola ya.

!
!
! ! ! !!
!
!!!!
!


!
!
! ! !!
!
!!

Accoiuing to the conclusions uiawn above, ya has a veitex at (-2,S
2
), oi equivalently (-2,9).
Fuitheimoie, its ioots aie ! ! !! !!"

Let us attempt to finu an equation foi the shauow function. 0ne of the conuitions of the
shauow function of ya, as stateu above, is that it must have a concavity opposite to ya. This
can be achieveu by negating the (x+2)
2
teim in ya. Boing so will yielu a uiffeient paiabola
that opens uownwaius. Let us call this paiabola yb.

!
!
! ! ! !!
!
!!

The veitex of yb occuis at (-2,9), so yb shaies the same veitex as ya. Solving foi the zeioes of
yb, we have:

! ! ! ! !!
!
!!

!! ! ! ! !!
!


! ! ! !!
!


!! ! ! !!

!! !! ! !

Because we uefineu a=-2 anu b=S, these ioots aie of the foim ! ! ! !!! Thus, yb satisfies
the conuitions of being a shauow function of yb. That is, it has opposite concavity, the same
veitex, anu ioots equivalent to ! ! ! !!! Consequently, it is safe to concluue that yb is in
fact the shauow function of ya.

A giaph of ya anu yb is shown below.


As pieuicteu, f2 has zeioes at points C(-S,u) anu B(1,u), wheie ! ! ! !!. Fuitheimoie, f1
anu f2 have the same veitex at the point A(-2,9). The hoiizontal line yc that passes thiough
the veitices of the two paiabolas is calleu the shauow geneiating function. Because the
shauow geneiating function is hoiizontal anu passes thiough the point (-2,9) it must have
the equation !
!
! !! Now, let us finu the shauow function of anothei paiabola. This time,
we will geneiate a paiabola using a positive value foi a.

Let a = S anu b = 1. Let us call the iesulting paiabola yu.

!
!
! ! ! !
!
! !
!


!
!
! ! !!
!
!!

The paiabola yu has a veitex at (S,1). Fuitheimoie, its ioots aie ! ! ! !!. To finu the
shauow function, it is again necessaiy to negate the (x-S)
2
teim. This woulu yielu a new
paiabola, which we will name ye:

!
!
! ! ! !!
!
!!

Again, ye has the same veitex as yu, at (S,1). The zeioes of ye aie:

! ! ! ! !!
!
!!

!! ! ! ! !!
!


! ! ! !!
!


!! ! ! !!

! ! ! !!

These zeioes aie in the foim ! !!! Thus, ye satisfies the conuitions of being a shauow
function of yu. The giaph of ye anu yu is shown below.






The functions ye anu yu shaie a veitex at B(S,1). The zeioes of ye occui at F(2,u) anu E(4,u),
oi equivalently, ! ! ! !!! Fuitheimoie, the shauow-geneiating function, yf, passes
thiough the shaieu veitex of ye anu yu anu so can be wiitten as yf = 1.

It seems that negating the (x-a)
2
teim in the paiabola of the geneial foim
!
!
! ! !!
!
!!
!
will cieate the shauow function of y1. Let us test the valiuity of this
hypothesis with a pioof.

We stait with the paiabola y1.

!
!
! ! !!
!
!!
!


Negating the ! !!
!
teim, we aiiive at a new paiabola, y2:

!
!
! ! ! !!
!
!!
!


The zeioes of this paiabola aie:

! ! ! ! !!
!
!!
!


!!
!
! ! ! !!
!


!
!
! ! !!
!


!! ! ! !!

! ! ! !!

The veitex of this paiabola is still the veitex of y1 anu occuis at (a, b
2
). The paiabola has a
concavity opposite to y1. Because y2 satisfies all of the conuitions of being a shauow
function of y1, we can concluue that if:

!
!
! ! !!
!
!!
!
,

then

!
!
! ! ! !!
!
!!
!


is the shauow function of y1. Fuitheimoie, the shauow geneiating function must pass
thiough the point of inteisection between the paiabolas. This point of inteisection is veitex
of both paiabolas, which occuis at the y-value of b
2
. Theiefoie the shauow geneiating
function ym must be:

!
!
! !
!

Thus, y1 anu y2 can be wiitten as:

!
!
! ! !!
!
!!
!


!
!
! ! ! !!
!
!!
!



If we negate y1, we aiiive at:

!!
!
! ! ! !!
!
!!
!


Auuing, 2ym to both siues, we have:

!!
!
!!!
!
! ! ! !!
!
!!
!


Substituting, we concluue:

!
!
! !!
!
!!!
!


The shauow function, y2, can be useu to finu the complex zeioes of y1. That's because a
shauow function of a paiabola has zeioes of ! ! ! !!, wheieas the zeioes of the oiiginal
function y1 aie ! ! ! !!". Theiefoie, if we can wiite the ioots of a shauow function in the
foim ! ! ! !!, multiplying b by the imaginaiy numbei, !, will geneiate the complex ioots
of the oiiginal function. Foi example, let us consiuei the function !
!
! ! !!
!
!!. We
have ueteimineu that the shauow function of yu is ye. These two functions weie giapheu
above. Refeiiing to the giaph of ye, we see that its zeioes occui at x = 2 anu x = 4. These can
be wiitten as ! ! ! !!! Nultiplying the b teim, in this case 1, by i, we obtain the ioots of yu:

! ! ! !!

In this case, we have ioots of the foim ! ! ! !!"! wheie a = S anu b = 1. It is eviuent that
! ! ! is simply the aveiage of the two ioots of the shauow function. That is,

! !
! !!
!
!
!
!
! !

In geneial,
! !
! !!" !! !!"
!
!
!!
!
! !

The above equation uemonstiates why it is peimissible to take the aveiage of the ioots to
finu a.

0n the othei hanu, b! ! is the uistance of eithei of the two ioots of the shauow function
fiom the aveiage. That is,

! ! ! !! ! !! ! !
!"
! ! ! !! ! ! ! !

Biawing a geneialization, we can see that if the shauow function has ioots of x1 anu x2, we
can finu the value foi a by taking the aveiage of these two ioots:

! !
!
!
!!
!
!


We can finu b by finuing the uistance fiom a to eithei of the shauow function's ioots:

! ! ! !!
!


! !
!
!
!!
!
!
!!
!


! !
!
!
!!
!
!
!
!!
!
!


! !
!
!
!!
!
!

Equivalently, we can wiite:

! !
!
!
!!
!
!


It must be noteu that a iepiesents the ieal component of y1's complex ioots while b
iepiesents the imaginaiy component of the function's complex ioots.

The concept of shauow functions can be extenueu to cubic functions. Consiuei the new
function:

!
!
! !! !!!!! ! ! !!! !!! ! ! !!! !

This function is giapheu below.





The zeioes of this cubic occui when

! ! !! !!!!! ! ! !!! !!! ! ! !!! )
This means that

! !! ! !

! ! !

!"

! ! ! !!! ! !

! ! ! !!!

!"

! ! ! !!! ! !

! ! ! !!!

Thus, the zeioes aie:

! ! !! !" ! !!!

The shauow function of y1 has zeioes at -2 anu ! !!, touches the oiiginal function at two
points, anu has an opposite concavity to the oiiginal function. Let us uefine y2 to be a new
polynomial that has the same exact zeioes as the shauow function anu opposite concavity
to the oiiginal function.

!
!
! !!! !!!!! ! ! !! !!! ! ! !! )

The function y2 is wiitten as a piouuct of lineai factois, ensuiing that we attain the uesiieu
ioots. Fuitheimoie, the negative sign causes the leauing coefficient of the function to be
negative, theieby causing the function to have a concavity opposite to y2. Bowevei, it is
uncleai whethei oi not yS is the shauow function. Foi it to be the shauow function, it must
inteisect y1 in exactly two places.
!
!
! !
!


! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !!

! ! !! ! !! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! !! ! !

The above equation was inputteu into a giaphing calculatoi, which ueteimineu that the
solutions aie:

! ! !! !" !
This means that y2 must be the shauow function of y1. Inueeu, giaphing the two functions
simultaneously, it is eviuent that they inteisect at two points anu have opposite concavity.
The giaph, below, shows y1 in blue anu y2 in black. The giaphing utility was useu to solve
foi these points of inteisection, which weie founu to be ! !!! ! !"# ! !! !" !









In this case, the shauow geneiating function, ym, is the line that passes thiough A anu B. The
slope of this line is:

! !
!" !!
! !!!!!


! !
!"
!


! ! !

0sing point-slope foim, we can ueiive the equation foi ym. We neeu to use the slope (m=4)
as well as a point on the line to uo this. Foi simplicity's sake, let us use point A.

!
!
!! ! !!! ! !! !

!
!
! !! !!

This line is giapheu along with y1 anu y2 below:









To figuie out the ielationship between y1, y2, anu ym, it is necessaiy to expanu y2 anu y1.

!
!
! ! !! ! ! ! !!! ! ! ! !!!
!
!
! !
!
!! !
!
!! !!"

!
!
! !!! !!!!! ! ! !! !!! ! ! !! )
!
!
! !!
!
!! !
!
!! ! !!"

If we auu y1 anu y2 togethei, the iesult is:

!
!
!!
!
! !!
!
!! !
!
!! ! !!" !!
!
!! !
!
!! !!"

!
!
!!
!
! ! ! !!" !! !!"

!
!
!!
!
! ! ! !!!

Bowevei, we know that:

!
!
! !! !!

!!
!
! !! !!"

Theiefoie,

!
!
!!
!
! !!
!


!
!
! !!
!
!!!
!


Let us examine what happens when we use aibitiaiy constants, a, b, anu c, in oui cubic
function. Consiuei a new function,

!
!
! !! !!!!! ! ! !!" !!! ! ! !!"

This cubic has zeios at:

! ! ! !" ! !!!

This cubic's shauow function will have ioots of ! ! ! !" ! !!. As befoie, we will wiite the
equation of this cubic's shauow function as a piouuct of its lineai factois. Let's call the new
function y2.

!
!
! !!! !!!!! ! ! !! !!! ! ! !!


The negative sign causes y2 to have opposite concavity to y1. Equating y1 anu y2, we shoulu
aiiive at the inteisection of the two cubics.

!!! !!!!! ! ! !! !!! ! ! !! ! !! !!!!! ! ! !!" !!! ! ! !!"

Wolfiam Alpha's Nathematica softwaie was useu to solve this equation by tieating a, b, anu
c as constants. It was founu that functions aie equal when ! ! ! !" !! Because y1 anu y2
inteisect only twice, have opposite concavity, anu zeioes of the foim ! ! ! !" ! !!" anu
! ! ! !" ! !! iespectively, y2 is a shauow function of y1. When x = a, the two functions
inteiest at:

!
!
! !!! !!!!!! ! ! !! !!! ! ! !! ! !

When x = b, the two functions inteisect at:


!
!
! !!! !!!!! ! ! !! !!! ! ! !!

!
!
! !!! !!!!!!!!!!

!
!
! !!! !!!!!!!!!!

!
!
! ! !! !
!



Thus, the two functions inteisect at the points (a, u) anu (b, ! !! !
!
). The shauow
geneiating function, ym, is a line that passes thiough these points. It must have a slope of:

! !
! !! !
!
!!
! !!


! !
! !! !
!
! !!


! ! !
!


0sing point-slope foim, with (a, u) as a iefeience point, we have:

!
!
!! ! !
!
!! !!!

!
!
! !
!
! !!!
!


Expanuing y1 anu y2, we have:


!
!
! !! !!!!! ! ! !!" !!! ! ! !!"

!
!
! !!!
!
!!!
!
!!!"# !!
!
! !!
!
! !!"
!
!!!"
!
!!
!


!
!
! !!! !!!!! ! ! !! !!! ! ! !!

!
!
! !"
!
!!"
!
!!"#$ !!
!
! !!
!
! !!"
!
!!!"
!
!!
!


!
!
!!
!
! !!!!
!
!!!!
!


!
!
! !
!
! !!!
!


!!
!
! !!
!
! !!!!
!


!
!
!!
!
! !!
!


!
!
! !!
!
!!!
!


Baving wiitten y1, its shauow function anu the shauow-geneiating function in teims of the
ioots of y1, it is possible to quickly ueiive each of these, simply knowing the uesiieu ioots.
Foi example, let us choose a cubic that has zeioes at:

! ! ! !"# !! !!!

In this specific case,
! ! !

! ! !!

! ! !

Knowing this, it is possible to geneiate the equation of the cubic, the cubic's shauow
function, anu the shauow geneiating function. Let us call these function ya, yb, anu yc,
iespectively. Inputting the values foi a, b anu c into the equations we have geneiateu, we
aiiive at:

!
!
! !! !!!!! ! !! !!! !!! ! !! !!!

!
!
! !
!
!!
!
!!! !!"

!
!
! !!! !!!!! ! !! !! !!! ! !! !! !

!
!
! !
!
!!
!
!!" ! !!"

!
!
! !"! !!"



These thiee functions weie giapheu above. As was pieuicteu, they inteisect at 2 points. The
shauow function, yb, can be useu to asceitain the complex ioots of ya. The ioot x = a occuis
when x = S. That means that the othei two ioots, wheie ! ! ! !!, must occui at points
C(-6,u) anu B(2,u). The value of b is the x-value of the miupoint of the line segment CB. Foi
giaphical puiposes, the line segment EF was useu to show the uistance fiom C to B. The
miupoint of this line segment is B anu occuis when x = -2. That means that b = -2. The
value of c is the length of the line segment BF. This length can be calculateu by subtiacting
the x-value of B fiom the x-value of F. That is, 2-(-2)=4; c =4. Now that we know the values
of b anu c, we can ueteimine the complex ioots of ya. These ioots aie:

! ! ! !!"

! ! !! !!!

Note that b is the ieal component while c is the imaginaiy component of the complex ioots
of yb.



It is impoitant to unueistanu that the value of b was the aveiage of those two ioots of the
shauow function that uiu not inteisect the oiiginal function. Again, c is the uistance fiom
the aveiage to eithei of those two ioots. If the two ioots that uo not occui at the
inteisection of y1 anu y2 aie calleu x1 anu x2, we can wiite b anu c as:

! !
!
!
!!
!
!


! ! !!
!
!!!

! !
!!
!
!
!
!
!
!!
!
!


! !
!
!
!!
!
!



Let us now examine quaitic functions. We can hypothesize that if a quaitic function has two
paiis of complex ioots, it has a shauow function that has opposite concavity anu inteisects
the quaitic function twice. Fuitheimoie, if the quaitic has the ioots ! ! ! !!"! ! !!",
wheie a, b, c, anu u aie aibitiaiy constants, then its shauow function has ioots ! ! !! !! ! !
!. Consiuei the function:

!
!
! !! !!! !!"!!!! !!! !!"!!!! ! ! !!" !!! ! ! !!" !

Let the function y2 be concave to y1 anu have ioots ! ! ! ! !! ! !!!

!
!
! !!! !!! !!!!!! !!! !!!!!! !!! !!!!! ! ! !! !


Bowevei, these functions uo not always inteisect. A giaphing utility was useu to plot y1 anu
y2 foi the listeu values of a, b, c, anu u.




















It was founu that the two functions began to move apait when theie weie two paiis of
complex ioots. When only one of eithei b oi u was set equal to u, the functions inteisecteu
at two points, but when both b anu u weie a non-zeio value, the functions uiu not inteisect.
When b was set equal to u, the bi teim became zeio while the same was tiue foi the ui teim
if u was set to u. Bowevei, when both u anu b weie non-zeio, y1 hau two complex ioots,
causing to move apait fiom y2. Thus, with quaitic functions, it is safe to concluue that only
quaitic with one paii of complex ioots can possibly have a shauow function.

In any case, given two function of the foim

!
!
! !! !!! !!"!!!! !!! !!"!!!! ! ! !!" !!! ! ! !!" !

anu

!
!
! !!! !!! !!!!!! !!! !!!!!! !!! !!!!! ! ! !! !

we can use the lattei function to ueteimine the imaginaiy zeioes of the foimei. The lattei
function woulu inteisect the x-axis in foui places. When the two leftmost ioots aie paiieu
togethei anu the two iightmost ioots aie paiieu togethei, the aveiage of each of those paiis
woulu yielu values foi a anu c. Then, taking the uistance between the aveiage anu eithei of
those ioots woulu yielu values foi b anu u. This piocess is no uiffeient than the piocess
useu foi quauiatic anu cubic functions.