ORIENTAL

AND

RELIGIONS
THEIR

RELATION

TO RELIGION

UNIVERSAL

BY

SAMUEL

JOHNSON

INDIA

IN

TWO

VOLUMES

VOL.

I.

LONDON
TRUBNER
"

CO., LUDGATE

HILL

I879
reservetf\ [Allrights

THE

AUTHOR'S

NOTE

TO

THE

ENGLISH

EDITION.

THE

present
but
a

number

of
of

Mr.

Triibner's
extended found

Series,
work,
for

although
will

single
it

portion
is

more

nevertheless,
series,
as

believed,

be

suitable

the

constituting
relations of

by
Hindu

itself

an

independent
to

treatise

on

the

civilization

the

principles reviewing
a

set

forth
older

in

the

Introductory
of
of
each

Section.

In

the

religions
treatment

mankind,

have
in

ferred preorder

separate
its

race-stock,

to

refer

specific
to

traits

with

the in

more

precision
the evolution

and of

completeness

their

functions

psychological

laws.

BOSTON,

MASS., April, 1879.

CONTENTS

OF

VOL.

I.

Page INTRODUCTORY
I

INDIA.

I.

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

I. II.
III.

THE
THE THE

PRIMITIVE
HINDU HYMNS

ARYAS MIND

39 57

87
153

IV. V.
VI.

TRADITION
THE WOMAN LAWS

169
203 FORMS
AND

VII.

SOCIAL

FORCES

237

II.

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

I. II.

VEDANTA SANKHYA

305 375

INTRODUCTORY.

HPHE
"*"

pages Natural of
more

now

offered of

as

contribution
are

to

the
stand-

History
studies than

Religion
with

the
The

outgrowth
interest have for served
in
a

pursued
twenty
to

constant

P"int-

years. confirm

These the views

about

studies sented prethat

substantially
series of

Lectures,
on

delivered

number

of

years
as

since,
illustrated

the

Universality
the

of

ious Religof

Ideas,
the

by
were

Ancient
sources

Faiths
of

East.

So then
such

imperfect

the
that

positive cation publi-

knowledge
;

accessible,
increase

I chose has

to

defer

and

of

light
of my

been

constantly
ever

flowing
that view I

in upon have

this

great
to state

field defer
of

research

since,
in
the

continued

report

thereon,
until

of

the

existing
when

scholarship,
are

present
without

moment, force. of

such for
and

reasons

comparatively
in of
a

Engaged
themes I
cannot

many

years

the the

public
nature

presentation
here

principles
note

illustrated,
of the

but

that

trustworthy
has
to ters mat;

statement

what

the

non-Christian free

world

offer

to

eye

of
more

thoroughly
and
more

inquiry,

in

of

belief, is
the

earnestly

demanded

that

in

present
;

stage
that

of

religious questions
sense

it is

indispensable by
in all who
a

and

the

of

inadequacy
the
can

felt

have which

thoughtfully approached
none

subject,
compre-

degree

but

themselves

INTRODUCTORY.

tend, should
Bur several

no

longer prevent
to

parts in this work.

this demand
in

that the response

on

the part of liberal thinkers them

performing I need hardly add is alreadyadmirable Europe and America.

us

from

To

the present contribution

their

is dedicated, in

dial cor-

of appreciation
been
a

labor

not

of

and their aim. spirit duty only, but of love.

It has I have

prompted by a desire of combining the testimony faculties in different epochs rendered by man's spiritual
been which these faculties on concerningquestions of final appeal. I have of necessity his court are of any written, not as an advocate of Christianity or other distinctive religion, but as attracted on the one of the religious sentiment under hand by the identity all its great historic forms, and the other by the on and
races, movement

indicated
a

in their diversities and

contrasts

clusive higher plane of unity,on which their exclaims shall disappear. It is only from this standpoint of the Universal in Religionthat they can be treated with an appreciation worthy of our freedom, science, and humanity. The of worship, as of work, are no longer to corner-stones is special, be laid in what local, exclusive, or anomalous is essentially in that which and human, ; but revelation therefore of unmistakably divine. The be given in nothing else God, in other words, can thanTKe "natural consTilution'and culture of man. To

towards

convinced be"~ihoroughly
our

of

this will of itself forbid

the facts preon partialism imposing religious sented of the soul. by the history Yet it should perhaps be stated that the following outline of what I mean by the idea of Universal Religion, althoughprefatory, represents no purely a priori but the results to which assumption, my studies have

INTRODUCTORY.

3 which

led me,

as

well

as

the

in spirit

they have

been

pursued.
Man's
as

instinctive

sense

of

divine

origin, interpreted
xhehistorical Process*

historical derivation, explains his infantile of form

to
a

dreams crude

primitive "golden age." In this he begins to recognize his inherent

Infinite and Perfect. But

tion relaas

the

while,

his

have an enduring happy mythology, these dreams tive symbolicvalue, they no longer stand as data of posiAnd belief. the historyor permanent religious fate befalls the claims of special to have same religions in some from their been opened by men sense perfect birth, and to possess revelations complete and final at All these ideas of genesis are their announcement. transient,because they contradict the natural processes of growth. We to note, as they depart,a procome gressive of man, essential education through his own relations with the Infinite,commencing at the lowest onward to fresh ascension stage, and at each step pointing
;
an

advance

not

less

sure,

upon
an

the

whole, for
often
so

the

fact that in
a

directions special

earlier may

surpass
to

later attainment, it.1 is

as

proving competent,
natural
as

far,

instruct

And

this progress

it is divine. in

It

proceedsby
laws

means

ment

humanity ; absoluteness affirms Infinite Mind whose as cated impliin this finite advance up to mind, and then by of mind; laws whose continuous onward mpveis inspiration.
between

laws inherent

and immanent

If this be true, the distinction hitherto made

1

I insist

on

the

of the indispensableness

infinite element

to

every

step of evolution,

because I find this nowise explicable The very as creation of the higher by the lower* than mere idea of giowth involves more historicalderivation. Genesis is a constant mystery of origination. And an ascending series is to be accounted for by what is greater
not than its highest less, term.

4
w

INTRODUCTORY.

it as we interpret profane history, and for ever. "Profane tory hiswill, vanishes utterly The is a misnomer. line popularly drawn and Christianity between Heathenism as stages respectively of guess-work and of blindness and insight, and of nature authority, grace,"is equally unjust in both directions, because himself. In unjustto man all religions there are imperfections;in all,the claim sacred and
"
w " w

"

"

"

to

infallible

or

exclusive

revelation
must

is alike untenable have reached

yet, in all, experience

down
to

somehow

In all, the and certitude. to authority up have intuitive faculty must pressed beyond experience finable of impalpable, indemonstrable, indeinto the realm realities. In all, millions of souls, beset by have the same seen problems of life and death, must man's positive relations with the order of the universe In all, the one face to face. nature, that spiritual makes possiblethe intercourse of ideas and times and

tribes, must
valid form difference tion is

have

found

utterance

in

some

nally eter-

of

thought and
ancient
be
to

conduct. and modern

The

between
not

civiliza-

to explained by referring
as a new

civilization,

whether Christianity, into the life grafted or consummation

a

process

ideal religious of history, as or The tian Chris-

the natural

of this process.

ideal is but in the line of traceable which

that
to

force single

movement.
a

others,all equally among Civilization is now definitely influences, among

great variety of
is

probably the most prominent; its present breadth and fulness being the result of a fusion of the more and expansive races 5 while energetic
the freedom have found
on

of Race

and in

science, which
the

are

its motive

power,

manifold
as quite

ideals much

of the

Christian
as

Church

the whole

hindrance

help.

INTRODUCTORY.

5
of difference between

But, apart from* the

ancient may and modern
as

causes

be described

the fact itself of life, conceptions tween simply the natural difference bethe
man.

the child marked of in either

nor

and
case

This

transition

is

not

by

growth,

by

the

changes in the nature of new faculties, nor engrafting

sudden of the kind
mean,

interferences by special whatever normal.

that

called
but

"

ural," supernatwith
the

may

is

gradual and
and child
than

Reflection

supplants instinct,and,
the

self-consciousness bolder
was

which

claims,

enters

brings higher powers of which the criminality

child manhood
to
a

less

capable.
;
no

In

the

there
was

was

more

childishness The
nor

for his whole

leaf needs does the

specialmiracle
to

there in germ. become a flower The

a

child,

become
"

man.

-whole divine

"process

of growth

is the miracle, while

force that transcends The

product of pervading it.

law. is
no

of Religion follows the same history is no point where Deity enters ; for there where point Deityis absent. There is no of divine which faithful all
to

There
Contmuit

need

of thenaw.
r

interference, where

proceeds
minutest

the very law is itself divine. It is needs

at

by
as

process*

tenderly
at

the

beginning as
forms may

any

later stage of

growth.

Whatever

arise,

neither fresh legitimation nor explanation, they require since their germs lay in the earlier forms, their finest fruit encloses when the primal seeds, and history, read

backward,

is discerned

to

have

been

natural

prophecy.
Thus the forms
a

there

are

differences
;

of

higher
is
no

and

lower

in

of revelation

but

there

'Such

in distinction from natural religion and physical differ ; but natural So, too, spiritual be opposed to spiritual only in a very restricted

revealed

thingas religion.
can

and

INTRODUCTORY.

questionable sense.
must

Any
cannot

distinction and
one

thus every

indicated

lie within

the It

limits of each mark

one

taken

by

itself.

off from

religion positive religion

since,

from
whatever

another, still less

the rest;

meanings be given to these terms, every its own such will be found to have spiritual religion and natural sides, if any one has them. is nevertheless Christianity opposed, as constantly False preto the earlier faiths, a as spiritual religion, tensions set some were ones ; as if there nierelynatural up for chmtianity. essential contradiction and good in to truth abolished by the advent human our was nature, which far from teachof Jesus. The of religion, ing so history
"
"
*
.

"r

Ai

such
"

schism

between
at

the human
a

and

the divine, of
a
"

or

this

bridging over
the
exact

certain

epoch

gulf

which, by its very

of God and Man

definition,was contrary,
the laws
"

monstrate impassable, desubstantial unity a alienations. It

beneath

all outward

in pointsto perfection

of human

nature, under
; to
stitutional con-

all the

varying phases
health unshaken

of human

character

by the diseases incident to human as growth ; to moral and spiritual recuperation, the vices that requiredit; to divine immanence, as under finite conditions, from the beginning onwards. Universal be any one, exReligion,then, cannot of religions c^us^cfy^"f ^e great positive where is the Yet it is reallywhat is best *n Universal the world. elglon of them; from each and every one purified and and baser inter-mixture developed in freedom Being the purport of nature, it has been germinating power.
in every
elements

vital energy
some

of

man

; so
,

th"t

its

exist, at

stage of evolution

in every

of mankind. great religion If any

belief fails to abide this test, the

worse

for its

INTRODUCTORY.

7
w

If that were true nature. religious is commonly taken for granted," wrote Cudwhich the worth,1 "that generalityof the Pagan nations but scattered their acknowledged no sovereign numen, devotions amongst a multitude of independent deities, have much stumbled the naturality of the this would divine idea ; effect equivalent,in his large and an clear mind, to disprovalof the divineness itself. As in fact but a single distinctive Christianity was unfolding process, so those RlRhtSof o" step in a for ever earlier beliefs are disparaged when they are oklcr Failhs" made to point to it as their final cause. They stand, as it has stood, in their own as it has been, ; justified, right soil, day and on its own by meeting,each in its own of human the demands nature. They point forward, but not to a single and final revelation entering history their line, and from without their reversing at once whole in its new dealingwith their attained process results. They point forward ; but it is with the prophecy claims
on our
"

of

an

endless

progress,

which

no

distinctive foreclose. held interest

to

name,

or even symbol, authority, when are misrepresented,

w

ideal, can

They
mere a

they
"

are

be

forerunners

"

"

or

types

in

the

of

later

faith,which labors, and

the and fresh

has
in

in due

fact entered
season

into the fruit of their

its
a own

transmits

best

to

forces

that

are

opening

up

largerunity,

and a broader name alreadydemanding a new communion. trast when, to conThey are misrepresented, is simply a successor, with what them they are The for the truth of God." gencies exicalled preparations of Christian dogma have requiredthat they
*

should

even

be described

"

as

mere

fallacies of human
a

to despair; reason," tending inevitably

1

charge

re-

Prefcce to Intellectual System of the

Univeru.

INTRODUCTORY.

futed

alike

by

the

laws

of science

and

the

facts of

since man did, and never never history, can, despair. in of this nature, inherent, it would seem, Prejudices which the make-up of a distinctive religion, forbid its of faith, are to other forms to render disciples justice and freer method to the larger scope rapidly yielding of inquiry peculiarto our times. embodies the sacred personEvery historical religion of man Misicpre- ality ; announcing his infinite relations sentatiou of...., been most alto life,duty, destiny. Yet it has an them. invariable instinct of the Christian world to ignore this presence of the soul in her own phases of belief,
,
.

"

and

to hold

"

heathenism

"

to be

her

natural

foe. may

ever Howhave

non-Christian harmonized it has

seldom with

moralityand
what is best in the

sentiment the
name

New

Testament,
of revelation.

been

accorded

Although there orthodoxy, which

ff

is

always

comparatively intelligent
the idea

assents

to

of

divine

manence im-

thus recognized yet the divinity and moreover the Christ being,after all, the Christ^
"

in all ages,

of
a

tradition, especial
"

this Christ in and, further still,

"

there can and provisional form, merely preliminary of the faith in such appreciation be but little freedom
or

virtue

extant

in non-Christian
not

these,
the

unlike
common

of senting prethat of the early apologists of ages.

even

mode

Church,
liberal
to

is

with writers
the
more

of the

so-

called
ones,

sects

while, with

exclusive

the heathen praise being regarded as despoiling it is an easy step to the inference that Christianity, is exalted by referring heathenism to the Christianity and
snares.

category of delusions
much
to treatment

And
most

it is not

too

the whole, that the say, upon of the older religions would balance and fairly,
to

affirmative

the adjust

hardly suffice to place them on their

INTRODUCTORY.

9 of civilization which all its hospitality

real merits before the conscience

has, until very recently, expended almost

on

the

claims

of

alone.1 Christianity write in the national interest of denomito

Many
no

of those who efforts have

trained themselves

shrink

from

in the line of their purpose ; while others assumptions tory. blinded by its logicto the most are patent facts of hisIt has been common to deny boldlythat moral existence for the and religious truth had any positive mind before the Christian human epoch ; to assume introduced into the Mount that the Sermon on actually human
nature

that very
in but the
an

love

and

trust

to

whose

existing pre-

power

hearts

of its hearers As if ideal

man

it could

itselfhave
could have
or

been

appeal.
back
or

been

imported
to

into
some

principles by a special
of arrival,

teacher,

be traced

moment

like commercial

samples

inventions

in

machinery
to

belief powerful is a traditional religious can perceptionthat every moral truth man be the outgrowth of his own must nature,
1

So

efface the

apprehend
and has al-

We
as

may

mention,

as

in

sinking
de des

contiast

to this

general lecoid
De

of la

Christendom, such

works

Dupuis' Ongmes

Tons

les

Cultes, Constant's
et Id"es

Svm"oltkt Duncker's
the

Geschichte

Altfrthum""" Cousin's
Morales

History of
des

I'hito^ofhy^DemV
Child's To

Thrones

Religion^ Creuzer's Lectures and Fragments on dans CAntiquitf, Quinet's

Grnif

Religions^ Michelet's
Intellect.

Phtlosophe"i Mis. of
add gat,
are

les de rHumamtc, Menard's Morale Bible avant Progress of Religious Ideas, and R. W. Mackay's Progress

the

these, in
of Kenan

the and

specialfield
Michel
on

of

Oriental
;

Literutute,we
those
races.

must

the

Shcmitic

studies

Nicolas
remoter

and

of

Abel All

Remu of these

Ruckert, Lassen, Roth, and

from distinguished proves of how the far the

Muller,

the

Eastern

which
narrowness

of writers on this theme mass by a spirit of universality, of this age has advanced scholarship beyond the theological of Voltaire, and the hard negation of Bossuet, the critical superficiality and

the so-called rationalistic schools of Lobeck scholars

exact
are

Voss.

But

it is to be observed

that these

stillreputed heretical, and

stand

in dibfavor with

distinctive Christianity in

Of unequalledsignificance are to their historical impartiality. proportion Lessing's Treatise on the Education of the Human Race" and Herder's Ideas of a Philosophy
Man
;

of

works

of marvellous

breadth, freedom, and

must

other historicaland in this dilution.

nations

influences, we literary
Heine the

finely says

of

than to any to which, more insight, of modern the thought assign parentage Herder, that, "instead of inquisitonally judging
as a

accntdingto

he regardedhumanity degree of their faith,

harp

in

the hands

of

great master,

and

each people a special helpingto the harmony of the whole.1' string)

IO

INTRODUCTORY.

ways
or

been
success.

seeking to

reach

with greater expression,

less

the most confident comit was monplace recently of New England preachingthat all positive into the world with Jesus. belief in immortality came And it is stillrepeated,as a fact beyond all question, besides Christianity that no other religion ever taught to bear each other's burdens, or preached a gospel men

Until very

to

the poor. Nor has there form of

wanting a somewhat specialpleading, for the

of heathenism
to

been

able discredit-

reducingthe
amount;

claims
a

of purpose the smallest sible pos-

tion, grudging literalism,a strict construcbase rendering, of ancient beliefs; which a or would perceptiona apparent spiritual prove every phantom of fancy or blind hope, or else a mirage

reflected from of the and delicate

the idealism

of the present fair

on

the background

past.

Resolving the
of the
far he
more

imaginations
races

divinations

childlike

into

mockery betrays, however,

the critic than in the
race

scepticism in
The
same

wrongs.

has disposition Thus

often the

arisen
of

from

desire

philosophicalprejudice. Locke to disprove the

to
a

notion

of innate ideas led him has

degree
noticeable

of unbelief effect
on

in this direGtion, which

had

subsequentthought.
But
we

have

yet

to

mention the with and

one

of the worst of

effects

of traditional
is still held

on religion

treatment

consistent
earnestness

Christian

history.It to scholarship
the firmed af-

deny

moral

noblest

thinkers

of

conviction to practical in what antiquity, they have

of God and
"

of the Fatherhood

the Brotherhood
"
"

of

man.

They

were

theorists, not believers

failed to

;
"

talked

about virtues, but finely

apply them

"gave

INTRODUCTORY.

II

give to aristocrats in thought,whispering one them;" were and doctrine to their disciples, preaching another to the people; and so on. All of which is not only exaggerated and false in details, but in its principle or of historical knowledge. method destructive utterly all foundation to rejecting too, it amounts Substantially, of man, and the constant for morality in the nature
no

such

meanings
w

to

their great words

as

we

"

laws

of life.
excuse

Critics of this temper

of

have

not

now

the

doctrinal

Calvin, who
to

ascribed

the apparent

hypocrisy ; and Dugald Stewart was hardlymore wanting than they must be in the true when the first modern of scholarship, he met spirit with the charge that revelations of Oriental wisdom invention of the Sanskrit language was recent a mere and Sanskrit literature an the Brahmans, imposture. The Catholic largehistorical relations of the Roman Church have permitted its scholars to gather up the of the heathen, though in the interest wisdom spiritual this appreciation, of its own such authority.1But even included it was, the Reformation in its sweeping as
virtues of the heathen malediction And
"

upon

Church

of

mere

human

tions." tradi-

Protestantism,with few
show,
in its
treatment

exceptions,has
of non-Christian
to

continued

to

the pietyand morality,

a

narrow

sympathiesincident
movement

self-centred
an

and exclusive

of reaction, and

sectarian. inherently When other grounds of depreciation failed, there remained the presumptionthat all such outlyingtruth been carried over have into Pagan records by must Christian or Hebrew In its origin, hands. doubtless, the natural this idea was thusiasm, outgrowth of Christian enand the signof a geniality and breadth in the
to
1

attitude

See especially Lamennaia, Essai

sur

PIndiff"nnce

tn

Matitrt

de

Religion.

12

INTRODUCTORY.

consciousness religious
to find its own.

which But

was

there

reachingout everywhere also a dogmatic was

and this drian Alexan-

interest in the foreclosed the

development of these claims; paths of fair inquiry.Justas the

to Moses philosophy (some of them resorted to piousfrauds to prove it) so under even and natural the exigencyof their creeds of depravity of atonement, incarnation,and mediation, incapacity, been Christians have impelled to trace all ancient records ; to imagine late interpolations pietyto their own tian communications with Jewish doctors or Chrisor are reallybut apostles,in explanationof what in natural sentiment correspondences of the religious And for such imputed influence different races. when

Jews

referred Greek

there could

not

be found

even

the shadow

of

historical

well-reputedwriters in all times have not been proof, wanting,who dared to affirm it without hesitation upon purely a -priori grounds.1 A common of dealing method with the relative claims is illustrated in a recent of positive writer,* religions extensive whose reading is almost nullified for the of comparative theology and ethics by the purposes of his authoritative creed. absolutism He begins with that "Christianity will tolerate no rival; that affirming other they who wish to raise a tabernacle for some
master must

be warned

that

Christ, and

Christ

alone,

id

1 Thus Hyde (A.D. 1700) supposes that the Persians must have been converted from and that their fire-altars have been imitations of that of Jerusalem ; Abraham, ilatry by
a

and

writer in the Bthliotheca that the Persians

Sacra
must

the A (1859) attributes*

vesta

to

the
a

prophet Daniel*
from

and declares
"

have borrowed Another

to

their notion of
same

Messiah

the

icvealed
very

of religion

the Hebrews."

instance of the

kind is the attempt, faith of spiritual

Wiss Tkeol.

not

scrupulously conducted,
St. Paul,
so

derive the moral

and philosophy

Seneca

from

thoroughly defeated by HUgenfeld (Zeitschr. d.

other Masters, \. pp. 39, 43.
to

1858)
1

Hardwick,

Christ and writer

of this learned pages

render

pacity Examples of the extreme incabeliefs may be iound on justiceto pre-Christian

volume. 133 and 336 of the first

INTRODUCTORY.

13
to

is to be
of his
most

worshipped ; of recognition

"

and

proceeds

state

the

limits
w

character

in the

theory that

the

effectual way

condemn rather
to

is not to defendingChristianity all the virtues of distinguished heathens, but in its favor," make them not at all, testify
"

of

be it observed^ in their
us

own.

All

of

which

reminds

saying,that whatever of truth the Augustine's Gentiles taught should be claimed by Christians from its heathen unlawful as promulgators, possessors of it, the Egyptians;" a process justas the Hebrews spoiled still extensively of historical justice practisedby the
"

of St.

Church. It is not should warmth

ff

Orientalists surprisingthat appreciative moved

to
enter

be

their

protest with
here

some

audacities against reaction

from

like those

mentioned.
too

The

exclaims
on

Max

extravagant theories goes Miiller, if every thought which

"

far,"

touches

the

problems
as

which
to be

reminds

put down Greek, or Christian

criminately indisphilosophyis to be marked modern a forgery; if every conception of Moses, Plato, or the Apostles, is us borrowed from Jewish, as necessarily
sources,

of

and

foisted thence

into the SchleMiiller

ancient

gel at
at
a

Friedrich von poetry of the Hindus." the outset of Oriental studies, as well as
it necessary
to

later stage, found among

Christian
to
use

scholars. Oriental

position this disreprove Yet he himself

to

point an the only clew to as affording appeal to Christianity too principles loftyto have been elicited by human
not
errors
"

does

hesitate

reason."

studied in the were religions of their own intrinsic values. light They are at Their indeof desire and faith, and ele- Pd^cnt once spontaneities the

It is time

older

vai"

Indian

Literature,B.

HI.

ch. iv.

14
ments
an

INTRODUCTORY.

in

indivisible

unity of growth,
attained.

which

cludes in-

at

each

stage natural
or

guarantees of all that

We

has go

since been back

to them

shall yet be
now,

should

in the

maturityof science,with
we

something
too, of those

of

the

tenderness

feel for with

a

our

own

earliest intuitions and

emotions

reverent

use,

faculties of
our

imaginationand
of For
access

tion contemplaas

which and

are

real way

to
race

tions essential rela-

eternal
"

truths.

the

for

the

individual,
"

The

child 's the father of the

we

man

And
Bound

could each

wish

our

days to
natural

be

to each

by

piety.'*
that all

The
ideal eicments.

first universal

is of religion principle
their ideal

great beliefs have

jn {jie natural the
we

elements;
is not And
as

justas
a

world
a

the

bud

bud

merely,but
with which fulfilments

guarantee of
are

flower.

it is these

mainly concerned,

pointingto

beyond themselves, in a future that will be mortgaged to any names, not to any claims. nor They are that promise in the firstbelief,which the last fulfil alone ; the dream which cannot only their mutual to find ran us interpret. And it becomes recognition in our own experience the secret which explainshow they have met the problems of ages and answered the prayers of generations. Illustrations of these ideal elements, high-water marks of ancient faith,readily suggest themselves. toleration prevailing in China The from religious it is estimated when early times is not fairly very that deep moral earnestness shown and to have lacked forms the highest spiritual dignitywhich distinguish of modern in Europe or America. liberty religious

INTRODUCTORY.

15

for our is,whether religious philosophy question the same nature it is not of essentially out of ; a germ freedom which that highest might come by pure force of the familiar laws of social and scientific growth, by The the intercourse beliefs reached
;

of

races

and
not,

the
even

intimacies
on

of diverse

whether
a

it has

its

own

ground,
or

pointof development, in
makes less than hold

certain
our

instances

certain respects, which look opportunities and whether

our

these
we

greater

ward out;

thought
of moral

them

it may culture

not

elements
the

value

whereof with the

needs

infusion.

Similarly
It is
not

of the self-abnegation of the human

Buddhist. powers
to

that

devotion perfect which would

social
the

involve

the best culture

and

good largest
trated illus-

Neither is this,we efficiency. practical may virtue, even qualityand extent of the same and taught in the Christian records. suppose
that there would
or

add, the
as

But

to

be need

either of miraculous

re-enforcement

essential

self-denial into the

our

time, would

be

to

itself

fullyequal

to

tic change, to unfold Buddhisbest morality and piety known to ignorethe fact that it has shown these in the spirit of practical
zeal for
same
an an

benevolence, and
of of and purity

in ardent

ideal standard

truth. In the
even

way,

implicit germ
the into the pure

Monotheism,

in the

of "element-worship"

earlyAryans, fully guarantees

and and definite Theism shows the of the best of
a

progress

assumption
rest

Indo-Europeanminds ; divine depositof this

tribution alone, for disto

centraltruth with the Shemitic Hebrews

to

the

of mankind,

be

entirely less ground-

and beliefs and

gratuitous. Thus the cardinal virtues and but to all religions belong not to one religion, ;
diversities of form into which
race

the

each and

of these

ideals is broken

by

differences of

culture do

l6

INTRODUCTORY.

not

affect its essential find ourselves

in identity

them

all.

We

where every-

at home

in the world's great faiths,

to

through their
most

common

appeal
us

what

is nearest

and

familiar
relations

to

in

solvingthe great
the

central facts
called
to

and

with

which
we

soul is for

ever

deal.

Everywhere

greet essential meanings of the

fice, unityof God with man, of fate and freedom, of sacrities duinspiration, practical immortality, progress, and humanities, just as we everywhere find the mysteries of birth and death, the bliss of loving and of moral the stress sharing,the self-vespect loyalty,
of ideal desire.

It will be

found, in followingthe
forms
to

course

of these

studies, that all those

which of
are

of moral be

and

wont

are Christianity

visible old

regarded as through the

communities

spiritual ception perpeculiargifts

crude
;

social in such

conditions brave

of

the

Asiatic

not only too, for growth as demonstrates struggle, those conditions, but also the fact their vitality under that they fulfilfunctions inherent in the and constant of man. Such of ultimate the recognition nature are gain through good through transient evil ; of spiritual and hindrance ; of freedom suffering through acceptance of divinely natural conditions ; of love, beyond a la\v ; of the rightful thought of constraining authority

of the soul

over

the

senses

of the sacredness immutable

of

science, con-

and

of somewhat

in its decrees the

of the inevitableness of disinterested in the Human Our

wherein

of moral
; of
;

and penalty,

motive

invincible remedial
of Divine Immortal

beauty energies
and

universe spiritual

Fatherhood

Brotherhood,

and

Life.
be

advantage
seen

over

older not,

civilizations will thus

as

to
some

consist
new

in ge.ad

imagined, generally force, infused miraculously, or

is

INTRODUCTORY.

lj
; religion

otherwise, by the
of
in
a

Christian

but

in

thing some-

the

It is found, quitedifferent nature. immense special development of the

;

in fact,
standing under-

of the faculties of observation

in the

and

the forces the

of

analysis ;

advancement
races

of

science, and
So

fusion and of

friction of

in the wealth and, finally,

to

material opened practical

all.

impressive is
the

this

growth
of

of

the

understanding,and
that writers like

sciences
go
to

thereon
extent

dependent,

Buckle

the

that morality and religion,on the inferring other hand, as being the comparatively "unchanging factors" in history,have influence "no had on ress." progin But this is to reduce history to a sum Its factors arithmetic. History is a living process. are dynamic, and are not to be pulled apart like dead ethical forces are bones a or heap of sticks. These of being constant and "unchanging," only in the sense clears their unfailing;and the mental growth, which vision and in fact develops their practicalcapacities, enables them to exert an influence, a ever-increasing ideal. completer fulfilment of their own And of modern tion civilizaso, in holding the vantage in the sphere of the understanding, to lie specially

I do
ideals

not

overlook

the

force with

which

the

manifold
and

of Christian
ones, at

belief have

older
I note

its vast

looms

of

wrought, like other productivepower.

But

the
are no our

these variations in the religperfectly ious ideal of Christianity correspond with and depend on steps of intellectual progress ; how analogous they to those of other religions a point of ; and finally, import, how littlewhat is broadest and best in light also how

civilization has

to

do

with

what

is distinctive

in
on

Christian

faith,
"

namely, itsexclusive
as

concentration

Jesus of

Nazareth

the Christ.
2

It

is,moreover,

pre-

8
its moral

INTRODUCTORY.

in cisely

and

religious aspects

tendom that the Chris-

eighteencenturies can claim least practical to the older civilizations. superiority I have sought to bring into view a law of progress, in which the most important transitions in Spiritual Xeacnon. historyfind their true explanation. religious I refer to SpiritualReaction. It is mainly from habitual disregard of this familiar law in its broader
of

aspects that

such

transitions
with

have the

been natural

referred

to

specialdivine of history.
It is

interference

processes

commonly supposed can things moral and spiritual

line.

When this

divine

life

growth in proceed only in a direct in a degenerating appears

that inference effete and
*

natural

age,
human

theory requiresthe forces having become

the
What

that, natural
exhausted,
of
new a

miraculous

interference, like the

old

creation

species" in
necessary.

theory

of

biology,had
is the usual

become
dency ten-

else should

stop the downward

Such

of "unaided

nature"?

method

for Jesus of Nazareth and his religion ; accounting of historical construction which such the principle is assumed throughout the growth of Christian dogma : the Christ and his gospelwere a new spiritual species. So far "as Jesus is concerned, this theory in fact rests kind on a very superficial survey of the condition of manfaith at his birth ; since his ethical and spiritual

of

"

had
a

their tap-roots within

his native and

soil,and

followed

tendencies in spiritual that age. Yet it is also true both of the Roman Empire in as a whole, and of the old faiths that were perishing life had, on the its bosom, that social and religious whole, become fearfully degenerate. Grant this to intermiraculous the fullest extent possible, yet
line of strong democratic
w

INTRODUCTORY.

19
in

ference" revival* For mind

as as

need

not

be

assumed

explanationof

the

there well

is
as

law

of

self-recovery by
different indeed

reaction, in
from

in matter;
an

that,

but a new and greater equivalent, force. It lias been described as that vicious forbidding ideas or institutions shall go so far as their principle 1 It strikes back demands." individuals and logically nations from degeneracy. It restrains excess in the it shows us each with timelywarnings. And passions in some historic periodhastening extreme to an special direction, only that the next may be forced into doing to a different and justice balancing class of energies, be liberated into free and so in good time all faculty tial play. This natural law of reaction is quiteas essenthe law of steady linear growth ; and constant as though perhaps, when clearlyapprehended, it will be

developingnot

"

found

to

be but It is

more

interior and

less obvious

form

thereof.

not

only essential

to the

explanationof

in its relation to the degeneracies Christianity primitive of the epoch, but thoroughlycompetent to that end. It is adequateto prove the phenomenon a sign not that forces of human had become the spiritual nature hausted, exbut that they were exhaustless, since even suppression cmly nerved them to unprecedentedvigor. this natural solution of religious Of course progress does not exclude personal or social inspiration,
*

Inspiration.

in

any

rational

sense

of the word.
to

It leaves

to

as genius, religious

its own intellectual,

unfathomed

mystery, its immediate

leaves in the

its enits spontaneity, thusiasm, insight, of life and of

men.

its fateful mastery

It

unquestionedthe
1

fact that there is an the

element

present instant which

past

cannot

explain*

Gu'txot, Ifutory of Civilization.

2O

INTRODUCTORY.

Nay:
and

it affirms

the constancy

of

this transcendence

ual primacy in the instantaneous fact of spiritof perception. It recognizesthe special energy
of this
the
seer.

intuition in the saint and But it impliesthat

ditions, religious genius also has its conthat and inspiration its laws ; and it demands line with in this respect they be placed in the same of if in advance intellectual and poetic genius,even than these, them. They are not less purely human either in their original in the law of their or source,

appearance.
of all these forces in the earlyOriental energy has seemed noble illustration of to me world a very And I may need add that we their universality. not The
,

be

to find, amidst surprised

the weaknesses

of

spiritual
to

also, incident childhood, certain superiorities

that

of imagination, intuition, and stage, in the qualities civilizations. maturer faith,over In

point of
admits call the
vance

moral

earnestness

and

also, fidelity
what
we

it

of serious
4

question whether
*

Religions judged by
their fruits.

accustomed
in which

to

highestform of civilization is an ad^he phases of faith it has been UpOn contemn. Admitting the clearer light
has

science be

revealed

the laws prove

It would

difficult to
us are

of social ress, progthat Braces in this inferiors which

respect far behind

in those lead
to

in any

degree our
one

of qualities the

the heart

and the conscience

faithful service what

of what he

and worships, I venture

the honest the

of practice that we prediction many could

believes.

shall yet learn

of the Oriental

nations

lessons in moral be
more

and integrity. simplicity for those who wish

Nothing
to

unfortunate

exalt
to

than

Christianity by comparison with Heathenism rest their argument on what they call "judging

INTRODUCTORY.

21

religions by their said, "My answer

It would
be

fruits."
to
as

orator distinguished

has ent." pres-

Buddha

is India, past and for

a

reasonable is

Buddhist

to

say,

"My
for

answer

India

Judaism, past and present;" rejectedBuddha, as Judaism did Christ.

is and better But has able

to Christ

What

India

been, the Western

to state

world

will

probablybe
than it is
now.

half of
a a

century hence

if the power mould

and

specific religion
shall

is shown

in its
own

to ability

civilization into the

image
be of

of its
of

moral whose

ideal, what spiritual

said

one

results after

eighteen centuries

terize characmust orator our preaching and instituting if by saying that no one would know its Founder he came us to-day; that there is no Christian among round community at all ; and that Christianity goes

and

stamps
too

every
a

institution
construction

as

sin?

We

need

not

give
would

literal

to

expressions whose
What
we

substantial
note

meaning
is that

is justified by the facts.

these

fruits practical

of

disciples ; and
to meet

that

concerning the made are Christianity by its noblest confess its inadequacy theyvirtually

admissions

the actual demands

Nevertheless,

of social progress. its religious ideal is still confidently

presented
some

as

all

productive,and

final. the

Here

dently is evithese

of misunderstanding

originof
all,as

nobler

demands.
not
an

It is in fact

the

Christ-ideal
moral

at

is here
to

imagined,but
many
new

advancing
that
now

standard, due

causes,

criticises the institutions in

were or

question. by definite
ages.
and Our

Such

institutions

in

fact unmolested

Christian precepts
reformer's
"

for many prohibitions old as is indeed as inspiration

than

Christianity, nay,
love
;

more

that, as old
resources

as

heroism
lie in

but

its

practical present

22

INTRODUCTORY.

science secular And

and even liberty, represent the triumph of interests over distinctively opposition. religious and fresh task of the reformer is made
ceivable con-

every

only through the accomplishment of the last. evolved How then can it have been out of the solely It is not faith and virtue of eighteen centuries ago? the fruit of Christianity alone, but generatedby living experience,in the breadth and freedom of modern
civilization. of judgingreligions by their subject fruits, we are yet to collect the data for a justdecision ; inner since it involves the study of civilizations whose On this whole
movements

have
of

hitherto been
our

in

great

measure

sealed

from

the view

Western

world. of historicalscience, But it

Man=Man
as

is the broad well

not
as

formula

of

practical brotherhood.
*

Meaning
of natural

"

interpreted.It does superficially equality. fae falsehood and not mean munistic egotism of comand theories, which disintegrate personality alike in the name of an unconditioned society "equality"
must

be

which

natural

ethics nowhere

allows.

It

means

that in

every age and race, under the varying surface-currents of organization and intellectual condition, you shall find
and
a

deep-sea calm,

"

the

same

essential

instincts The
to

tendencies, demands. insights, aspirations, first vital problem of historical research is

the
constant

find and

factor,the guarantee of immutable

means

eternal

laws, by
never

of
at

the
mere

variables.

Its first dulge in-

duty
every

is in

negation,nor but to draw arrogant disparagement,

to

pause

from

form

of earnest and

faith

or

work

its witness

mutable of im-

can

we

good. Not tillthis is done, the diverand interpret sities wiselyapply analysis,
law

endless

of human

belief.

INTRODUCTORY.

23

of modern studies is in the inspiration physical This fine of their idea and aims. universality Universalit of nature, by lens idealism in the exploration physical 8tudies* and prism and calculus, which casts theologies into the background of human interest,is preparing of religions, Bible shall whose the way for a religion Nature. How be the full word of Hitman opulent the ence and time with encyclopedicsurvey comparative sciCosmos ! Humboldt's of was representative the drift of the century ; a search for that all-insphering harmony, of which the worlds and ages and races chords, Humboldt, pursuing the idea of unity are deeps of law, with a reverence through immeasurable of worship to need the curthat is too full of the spirit rent phraseology of religion;Pritchard, tracingthe and Muller the linguistic, aflinities of physiological, tribes ; Ritter, unfoldingthe function of the human The
m

"

"

mountain and sea, every continent and every range river basin, in the developmentof humanity as a whole

Kirchhoffand

Bunsen,

with the

their

successors,

applying
star,

spectrum
but

to analysis

rays

of every
in the

till the
is

determination
a

of the "sun's

place

universe"

singleelement in the immeasurable significance of lightnow ment opening before this marvellous instruof research ; Tyndall,making the subtlest phases of force a revelation of poetry and philosophy,and a for the generalmind, these, with others not delight less earnestly pursuing the unities of law, whether and its evolution wisely or imperfectly interpreting definingits higher facts and relations, represent the physicalscience of our time. fail to be explored How should the spiritual nature of the instinct ? It is a deepening sense by the same and so of its reliability as unityof human experience,
"

24
well

INTRODUCTORY.

affirms that banishes supernaturalism, dignity, universal laws in place of miracle, and bids us rest in the Stoic Aurelius them with entire trust ; as loving,"
as
"

said,
that

"

whatever

happens

to

us

from

nature,

because

only c;m happen by nature which is suitable,and it is enough to remember that law rules all." The of law is the guargrowing belief that the stability antee of universal good, or, to translate it into the that Law means JLove, is the language of the spirit, and universal sense, is sign that Love, in its practical itself becoming the all-solving calculus and all-analyzing the pursuer, spiritual prism of our astronomy, of Law. diviner, interpreter therefore And they who disapproveour inevitable
"

exodus
In
to

from that

distinctive
t

relation Human-

religions, upon t"

'

the

be organizinggood works would lty have very better than reconstructing theology, comprehensionof that which they distrust. It is slight the very spirit of humanity that is moving in this religious its own vision,reachingout emancipation ; clearing and self-respect, and finding its sphere to consistency Herder has said, "not merely universal to be, as as human but properly no less than human nature,

ground

nature

itself."1

"The

object of
all the world
or a

all All

religions," sings
men

the

Persian And
a

Hafiz, "is alike.

is not

seek

their beloved.

love's

dwelling? Why
teachers

talk of

mosque
"The

church?" of
the lover

Hindu

have

said:
creeds.
to

creed

differs from
who love

other
;

God

is the

creed

of those

Him

and

do

good
alone
a

is best, with is
a

the followers whose

whose
of Man,

of every

faith."

"He

true

Hindu

heart is life is
U. VIII

good

Mussulman

and he only just, pure." "Remembei

V.

ch.

INTRODUCTORY.

25

Him

who
come

has

seen

numberless go, and

who

Mahomets,
is
not

Vishnus,

Sivas,
who

and

found

by
"

one

forgetsor turns away from the poor." common standpointof the three religions," say of Chinese, "is that they insist on the banishment
The

The the evil

desire." Chinese
Buddhist

priest prays
wakens

at

morning
to

that

the music

of the bell which

him

his matins

"may sound through the whole world, and that every soul may living gain release, and find eternal peace in
God."1 himself
to
to

The

Buddhist
creature

Saviour2 in the tillall

are

vows

"to

manifest
never

every

universe, and
delivered
to their

arrive at Buddhahood

from

sin

into the divine rest, What

answer receiving

prayers."
of the

else,
or

or

wherein

better, is the

claim

Christian It is
so

the

far
a

Jew? from being

common

true

that

the

effort

to

lift the

to religions

level age,
that

is

to antagonistic

humanities
not

of

the

these

humanities

could

dispense with such an effort. It is their possibly natural much not so expression. It is the demand of instant social duty. of comparative science even, as which Is it not quite time that the excuses religious the heathen furnished for treating caste has constantly
as

lawful
were

prey

of the Christian

in

all quarters of the

to

globe
unities

of

refuted, by bringing finally the religious sentiment, and

of mankind? Is it
not

view

the

the

ethical

brotherhood

time
can

that claims

of exclusive revelation this of spirit

caste

ceased, which

only flatter

the globe of human circumnavigate that he might show how it could be regupassions," lated for the utmost good of all : surely a magnificent

Fourier tried to

Catena

of Buddhist

Scriptures.

'

Avalokitiswara.

26

INTRODUCTORY.

aim, however
whatever

beyond
same

any

man's

accomplishment,and
A similar idealism
ments leading move-

his mistakes
the

of method.

testifies to of

modern

in inspiration thought. It is them

:

all

the

humanitarian

instinct that forbids

that

guarantees
them

it is this instinct that the very

and

their

falling away
colossal
the
new

from in

principles
infinite in theories
and

make

stature

reach. progress, claims

sexes.

Hence

sciences
social

of mind,

of

analyses of
Let
us

function, brave
the
races

broad the

of

equal opportunityfor
be

and

Liberty,Democracy, Labor Reform, Popular Progress, to reach are beyond the assertion of exclusive rights or selfish claims into full recognition of universal duties ; that liberty is not to stop in license, nor democracy in greed and aggression, butions nor through bloody retriprogress to be earned
alone.

assured

that

And

this humanitarian

towards private current recreating literature and of scholarshipalso. It demands and shall give breadth freedom

impels each the universal life,is not only art, but changing the heart
an

instinct,which

ideal culture, that

our

to

philosophyof
all time. of that It oldest

life. would wisdom

as

It culls
nurse

the

choicest child
at

thought
the

of

every
which

breast

of love
substance in

but repeated Jesus confessedly

the

of the
them
was

Hebrew
but the the

Law
echo

and

Prophets,
all noble

and
human

which

of of

experience
that the veins

from

beginning
blood
to

time.

It

transmutes

one

mother's

which

flows
and the
during en-

through

of all ages

practicalnerve
It will discern
them

manly sinew fine gold in

of present all creeds

service.

currency. in prehistoric bone

gave It will read in sphynx and

and

rites,which

pyramid,
in Druid

heap

and

sculpturedwall,

INTRODUCTORY.

27

cies Mysteries,and Shemitic Propheand and the antique Bibles Codes, the varied of Deity, duty, and hieroglyph of man's assurance tions immortality. It will trace through all transformaideal to reof faith the eternal right of man's interpret life and nature, and to change old gods for
Circles
and

Greek

new.

Even
as

so

decided bears

an

opponent
to

of naturalistic constructive

Guizot

witness
a

the

religion of spirit

this

to aspiration gives the modern

of faith. "What largersynthesis its movement againstChristianity says, "is

a

most

formidable
has

character," he
heroes
and

sentiment
of truth

which
at all

found

martyrs,

the love

risks, and
and

of despite

of truth

for its sake

to

for the sake consequences, If such a spirit alone." as there

this is "formidable"

could Christianity, time for that free

be

stronger proof that

which The it demands
scholar
must

the

culture

is

fullycome? himself identify

brotherhood

with
out

the of

social

reformer, and
the old Bibles

demonstrate and
the

ixuyofthe
Scholar-

stammering speech of It is his duty to show that the human men. primitive arteries beat everywhere with the same royal blood. the strongholds It is his duty to help break of down and social contempt, and refute the pretheological tences have their ever justified by which strong races avail himself of He oppressionof the weak. may Comparative Philology,or Comparative Physiology, of ethnological science. other branch The or of any
materials harvests
resources are

at

last abundant, his

prove
utmost

the

laborers But

in these

equal to
should

need.

if all these

inadequate ; if the language, of any and social condition physical organization,

race,

should

all appear

to

invite

the

contempt

of

28
Christian
the

INTRODUCTORY.

nations, there

is still left the

The sentiment. essential religious does but on not rest on physiological, grounds. A how to true philosophy of History will know in the substance reconcile this identity with phases of progressive development. But no theory will serve, which fails to of recognize it as real in every one these phases. Formulas are as dangerous as they are fascinating. Thus Hegel, compelled by his formal as logic,regards the Oriental religions merely representing in the undeveloped state of non-distinction man from nature ; in other words, in pure bondage to the senses. And as elsewhere, his philosophical so, plays into the hands of theological generalization udice. prejIt ignoresthe fact It tells but half the truth.
that There
man
were

testimonyof unityof man psychological

himself

was

the

soul of these

earlier faiths.

incessantlynoble reactions which tested proagainst such bondage as he describes, and human as nature, justified genius and intuition and free self-consciousness, even in the crude experience had of its earlier not children; although men yet learned and object, to analyze the mysteriesof subject Being and Thought. Let us be admonished by the
hint
"

of the The

old

Buddhist

poet

"

are depths of antiquity

a

full of

light.
to
us. see

ly ScarceWe the
are sun

have

few

rays
at

been

transmitted

like infants born

rise, we
The
Rchginus

think

that

we midnight. When was." yesterdaynever

opening of
of the West
are

China
to
as

to

the Western

nations, and

Chinese

events

momentous

in

their

commercial

and labor, emigration in their religious as and political bearings.

INTRODUCTORY.

29
in

Taken

in connection
the

with
a

revolutions and polic}',

Japan
and

cating indi-

growth of
of the

liberal

with the

rapid
life

disclosure

field of

Hindu

literature

a new during the past half century, they announce It is as certain phase in the education of Christendom. that the complacent faith of the Christian Church in itself as the sole depositary of religious truth is to be startled and confounded experience, by the new that the fixed ideas of that huge populationwhich as swarms along the great river-arteries of China, and and heaps flowers in the temples of spirit-ancestors,

bows

at

shrines
at the

of Confucius
resources

and

Fo,
of the

are
fr

to

be

tounded as-

immense their time and

outside

barians," bar-

and

worship peculiar
has industrial

of Mammon

and

Christ.
modern

The social

arrived, in the providence of

progress, for
a

mutual

the the East and interchangeof experience between neither was is West, for which prepared, but which of both forms to the advancement indispensable quite

of civilization. In their natural millions

as

impatienceto
to Christian

count

these unknown
"*
' XT Not

converts

theology, the
the

an

er-

Churches
ness

but

feebly comprehend
Dreams

serious-

cieM^ticai

of the situation.

of denominaof
the

"Itl)0rtunlly

tional

where
blood

in these realms won trophies of salvation by the tidings of Christ

are

Pagan night,
power
or

the

dawn long-desired of day, will probablyprove illusory.Missionaryzeal All its but a poor has been spell to conjure with. real opporand exorcisms have failed. The auguries tunity world of The and promise is of another kind. is wider than Christendom has apprehended, religion of and it is undoubtedlydestined to widen in the sight and trade* much of population the world as as man
to
come as a

30

INTRODUCTORY.

is on the eve of well as Heathendom, as Christianity, judgment. It is to discover that it has much to learn I firmly believe that in making well as to teach. as the Christ" the worship of Jesus as which, more
"
"

than

any

essential

difference

in

moral

precept

or

its actual distinction from intuition, forms religious basis of faith, it will other religions a prescriptive of outside human strike against a mass experienceso of overwhelming as to put beyond doubt the futility pressing either this or any other exclusive claim as I have written in no spirit authoritative for mankind. of negationtowards aught that deserves respect in its faith or its purpose ; in no disparagement of what is in the life of Jesus; noble and dear to man eternally but with the the sincere desire to help in bridging belief,and gulf of an inevitable transition in religious in pointingout the better foundations alreadyarising
"

amidst

these tides that will and contented

not

spare

the ancient

holds foot-

finalities of faith. such serious and

And

in this ligions Re-

it is,that, after spirit

study

of the

of the East, their bibles

been

traditions,as has

"

acquaintancewith the Oriental languages, through the labors of scholars like Lassen,^Schlegel, Weber, Rosen, Kuhn, Wilson, Burnouf, Bunsen, Spiegel,Riickert,Mtiller,Legge, ing Bastian,our own Whitney, and of many others, rendersuch direct acquaintancecomparatively needless, I have reached the conviction that these oldest religions have function to fulfilin an important exceedingly
"

without possible,

direct

that present transformation

of the

latest into

Theism, which
The
not

is still irreverently denounced mission of

to Christianity

purer delity. infias

the heathen

is

of many only for the overthrow but quite as truly for peculiarities,

of their the

religious

essential mod*

INTRODUCTORY.

31

change from distinctive to Universal pared Religionis a revolution, comChristianity the passage from Judaism to Christianity with which
own.

ification of

its

The

itself was Here is the

to

trivial. situation. practical older in Christendom

out
The
tlon*

is
situa.

henceforth of which

face those
own

civilizations

its

life has

large measure

proceeded,and on which its reactions have made scarcely any impression. Brought into
relations with
than
races

hitherto intimate obstinate

whose
even more

beliefs

are

more

its own,
"

and

firmlyrooted
to

in

natural super-

claims, it will be
and

obliged to drop
the
common

all exclu-

siveness of natural

absolutism, defer
do

light
victions con-

and religion,

to justice

instincts and

that have

sustained

other

civilizations

through

is not The movement longer periods than its own. but in the direct line of our American own retrograde, of growth ; a promise of science and a consequence to bygone liberty.It can be regarded as a return feet clingtoo closely own systems onlyby those whose what to specialtraditions to venture lies on testing As well think it makes difference no beyond them. with Agassiz in a Pacific whether one goes to China the sands across steamer, or as a Middle Age monk

of Gobi. old life new.

The A

new

wisdom and

makes

and

finds all the

beckons deeper synthesis telegraph and treaty are but symbols. us, of which divine recognitions in that grasp of brothThere erly are will soon hands which completethe circuit of the globe. physical Scholars have not been wanting who bring us hints of the of this large communion from the Scriptures traveller or a East. and Here there a thoughtful liberal missionary has noted the brighterfacts, that

richer

32
tell for human

INTRODUCTORY.

nature,

and

explain the
as we

social permanence

and
Even

enduringfaith
the
come

of these strange civilizations.

from

Catholic many

Church,

have

already
the
to

said, have
to

willingtributes,however
own

the

support of its
has in
no

claims,
been

to

perverted idea
one

that

revelation
race,
or

wise

confined

person,

religion. But

the strongest evidence the practical attention

has failed of its due

interests
to

effect thus far, because

not

of society had
fields.

compelled

immensity, as well as actuality, fact of common becomes a ence experithe ethics of Confucius and the pietyof the ; and Vedas before the mind to stand as real and positive are the mercantile and political of Christendom ests interas that give dignity to this opening of the great gates of the Morning Land. Oricntc Lux!" Ex Light from the East once
these
*

distant

At

last their

rhe
ise.

Prom-

more

As

it

came

to

Greece Dorians

in the

"

Sacred

Mysteries" with
and the

the

and
; to

the

goreans Pytha-

Chaldaic
; to

Oracles

Alexandria

Europe in Judaism and ; to the Middle Ages by the Crusades, in Christianity floods of legend and lore that fable, the imaginative of the ideal faculty, and preitselC an education was pared for modern the way and aesthetic culture, liberty civilization to modern now so again it comes and religious through literature and commerce pathy symbefore, with a mission to help as ever ; and, clear the sightand enlargethe field of belief. tendom Chrisin Philo and
"

Plotinus

will
nor

not

become

Buddhist,

nor

bow

to

cius, Confu-

; but it will render worship Brahma justice which to the one nature spiritual spoke in ways as It will faiths. yet unrecognized,in these differing learn that Religion itself is more than any positive

INTRODUCTORY.

33
rests

form and

uhder

which

it has

appeared, and

on

broader
a

than be confined in can ever deeper authority demands sentiment prescribed ideal* The religious freedom from

its

own

exclusive

venerations,

that

it

their own in recognize principles may of instead revolving in endless beat

and validity, around

some

fixed historic name some or pivotalpersonality, bol, symfront directly the spiritual laws and facts which and has ever man sought to recognize and express, find them ample guaranties of growth, and ministers of good. These on questions bearings of the present work
now ness

uppermost
1 r

in

the up

consciousreligious "
in
the outset,
not

Limits

_.

and

are

summed

in

Purpose of

judgment on the pendent field of inquirybefore to that indehim, but in justice attitude towards distinctive religions, which is ity, alike by science, philosophy, and humandemanded enforced by the results of historical study, and birth of intellectua itself as a new recognized by religion While freedom and our spiritual power. criticism must point out deficiency of this universal to it, wherever element, and hostility they appear, yet the substantial spirit and motive of these studies is not even polemical nor theological.As far as they go whose in regions of research immensity the largest be scholarship does but open (and of these I would line), Understood the general outbut aspiringto sketch as port imthey would record the ethical and spiritual
order of
those

to forestall the

reader's

thelmiu'ry*

older and

civilizations,whose
Persia

scats

were

in

India, China,

previous
their
their

to

the

Christian
and

epoch
results

with
as

such be

may

lightfrom required for

in them
3

later forms

appreciation.I
may encourage

would

emphasize

whatever

34

INTRODUCTORY.

respect
darker

for

human

nature, which of still

while indeed all

hiding
do forms but of

none

of

theif the

features

illustrate faith and in

common

inadequacy
our new

past

view

of the aim.

and commend

advancing religion
beliefs without in
the
to

ideals,
the forward

so

must

more

step
whereof

and

Ill-understood ourselves

and

institutions,

we

are

not

representative spontaneities
as

forms,
of the

would

trace

to

their make

roots

ual spirit-

being,
identity
of and

and
human

as

clear

may

essential
of diverse.

aspirations,
stages
these

under the

conditions

perience ex-

in within

of

progress of

most

Finally,
diiections

limits

inquiry,
civilizations

wrould

note

in each the under them

which other's old that and

the

differing
defects;
races

may
sum,

help

to

supply

and,

in

endeavor

to

bring

antipodal light
to

now

practically
fair

at

our

doors

of the

free

and

inquiry requires.

which

justice

to

common

good

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

I.

THE

PRIMITIVE

ARYAS.

THE

PRIMITIVE

ARYAS.

nr^HAT
"*"

elevated from
the which Hindu is

region
Kuh
now

in

Central
to

Asia
Armenian

extending
Thc

the
as

Ar"an

mountains,
teau
sense

known
to

the in
an

pla-

Homestead.

of

Iran,

is

entitled
of abode

be

called

important
It which
was

the the

homestead

the of of

human those

family.
races

at

least

ancestral
led
the

have

hitherto
and

movement
are

civilization.

Its
to

position
such
a

structure
;

wonderfully
main focus
centre

appropriate
of of
ethnic the

function also the

for

this

radiation

is

geographical
"

Eastern
the

sphere. hemi-

There,
the
on

at

the

intersection
of the

of

continental And mountain

the

axes,

stands

real

apex

earth."1

its

borders knots of

rise and

every that

side look of

into

commanding
over

ranges, and the

eastward

steppes
the

Thibet

plains
towards sands and

India,
the

westward

clown

Assyrian
over

lowlands the wide Arabia

Mediterranean, Asia,
Seas.
and
fe

ward north-

of
the

Central

ward southWhere

across

Tropic

else,"
if not
summit
answer

demands with of be

Herder,
scientific

with

natural
"

enthusiasm,
man,

knowledge,
come

should

the

creation,

into still open

being?"
question,
we

Whatever
the

given

to

this

bolism sym-

of the

majestic plateau points,

iReclus,
TktSartk.

may

suggest,

40
to

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

torical hismeaning than that of the mere higher human beginning of the race. The languages and mythologies of nearly all the in their widest dispersion, point great historic races, back
to

these

mountain

outlooks kneel

of
towards

Iran.
these

Hindu,
able vener-

Persian, Hebrew,

Mongol,

their common fatherland ; a primeval as heights, Eden, peopled by their earliest legends with gods and of The homes happy men. genii, and long-lived,

ancient
the
were

civilization
of
a

rose

around

their bases,
;

as

under

shadow

tent patriarchal

and

gathered to the dust. of human lies history

over

The

drift of
their

they ries centufojfjty

and

there

amidst

recesses,

strewn

the
and

spaces

which

what

storms

tides of

they enclose ; attesting life have preceded our own ;

achievement hid in historic prein religions ; inscriptions
whose

vestigesof aspirationand
times
;

relics of old
;

mysterioustongues

local

names,

vague

mological ety-

affinities suggest

widely separatedages
the
out

oldest from
it

commerce on

relations between startling and races. The highways of strike across this plateau, and
;

either side hint the from

and

caravan

tracks

of immemorial

age

lines of those

primitive tions migraWe

the
seem

that issued

its colossal gates.

to

be

a contemplating

marvellous

symbol
Nature

of

the human
out

race

and

of its movement

in

unityof history ; born

its inmost

of the
-

mystic intimacyof

with

meaning
Of the

primevallife of races on indeed know but little. Why we primeval? It is but a step or two
can

this

grander Ararat
we

should that form

call it ence scilife

or history

penetrate towards

any
name.

of

human
we

that would much

deserve that really by knowing the crudest

Should

gain

human

conditions, after

THE

PRIMITIVE

ARYAS.

4!
that

all?

It is said

that

there

are

tribes in Thibet from

to

descended themselves glory in believing Darwinians would probably be content merely gettingsightof the process, if found. But
even

apes.1 glory in
be of
the

that could
traces

if

we or

should

come

upon

it,whether

in Thibet
man,
as

elsewhere, would
that

it show f This

originof
a

mind;

is,

as

Man

is
;

mystery

involved

in every

step of mental

evolution

and we cannot account thinking,now; shall for this evolution by any previous steps. We of our personality hardly find the source by tracking it backward and downward into nought. I do not even whether here into the question, enter the western the eastern or edge of the great plateau Armenia Bactria first peopled ; or whether or was
was

in the

fact of

the

earliest

centre

of

ethnic

radiation.

The

"belong to the modern historyof the What race." are patriarchal legends,what is Balkh, ''mother of cities,"what is Ararat or Belur-Tagh, what Manu, are or Aryas or Shemites, what is Adam who to him explores the pathless,voiceless ages of prehistoric is no man? There respect of persons centuries that or places in that silence of unnumbered shrouds the infancyof the soul. It suffices to say that in 'the dawn of history we find the Hindus descending from these heights of
"

oldest

Bibles

Central and

Asia

to

the South,2 the

to

Iranians

to

the West,

the Chinese
us

the East. focus of movement,

the

Let know

turn

to that
"

of which

we

the

most,

north-eastern multitudinous
1 "

Highlands, at the extremity of Iran, nestlingunder the heightsof the Belur-Tagh and Hindu
to

Bactrian

See

KJaproth,Aita. Polyghtta. proofsand authorities in Muir's Sanskrit

Texts, ii 306-392.

42
Kuh.

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

farthest into these penetrated mountain ranges report that the silent abyssesof the midnight sky with its intenselyburning stars, and their white masses the colossal peaks lifting beyond with such a sense of storms, impress the imagination

They

who

have

fathomless

mystery
earth of
can

and

eternal

region on
these than

suggest.

repose The mean Home

as

no

other

altitude of is loftier
;

summits

the Himala}'a,

of Snow,

that of any other mountain

system in the world

man,
look over-

and

their
vast

mighty faces, unapproachable by

belts

of forest which
one

he

has
saw

not

ventured
snow

to

explore. From peaks, each over

white horizon
are

point Hooker

twenty

twenty thousand
frosted

f^et in

whose height,

ridge of
for
one

silver stretched and

over

the whole Here

hundred

sixty degrees.

splendors and
in

nature

penetrabl glooms, unutterable powers, imreserves, correspondent to that spiritual earlier education whose sential they bore an es-

part.
Here
"

is the "centre

mythologicalMount
of the
seven arc

Meru

of the Hindus, seed-vessel

worlds, and

of

the

Universe."

Here and Eden

Borj
of the

and

Arvand,
"

the

celestial mountain

river

Persians.

Here

perhaps i$
says the saints."

the

of
"

the

Semites.

Kashmir,"

Mahabharata,
Here is the
as

is all

holy,

inhabited

by
Men

plateau
"

of

Pamer,
"to learn

regarded
w

throughoutAsia

the

dome

of the world."

go to the North," say the Brahmanas, Here Noah, led Manu, the Hindu the and

deluge waters, comes when they subside

land.1
Here the

to shore

descends Greeks
saw

speech." by a fish through on a mountain-top, ern to peoplethe Southan

ideal

climate,

of product, wondrously fecund allowing every variety

*

Satapatha Brilhmana.

THE

PRIMITIVE

ARYAS.

4^
from sion intru-

in

animals, plants,
marvellous

and

men;

and and

guarded

by mysterious tribes
with

hall-human

creatures,

the earth.1 the free

the hidden of treasures over powers It was the great unwritten Bible of Asia,

field of

imaginationand
tradition the
"

faith. Mother

Here

was

Balkh, in Oriental
the Zoroastrian fire.

of Cities,"

of culture, starting-point Here

are

the

sacred
resort

fountains, the
every
say that

immemorial East.

of the birthplace lakes and mystic of pilgrims from

quarter of the
a

The

Chinese

Buddhists
is the

lake

on

the summit

of the

Himalaya
And

of origin

all the rivers of the world.

in fact,from centre,
"

the mountain the

system

of which

this

regionis the

the great rivers of Asia descend on every side, the Brahmapootra, Oxus, the Yaxartes, the Yang-tze-kiang,

the Indus, and but

recognize an
of human

Ganges. Again we cannot impressivesymbol of the wealth and

the nature; and
not

scope broad

less of its love

of

kindred forms, made by divergenceinto special ever suppliesof one far-reaching inspiration, flowing from central springs. It is in a spot so rich in spiritual suggestionthat we
are

to

seek

our

earliest data
were

for the the

Natural
resources

The
ness-

wit-

of Religion. What History

of human
nature at

that

remote
races

epoch

when
on

the

tors ances-

of the

modern principal Asia ?

dwelt

of Central

It is only of the

highlands Indo-European
the

these

family
"

comprising the
and the various

historical Hindus,

sians, Per-

ra|||of Europe, excepting

"

that we Jews, Turks, Basques, Fi"!^!^ Magyars 'of this prerender a positiveangHRr jlad even can eminent familyof nations W" cannot speak from data afforded by the ordinaryforms of testimony. For we
1

Curtius, Strabo,Ptolemy.

44
have
to the

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

here

to do

with

periodfar antecedent, not only

but
even

oldest Bibles of mankind,

of such
a

to

the

very

edge. thing as the transmission of knowlBut in these prehistoric the deeps, where even half-blind guides of mythology and tradition fail,we of scientific certainty.It seems greet a fresh source if the infancyof man became but a starless night, as aid we in respect of all those dubious guidesby whose penetrate the past, in order that the pure testimonyof his divine it,might make language, alone illuminating For language is,as the oldest originunmistakable. faith and the latest science unite to declare it, an tion. inspiraIt is no arbitrary invention,like the steam engine imitation of natural sounds ; the cotton or gin ; no mere but the natural result of a perfectcorrespondencebetween notion the which
must

outward have
no

organ

and

the
.

inward

processes,

material

expression

Its testimony ceeds prono

from

interested witnesses, from

treacherous

from no play of imagination, but from the prejudices, law. Men do not invent names certainties of organic for things of which they have no idea. A people its historyinto its language, and puts its character without hypocrisyand without reserve. It is a spontaneous The creation. "Word" has always been cognized rethe fittest symbol of truth, as the purest as of deity. manifestation This unimpeachable witness it is, that testifies of man other is possible. And in an antiquity where the no fact we know of his nature most is thus la primitive certain unconscious honesty^that discloses his inner lif? vithout disguise. It is by the testimony of Language that the nations called Aryan or, more are properly, Indo-European,

THE

PRIMITIVE

ARYAS.

45
a

brought into And origin.1

of the
mass

class single

and

referred to

common

the next
of words nations

step has
or as

been,
common as

to

recover

out

roots

to

the

guages lanthe

of these

much

of possible

primitive language spoken by the parent race in its into many to dispersion previous prehistoric antiquity of the best philological branches.2 The scholarship
age
may has been

employed

upon

this reconstruction.

It

able alreadyto be said that we are fairly and condition of the character in upon directly
ancestors

look
these

hitherto unknown of the Teuton. brilliant No

or

of the Hindu

and

the Persian, the

more

Greek

and

the

Roman,
of modern

the

Celt and
is

achievement
more

science

marvellous.

It is the
as

result of

subtile as comparativePhilology Astronomy. It has evoked from

the calculations

of

human

data hitherto

of a lost language and a the substance unintelligible the strange have applied race, as astronomers forgotten of the solar system to effect the discovery perturbations of hidden planets. It is not over-confident to claim for the general result here stated. certainty positive its Enough is already achieved in this field to justify in claimingfor it the name skilful explorers of most Palaeontology.3 Linguistic

1 "

See We

the especially do
not mean

researches of Burnouf

and

Bopp.

that Pictet, Eichhoff,Schleicher, Kuhn, Fick,and other

scholars,
searches, re-

have

succeeded
out

in

the language actually Indoreconstructing spoken by the original of tongues.

a

Europeans,

of the radicals afforded by this comparison

Hut their

have resulted in bringing into view thoughof very unequal value, Of the ideasand objects which that language used to designate. was
*

largenumber

Pictet, Qriginn Indo-Rurvpfanes,

or

Les

Aryas

Primitifs,

See also Spiegel's

Etntett. cxi.-cxv. ; A. Kuhn A vestti, l|i, "en's Jndifchf

in Weber's

hidtsitu

btudien, \. 321-363; Lasof Languages)

Alterthumskunde*

1. 527;
9 ;

Mdller, Science

234*236;
d*

Duncker,Gesch. d. Alterthums^ III

IA Race Svukrit

Schoebel, Rcchett/tessurla

Religto*Prem*

Indo-Europ. (Paris,1868); Whitney, Study of Language Ttxto, II.; Fick, WVrttrbuch d. Indog Spracht.

(Lect.V.); MUT,

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

The
-

common

name

by

which

the Indian

and

Iranian

des("rPersian)branches of this great family was Aryas (inZend, Airignated themselves

a

yas) ;
years,
their

titleof

honor,1 which
in the

now,

after thousands
to

of

returns,

scientific nomenclature,

justify
val prime-

by self-respect
civilization.

magnificentrecord
firstfixed datum for
name.

pean of Euroour

The

people is
It further

therefore appears

their from

these

researches

that the tilled

Aryas
watered

lived in fixed habitations,kept herds, and

the soil.

They occupied
and

diversified

richly region,
its

wooded,
fauna

and

climate, flora,and
the Greek

highly metalliferous ; correspondingwith the

have
come are

scription deus

of Bactriana from

which

down

to

geographers, and
It
was

which

confirmed
to stir the

by

modern and

travellers.9
to

cold

enough

blood

make houses

them
were

Their doors.
commonest

their years by winters. and roofed, and had windows number cool climates,
was
was

Barley, the grain of

cereal. for
race,

their

Their

wealth

in their cattle*

Names

tribe, family relations,property and guest, the master,

which the

trade, for the

were

inn, the
from
w

king,

the herd. designated the They called'dawn mustering time of the cows ; f" evening, the hour of bringing them home." They domesticated the sheep, the goat, the the cow, had the slow walker ; was horse, and the dog. The cow " the dog was the ox, the vigorousone ; speed ; the wolf, "the destroyer/'They used yokes and axles and probably ploughs; wrought in various metaUk,}
"e
w

all taken

words

"

"

spun

and

wove

; had

vessels
;

made musical
German

of

wood, leather*
instruments

terracotta, and
1

*metal

and

of

Compare Greek
I. 35-4*. Pictet,

rod "p?r%, valor,

ekrt,honor.

"

THE

PRIMITIVE

ARYAS.

47
a

shells and

reeds.

They

counted in oared

beyond

hundred.

They

navigated rivers
and
to

boats; fought with

swords,
and in battle conchs.

bows, clubs, bucklers, lances, and

chariots
the

sound other

of

trumpets
;

They besiegedeach
and reduced
we

in towns
to
some

employed spies,
of

their enemies know

not

kind

servitude,

of which Domestic
and

the

extent.
on

relations rested There

was
are

sentiments

of affection

respect.

archal Father and

"the

absolutism
meant
"

"the

Patri* signsof polygamy!! tempered by natural instincts. protector;"mother, "the former

no
"

; disposer

brother,

the

supporter
of

"

and

sister,
The

careful," or "the consoling, pleasingone."

of these forms

have relationship with transmitted been slightchange through most of the Indo-European race branches to the preseven ent day. And thus the closest domestic ties not only became, as common speech, the symbols of an ethnic brotherhood, which time and space are bound to guard sealed also to immortal and expand, but were ings meannature for the moral by the oldest testimonyof
names primitive

mankind. words of the

And

the

affirmations
not

of

conscience, the

were Spirit,

less

pronounced, clearly
the

in other The

directions.1

rightsof property and definite guarantees for their protection. These based on ownership of the guarantees were the family altar stood, concentrating the soil where sentiment of piety. We at how see early a period men recognized the natural dependence of those Necessary conditions of social order, the family and Aryas
*

had

clear

of conceptions

Kuhn,

in Weber's

Ind.

Studitn, I. 321-363
OH

Lassen, I. 813

Mailer, Oxford

"*aay*for 1856; Weber, II. 746. 336; Pictet,

Lecture

/""""( Berlin, ; MUHer, Siittt 1854)

48
the land.

RELIGION

.AND

LIFE.

home,

on

fixed

and

permanent
have

ownership
never

of

Communistic

schemes

yet

ceeded, suc-

the Indo-Europeans, in overcoming among which this instinctive wisdom, loyallymaintains the

Family, the Home, and private Property in as mutually dependent factors of civilization.
we

Land And

may

infer

from

the

sacredness
to
or

attached

by

the

Hindus,
stones,
"

Greeks, and
or

Romans

bounds, whether

by
from

by ploughed trenches,

by
for

vacant

spaces,

each

its
was

family thus marking off neighbors, that this reverence

"

its real estate

property limits

also

trait of the older

race

of which

they were
of
change ex-

the

branches.1

The

Aryas
and

had

formalities

for transactions

sale, for payment

of oaths.
were

administration social
order

of wages, and for the All the essential elements of in this

races.

evidently present
cradle
word

primitive
Law
was

civilization,the

of historic
meant

designatedby
of
was justice

which

associated and

of directness
meant

right. The notion with the straight line, suggestive impartiality.Transgression

and oath constraint? fallingoff, Their psychological insightsurprises us. They to havs seem clearlythe principleof distinguished existence. Soul was not merely vital breath, spiritual but thinking being. Thought was recognized as

the

essential

characteristic For

of

man,

the

same

word has

both. designating
been

four thousand

called

"the

thinker.*'

For

years m"n consciousness,

are

will,

the Aryas had words memory, to material symbols. They even

that

not
a

traceable

made existence
ch. 4351
v.

distinction,
and abstract

it is believed, between
1 *

concrete

See I)e Coulanges,La Cite Antique, B. i. Les Arjfuf Frimiti/S)II. 237, 427, Pictet,

456.

THE

PRIMITIVE

ARYAS.

49

being;1
made

germ

of that
race

intellectual fathers

the

Aryan

the

language
evil;a
and

abounded

in

signs of
believed

processes.

They

vigor which has of philosophy. Their tive imaginativeand intuiin spirits, good and
consisted and in
cising exor-

their

medical

science
means

the latter kind formulas. There

nor are no

by
of

of herbs

magical

signs

an

established
to

priesthood,
But
terms
are so

of

edifices

consecrated

deities.

relating to
abundant sentiment.
as

faith, sacrifice, and

to

adoration,
and

prove

sincere

fervent

religious
"

of meaning in numerous similarity of divine forces has seemed words to descriptive point less vaguely defined. to a or more primitive monotheism, r3 Yet the Aryas had probably developed a rich mythology before their separation into different branches.4 They had also firm belief in immortality who should and in a happy heaven deserve for those it,6beholding the soul pass forth at death as a shape watchful of air, under guardians,to its upper home. of linguistic Some of these inferences palaeontology scientific to require further evidence give them may certainty. But there are other features in the picture of no admit of Aryan dispute. religiouslife which the clear The word Div" designating at once light whatsoever of the sky, and meanings these spiritual therewith, has simple instincts intimately associated the root-word endured as of worship for the whole of the appellatives Aryati race : in all its branches of this primal sound, flowing through Deity are waves The

1 *

Pictet, II. 539-54"I

749-

Developed

afterwards
vesta.

in the Y"us

and

Raltshasas

of the

Veda,
'

and

in correspondent

evil spirit^ of the A

*

Pictet, I. 633.
"

Ibid.,730, 690.

Ibid.,689.

Ibid., 748.

5"3
all its manifold transcendence

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

and of
an

with changing religions eternal law.

the

serene

Again, it has been shown1 that the whole substance of Greek quisite mythology is but the development,with exof a primitive poeticfeeling, Aryan stock of and legends, names recognizable through comparison of the Hindu with the Hymns Rig Veda, where they In these early found, in simplerand ruder forms. are yet secondarystages of their development,they represent the dailymystery of solar movement, the swift of dawn and twilight, the conflict of day with passage of sunshine with cloud, of drought with fertilizing night, rain, the stealthy path of the breeze, the risingof the storm wind, the wonder-working of the elements, at night only to return the loss of all visible forms with fresh splendorsin the morning. This old Aryan of intimacy with the powers of air and religion sky in fact been has And -. aptly called a mcteorolatry has applied much recent well as scholarship ingenuity in bringing all Vedic and legends names as insight, title of "solar myths,"using the word the one under in the wide And sense descriptive just indicated. doubt that they all are there be no less or can more related to natural phenomena, though prointimately ceeding it is none the less true, from moral primarily, and experiences in their makers, as all spiritual do. But what have now to we mythology must of this mythologic lore, is that the amount observe inherited by both the Asiatic and European branches of the Aryan race, warrants our ascribing very great both aesthetic and religious, productive capacity,
i a

by the Especially

recent

researches of Milller. Also the valuable

See Cox's Manual

populai summary

of these.

of Mr. John articles

of Mythology for Fjske,in the At*

lantic

Monthly for 1871.

THE

PRIMITIVE

ARYAS.

5!
tribes of

to

their

common

ancestors,

the

mountain

Central

Asia.
and the found traditions, alike in the indicate
that

And, again,names
Indian

Veda

and

Iranian
our

Avesta,

these unknown
must

fathers of
a

art, science, and

faith,

have
as a

venerated

sap that

symbol

of

used and its mountain-plant, life renewed through sacrifice ; l

deliverer, who, after they believed in a human from destruction, had reorganized their saving men revivingforces for social growth;2 in a human-divine guardian of the world beyond this life ;8 and in a true slew the serpent of physical and Aryan hero who And learn how evil.4 moral so we early and how of his proper man's prophetic cordial was sense unity
with
the

the Order main

of the Universe,
of all
our

the

ideal which

it is
to

business

and religion

science

make
I

good.
add another that
those bore
man,

fact of

thought
gave

The equal significance. animals, which patientdomestic

milk, and

burdens, and
deserved
that
a

were

in other

ways

to indispensable
were

better lot than kind

treatment

they
of the

apt
was

to
a

receive, and

the

them

religious duty,
and redounds that of their have

is
not

common

J;oboth
their
own

Aryan races, only, but to

whom

to

honor

common

from progenitors,

it must

descended.6 infer from the

we Finally,

may

testimonyof
haoma
was

the

The (Zend, fautma),or Asclcpiasacida^ have nearlyresembled it. plant, yet must * Ki"M4(Iran ) and Ma*u (Ind.). They have common
Soma and
*

The

perhaps a different
as

functions

mythical beings,

descend

alike from

Vivaswat

(Zend, Vtvwghvat). (Iran,). Schoebel

Varna. (Ind )and Vokumano between

the four

See Lassen, I. 517 out the curious transference of points

in consequence of the

functions

of the Iranian and

" *

just mentioned, Indian branches of the family.

personages

separation

Tftta, (Ind ) and Thrtuton* (Iran.)Roth, in Zeiisckr. d Deutsck. Morg. Gtsethch., XXV.

7.

52
two

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

related

bibles forms

that

the

oldest

Aryas
;

found

God

in all the

and

functions
as

of Fire

that

they had

Deity in of trust; and that they were purity and simplicity that help to explain a certain with qualities endowed of falsehood, and abhorrence emphasis on sincerity equally characteristic of the precepts of these old and of the reputationof the early ethnic scriptures,
great faith in prayer,
intercourse with Persians
and

Hindus

among

the

Western

races

of

antiquity.
The
as

sacred
centre

Fire, kept kindled

of

on

the domestic

altar,

the

all consecrating

sentiment and rite, and as religious social, civil,and political relations,is

found Its

to

be

common

heritageof
from
or

all

Aryan

races.

flame

ascended

every

household

hearth, dead, of

watched

by the///w,

fathers, alive and

have scholars primitivecivilization. Modern traced its profound influence, as type and sacrament and of the Family, in shaping the whole religious municipal life of ancient Greece and Italy.1 Not to designate now use only are the words we domestic relations and religious beliefs explainedby the radicals of this primitive Aryan tongue, but even for dwellings, terms" tions,2 rivers, mountains, and naour in like manner associated with these patriare archal

this

tribes.
men. prehistoric

So

much

are

we

at

home of
our

among

the

The

largest part
has been

of the

ancient alone.

Aryas
The

reached

become

its here
a

most

And
1

is

words of fleeting enduring record ! the tribute the philologist ends by

work La by Fustel de Contangos, for the first time,
so

knowledge guage through Lana people have

ac-

See

recent

remarkable

Cite far
us

1870)1 Antique (Paris,

I
am

in which

this

is pi evented special subject

aware*

ftt all its

and with great cleat ness and force. bearings, * See Eichhofl, Grammmre Indo-Evr0p"em%

248, 252.

THE

PRIMITIVE

ARYAS.

53

cording
is the revealed
at

them

What

distinguishes the
of of their
the

Aryan
It and

race was

harmonious in the the

balance formation of which

faculties.

their

language,

sided pre-

opening

social
was

organization.
tempered
strong
of

happy

in disposition,
a a

energy and

with

mildness;

lively imagination,
to

reasoning
;
a

faculty ;
sense

spirit open
a

impressions

beauty

true

of

right ;
"

sound
to

morality
love of

and

elevated the

religious

instincts,
of

united

give them,

with

consciousness
the
constant

personal
of

value,

the

liberty and
of Renan
master

desire
I add

progress." *
the

impressive
shall will
and have be
to

words become

"When the

the

Aryan
its first of of How

race

of

planet,

duty

explore
Thibet,

the where

mysterious depths
so

Bokhara immense much

Little
to must

much

that

is

value

science
be

probably
thrown
on

lies
the

concealed.

light
when
we

origin

of

language
the

shall

find

ourselves sounds where which

us were

in presence
first

of

localities
we

where

those and

uttered

which

still
were

employ,
!

those

intellectual the
ment move-

categories
of
amount
our

first formed faculties Let enable forms

guide

never

forget
dispense

that with

no

of and

progress

can

us

to

the

verbal

grammatical
of what

spontaneously
the
are

chosen

by
the

the

primeval

patriarchs
we

of

Imaus,
and of

who what

laid
we

foundations be/'2

shall

" *

Pictet, II. 75$.

Dt

VQrigine

du

Lattgafe, p.

aja.

II.

THE

HINDU

MIND.

THE

HINDU

MIND.

A "*^account

GREAT
Like great
fc"

civilization
men,
a

is

collective past
r

personality.
not
"

whom
'

the

does

aces

at

the

for,

it is

mystery

of

genius

and

d**"

of

spiritual gravitation.
We We
have
can
can

IJStoty'

report
trace

the

conditions
and

of

its

development.
that

climatic
it.

historical
these
we

influences determinative modified

educated
race,

Behind

note

qualities of
such The external
word
"

which, forces,
are

while

constantly

by
them.

yet

inexplicable

by

race,'*

moreover,
serves

is used but
to

quite indefinitely,
the limitations of in
w

and,
of
our

like

species,"

prove
to

science.

It
not

is

applied

kinds but

relation
and
or

widely

differing

in

breadth Thus class of

only,
the

origin Aryan"

substantial
*

meaning.
"

term

Semitic that

marks

unities
"

wholly
Teutonic
to
an

distinct
"

from
te

designated
"

by
these

such

terms

as

and

Hebrew
from
as

and that

again unity
or

differ

equal

extent
races

kind

of

which

would

constitute

American,
in
;

African,
sense

Polynesian.
races are

But,

whatever and the

conceived,
of
we

mentary frag-

growth

civilization may decide

we

is

dependent

on

their their

fusion.

However it is in certain

the

question
their

of

origin,

that, when
it is

mark

first appearance

history,

their

incompleteness

58
that
most

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

impressesus.
the

This

embryologicalphase,

just apparent germs of those entiate differforces which subsequentstages of growth must is thus enand develop. Yet, while each race dowed with all properlyhuman elements, it manifests of all proportion to the rest. of them out some one The however, is both present vigor very exaggeration,
it is true, combines and
at

prospect of reaction.

The

law

of progress
races,

must

last

bring out
them

all the diverse

of energies the nobler

and

blend
that is

in due
to
come.

in proportion,

humanity
no means

yet

The
The

Oriental without fusion.

races

in

antiquity, though by
intercourse, did
not

Special

mutual

attain real

Types.

matic Owing to peculiarcircumstances, cliand other, they have not yet attained it. They still isolated columns, awaitingtheir place in that are and culture,which universal templeof religion, politics, is as yet inadequate widest experience to design. our from the physical world I venture to borrow an which the general to indicate illustration, serve may It is, I need result of their ethnological qualities. hardly say, symbolical merely, and not to be taken either in a materialistic sense, or as defining ble impassalimits ofjace capacity. Hindu is subtle, introversive, mind The tive. contemplaIt spinsits ideals out of itsbrain substance, and be called cerebral. The Chinese busy may properly with plodding, uninspired labor, dealingwith pure ideas to but little result, efficientin yet wonderfully
""

the world
as

of concrete And

facts and

uses

"

may for

be defined

mediating between thought and work, apt alike at turning lation specuinto practice, and raising practice to fresh out of the ancient form of civilso speculation, leading

muscular.

the Persian, made

THE

HINDU

MIND.

59

ization
nervous

into the

modern,

no

less

plainlyindicates
dawn of

type.
observe
more or

We and

therefore

that in the

history,

through its later periodsin the East, the brain was dreaming here, while hands were drudging there; and yet again,elsewhere, the swift nerve, brain and hand, was made to ply between unduly preponderant Here both. over are great disadvantages for the growth of ethical and spiritual capacity,the of due standing natural bloom proportion and right underless

between
not
a

the

faculties.
us as

So

that it would

be

little encouraging to

students

of universal

its promise, and and lovers of its progress religion, if these imperfectsocieties should reveal even germs, familiar appliancesmight seem which competent to of forms expand into noble thought and desire.

Better
have

still,if these

forms

themselves in such
races,

are

found

to

arisen spontaneously conditions.

in

of despite

the adverse Our mind

firststudy is of the of this race,

or more

Hindu.

I have

called the the and

The Mmdg

the
Hindu

of Aryan portion Brain of

the
not

the

properly of populationof India,

muscle

East, isolated from

mean

nerve.

By
was

this I do absent.

that either of the latter elements

which

the contrary, many of the tribes into and the 'these Aryan Hindus divided, were
" "

On

have shown tribes generally, mountain """flw-Aryan" tendencies; while the race, as a Very decided military and nowise wanting in industry whole* is agricultural, their development of the physical as or perseverance,
resources

of

the

country

and

the

wonders

of

their

architecture

amply prove.1 Nevertheless, the contemplative seems faculty

1

com-

in Crawford's A ncitnt See illustrations

nd Modem

India, ch,

x.

60

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

petent

to

the control of these in the

and

all other

tendencies,

rather than long run to speculative material most or practicalresults* The impressive works of Hindu the genius are modes of celebrating of meditation. The Rig Veda sings of the power And it has been finely said that deep sea of mind." "Father of gods and men," which the Greeks the name, loved would well apply to India, to give to the ocean, that immeasurable of dogmas and beliefs.1 sea latest philosophical The and religious' systems lay Brain. prefiguredin the depths of this Hindu ProducuvityIt exhausted forms of devotional most cism mystiand subtle speculation. In these spheres "it left its pupilslittleto learn from Zeno Aristotle,or the or of later theology." It created controversies of one artistic languages, and of the richest the most one It compiled elaborate Law literatures,in the world.
"

shaping them

Codes

in great numbers,

and, besides
treasures

its voluminous of sacred

Bibles, gathered immense

lore,

devotional. ritual, philosophical,

was

Its

poetic productivity

prodigious.

Its great

the Ramayana epics,

and

Mahabharata,
200,000

other

containing the one 50,000, the lines,glow with a luxuriance of imagery

with
the

which

-contrasts

Iliad

or

^Eneid

as

the of

of India stupendous vegetation All that this Italy or Greece.

differs from colossal

that

people have dreamed done, in philosophy,mythology, ethics, or didactic thought, is here transmuted in imaginative or
Hindu alone has The into song. and experience an epic. These made
two

his whole

life

great accretions
for necessity history. In
avattt It

rhythmic lore represent such expressionin all ages

of
*

constant

of
tit la

Hindu
Katvrt

B(il"a"chti quoted

Laprade'sSentiment

p. 113.

THE

HINDU

MIND.

6l
far the fourth

their main
or

substance

they go
our era.

back

as

as

fifth be

century before
referred
to to a

may

much other
"

their relations this

over

each

Many of their legends earlier period. And, while not very clearly settled, are
have been

at

least is certain, Vedic

that in both

worked

very ancient interest of fresh

came,

into this

myths from age to age, in the experiences, all taken up, as they Such the creative epic.il transfiguration.
the race.1

of imagination

Yet nation.
,

it could From
...

never

organize itself into

this In'iHnninur rt
vast
.
.

one

united
Disunity.

the
,

penin.

sum,

one-third

as a

largo
with

as

hurope,
other

has

been

divided

among

multitude each

of distinct tribes.
;

The
and

little
then

kingdoms
some

warred

and

now

greater chief would

build

master

his

side, and

up

some

brilliant

on neighbors every dynasty, like the

Maurya or the Gupta, or in and perhaps organize a wide

:

later times
movement

the

Mahnilta,

for Hindu
a

dependenc in-

all of which
cirrus

would

last

wfKtc,and little
deeps

then

disappear,like

streamers

in the blue

sky, or fleeting thoughtsin the heaven of Hindu It was dreams. the mutual strife v and jealous of the Hindu kings, not the lack of military spirit of military that made this great people nor resources, from the eleventh to a prey to the invading Moslem A glut of food the fourteenth centuries of our era. in one English province of India has often occurred time with a famine in an at the same adjoiningone ;
yet the intercourse
to make

of the Indian

between

them
one

has been

insufficient lack of

the abundance
has been

of the

supply the
afco of the

The

R"tntiyana Monier

translated into Italian by Gorresio, and

a

into French

by

Fauche.

Williams httle volume

has given

careful abstract of it, as

MnfhtblrfraU,

in his admirable in by Griffithift

course
in

found translated

Indian on Epic Poetry^and a ntrw Kn"li*h rhymed version will be in both }"oem" epifeAdets publication.Many of the finest Orientalised /Vr""*. Jolowicz's of

62

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

the other.1

There

twenty-one

this very day, it is distinct nations in India, each

are

at

estimated,*
of which

a language in many respects peculiarto possesses itself. "Villages lie side by side for a thousand years,

without

any

considerable Hindustani

intermixture in the north

of these distinct of India and mil Ta-

tongues."
in the between

the difference south, represent, generally,

two

the

great classes

of

from the Aryan and respectively ever Negrito, perhaps Turanic, tribes. But, howwidely diffused, these two types but feebly express render the writings of the diversities of speech which Hindustani schools in Bombay unintelligible to races in the
an one

languages derived the indigenous, haps per-

north-west

of

India, and

make

it more

easy

for with

educated from

native of that
or

to city

hold intercourse

Bengal
!j

Madras

in

English

than

in any

other The
Political orgam/atlon'

tongue.
much
we
owe

earlier Hindus lauded

our

had

well-organized governments,
writers,
to

the Greek by J earliest reliable and and

whom

notices of

India,

for the wise

the interests of trade

the
wants

thoughtfulmanner were agriculture

as

in which

of

strangers,
the defence
minute

of

the

sick

protected, and needy,

The

and supplied, law-books

of the state

secured.4

for freights and regulations and organizarules for partnerships markets, and just tions atid in trade, for testingweights, measures, and punishing dishonest dealing/ And the money, of the villagecommunities throughout organization
contain
Westminster
Mack ay '"

fttvitw, July, 1859,

on

Reports

li'islern Indin^ p. 09.

Pen yon

the

Distribution of the Language* of India,Joxma!

tf Roy. Asiatic See*

(Bombay branch), for January, 1853

See eHpecially M"ga*thene*, in Strabo,De See Ussen,
in Zttchr. " D M. Sit*

0r"r, B.

XV.

G. (1862).

THE

HINDU

MIND.

63
an

Northern

India, from very earlytimes, was

of
local

elaborate

that showed how self-government, could of personal and social freedom large an amount of under the depressingshadow be maintained, even science never led But these steps in political caste. form to onwards to nor unity and nationality, any of constructive mon policyon a large scale, or for a com-

system

end. India and the has

at

all times

been In
was

famous

for its domestic of

K0roiffn
R^tio"s-

foreigntrade. Roman Empire, it

at
a

the
a

early days
great
commer-

cial centre
was

for the merchants much earlier

of

and Egypt, Italy for all Asiatic in the East.

as

it

period
to

races,

from

Phoenicia

in the West

China

The
mercial com-

oldest codes

record

very

advanced

system

of

the Hindu tribes, regulated exchanges among a by wise and just provisions ; and high respect for trade is shown by the permission granted the Brahof caste, to earn in violation their support by mans, assuming the functions of the Vai^ya,or mercantile than class.1 In more of one epoch, the resources

India, natural
have made

and

industrial of great

as

well

as

intellectual,

empires.2 Its delicate colors and dyes, its porcelains, tissues,its marvellous in metals and its work precious stones, its dainty and perfumes,have not only been the wonder essences of Europe, but in no slight and delight degree helped
in the revival of
shown
art.

the wealth

But, after all, the Hindus

there
was a

have certain

little and practical enterprise,

in their best performance; even in that passivequality fine manipulation that wove fabrics, and gossamer metals with such eminent suewrought the precious
u"

X* 83 ; Y"Jnavalkya, III. ; Lassen, I*d. Alt., II. 571-576.

See Craufurd,Ancient

And Modtr*

India, ch. xiu.

64
cess.

RELIGION

AND

LIFE*

they could have taken since the sailor little pains to export these products, held in slight was respect by their laws; that most of carried in foreignbottoms ; and that their trade was first introduced the Mohammedans coinage among them, their only previous currency being shells.1 We in their dramatic of wealthy merchants indeed read
It has been
believed that

works,
are

and

traces

of their mercantile
the
east

establishments

found

far

to

and

west

of India.

Yet,

on

probable that other nations had to to them. come They have always been mainly an people, the whole population averaging agricultural hundred mile. Their to the square only about one
the

whole,

it is

scholars moral

did

not

travel.

Only

and great religious

like Buddhism, Hindu could rouse inspiration, thought to seek geographical expansion. Only here
and there
we

find

traces

of

embassies

; and

these,

the courts of China, to political objects, and Rome, Egypt. Yet the intellectual life of India was profoundly felt throughout the ancient worlcf* to sit at the feet of went Greece, Persia, Egypt even,

mainly

for

these

serene

dreamers

on

the

Indus

and

under

the wards down-

banyan
;

shades, from
and there

the

time

of Alexander
at

they

marvelled virtue.

to achieve

ideal

the power of philosophy And what treasures

European fable, legend,and mythic drama of our indebtedness to the extent to testify the sphere of imagination and fancy, down magic mirror, the golden egg, the purse of ! tus, the cap of invisibility
of The
Sciences,

further India
to

in the

Fortuna-

Hindus flash out

" "

reasoned of the
As.

of

war

itself

as

if it

were

brain, a piece of metaphysics.1

See. of

Journal Roy

1867). Bengal (Philolog.,

THE

HINDU

MIND.

65
successions
or ditions con-

They

loved to press
to

beyond

material

generalforms and essential processes ; pursuing those studies that afford the with specialsuccess the largestfield for abstraction and contemplation, of the stars, the laws of numbers, orderly movement the structure of thought. of language, the processes much arithmetic, and They made progress in analytic and not only applied algebra to astronomy geometry, but geometry of algebraicrules.1 to the demonstration invented numerical have to signs and The}r seem the decimal itself being of Sanskrit system ; the zero descent, and the old Hindu figuresbeing still clearly in those of the later Arabic traceable digits. The
"

introduction
the

of

these

numerical

signs

in

place of

used before by all other alphabetic characters nations of antiquity a change ascribed by old writers to the Pythagoreans, those Orientalists of the Greek world, but probably an importationfrom India through of Bagdad the finest ideal impulse the Arabians was ever given to arithmetical studies. The decimal culus developed in India as a speculative calsystem was so were earnestly,that special names given to in an reach. ascending scale of enormous power every of ten was The taken as a unit, and fifty-third power
" "

on

this

new

base

another

scale

of

numbers

rose

till a

figure was
four hundred
were

reached and

of unity consisting

followed these

by
ments ele-

twenty-one
the

zeros.

And
of ideal containable

applied to
"

solution
atoms
as a

problems,
in
the
"

such limits

as

the

number world

of
taken

of the

fixed

dimension
the less

mathematical representing realitynone being so utterlypast conception.1

"

for

The

Arabians

Colebiooke,Hindu
Woepcke., Mem.

Algebra* Tntrwl

pp

xiv.,xv
in

surks

Chijfres ludiens,

(1863). Journal A iiatique

66

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

called

the

Indian

arithmetic

the

"

sandgrain

lus." calcu-

Eighteen centuries
elaborate
on

systems
reached
was

had ago at least, the Hindus based of arithmetical mnemonics, attached

a

numerical
"

values

to

letters of the

bet.1 alpha-

They
"

science," says stage of algebraic

not

Weber,
close of known
created
astronomer

Europe tillthe had been the last century ; and, if their writings a certainlyhave century earlier,they would a new epoch."2 Aryabhatta, their greatest
which arrived
at

in

and
very
to

mathematician,
the closely

in the fourth century of the diameter the

determined of
a

relation

circle

the

circumference, and
earth.3

appliedit to

They invented methods ali"o for solvingequationsof a high degree. In the time of Alexander they had geographical charts ; and skilful enough to their physicianswere win of the Greeks. the admiration Their investigations have in medicine been of respectable amount thers and value, lendingmuch aid to the Arabians, the faof European medical in the science, especially of minerals and study of the qualities plants.4 In much of their astronomy the Arabians they anticipated treatises on the ; their old Siddhantas, or systematic ity familiara indicating long period of previous subject, in such honor did with scientific problems. And they hold this science that they ascribed its originto Brahma. bers, They made Sarasvati,their goddess of numthe parent of nearly a hundred children, who musical celestial cycles,6 modes and at once were to the great constellations, and They gave names of heavenly bodies three thousand noted the motions
measurement
*

of the

Lnssen, II. 1140.

Lecture
on

* 8

Weber, Creuzer, Rtlig*de PAnti?., p. 261.

* *

India.

Lassen, II. 1138-1146.

THE

HINDU

MIND.

6^
have derived well much
as

The Greeks appear years ago. aid from their observations of have been in
some

to

as eclipses,

to

astronomical the
names

matters

their teachers.
astron"

Lassen
omers

mentions

of thirteen annals. stands A

in distinguished

their

Siddhanta

declares that the earth is round, and in space.

as

unsupported

The

myth
reasons

of successive the tortoise, is

in
one an

foundations, such
for good rejected

the

elephant under
the

and

sufficient

of these endless
to

works,

as

volving inthe

absurdityof
series is power, reside

series. remain
same

"If firm power

last

term

of the

supposed
may
not

by
be

its inherent

why
in

the

supposed
itself?"1

to

the

that is in the earth first,

Aryabhatta
observations
on

appears
the
;
2

to

have

reached

by independent
earth's himself
ment move-

knowledge
to

of the

its axis

and in

have

availed

of the

science the

of his time

equinoxes and the planets.8 attractive to Hindu geniuswere Grammar Especially and Philosophy. They alone among nations have paid honors to grammarians, holding them for divine souls, and crowning them with mythical posed comglories.Panini in the fourth century B c. actually four thousand books, sutras, or sections, in eight of grammatical science, in which nology an adequate termimaybe found for all the phenomena of speech.4
Sirematti, quoted by Muir, IV. 97. Colebrooke(Essay HO quotes his words.* *'The starry firmament is fixed: it is the of the constellations " and setting earth which,continually produces the rising revolving,
*
* 8

the precession of calculating length of the orbital times of

Siddk"nta.

See

Lassen, II. 1143-1140.

of Lassen and Weber
as

Also, Craufurd, Ancient

to

and

Modern

India, ch. viii.

views age of Hindu astronomy are criticised entitled whose These criticisms,, however, to very high respect opinionsare by Whitney, the substance of what is here stated. do not affect

The

the oiigiu and

11.479-

68

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

His

works of

have

been

the

centre

of

an

immense

ture litera-

by No people of antiquity the Veclas alone. investigated the laws of euphony, of the composition and so fully It is only in our derivation of words. own century, and incited by them," says Weber, "that our Bopp, have advanced far beyond Ilumboldt, and Grimm
"

commentation,

surpassed

in this respect

them."1
world.

The The

Hindu Nirukta

Grammar of
B.C.,

is "the oldest

in the

Yaska and

the
on

seventh the
same

century

belongs probably to quotes older writings

concerns

subject.2In

whatsoever

the
have

study of words and forms of thought,the Hindus the Greeks, always been at home ; anticipating
more accomplishing

and
than

at

the outset
two

of

their

career

the Semitic Yet

not

race more

did in
than

thousand Semites
are

years.

the

they

inclined to
no

lsory'

it should are, seem, pure history. There The annalists. reliable Hindu only sources

of

importanthistorical information are the records of royal endowments and publicworks preservedillthe temples, and on coins, fortunately and the inscriptions monuments on
discovered in

periods otherwise
Brahmanical

largenumbers, wholly unknown.

of several

and

covering many
The

scattered
are

Chronicles
and

kingdoms
The

but

dynasticlists
on

meagre

allusions. made
a

Buddhists,

serious study really of history, though even they have not had enough of fact from legend. It the critical faculty to distinguish is only by careful study,and comparison with Greek, that their voluminous Chinese, and other testimony, of records can be made to yieldthe very great wealth in fact There contain. historical truth they really are
the

other

hand, have

1 *

Lecture

on

India

(Berlin, 1854),p ShnitiqHcs,365.

28.

Kenan, Langues

THE

HINDU

MIND.

69
sources

histories of India from native only two general one quite recent, and the other datingfrom

the fourteenth

century. A most the Buddhist however,

more

valuable

Indian

chronicle

is,

Mahavansa,

which of
to

complete
from
we

and the

trustworthy account
earliest times down

gives a Ceylon,
the last

reaching
except
are as

century, than
China.1

State possess of any other Oriental For determining chronology, there

; both

yet few

landmarks

Brahmans and
to

and

hists Budd-

with
sense

making free use of sacred whose multiples they strive

of interminable space

and deals

mysticnumbers, a haunting express But though time.

in

mythology of the latter they far beyond all parallel,

the serious historical

extravagances
in

surpass

the Brahmans

affairs,and
Their

of human in observation purpose, for recording actual events.2 in the taste Sutras
are

earliest

of great value which

we

in the have

tigation inves-

of

an

epoch

of

scarcely
chroniclers
;
a

record. other This as superiority any from caste is due in part to their freedom

system

whose

theoretic

and practical lack immobility

or

of motive,

either for the backward

the

forward

look, forbid the

mans the Brahits own

growth of
sake. A

historic
a

sense.

They

differ from

also in

deeper

interest in the human

for

which wholly absorbs man in Deity philosophy allow that independentvalue to the details of cannot the recognition of which is an indispensable tion condilife, of historical study. How the flow of to escape transient events, and know only the Eternal One, was the Brahmanical quite problem ; and it would seem with even incompatible observing the details of posi1

Lassen, It'
a

13, 16.

Of the services of Buddhist in recognition just

literature to

and the geographical Veda

historical study of

India, we

St. Martin's Gtographie du

(In trod ),Paris, 1860.

70
live fact, not
to

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

tracingthe chain of finite that the effects. It is only remarkable and causes whatever should have shown Brahmans any capacity in this direction. Especial notice is therefore due to scholar that the opinion of a thoroughly competent they have not indulged in conscious invention, and speak
of
the

falsification of

facts,

to

such

extent

as

would
on

justify European
this account.1 The
at

writers in

stones casting

at them

historic

sense

is indeed directions.

by
We

no

means are

least in certain of village the place

wanting, told that, jn

every India
"

Herald's
who

fills in Panjab, the bard, who in Europe is taken which by the of every proOffice," can give the name prietor the
has

held land of years is

therein since its foundation, ago, and of that the correctness

many of

hundreds
these in

records

capable

demonstration.2

It

would,
state
ever

becoming, in the present have of Sanskrit studies,to deny that the Hindus written genuine history. The destructive effect
fact,be
climate of India
on

far from

of

the
a

written

documents

is of

and to the pursuits, discouragementto literary of records. preservation Yet w e cannot overlook their natural propensity to itself reluct
, f Force of the
t

at

limitation

and positivefacts, by J
. .

to the

of details. This was not authority objective tivetkment. owjng" as in a great degree with the Semites, of passion and the cratic to intensity worship of autocaprice,but to a stronger attraction towards -pure thought. Whatever they may have accomplished ideal generalization in astronomy and medicine, an The was always easier to them than observation.
comempia1

Lassen, II. 7.

Griffin'sRajahs of the Panjabt p. 494.

THE

HINDU

MIND.

71

Hindu

has, after all,effected littlein the purely practical

sciences
;

almost

as

little as

the

Hebrew

did

in

Semitic distinctively ity. capacof But while the Hebrew failed here by reason his his defective of natural laws, and appreciation and sign, the Hindu, belonging for miracle appetite the scientific facultyis supreme, to a familyin which failed for a different reason ; namely, his excessive bled love of abstraction and contemplation. This enfeethe sense His imagination of real limits. spurned It dissolved life into the paths of relation and use. ancient

times, and

in his

intellectual nebula, and

anew,

then

tried
and

to

create

the worlds in

weaving
flow,
out

ideal of

shapes

movements

tasmal phanone

this star-dust

of

thought.
under

Its boundless

desire to

bring the

universe

and make it flow forever from Mind as the conception, plines disciperfect by contemplative unityand sole reality, alonC) though one-sided and ill-balanced, was in days when practical yet a magnificentaspiration and social wisdom in its infancy. Limit, the true was
"

balance and

of ideal
"

and

actual, fate and

is not

freedom, divine
mony har-

human,
and

limit, which
and

limitation,but

"

of the parts to the whole, justice of Greek this,the inspiration genius,the Hindu did not know. Compare his art with the Egyptian and the Greek. Egyptiansculptureis a plainprose record

order

of actual

life;

or are

else it binds

the

idea within

fixed

though often grandly serene, everywhere mechanically repeated and allegorically defined. Greek strates sculpture demonForm the capacity of the Human for every aesthetic purpose, embodying divine ideas therein with pure content Here CEdipus and noble freedom. has solved the riddle, and pronounced the answer,
and,
"

types, which

conventional,

72 Man.

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

But

in Hindu real

Art

you

see

mythological fancy
of the

overpowering
human

life; and, instead

actual

and reduplication exaggeration of its parts, a delugeof symbolicfigures, gathered from every quarter and heaped in endless and stupendous combinations, the negation of limit and of law.1 This Every thing here is colossal. to aspiration enfold the Whole find images vast enough to cannot its purpose. It excavates satisfy mountains, piling chambers chambers upon through their depths, for mile after mile of space.'2 It carves them into monstrous
a

form,

boundless

monolithic

statues

of

animals

and

gods.

It

the elephantto uphold its columns, and stretches brings their shafts along the heavy vaults of Ellora and Karli, like the interminable spread of the banyan trunks in its tropical forests. Its temples represent the universe itself;gatheringall elements and forms around tral cendeity, yet seldom pausing to bring out of these forms the artistic beauty of which ually they are individof mind capable. Intellectual abstraction as fascinated by the vague of cosmic' wholeness, sense and not constructive excluded yet definitely Art, form of Architecture. except in the one grand, all-enfolding And here is involved ; yet not as sculpture
" "

with the Greek* the whole instances The

isMgn.ficance.

in separate

freedom, but adherent

in of

to

edifice, and
of
a

absorbed

it, save statuary.

in the

few

special forms

element did not fail at last to contemplative human engulf outward forms, and even perto sonality, an extent elsewhere unparalleled.

See

KugleTs KnnstgeschlcJtie, p.
de
are

121

Renan

in Nott's Indigenous Races, p

103;

Ramee, Hist
2

I"Architecture,vol. i.

There
more

fortyseries
than two

of

caves

in Western

India ; and

at

Ellora the

architecture

extends

miles.

THE

HINDU

MIND*

73

But
their

we

say that these facts had not yet reached for the mind, rather than that the real values should themselves
were

values allured these bears

denied.

At

the

least

we

are

of an immeasurable in by the sense scope to unity with God, which mystical aspirations witness of

genuine
instead have

intuition.

Here

abides

an

illimitable Whole,

of the manifold
come

symbols
out,

of

special faith* that sharper Western

and
even

to

stand

for

our

hostile

recognizesome of the Hindu dream. suggestion To the results of appreciate

tendencies,
we

in mutually exclusive understanding, attitudes, plainlyenough needing to even higher unity, though it were by

these

contemplative

Aryan worship of It seems the clear Light of Day. have to given place, in the development of Hindu thought,to its of which the gloom of the Forest exact and opposite, the Cave would be a truer symbol. But it is in fact
must

recall the

old

not

lost. and

It is transformed

into
a

an

inward

tive representaserener

analogue,becoming
in its power

worship

of the

Light

of Meditation..

It is this
to

full confidence
all

which divinity, pass through and

with solve dis-

barriers, is here invoked to illumine possible mind, which the or mystic depths, whether of matter duism outward cannot pierce. This aspect of Hinsunlight be forgotten, must not when, in order to see endeavor to picture to ourits true embodiment, we selves of Ellora and those sunless caves Elephanta; dim and columns and symbolic statues loom where colossal through a silent abyss,and only the mystical ing hoveritself in its own imaginationfinds play,losing bound, phantoms ; those deeps where all shape is spelland
men

all action dream

some

where

puny,

awe-struck with

lightup

little patch of lifeless wall

74
feeble torches, with
or

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

wake

some

little space
"

around

them

wizard a half-whispered words, gleam, a and all is dark again and still. To sound, stealthy make of nature these profound sepulchral recesses and have shone art endurable, light must through
"

them The
ihei,an-

from

an

Invisible
thinker

Sun.

Hindu
n"t
as

found
nor

Deity
as

most

near

to

him,

Shape, but as guage Word, the symbol of pure thought,in his own It was Sanskrit. in language, the most marvellous of all human purely intellectual, most nearly spiritual, products, and we might almost say it was in language absolute mastery hi constructive only, that he showed With work. and transmitted pious zeal he perfected this, the express image of his ideal life. He wrought in the depths of it out in love and faith and patience, without aid from abroad ; mind, far back in antiquity, and then slowly developed or decomposed this divine "Word" into many popular dialects, still holding inviolable.1 its purest form and sacred "Speech, of melodious Vach," says the Rig Veda, "was queen the Gods ; generatedby them, and divided into many if not portions."2 So grew up this typicallanguag'e, of Indo-European speech, yet the the norm centre
visible
" "

Person

"

and

hearth

of

this

brotherhood

of

tongues

ing reveal-

through the wealth of its structural radical forms and aptitudes. Its rich with unequalled grammatical elements are combined of law. It is pre-eminentamong simplicity languages
resources
1

their several

The
out

Sanskrit

was

the vernacular
cent

tongue of Noithern
In the sixth
it was
no

India

in

early times.
In

It

began

to it

die

in the ninth
a

my

c.

longer spoken.

the third

became

sacred

language ;

throughoutIndia.
traced

and by the fifth of the Christian eia was established as such (See Benfey, in Muir's Sanskrit Texts* II. 143 ) Muir has carefully

it back to Vedic

times, and

shown

that

the

oldest hymns

were

composed in the

speech every-day
"

of their author*.

R.

V, VIII.

89, I0;

125

THE

HINDU

MIND.

75
verbal

in creative

in faculty,
terms

flexional and

ment; develop-

of intellectual and descriptive late respiritual processes ; deficient only in those which The details. to practical profound thirst of the in its wonderful Hindu mind for unity is indicated of fusing radical words into composites syntheticpower of thirty verse ; so great, that a Sanskrit but a single word. be made to contain syllables may which it a name Its makers means perfected^ gave and not perfectedonly, but adorned; for to them of the Mind, not in the Word the Work Beauty was of the Hand. their Kcsmos. This was They created force of native genius, and as in sport; it by pure We not. when, and in how long a time, we know know and too dear to their too near only that it was full of hearts
to

need

letters for its transmission.

It is

ture ma-

product when we first find which wrere preserved without

in the
as

it in the oldest
an came so

Vedas,

alphabet

memory had

alone. been

At

last

for ages, writing. Then letters became

letters
are

sound chords

"God's The

music,"
Sanskrit

the

thereof.1

not

transformed and

but picture-signs, intellectual. They Infinite

stract absomething more are phonetic, symbols

the

of articulate sounds.

was

toil the

Hindu

grammarians
the

for thousands laws of

veloping expended in deeuphonic structure ; drawing

of years

from

this fine and

facile

tongue of theirs

as

from

instrument, with what has been called a "profound perfect musical harmonious assonances more feeling," They referred regularand delicate than the Greek. the organs its primal sounds to by which they were of scientific shaped. And, with a presentiment severally truth, theysought to divine an essential relation,
1

Karma

Mi

76
in existing
the

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

the sounds things,between the objectsthey represented.1They of words and the whole far as to trace back went so language to about fifteen hundred root-words, to all of which they Eichhoff ascribed distinct meanings. enumerates in his Indo-European of these nearly live hundred the clear light Grammar, fully illustrating they throw family upon the comparativeetymology of this whole of languages.2
nature

of

But
uses

it

was

not

till the

Buddhist

reaction The

that

the

of

writing were
Was

recognized.
of this their

Brahmanical
for the

laws

indicate

contempt

instrument

diffusion of truth.
on

oppositionbased
tendencies,
to
as

partly
that

the

fact of its democratic

was

of the

Christian

Church

afterwards

the

invention

of

printing?
Recent
writers and have

described

the
to

Hindus

as

rant ignocon-

wasteful, careless
in
t

better their

Pt.utcil nmi

physr

dition,

lacking

cainucss'of money.
and and other almost

comprehension of the uses tive They have pointed to the primistructure ; to

worthless

of their
the

implements agricultural
of

ploughs comparative

absence
at

varietyand

ingenuityin

their earlier attempts

and

imperfection of their qiaterialsfor dye-work, glass-blowing, all chemical and especially their disabilities operations,
construction in and
art

in the useful

arts ; to the

from

the

want

of
;

substantial and
to the

wares stone-

fire-bricks for furnaces their laws

lack

of
chanical, me-

all

provision in
Much in the

for the

of protection

artistic, or
labors.
causes

literary genius in
this is the the
last few

the fruit of their

of

result of

depressing
It is with

of history

centuries.

certainlyin
1

many
Mim"nsft.

respects in strikingcontrast
*

Karma

Eichhoff,pp.

21, 29,

162.

THE

HINDU

MIND.

77
useful arts,

the

state

of the in the

fine old

as

well

as

of the

as

described the
account

national

of India, with

epics and dramas, as in hist specialreference to Buddin Pilgrim," many

the

art,

givenby
lands
to
as

Fahian,

the "Chinese

fifth century. tax-free

British

officials describe marks of

of the

showing
the

quite equal
we

those

of Western

skill agricultural Europe.1 Nor must may show Hindu itself in

woman,

do

to injustice
use

genius that
into thread

the very

of crude
raw

conditions.

The

working
woven a

up

cotton

for the
or
a

able incompar"webs

muslins

they

call

"running

waters"
than

of

air," with

no a

other

instrument

fish-bone,
a

hand

roller,and
at

little spindleturning in
an

bit of
the

shell, is
rare

all

events

artist, endowed
of

with

giftof making
The But

the

most

simplestand
relnains

nearest

materials.

above

unfavorable of truth

report is certainly
in it to in the

exaggerated.
indicate this
race

enough
are

that there
to

drawbacks in

of qualities
"ns,

without The
was,
on

steady progress impulse from abroad.

Hindu mastered the whole, many disinclined

directi practical

physicaluses.
to

Yet

he

the

labor
was

of developing unsiiiled
little
caste-

them.

His

passive temperament

for material zeal

progress, with

having

little curiosity and

nature.

for conflict
was an

reluctant

The

system
His
own.

exponent
are

of his dislike of dice

and

movement.

favorite

giftto all civilized races; typical and both answering to the combination of a passive The body with a speculativemind. pivot of most Hindu of philosophy has been the pure unreality It was if this busy brain, debarred as phenomena. social construction, teeming*with from thoughts it
1

games invention, his

chess

the latter his

the British India Society(1839-40). Speechesbefore

78
could
not to

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

liberate into

the

world
tests

of of

action, had

clined de-

accept all external

of history ways
that

whatever. validity

And

the

its metaphysicalspeculation proves

man

in many

cannot

live

It is not

implied that
of Hindu

these

by Thought alone. tendencies shape the

thought. We do not forget the people of India have how gloriedin their great We culture. do not forget epochs of wide literary that twice at least, in their history,all the rays of Oriental learning, science, and song were gathered
whole
current

into

focus

of free energy,

"

at the

brilliant courts

of

Vikramaditya, the
the
ff

companion

of poets, and We do
not

Akbar,

Guardian

of Mankind."

"

opportunityconstantlyopen, on this and the ground of nations, for the friction of races overlook that we sympathy of religions.Nor can for dramatic love of the Hindus personation, passionate the sign of a wide of the imaginativeand scope has shown such faculties, which sympathetic ductivity pro"

forgetthe great mustering

in

their

literature, and
the

makes

the

social

delight of
The
even

every

villagein
are

land. and

results of excessive

abstraction

tion, contempla-

in India,

equallyfar
The reactions

from

encouraging
habits
are

the

widely held
of noble involved

belief that these

uses.

mental
to

void dethat

realism

were

will claim

study
"

the
or

development admiration. to our are especially and splendid capacity,philosophical ious, religprocesses And we

in their natural

of

both, since
"

the

two
was

in

Oriental
out

life in

are

substantially one,
endeavor
to

which

brought

the

live
seem

It should
Force of

by Thought alone. that personal energy

as
a

belongs of right
a

to tne

Hindu,

member

of that Indo-Eim*whom

Physical
Nature.

pean

family of nations, in

vigorous

THE

HINDU

MIND.

79
man, Ro-

practical genius, whether

or

as

Persian, Greek,
be inherent
case,

Teutonic,
How

appears

to

and

pressible. irre-

is it that, in his

the old

Aryan

vigor have yielded to enervation, and the instincts of libertyand comparatively progress failed? of this failure has been Though the extent greatlyoverstated, there is truth enough in the prevailing mark estimate to an fact, which exceptional tration illusrequires explanation. It is doubtless an extreme
manliness and of the power other instance north-westward The of climatic conditions.
been

Aryan migration has

:

In every westward or southward.

in this alone

it has

been

dreamy
Northern in the

and

passive
from

element

obtained whole

mastery
breadth and

only after
of settled

the tribes had

the penetrated the

India

Indus

eastwards,

sultryvalleyof the Ganges ; where children to this day it is scarcely possible to rear annual of English blood, without migrations to the cooler hills.1 Montesquieu has suggested,2as one of the general absence and of practical cause energy
free progress has not, like
a

in

the

Asiatic
"

races,
we

the

fact

that Asia
"

Europe,
zone can

and

may

add

America,

temperate

open
enter
or

in all directions, where into free mutual of combination.

races

of

equal

force

relations,
Her tribes

whether are,

of collision

brought together only by sharp transitions of .climate ; and conquests by superior physical easy querors, vigor are followed by rapid enervation of the conwhose movement,

from

obvious
to the

causes,

has The

been usually descent

from

the

mountains

plains.

the

Aryans into a tropicwilderness, and alternations of summer invigorating

of the
1 *

where winter

British Army See Jeffrey's

in
3.

India, Appendix.

gspri*"*

Loh, XVII.

8O

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

were

wanting, and
luxuriance

every of

day

renewed

the

same

wildering be-

fruit blossom, and leafage, to these transforming throughout the year, was subject We conditions. should naturally expect that these from their cool hardy mountaineers, sweeping down and Kuh into a land Kashmir, eyries in the Hindu wherein

languidair did swoon, Breathing like one that had a heavy dream, the same," all thingsalways seemed A land where
"

the

"

would

lose intellectual muscle

and
movement

nerve.

The
in the

sal colosnatural
;

unity
world
and
an

and

of simplicity be reflected

would

in their mental

processes

atmosphere heavy with perfumes would in mystical reverie. them to rest We easily exaggerate these forces, as may them adduce the enervation to explain. we as
of India have
a

lull

well tions Por-

and

bracing atmosphere ; the higher levels are vigorthe tribes that occupy ous, active, and enterprising. But the climate of the
where modified Hindu culture the wind has and had rain its centre, of the
wet

cool

and

lowlands,

although
season,

by

is in all essential

respects determined
covers vegetation enormous

by

the

A heats. tropical alluvion, through

the

colossal which

this rich flow

vast

rivers
between

from
tain moun-

Himalaya
ranges
on

to

the sea, the

enclosed and

north vertical love

loftyplateaus on
whose
awe,
"

the have
more

south.
ever

An held

almost
the

Sun,
and

beams all the

Hindu's

because relied on to smite the sensitive head of strongly the invadingEnglishman, while they have been slowly of his own dark skin till it the texture transforming ceased to suffer from their shafts, has proved master
"

THE

HINDU

MIND.

8l

of the very
to

movement

the

languor of
of dreams.
that

thought,and disposed it contemplation and the meltingpassivity

in the North
to

of his

Yet

which Aryan vitality, and

even

turned

to

Teutonic

sinew
nerve,

in the West here

Persian

and

intellectual

Hellenic
wonders.

wrought

its special |^ct"*

in
"uit".

Its brain, self-centred, enclosed and

under

tropicalforests
without of
nevertheless

heats, all-mastering
from
which

and

the fine stimulation

climate

and

the intermingling

vigorousraces
became
to
an

enjoyed, immensely productive force.

that, while
climatic
or

the Greek

And

the fact tends

show

other

modify originalspiritualforces, to nor they are not adequate to explain civilizations, which sustains and directs them. supply the inspiration which the later developThe elements characterize ment physical
of Hindu
mind
were,
as we

conditions

shall

see,

present in
derness wilcertain
; some

its infancy. The

solitude and

heat

of the Indian
a

forces, but subserved gave it no new its special essence ethnic personality, original
of whose

indeed qualities they forced into excessive action, thereby provoking the others to bring out their Such in energeticreactions. historical latent strength results as these have an importantbearing on the philosophy of development, by which science modern the growth of man. seeks to interpret They illustrate
the truth which

all evolutionists be

affirm, that
But

no

ical histor-

to changes require

explainedby
order.

ference creative inter-

with

the

natural

they

also

tell

against the tendency which

of this class,to mistake

tists scienmany the physical conditions of in prevails,

and
to

phenomena
in every

for their

productive cause,

ignore
work

forces, inexplicable by such step of the process,

6

conditions, which
the involving

-precedence

82
and

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

substance; of mind^ and constituting creativity spiritual

more

in

race,

in

enduring forms of which and in the constancy personality,

or

less

appear and dom wis-

of natural As it is not that

law.
so incapacity, we

enervation

note

in the
as

by no means of passivequality
one
"

it is

pure Hindu

temperament.
w

It is rather,

has well defined

a

it,

an

inclination towards rest, alike in

repose

constant

reference

to
as

coming

thingsmaterial
and of
a

and

spiritual,

the consummation

of endeavor

the end of strife ;

in part by the recurrence explicable end of as the predestined season,

the most

sultry, relaxing
and is round. This

the climatic year,

salient fact of its monotonous

a

with compatible The religionof Brahman to repose ; yet aspiration with incomparable energy
course

of

degree of
and

active energy. alike was Buddhist

its disciplines were and zeal.

pursued

enterprising," says Lassen, wherever "they are industrious, they have real labors much of endurance, to perform. They show power bear with and patience. And heavy burdens they from a dislike to have avoid toils and dangers more from want of courage ; a their quietdisturbed, than to be in no they are well known qualityin which
are

"If the Hindus

not

way deficient." The freedom could

and

force

of self-conscious manhood
a

hardly be

expected of
keen

giatingfurther
wildernesses.
were

and The

further into

people who were lowlands tropical

of the mountain

miand air

goads

laxed forgotten.Lassitude crept over the will and retill they seemed the practical to understanding, of dreams, confounded lie buried in the helplessness with this overwhelming life of physicalnature ; and
*

Lassen, I. pp.

411, 41*.

THE

HINDU

MIND.

83

their
that

place
stage
not

came

to

be

defined

by

the where

philosopher
man as

as

in that

human he if is

development
other look than the

yet
he find

knows dwells. that and from the that

world

in

which

But,
facts the

we

more

closely,
as

we

shall

are

not

wholly
of the them of

they

have formula is

seemed,
is
here far

severity

Hegelian
;

fairly embryo
reacts

representing
in the womb

since

man

not

as

an

nature, with

but little if the

as

living
from

force
the

that

upon

it,

though

help
listen

practical
we

understanding.
become soul assured be who

And,
that
even

we

tively, atten-

somnambulism from in their these

of

the

may

inspired
at

hearing
faith

dreamers,
not
a

also,
few of
those

least

have

dream,

accents

"

of

the hath

Holy
never

Ghost

The

heedless

world

lost."

III.

THE

RIG

VEDA.

"

have

proclaimed,

Agni,

these

thy

ancient

hymns;

and

new

hymns

for

thee

who

art

of

old.

These

great

libations

have

been

made

to

Him

who

showers

benefits

upon

us.

The

Sacred

Fire

ha"

been

kept

from

generation

to

generation."

"Hymn

of

Viiv"-

mttnt.

THE

HYMNS.

TT
"*"

is not descended

yet determined
into the

at

what

period the
;

Aryas
Antiquity of
the

plains of India
or

whether
waves

moved of

by

one

impulse
;

in successive

Hymns-

immigration
While of
as

whether

impelled

by

disaster

or

desire,1
march

their

religious traditions
of

indicate
the other

conquest,
embodied
communes,

those in the

agriculture, on

hand,
the
with

extensive been
a

organization supposed
to

of

village
greater

have

point

probabilityto
footprintsat
It is
even

peaceful colonization.2
base

Their
are means

earliest

the

of

the

Himalayas
their
name

effaced.
*

doubtful
"

whether tillers

men

of

noble which

race

or

of

the

earth.3
or

The that

etymology
of the

derives is their
a

it from
at
race.

roots

(ar,

ri)

signify movement,*
destiny
of however

least

finely suggestive pleasant

too

It is

to

trace, with

dimly,
and

primitive
and
to

association
note

of
the

labor
name

dignity
by
for the

success,

that

assumed also

this

vigorous people

for themselves

served

their

gods.5
or

In third

later

times
who

it

was

applicable to
1

Vaisyas,

caste,

consti-

Lassen,
Muir's

Indische Sanskrit

Uertkumskunde,

I. 515

Mailer, in Bunted
Btit.

Philos.

of History^

I. 129;
8
8

Textst vol. ii.; Ludlow's

in the
I

India,
p.

I. 37.

Maine,
Mutter's
ten,

Village Communities
Science

East

and

We$t}
I. 5;

176. Weber,
Indisch*

of Language,
considers

238;

Lassen,

Pictet, I. 28;

Stud
*

I. 352.
29.

Schoebel See

it the titleof the

of

or patriarchs. family chiefs,

Pictet, I. Rig

the Lexicons
n,

Roth

and

Burnout

Veda" V.

2, 6 ; II.

19.

88

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

tuted the

mass

of the
remote

in this
as

community.1 Dates antiquity.There are

our

are

tain uncer-

signs that, the

Aryas not only a powerful people spread along the were banks of the Indus, making obstinate resistance with trained elephants to the Assyrian invaders, but had reached the mouths of the Ganges on the extreme even earlyas
twelve centuries before
era,
east

of India.2
us

The

whole

intermediate
a

country lies
the
scene

before

in the

of half-light historic

heroic

age,

of epic and
and

doubtless

wars,

of tribe with tribe

dynasty with dynasty.

we

But

have

record

more

preciousthan

many

"

We have the sacred song precise facts and dates. (Veda, or wisdom*) of these otherwise silent generations. The Rig Veda, oldest of the four Hindu Bibles, the oth^tvthree are ment,4 developmainly its liturgical is a collection of about a thousand Hymns (" Mantras," born of mind) composed by different of which have not Rishis, or seers one can inated origlater than twenty-six hundred, and few of
" "

them initial

later

than

three Hindu

thousand faith
are

years

ago.

These
tions devobeen
now

of syllables

probably the
appear
to

of stillearlier times.6

They
wide

have India

composed
called the

in

that

part of north-western

whose Panjfib,
the

between land
1
*

always famous

ward slopes descend seaIndus and the Jumna ; a upper for the spirit and grace of its free

St.

Ktesias: From

Martin,Gtegrapkie du V"da, p. 84 : Mil Her,at supra, Duncker, Grach d. Altfrth^ II. 18.
the
root

vid,

to

know

video Greek, olda ; Lat.,

Germ., wissen

Eng

"///,

wisdom
*

"The

Rif Veda?
to

says

Mauu,

"

is sacred The

to

the gods: the

Yajvr

relates to man;
use

the Sama,
tn

the

manes

of ancestors."

Atkarvn

of formulas for consists, mainly,

and other rites. incantations, expiations,

"

Miiller'*S"**k.
to

/M/rW.

Z//mt/.,48i,S7"l Whitney, in Ckr. E.r"t"t., 1861, p, *s6; Wilson'* Ktf yfja; Duncker, ll.it; Koeppen, Rtlig.d. Buddka, I. la; Colebrooke'*
;

Essay s" I. 129

Lassen, I.

749.

THE

HYMNS.

89

tribes, having its outlook

limitless snow-reaches; ranges
waters
a

on

and

of

redundant of

and soaringmountains of picturesquehill land whose streams, rushing loved

to

these

children songs. this

Nature

celebrate

in their sacred
*

We

possess

Rig
of before

Veda
verses

in and

down

to the number

the precisely in syllables,

state, which

it Existed centuries

the Christian era,1

It

ably prob-

of
not

expressed phase distinctly is to history.2There known sentiment religious the slightest sign of a knowledge of writingin the
represents the
earliest collection.3 In all ancient there literature, of
are
"

whole
no

is

to parallel

this inviolable

transmission
men

sacred
wont

text," and

the veneration

with which the

to

regard
may be

such
more

from protection claimed justly for any other

vicissitudes of time
oldest of

for this the world.

Bibles, than
And

in the
we

the respect

deepens when

reflect that these

Past ; Prc Vf,dic of a yet remoter Hymns are outcomes R^IP""that they point us beyond themselves to marvellous creative faculty in the imaginationand faith of what is otherwise wholly inaccessible, the childhood of Man. They present a language alreadyperfected the aid of a written alphabet;4 a literature without already preserved for ages in the religious memory alone I They sing of older hymns which the fathers of "ancient and elder gods." They sang,sages
"

Mttller and

Whitney,

ut

ntftra; Colebrooke, in Asiatic India, ch.

vni.

Research^

VIU.

481;

Craufurd's A Hciettt and

*

Modern

tiller, 557.

Mttller (497,538)finds no

signof writingin ancient Hindu

many

history, Whitney (Ckr.

Exam.,
"

186*) think* itmay

have been employed, though not for higherliterary purposes.

The

language of
common

the

Rig Veda differsin

"

the respect* from the later Sanskrit, is untrammelled

223;

learned language of its commentators.

those Amer. of

Its freedom

Oruntal

usage." Muir's Sanskrit Society,III. 396.

Texts, II.

by other rules than Whitney, in Journal of

pO
were

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

themselves
trace

old at the earliest Their

epoch

to

which

we

like their language, religion, born. when Do not was already mature they were seek in them the beginning of the religious sentiment the dawning of the Idea of the Divine. Their deities all familiar and ancestral. It is already mate intiare an
can

them*

household "This thers."1 discovered rise

;

which faith,

centuries

have

endeared, of
our :

is

our

prayer,
fathers hidden

the

old, the prayer

to

fa*

"Our the

resorted

Indra of old
the

they
to

lightand

caused

dawn

showed the road, the earliest us they who guides." "Now, as of old, make forward paths for * the new from our heart." Hear a hymn, springing bard."2 As far back as hymn from me, a modern
we can

trace

the

life of man,

we

find the

river of

prayer

as as it is flowing praise flowing naturally We find its beginning cannot because we cannow. not find the beginning of the soul. is one with the maturest in this The earliest religion

and

The

Ved"c

respect
i;fe. the

that it records these

itselfin the details of

have

People.

And

primitive Hymns
so

been

called

"historical"

Veda,

real

is the

picture

they give of the Aryas after their descent into India. and to some extent They are described as a pastoral divided into clans, and often eit* race, agricultural gaged in war" of ambition or self-defence,8 Their ene? and Rakshasafy mies, designatedas Dasyus, or foes,4 the aborigines of North*! are or unquestionably giants,4 India, and are described as of beastly ern appearance.
1 " 8

tf

V,, III.

10, 2;

1.4s

U.

Tfjrts,III. 230-330. It has been suggested that the hymns contain

Muir's and
a

Sanskrit

traces

of

an

between opposition

ful peace-

warlike element

and soldier castes, priestly

4

community, ancestors perhaps of the respectively Wheeler, Hist, of India, II. 439.
within the old

Aryan

Muir

See also Bunaen's

J'Jtifas.of

History ', I. 343.

THE

HYMNS.

pi
even

every
the

way

abominable, and

mad.

They

are

sometimes

represented as
mountain

magicians, who
fastnesses; and

withhold identified

rain in the

with and darkness drought. They mythologically without declared to be living or or rites, are prayers faith ; charges which go further to prove any religious the devotion of the the atheism invaders
to

their

own

belief,than

they despised. The extreme sensitiveness of the Aryas is attested by the religious are frequencywith which these charges of godlessness in the strongestterms of indignation as well as repeated, which point perhaps to barbarous contempt ; feelings abhorrent Their to their own practices purer faith. social ideas indicate primitive relations and pursuits. institutions very closely those Their political resembled Their names for king meant Greeks. of the Homeric
father of the house
and herdsman
tt

of the tribes

of the tribe.

Their

publicassemblies
w

desire of

they called ccfwpens,"and war was cattle." They prayed for largerherds, for
pastures, and
for abundant
rain ; for
;

fleet horses, broader

nourishingfood
and

for valor and

;

many

children

; for long life strength protection against enemies

and the beasts of the wild.

human This infantile the
nature

nevertheless

adored

dawn of TheWorand the decline Light* The Day, and the starlit Night that hinted in its "j,pht" an unseen sun returningon a path behind |plendors dear to its imagination the veil, were and its faith ; and Fire, in all its mysteriousforms, from the spark that lightedthe simple oblation, and the flame that
rose

from the

the

domestic

hearth,

to

that central orb, in

saw,
so

which

long ago,
*

of their active instinct prescience cosmic energy,1 an was all-productive

See Hymns

every-

quoted by Burnouf,

Essai

tur

le Veda^ ch. xv.

92
where and

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

one

the

same,

alike the

alike mysterious,
was ever

divine.
within

An$
need

this vital fire of

universe

to human call, stooping

conditions,respondent to then
a

and

will

; at once out

father and wombs

child

born
and

when
tree ;

the seeker

would,
to

of dark

in herb

waitingthere
he

kindle

at the touch

of his hand, turned

when

rubbed

the

two
"

bits of
as

wood,

or

the wheel

of

his fire-churn,
the

if his

bright deeps on kindred life,fresh from the tips, the imagery of the hymn, they are
whose

reached busy fingers through high, and brought life at their central "the flame.1
ten

In

brothers,
forth the

work,

one

with

the

prayer,

brings
with

god." The "plants the

the delusions Thus

worshipper, plying them eye of Surya in the sky,

of darkness."2

power,

and

disperses
act

the early in the historyof religion with a sense of is blended its creative worship is here dimly aware faculty. Man a"heiic'"
meaning,

of

creative of the
con*

truth that he makes of the in divine the

;

and

remakes

his

own

ception
must

that

come

natural

revealing of deity of his human activity

the

propheticinstinct thrilled within him, at each cleft to kindle his spark he drew from the splinter's altar-fire, so^long before science had secularized his in lightning-conductor and electric jar. mastery of nature in this delight than the mere There faction satismore was of physical necessities. With upwanj every from the dark wood, the god was dart of flame new of answered and expanded born ; a mystery prayer So the omnipotence of the child's dre"in oblation.
1

powers. This

So the North-American

tribes.
"

Brinton

(Myths of tkt

JV*w

Shawnee
are

prophet as saying:
one,

Know
same

hearth
"

and
40;

both
X. 6a.

from

the

that the lifein your source*"

p. 144) quote* body a/id the fireon yew

World*

tf.

K,V.

THE

HYMNS.

93
and the earth.
age cour-

was

the first regenerator of the heavens

The

of the morning shone with the out-goings of his inward and strength day.1 rite of the old Vedic Such was the religious Each
had its altar and its sacred Fire.

lies. famiThe

the first "holy of holies ;" and the familyhearth was flame kept burning in every household the sign was in social that bound of perpetuity for all powers men relations. Romans
centre

And and

not for the Vedic

families alone. made the hearth

The the

the

Greeks

also

the word faith and rite ; and so religious the Hestia, or Vesta (the altar), originally signifying to repjixcd $lace for the familyhearth-flnme, came resent

of

the knee hearth

divine mother,

to whom

all deities bent

the

with the old filialreverence of the world.

w

for that flame,

or

at the

Vesta,

womanly

was purity,

which fire," worshipped in the ever-living the sacred of the family, and inviolability that invests In
the

meant

the

meaning

its transmission age of the

of Hindu

human

life.2

the rites of a epics, whole peoplein honor of their king are stillperformed instruments of these joyful oblations : with the primitive and not pestle for crushingthe Soma only mortar plant,but the two pieces of wood for kindling the later

altar fire.8 This

*

originaldelight in producing
Philosophise
faith
not
m

the
for power the

element
traces

Pillon (Lfs Religions de PInde, in L^ Annie

to this Vedic

1868)

the and thus

tyranny of the priesthoodin later times

sacrifice to bring forth and
creates sustain the

the but

of prayer priest, that

god.

"It and

is

man,

developed itself into the naturally that the priesthood, a* a distinct forget of as masters of this simple rite. And the feeling of creative not then conceived class, was it involved in the to of the self-confidence its belonged s entiment, was religious power its wonder its prestige of its own at the work That be natural faith, hands to came centrated conin the worship of the priest such was due to other causes, tending to narrow a" life of the Hindus; and ritualize the religious to such, among others, as ecclesiastical of temperament. climate,and, later, passivity organization, * * Pro Domo, $ 41. Cicero, Rimtyana, II. ch Ixxxiii.
this

the divine, in those

the Brahman."

earlysacrifices ;

of divinity

But the writer

seems

to

94
which
animates

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

its pure preserving of the forces, is retained in all religions and, helpful in myth and It is consecrated Indo-European race. in the legend rite,and fable and spell. Its vestiges are of Prometheus, civilizer of men through this secret of Vestal Fire ; in the lighting power ; in the Roman
the world, and in of the sacred "need-fires
to
"

lamps
to remove

in Christian evil and The

churches
cure
races

and

in the

disease,familiar
of with the the New
same

the

Germanic also

tribes.1

World

guarded
renewed

the sacred it by the

element
same

and loyalty,

of friction which

Man

Aryas of the could not forgetthat pregnant of his own the discovery power
the first
to

method primitive Veda employed.2 dawn

to

of revelation, the

rekindle

life of the universe. From

Prim.tivc

last,what
as

he significance of nature, is for

as

has read

in

Light ;
sou\ j
as

element

vision of the
dear.

Symboiwm.

The

symbol

ever

And

material element, symbol, not as mere It is that it had religious homage in the earlyages. the separation true that developedsymbolism requires of the thing from what it represents, and the choice of this can it as representative ; and hardlybelong to that there Vedic experience. But we must remember be an must earlystage of unconscious symbolism, a in the elements, already of help, beauty,power sense the intimate unity of nature with suggesting obscurely and the germ of all later developman ment ; the condition it
was
"

in this direction. the Veda. From

And

this is what

we

find in

the. first stages of

its

growth onwards, the

Kelly's Indo-Eurtfxan Folk-Lort, ch. H, Compare Brinton,p. 143 ; Prcscott'a /Vrw, I* America, II. 418.
* *

107 ; and

Domenech's

JDtstrU

qf

THE

HYMNS.

95
nature

thus spirit for

ever

weaves

its

own

environment: And what

is
quenchable un-

the

reflex of its life.

but

an

choose
out

made it truth could have to aspiration ing Light as its first and dearest symbol, reachand claspit,with the child's hand to touch a

joyous cry,
adore

"This

is

mine, mine

to

create,

mine

to

!" instinctive cry

predictsnot only the whole light-loving mythology of the Indo-European races, and the earth, and its free play through the heavens of the ripestintelligence but the concentration on moral Light in all forms and in all senses, physical, and spiritual.That primitivepursuitof a cosmic
That
fire centred it struck the in the
sun was

indeed

natural

divination

path which science was ever afterward to and processes of force, trace through the subtle forms and heat. paying an ever nobler homage to solar light centuries by Tyndall's It is interpreted across thirty and of living source song of science to this centre powers.1 That wonder and joy over the firstkindling
of the
ever

flame

is

an

earnest

of the

rapture which

has

celebrated infantile

That

resurrection. Light as type of spiritual thrill at generatingthe "eye of Surya"

mature

is

germ

of man's

consciousness

that
on

edge knowlthe elemental

is power.

And

that fearless

clasp

the full trust in Nature, which predicts all implications of dogmatic at last affirms her, against to be not the spirit's darkness, but its day. theology, in that primal attraction to the Such prophecy was and poet singat morning, Light. Well might its priest ! the breath of his face to the rising : "Arise sun I The darkness has fled. Light life has come our
*

fires

fftat

tu

Mod*

of

Mot

ion t pp. 455-459.

96

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

advances, pathway of the Sun

consciousness his
own

It is Dawn the dead.

to
:

men

she

arouses

work

she

quickens the
opens
the

brings each to living, Brightleader

that manifest
men.

of pure the
and

voices, she
;

all doors

; makes

treasures

receives
each

praisesof
and
:

Night
other,
as

Day
ever.

follow

other

efface

each
to
one

they^traverse
for The

the

heavens the

kindred

another

manded unending, comOf one they strive purpose, will, though unlike. not, they rest not; of one They have Now who first beheld the Dawn passed away. her ; and they who behold who shall behold it is we of the her in after-times are coming also. Mother gods, Eye of the Earth, Light of the Sacrifice, for us

path of by the gods.

sisters is

also

shine !

"

The
Iranian and

old Vedic elements.

deities all

centre

in this purest of the

Indian

in man}' other respects, with the Avesta-deities of the Iranians their affinity
so as striking

In this, as

is doubt

that the

two

races

unity we primitive
discordance
seems

have
to

beyond reasonable Of this one. were originally already spoken.2 A sharp

to

prove

have

struck

into it ; and

the

two

tions, Aryan family, moving in different direcin found using the same are mythologicalnames oppositeand hostile meanings. The gods of the one of the other. But the antagonism the evil spirits are the names touches only. The worship of the Light stands unchanged for both. Yet there was a difference Unchanged in essence. of this common in the application symbol to express the inward experience. While the Iranians converted sections of the
l
"

Rig Veda,
Lassen,

I. 113;

Muir.

I. 527,

529;

Bunsen, Pkilos.

Hist., I. 130;

Schoebel,Rtcherchcs

M*

la.

Religion Premiere

de la Race

Indo-Enropttne, Paris, 1868.

THE

HYMNS.

97

the the

phenomena
Indians, on

of

nature

into

signs of
and

moral them

conflict,
the divine

the other hand, made

reflex of We
see

simple social instincts here a happy confidence of experience, rising to

It is coextensive with there
was, moreover,

practical pursuits.
nearest

in these the
the

ments ele-

form
tasks

of
and

religious
the

trust.
;

sires de-

and

sufficient
order
to

self-respect

in this

sense primitive

of natural

claim

ffeely
So

for human
to all vast,

interests the sanction

unfathomable forces

of

an

intimate relation
Universe.

in the

in its the purport of nature, at home man, early was have mysteries. Titanic Powers tenderly waited on of his growth, and taken the signifithe processes cance his childish
manor

purpose

craved.

This

lord

of the

rules

it from
and

his birth. the

The
and his

Horse

Cow,

the nomad's

earliest
of

ers helpsymbols-

sustainers, are
The

the earliest clouds

are

symbols
the
"

ThePasto. ral

poetic faith.

herds

sky;" "the many-horned, moving cattle,in the place,where the wide-steppingPreserver shines." lofty "When the dawns bring rosy beams, then these ruddy in the sky." advance cows Ahi Vritra (the enveloper),or camped (the serpent), enthe mountains, withholds their bounty. on Indra, as the lightning, pierces this foe with his gleaming spear, and milks the nourishers of man. "like kine." Ahi lies Down go the drops to the sea like a dead cow felled by the bolt, under his mother, the floods go joyfully her calf, and him." and over
of the
"

The

streams

are

the "herds

of the earth." who has

The

mer sum-

drought
the mountain Indra "like
a

is Ahi's
caves,
or

work,

driven

them

to

castles,and
them her
7

holds them His

as

bound. is

follows, and
cow

sets

free.

thunder

lowing for

calf."

Swift

thought,

98
the winds with make woods

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

"born (Maruts), him.

among
"With

kine, strengthened
their the
to

milk,'1 attend
the
,*

rocks
men

tremble, they rend

hear awe." their The talk clouds

roaring they kings of the

other,
"

and
on,

each
are

as

they

rush

with

their
:

ted "spotIndra

their brightlances deer, the lightnings

they are
;

"heroes,
smites down

ever

down
the

that young, Vritra as an

"

bring help
axe

to

man."

fells the woods

breaks rivers
;

castles

splitsthe
therefore

(of cloud); hollows out the in pieces like a shard." mountain the singers"bring their praisesto
come

And heroic

Indra,

as

cows

home

to

the milker."

is now like a "maiden, morning light, twin youths,Asvins,2 on fleet the dun heifer;" now who ening steeds ; now a stately steps forth,awakspouse, the birds to flight, all creatures, and stirring

Ushas,1

the

"

man

to

his toil."

Sarama,

the

dawn,

creeps

up

the

sky, seeking rightand left for the brightherds, whom in its caves. "As the night has stolen, and hidden foals,so the gods bring, mares bring up their new-born Savitri 3 is the risen sun. sun." "Brightup the rising haired, white-footed steeds draw him along his ancient paths, the paths without dust, upward and downward ous bounteand built secure ; the wise, the golded-handed,
Sun."

Jle is himself

wa

steed, whom

the other

gods follow with vigoroussteps." in the friend,bright Agni,4 Fire, is the "herdsman's He is the child sacrifice,and slayshis foes." Agm' of the two pieces of wood rubbed together, them ; brought to birth by in the cleft between hidden
*
*

From
From From

wJ, to burn ;
as,
to

Gr.,^WJT ; Lat

vro
'

Germ.,

cst ; ;

Eng., east

penetrate; the swift ones

Gr.,"*t"$

Lat.,equut*

" "

*w, to

From

ag%

produce. ignis* to move ; Lat,,

THE

HYMNS.

99
and the
waters.

trees

and

shrubs, by the

clouds

He

god of the hearth, "born in the house, gracious a as dwelling,bringingjoy." He is the "son of neighinglike a horse when he steps out of his power, the earth in a moment strong prison,spreading over when he has grasped food with his jaws, devouring and the wood, surrounding his path with darkness, sweeping his tail in the wind, as, in the smoke column, illumines the lightning When he ascends to heaven."
is the who storm,
he

is the "bull, born

the

in the bed

of waters, He
the

impregnates
"like
a

herds
means

of

heaven."
to

is

"wealth," and
in

whatsoever

wealth

man; herdswomen

good
"

son,

like

milch

cow,
"

like

dwelling;
moves
or

what

who and

is at

once

"the soul of of the sun light ; rests a deity pervading the world, ; to the gods from bearing gifts man, "the
"

coming on

the earth

to bless him.1

have

accessible to students Rig Veda, passim. AH versions of the Rig Veda Hymns now consulted. been carefully They are : i. Prof. H. H. Wilson's English translation, since his death, RO made under the auspicesof the East India Company, and extended
1

collection; and this,faithful as it is, has the original of twofold disadvantageof not discriminating the original text from the later commentary and simplicity of style. 2. The Sdyana, and of being deficient in poeticappreciation which evidently in the oppositedirection of too great French version of Langlois, errs freedom. imd poetic admirable Latin version, of the highest authority liberality 3. Dr. Rosen's with all scholais, close and but unfortunately his to a ing coverbrought earlydeath, by onlythe greater part of the First Hook. 4. Translations of a laigenumbet of Hymns," Oriental scholars like Benfey, Aufrecht, and Roth, in the Gerinto German, by accurate man Oiiental Journals; and into English by Max Muller (Sanskrit Literature) and by of Dr. Muir, in his invaluable Sanskrit Texts, Englishversion, 5, Midler's long-desired in the present woik have been which only the firstvolume has appeared. The quotations with preference of Benfey and Rosen the three cover the same made to Wilson, where and different of the less to A text. give renderings ground, scrupulousregard accuracy and in the view,perhaps,of many would have greatlyenlarged, readers,greatly improved, of the Rig Veda, by a fulness of quotation, this account which, however tempting,the of the I have, in does in o n scholarship state warrant. subject judgment, not, present my often with no littlesacrifice of taste and inclination, avoided quoting texts for general, but one which there is. authority ; except such as are furnished by Muller and Muir, whose been adduced without hesitation. Quotationsfrom the Vedas, versions have, in general; in popularworks upon ancient religions, be received with great caution, must being often from very imperfectversions. No drawn, without investigation, one, at all acquainted on with the materials now our hands, would quote the best version of a Rig Veda Hymn
covers
more

that it now

than

half the

With the

same

assurance

of minute

accuracy

with which

he

adduces

translations from

the

TOO

RELIGION

AND

LIFE*

These

and

other deities
to descend

are,

with

simple confidence,
on

invited Kusa

and

recline

the
a

sacred
tain moun-

grass,

and
in

quaff the juice of

a

plant,1expressed
strained

mortar

or

between

stones,

ter, hair sieve into clarified butthrough a goat's the grass. Exhilarated and sprinkled on by this they are nerved to supreme draught of vital juices, of their worshippers. Perhaps the labors in behalf mingling of these elements symbolized the propagation and beast, to these primitive tribes of life in man the holiest mystery and the dearest hope. doubtless this beverage, though a mild acid of no And great of thoughthelpfulto the lyrical potency, was powers like the sea, has the psalmiststhemselves. "Soma, and hymns and songs."9 poured forth|||houghts But the language of the Hymns shows that to Soma

its virtue

was

associated

with

the idea

of

new

and

purer sap of

life,given through voluntarysacrifice.

the mountain
the

The

became

brayed in the mortal^ father of the "all-purifier, all-generator;

and
ocean
*

plant,slain

gods;"

"its

transcends

the

worlds," and

its

support."3 Both Soma (Hindu) and Haoma "healers, deliverers from pain.0 are (Persian) The Veda Sama submits to says of this god" that he
filteris their
"

mortal may

and birth*,

is bruised This

and

afflicted that others

be saved."4

is the rudest

type of mediation

through sacrifice,of strength through weakness, of A later hymn has been thought to life through death. himself,to as sacrificing represent the Supreme Spirit
create
Greek
or

the world.6
Latin classics. Yet
we

the

path throughthis difficultliterature is Alreadyso well

cleared that

need not misconceive itsbearingson any important of Comparative question

* means

Religion.
1

The

* *

acida. Asclcpias See texts in Muir, vol. iv. Soma Stevenson's TransL Ft. J.I., x. 2,

X.

V^ IX. 96.
sn, to express
or

"extracts"from
*

beget.

6 ; vi. 4.

tf. V^ X, 8x.

But

see

Muir, vol. fa

THE

HYMNS.

IOJ

Here
been
man

surelyis
to
,.

what
"

and religion in bonds

.

philosophy have
nature
i -I

wont

call
t

man

of
"

"

;
"

SpmtuAlity

rudimentary,

instinctive,

absorbed

in

by revelation," dependent and necessity in the structure what comes mere on This is that "natural of his faculties. incapacity," is believed which to require "supernatural grafting" And of spiritual truth. in order to the generation yet The sentiment tensely inwhat do we find here? religious consciousness. active, indeed an all-pervading These Hymns are full of implicittrust, of childlike awe* They are addressed to deities, not arbitrarily fashioned in human shape, nor out of any material of human device, nor yet enclosed in temples made by hands ; but felt directly instinct, face by the religious
material
" "

"unaided objects,

to face with

nature.

It

was

not

sense

so

much

of

diverse

of dependence and divine guardiandeities, as ship,

even

Prayers were and the very car itself by which espousalswith deity, the blessing descended. They even uphold the No sky." He who asked devoutly,received. god
a
"

and

of

closer

relation.

could he

resist constancy prayer

in one's
would

prayer.
"

Whatsoever

bring, food, healing, riches, victory,knowledge, dailyprotection. Strong in the force and promise of nature, the instinct knows distrust of itself or its object.1"My no fly prayers
to Him
"

needed,

who

is

seen

of many,
to win

as

herds

to

their pasture

"flyupwards,
the
us

their nest."2
to subject
men

highestgood, as birds to leave us not "Indra, preserver, refuge, evil disposed of ; let not the secret guilt
be with
us

harm

when shall

afar, be with
not

us

when
no

(nigh; so supported, we
other friend but
"

fear.

We

have

thee,

no

other
*

happiness,no
Ibid.,I. 25* "*" 4-

other

J?.

Vn V.

44, 8.

IO2

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

father. O his
we

There One. let not

we

is

none

like thee, in heaven

us as understanding,

or a

earth,
father Thine

mighty
sons
:

Give the go

wicked
on our

tread way

us

down.

are,

who
ears

"Thou this my

whose

hear "Free

all from

hymn."1
Vishnu who
to

upheld by thee." thee things,keep near teous harm, we praisebounnone.

harmeth

Listen, O

self-

earlyhymn."2 observer of truth, Agni, guardian of the dwelling, for of diseases, ever-watchful, and provident remover 3 dwell in the beams us, life-giver." As everlasting Men in thee, their king." Sun, so all treasures are find thee who sing the words made in their hearts."* : approach thee with reverence Day after day we father his son : be take us into thy protection, a as Break not the covenant ever present for our good," fathers. with our Decay threatens the body like a From this ill be my art cloud. guardian." "Thou in the desert to the man who like a trough of water O Agni, in thy friendship I am at longs for thee."5
moved
ff

Deep,

our

"

"f

home."6
The the The wise Pushan is invoked (food-giver)
he
to continue

care protecting

bestowed

on

the

men

of old.

"

divine

Rivers,7 that
are

refresh
to

the herds

with their

healingstreams,
The
as

invoked

grant lengthof life."*

of

Asvins doers of

are

invoked

in the last watches and generous

night,

all noble with

; VII.

deeds,
of
35.

to break

forth in the dawn

"

their wonder-works
32 ; I. 10, 9* "

/?.

" " "

T.t I. ii, I. 12. Ibid.,

Ibid
,

; II. 32,

VIII. Ibid.,

Ibid, I,

59, 3 ; t 60,V
.

I. i, 7, 9 ; I. 7'.

10

Of

watered the richly

V. 44, 14 ,(W"W" Ibid., PanjAb they might well have been the gods. In tta Veda
4,
i. "

; X.

theirflowing speeds onward in a single hymn. pestuous waves."

"

the

hymn

and

rite. More

than

streams thirty

are

mentioned

0 Sindh, the rivers bring their tributes to thee,as cows their milk td the milker ; thou movest, like a king extendinghis wings for battle, at jhe head of thy tttn*

THE

HYMNS.
i

IO3 the blind.

tion

on

the

sick, the
invoked

lame,
to

"

Parjanya,
thunder,
to

is rain-giver,

"cry aloud,

to

flood the earth and may

and rejoice
l
"

be

impregnateit,that glad." The love

"

all that is therein

of Vishnu, "the
"

Preserver,"
ff

embraces

all mankind,"

an

unpreoccu-

pied love."3 May the opening dawns,

firm-set hills,the
us preserve mind ; may

the

swellingstreams,
at

the

ancestors
we

present
at

this be

invocation,
of
"

!
we

May
ever

all the

seasons

sound

behold rays, thou

for

us

with

thy best
make

Shine risingsun." brightDawn, lengthener Drive

far away
us

of life, giverof food and

; unfriendly
our

wealth.

the

pastures wide, give

safety.
even

All ye divine Ones, protect us

These
mere are

always."2
of slaves,
nor

not

the

prayers

of

suppliants. They incessantlybreak forth into Indra, gladden me! Sharpen my praises. "O I, longing thought like a knife's edge; whatever for thee, now siasm enthuutter, do thou accept."3 A poetic glows in these earliest matins and nocturns. and the orderly They exalt the splendorsof the Dawn paths of the Night. They dwell with joyfulwonder the sky and the earth, the changes which on pass over beneficence that tracingstep by step the marvellous follows the paths of the Light. All this is not mere "meteorolatry." Man is not prostrate here before the material universe, but erect, greeting the sublimity tokens of a divine atid magnificence of nature as stantly good-will. The sense of physical dependence is conless absorbed in the delightof this or more be doing great injustice to recognition. It would Aryan pietyto overlook this fine freedom of primitive
*
i ,

From

to hold,or maintain. r*V,

* "

JR. K, I. 42, 55 23, 18; 112;

V. 83;

VII.

100;

VI.

52, 4, 5!

VII. 77-

Ibid,VI.

47,

10.

104
the
as

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

this imagination, the bounty of the

that

affords
adoration

of

beauty as well visible world, and the proof it here something quite have other than we visible things. It is the happy sense of
the and
mean

exultation

in the

harmony
life and the

with

universe,
man are

healthful for each

confidence

that the world

nature

made

other, that

his

good.
has

"Surya
to

has

produced
from the

heavens

and

earth, beneficent
he

all :
out

desire with

to benefit

men,

measured To

the worlds,
we

their

undecaying supports.
tf

Him

render

l praises."

The
spontaneity
of

rishis

were

associates

of the

gods ;

found

out

the hidden

and light,

brought
The

forth the

dawn

singers "seek ion the thousand-branched out mystery, through the visof their hearts."3 Their hymns are "of kin to self his heart;"4 for wAgnt is himattract the god, and 6 The a thoughtful gods produce these poet. hymns."0 The rishis "prepare the hymn with the the understanding."7 They heart, the mind, and
song.

"wii\i sjncere

hymns."2

"

"

"fashion
as a

it

as

skilful workman
as
a

car;"

"adorn husband."8

it

beautiful
"

garment,
it from

bride for her

soul
as

They
a

generate
" "

the

rain is born

from

cloud

;
"

send
"

it forth from it with

the

soul, as wind
a

drives
the

the cloud

kunch

as praises,

ship on

sea."" These

is

not

maturer

analyzedtheir consciousmaterial and the spiritual still ness : ^ie are in their conceptions. This blended together find in the the anthropomorphism which we faith of the Greek, a clear full disengagement
rude bards have
not
ifio.
12, 31 ; 13.
2. *

" "
*

/P.

/I, I.
,

Ibid Ibid Ibid

,

VIII. I. 61, VII.

36.

B
"

VII. 76, 4. Ibid., VI. 14, 2. Ibid.,

" "

VII. 33, * Ibid., X. 6s, 7Ibid.,

Ibid.,I.
bee

"

94;

I.

116; X. 116.

130, 6; V. 29, 15 ; X. 39,14. Muir, HI. 220-240.

THE

HYMNS.

05

of the form
and

personaldeity from
in which he
not

the be

physical element
present.
definers For of and wonder

or

is felt

to

awe

are

analyzers nor
infinite and
are

thought:
nature,

the lines between and spirit matter,

finite, man
of their

drawing. But neither is this Vedic worship the mere "personification of the elements," the mere callingthe thing fire,or What do in fact note we a god. cloud, or moon-plant,
not

here, in the

not

yet differentiated

is instinct,

dominance pre-

of the in its constant the of

element ; and this not only spiritual of intelligence as recognition where everyof
nature,

substance

and

tion in its admira"

energies and volitions, the prayer, itself meaning thought, but even of beauty and in that open sense decisively
conscious
"

mantra,
more

tality, hospito

of which
to

invitation even,
referred just

in
; a

life and

the

world
call

I have

prelude,we

may

it,

aesthetic grace and It is indeed what Quinet the whole

the

meaning of by Light."
It is
to not

of the Greek.1 geniality finelydeclares to be the Vedic religion, "Revelation

"

the
senses

mere

worship
will
not

of

the

elements.

age Bond-

the

explainthis spontaneityand

joy ; these cordial relations with the universe ; this home-feeling so assured and fearless as to permit and living undistracted contemplation ative praise; this creforce of imagination of beauty and ; this feeling
but profoundlypsychological and moral not Very close affinities, only etymological, divinitiesof the Greeks, have been traced between the three principal Zeus, Dionyalso, sus,
"

and

Heracles, "on
on

the The

one

hand, and

the the

three

Vedic

gods,

"

I mini,

Agni,

and

SavHri,"
matters of

the other.

relations between
name

gods

of the Veda

and

those

of Greece

of and Rome, and the close affinities

found

a are common origin, inquirywhich lie outside the direct line of our purpose. literary They will be treated in the writingsof M tiller,in Lassen's Indische fully AUerthum^kunde^

and

function,pointingto

I* 75$; *"d in Mr. Cox's Mythe des Jlibkavtts ; and

new

volumes

on

Aryan
tn

Mythology (1870). Also

by NeVe,

Pococke, India

Greece*

IO6

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

in benignity,

full animal

play, neither
instincts.

repressed by fear, nor

It is very

enslaved
see

by

sentiment religious the guarantee of all liberties,and faculty, ing pronouncIt was it good, in the morning of time. a great the

to refreshing recognizingthe aesthetic

step in the
be

evolution
to such

of intellectual life.
an

We

cannot

inattentive
and

assertion of inherent

ties capaci-

of rights
us

the soul.

velopment infancy of Indo-European dethat innate to accord liberty disposition to every faculty, welcoming all to their owrl several and and uses delights, acceptingthe world as, their and has natural furtherance plasticmaterial, which of intellectual given this ethnic familythe leadership and The Vedic freedom. religious Hymn progress of these is the primal guarantee, the infantile presage It shows in the future
powers.
wrote

The

oldest

Greek

sages,

like the

Vedic,
in
verse.

their wisdom

under and

and poetic inspiration

the

Solon, Thales,
tf

rest,

were

called

; a word having nearly the same Sophoi) or knowers rishis." Their cosmogonies, meaning with the word all thingsto fire, mixture, which trace or water, or their interare,

like

the

Vedic

faith, no
the

mere

elementlife

worship,
and This mind

and
as

clearlyindicate
ihe
essence

of recognition outward

of

these

forms.

is the

characteristic of
a

of all
we

It is the mind
AiiReiigions germ.
in

child that

earlyAryan thought are exploring. Alt

" "

But is yet indeterminate, vague, instinctive. for that very reason the better recogwe can nize
/"
"

of capacities primitive impulses from the evolved of such

human which of

diverse forms

observingthe its laws of growth have revelation as the history;

nature,
cannot

religion presents. The exclusively by any one

Veda
of the

be

claimed

great

theological

THE

HYMNS.

07

or pantheism; by monotheism, polytheism, of them all,the but it contains the common principle of which the highest is but a natural development, germ, the consciousness of deity.1 this This nebulous of the Rig Veda, universality of all religions, this propheticstar-dust of potentiality historic systems, may well enough be called pantheism. Yet in no exclusive sense. It is not philosophical

systems,

"

"

but intense realization abstraction,

it is
to

man

wide very

awake

and

intent, in eye
is the

and

ear,

and

the

It -finger-tips.

religious and holds a wealth of imaginationthat instincts, suppliesprototypes for the mythologies of India, in Persia,Greece, Italy,Germany ; and a geniality its love of personification, that endowed witli living sympathies each and every phase of the elements, every metamorphosis of fire,and the very sacrifices and prayers of the worshippersthemselves.2 Its polytheism,like its pantheism, is in the free, plasticstage, and clearlydiscloses its depend- jntultion of the Onetheistic instinct, a ence on deeper than itself,
man.

rounding

continent

of his

in the constitution of
I do
not

intend

to

calls

"monotheism

of the Veda

through the
"antecedent

precedes the polytheism of One God, breaking \ a remembrance 3 mists of idolatrous phraseology," Such
does
not

convey which

the idea of what

Muller

revelation

appear

to

me

to

be

in the fact that twin deities are a hint of dualism is, also, Muller,Science of Language^ II. 585. There u" antagonistic. forms of deity, of a trinity. to later conceptions pointing triple
*

There

often
even a

invoked,yet tendency to

not as

For

an

excellent rhumt

of Vedic worship,as regardsthe illustrationof its vigor and itsaffinities with other religions, see
Alfred

and wealth of imagination, tt

Maury's Ctoyances
see

ttigtnde* aft PAntiquiit.

Texts, vol. iv,,and

On

of Soma^ the personification

the sacrifice

Muir's
on

Sanskrit

Stevenson's

S"ma

Veda.

Mr.

Pake's

article

thology, My-

in the Atlantic Monthly, trace many

,

of these relations.

p. 559.

IO8

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

the profound theistic instinct, intuition of a divine and whole, is involved in living here studying, mental the primitive are processes we I hold to be beyond all question. these much in reality For the not so are Hymns of deity deities, as the recognition worship of many wonder, everywhere ; the upward look of reverence, all aspects and trust, from hearts to which gratitude, guage. lanthe same and powers of nature spoke in essentially

proved.

But

that

There

is manifold

revelation

but there is also

tations unityof impression. The response to these divine invitakes outwardly different directions, is addressed it is seeking the to different objects ; but intrinsically in all. In no other way we can same spirit explain
the fact that these

Vedic

deities
each

are

in

no

essential It is not

from respect distinguishable

other.

mostly forms of lightor fire: of unityin the symbol points back to this recognition and moral oneness.1 the intuition of a deeper spiritual All are truthful, They are all described in the same way. beneficent, generous, omniscient, omnipotent. All of knowledge. bestowers of life, are inspirers They alike immortal; creators alike the refugeof men, are
merely
that

they

are

and

measurers

of the

world, for the benefit of

man

all-searching light,transcending and pervading all worlds. "Among you, O gods,there is

radiant
none

with

that is small,

none

great indeed."
invoked for the

They
same

that is young : you are have all equalpraise. All

all
are

tually mublessings.They are even "Thou, Agni, art Indra, art interchangeable.

Even

where
to

an

of interests is opposition about

more

for

moment

conceived, as where Maruts, O

India it
to

supposed
revert

contend with the Maruts

their respective this is but rights,

" The positively.

in order

the unityof divine interests

"

brethren XXIV

A'

V., I.

170,

2.

thy See Roth's tiauslation of I. 165, in Ztitsckr. d* D. Jlf.Gn

Indra, are

p. 30.1.

THE

HYMNS.

IOp

Vishnu,
Varuna
of

art

Brahmanaspati." "Thou,
Mitra all the when

Agni, art
:

born

; becomest

kindled

in

thee, son

gods." And all alike are itself generates Soma, the sacrificial plant, supreme. The fact now all the gods, and upholds the worlds." * Each before us has been admirablystated by Miiller. as good as all the god is to the mind of the suppliant
are strength,
"
w

gods; He is felt at the time as supreme and absolute, limitations which in spiteof the necessary to our entail on of gods must minds a plurality every single of this can only be that, in god/?2 And the reason all these diverse directions,the act of worship was and the same, and gave its own less boundone essentially meaning to all its instruments, forms, and objects. A like assignmentof equal and supreme to authority different deities is found also in Egyptian polytheism many
;

and
an

the trait has in this

case

been

admitted

to

indicate

approximation to belief in the Unity of God, even by those who can find no other evidence of the theistic bearingsof that primeval faith.3 The
fact has
been noted in

same

respect
and

to

the

names

to applied

their deities Maker

by
"

the North

American Mother

tribes,
of Life,"

such
"

"

as,

of all," Father

ble," "invisiGod/' "endless," "omnipotent," perfect and the like; all of which, according to the the myths of the New latest and best researches on familiar terms of homage for what was World, were and felt to be higher than man, clearlyindicate a
w

One

monotheism

which

is

ever

present,
86, 89, 109.

not

in

con-

* *

R. V.t VIL
Ancient

30,

II. x, 3: V. 3,

; IX.

Sanskrit

with the acquaintance best authority for theirverbal meaning.

,

instinct and profound Muller's fine spiritual Literature^ p. 532. of combine text the Vedas make original to him, on the whole, our

I. 367.

IIO

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

but in livingintuition, in the polytheism, sentiments." 1 religious not to discern in the Vedic It is impossible passages been quoted,and indeed in Vedic forms have which the presentimentof that proof worship generally, found unity into which the wisest pupils of ancient polytheismresolved the gods of their fathers,and Maximus which Tyrius expresses in terms that strik* Men make distinctions inglyrecall our Vedic texts. that all the gods the gods. They are not aware between
trast
to
"

have

one

law,

one

the life,

same

ways,

not

diverse

nor

mutually hostile ; all rule ; all are of the same age ; and all pursue our good ; all have the same dignity authority;all are immortal; on" their nature, under 3 And names." the Greek as so philosopher, many conscious of a still deeper also the Vedic seer was unitythan this. of religious In these vague embodiments wonder
and
"
.

awe, /

there could
"

be

none

of that later and

distinctmore re-

Mystical
sense

of

ness

of

umty*

flective many

which individuality polytheismgave to Vedic

terms
as

its separate deities.

as

Doubtless
names were

translated

proper
else be

meant really

appellatives only,or
were

record

natural

facts which

not

intended

to

at #11,so that our ing ignoranceof their meanpersonified the distinct figures greatlymultiplied may have of this older Olympus, as well as exaggerated their

distinctness.

Miiller

has

called

attention

to

the Semitic and Aryan strikingdifference between tinctions dislanguages^in the tendency to invite polytheistic In the root-name former, the original always remains unaltered in the body of any word
1

Brinton, p, 58.

Dus.t XXXIX.

5.

THE

HYMNS.

Ill

that may

be formed
and

from

it ; while fresh

in the latter it is
so

merged
every
new

lost in each

combination,

that

tends to independentmeaning, appellative and starts a special personality.That these linguistic of the explain the intenser monotheism peculiarities one race, and the freer polytheismof the other, seems,

however,

to

be

less conceivable
the

than

that

both

the
a

and linguistic
common cause

differences religious the

the
to
even

arise from unlikeness

the

in Yet alluded

constitutional influence
must

of

the

two

races.

of

ing transformvery
how

process

have the

been

great.
this
on

And

we

can

infer,

from

Veda,
have

of individual multiplication in the Aryan religions, by into personal forms many

names

deities
the

must

gone

of

change deity.
are

of

mere
a

latives appelgreat
are

Thus

to

which

prayers

addressed

of qualities that simplyexpressions first attributed

to

were,

undoubtedly,
distinctive

the

Sun,

and

became

obscuration described above ; linguistic could find ready to hand quite until Macrobius ample for proving his great thesis, so often repromaterials duced, that all ancient resolvable into worship was alone. heliolatry But at so earlya stage in the observation of nature this process could hardly as that of the Vedas, even time to produce very clearly had have marked tinctions disin the objects of personality of worship. Those mysterious forms and processes of Light, diverse names to which attached, reallyflowed were into one another; sometimes by imperceptible tions, gradasometimes of feeling as by instantaneous shift, Whether mood. the face of the universe changed or before the eyes of the worshipper, showed behind or heaven and earth, it was the change an ever-abiding

through

the

112

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

stillthe
not

same

face of the universe, and

power.
same,

power
The

could ment senti-

be

held apart from definitely the of worship,too, was ever for the moment,
to

whithersoever

it turned in the
same

natural that yearning and in every moment of deeper thought the poet should these names interchangeably.It was not pronounce their individuality that impressedhim, but the common fact of their power. lie would feel that instinctively unitywhich these experiencessuggested. It was the need to find for every act of prayer and praise perpetual the highest which -possible object of prayer and praise, him caused to regard that deity as- supreme perpetually he was his for the moment to whom addressing thought. This is the very germinal principleof Theism ; for it is the instinct of undivided homage* And
of if this claim the
to

every name faith. It was

going forth

worship
many

with

every act nevertheless highestsovereignty

to appear successively inference yet draw the logical it can aspiration only be unity,

hold

communion

in

allows
as

different powers

if it does not highest, of such that the object the mind is not is simply because yet introversive enough to recognizewhat is reallyinvolved in this It can aid from no spiritual require process. natural super*r

intervention," whatever
to

that may

mean,

to

vance ad-

cannot sovereignty Given the impulse be divided among to rise in many. conception every act of worship to the highestknown there can be need only of a deeper of the Divine tribal deity, in some one as with the Hebrew absorption or a finer speculative habit,as with the Greek prophet, to develop it into a clear and positive philosopher,

the

that perception

supreme

form

of Theism.
was

It

not

that requisite

some

race special

should

THE

HYMNS.

113
M

be

that

with the vision, and trusted insupernatural ly gifted with the charge" of this indefeasible truth, It was Deity is One. requisiteonly that the of
man

"

consciousness religious concentrated

upon

should
own

become

tently in-

its

deeps.
as

Greek, Hebrew,

Roman,
show

and

Oriental
was

literature,

well

as

that this

the

experience of
era.
on

all

thoughtful higher

minds
The

long
whole

before Veda

the Christian hovers

the verge

of this

experience.
fowl's

Its free

flightby

the

desire, steeps unwearied

this purer

guided like the wild mysterious instinct of natural wings from time to time in
devotion,

light. There are hints of a Father of all the gods, in Dyaushpitar; l of a Lord of Creation, lord of all Prayer, a ; of Prajapati generator and is wise and Brahmanaspati.2 Visvakarman ing, pervadof vision."3 father,highest creator, disposer, object Varuna is "King of all,both gods and men."4 Surya
"

is the concentration host of "soul of

of all powers

in

"

one

the wonderful

rays,"the "eye
moves or

of Mitra, Varuna, rests."5

a

Agni

all that

"Indra

contains the

gods, as spokes."6
Even
so

all the

the

felloe of

wheel

surrounds

is this whole

contained religion
sense

in the adoration

of
one

Light ;

in the

of

vital fire in the Universe, the

with the life that stirred within for this

soul

; in

the search

of it in holiest
verse

and the recogthrough all disguises, nition all visible powers. The Gdyatri, or

of the

Veda,

reads: divine It
was

"We

meditate

on

that desirable governs

t
"

our

of the light holy rites." 7

* " "

Savitri, the Sun

this
verse

who

which

the

Zfi)f7rar%", Jupiter.
Ibid.,X. 83,
i.

R.

V
,

I, 40, 5
27,

II. 23, 1:24,5

"

1 25, 5-

II. Ibid.,

10. 10.

I. Ibid.,

115,

t.

"

Ibid,,I. 39, 15.

Ibid.,III. 62,

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

later

worship
as

affirmed

to

have of

been
the

milked

out

by
tain con-

Brahma

the

substance

Veda, and

"to

all the freedom

The

of Veda

with gods," being interpreted spiritual meaning. goes

the

largest
It

beyond

these vague

intimations.

the unityof the religious announces ment, sentidistinctly and anticipates theism monophilosophy in referring and "That root. polytheism to a common

which

is One

the

wise

call many

ways.
the

it Indra, Garutmat." In
the
or

Mitra, Varuna,
J

Agni,

They call winged heavenly

lightof
less

this

greater
we

extent

mysticalinstinct,which to a pervades every Vedic Hymn,

must

nature

the fact that all these, so-called, interpret of the creators -gods are freely declared

world.

It

even

concentrates

the
turn

whole
such

of this

scendence tran-

within

each the
as

in

with

and intensity God

as are

fulness

as

makes absolute passages

of personality

the Vedic

vivid and abundant

that of the Hebrew. of descriptive the

There

all-creative and
as

of Indra, in which it seems all-mastering energy were we to the praise of Jehovah listening Hebrew much
more

if
a

from

Psalmist. obscured
one case

Nor

is the outward

of deity spirituality
and
sensuous

by
than

gery ima-

in the "To his

in the other, and earth bow down. With

Indra

the heavens he looses

might the mountains afraid. He established the quiverare ing earth ; he propped up the sky for the good of all with its golden lights creatures, upholding the sjcy in
void space
1

thunderbolt

the waters.

At

his

he

spread also the green

are

earth.

Let

us

R.

V.,1. 164,46. There

"

similar hymns to Osiris, in which he is identifiedwithothel

The
a

Egyptian deit.es
Sec Rawlmson's

Rfv

Archiolofiqne,1857.
the Greek

Book

of the Dead
name

him gives
to

dred hun-

So appellations. He

Zeus absorbed

'most

every

dear

popular faith.

rodotus,I.

555.

THE

HYMNS.

worship him ing, the ever

his

with

reverence,

the

exalted, the undecayhave works who

not
:

young.

The

worlds

measured
not

greatness.
and He

Many

his excellent

all the

gods can
the dawn.

frustrate the counsels the earth, and transcends

of Him

established
the
sun

the heavens

produced

and

the whole
all."1

universe

tect ; archi-

of all Yet
even

thingsand
of this
that
"

lord of

Supreme Aryan Jehovah

divine
and
gracious
c

it is said
, andJ Birth
n

elsewhere bore

mother filled the

parentage of

him, when
2

like the
he is not

dawn

he

worlds." adored And

to

And

of old, but "for

when the

only undecaying,and ever young."

to

deity*

poets

turn

Savitri,
same

or

to

Soma,

or

Agni, there is not only the of sovereign power, description to this limitingfact of How shall this be explained?
It is
to

vividness
the
same

in the
rence recur-

but birth

and

beginning.

be

remembered different
the

that, after all, the Vedic represent

with each
rally natu-

Hymns
many

of the

belong to changes in gods ; and

epochs, and must specialideal associated

every fresh form

that

would

of the last. Doubtless, too, offspring these images of birth and youth in part refer to natural transitions or phases of the heavenly bodies, the visible ; and symbols of deity report the ever-fresh productive vigor of their outgoingsand renewals. They which indeed the natural play of the poetic are faculty, the lifeof the universe as for ever and recognizes new, creation as an instant fact, long before science learns in natural laws. to find the same significance But the root of the idea that the gods are subjectto birth and parentage probably lies deeper. While the be held the
"

Other examples
X. V., X.
134,
i.

may

be

found

in Maury, Ltgendes et

Croyances^ from

Langlois.

See text* in Muir, vol. iv.

"

S"i**, Pt II. vii 16.

Il6

RELIGION

AND

LIFE,

busied with bringing out the was imagination religious forms, there was rally natuof deityin ever-changing sense
as

constant

sense were

of the

limitations None

in which

these

definite deities
the satisfy
creators
are
are

involved. reach
the

of them power. before.

could These

thirst
but

to

originof
went

outbirths and the

of what

They
them.

"young;"

ancient

deep

is behind

The
and

them,
mother

the soul presses, eye still pierces, "A end the series. finds no to

beyond
divine

bore

them."

What
our

is this but
"

to

say, "God

is,

after all,beyond all Is science any has

the

wiser
it
ever

gods ? than song?

found
us a

In

protoplasm,or
What of

elsewhere,
else does
but deity,

beginning?
and

Vedic

faith in birth this endless It finds

rest

parentage

foreshadow

the tenderest of divine

way?
heart
was

inadequacy, and in its series by resolving

a

powers

into

of syllables
not to

word

whose
a

ing mean-

for the

be

fathomed,
could

life which

only

the sacred

name

of motherhood

background each and have born, must god was every The depth of Deny, the religious consciousness haunted a as stant consuggestionof unity beyond all these changing which But it was far from insisting forms. a so unity, on being"represented in one way only, inspired with the intensest desire to multiplyforms and men this diversity, bearing witness symbols of it. And have of its productiveresources, must prompted it,
in turn, to seek
ever more

This

unfathomed

express. of life,out of which

and

more

stars

in

this

which shut depth of spiritual all-enfolding space, doors of dogma, and no spread no mythic firmareligious ment^ to stay the wings of thought. The cessant not was only left free, but invited to inimagination creation of mythical names and forms, ever

THE

HYMNS.

promising
an on

to

embody

more

and

more

fullythe
all. Here

mortgaged unwas

ideal open

that welcomed
so

them far
as

for progress, This forces. religious

f^th
so

made It
was

progress depends the old Aryan mythologies in this way that

rich

and

full.

that besets polytheism, free from the exclusiveness real the monotheistic conceptions, became strictly parent of aesthetic and scientific liberty. that all these definite conceptions It is to be observed of

deity are
J
m

interfused relation
m

with what

sense

of man's
RecogmT

harmonious

to

lies

beyond

all

uonofthe
Infimte*

and content conception.1And of the spiritual tration, cite in illusconfidence we hereby made possible, may the Light to Hiranyagarbha, or first, a hymn as embryo, born in the waters.
I. was

"In the

the

beginning there

arose

the

source

of

golden light. He

only born Lord of all that is. He established the earth and shall offer our sacrifice ? the sky. Who is the God * to whom we ** He who 2 gives life ; he who gives strength blessing ; whose desire whose shadow all the brightgods is immortality, whose ;
shadow is death.
"

Who

is the

God,

"c. ?

3. and

He

who

through his

power

is the

only King
man

of this

breathing
"c. ?

awakening world ; he He through whom 4. in measured out the light

"

who the

governs

and

beast.

Who,

sky

is

brightand
is,"c.

the earth firm ; who ? his look will, forth.

the air. and

Who

5. "He
up,

to whom

heaven

tremblinginwardly. He
is,"c. ?
"

earth, standingfirm by whom the rising sun over

where

shines

Who 6.
the the

Wherever

the lit the

mighty water-clouds went,

thence fire,
arose

seed

and

He

who

is the

they placed only life of

might looked even clouds which gave strengthand lit the "c. ? above all gods. Who is,
"

brightgods. He who by 7.

Who his

is,"c. ?
over

the

the water-clouds, He who

is God

sacrifice.

I do not here employ the term

not

"

unknowable," which,

a"*

used

in scientificparlance,

doee
*

convey

my

meaning.

" To what other god." Langloistranslates it,

Il8

RELIGION

AND

LIFE*

8.

"May

he not

destroy1us.
the Who

He

the Creator He who

to

of the also
we

earth, the
the
shall offer

who righteous,

created

heavens.

created

brightand mighty waters.

our

is the God

whom

sacrifice ? "

Who of

is this that is "born

"

in the
whom
"

waters," an
the
waters

embryo
and the

light ? lightare but brightgods ;

in them.3

Even
the
"

He

of

garment,

the

only life of

all these

their

not apart from them ///%,

only,but

And
the that

here

is

farther

venture

into those blends

into

abysses of
infinite,
where

consciousness, where

finite so

with
; light

darkness its very deity,felt as mystery

deepens

conception, yet
life of all.
"There
nor

is also

forms of or beyond all names and instant highestpersonality

1.

was

then

neither What

nor nonentity

entity;neither
nor

phere atmos-

sky beyond.
was

covered

all ?

2.

"

Death

not, nor

therefore

immortality ;

day

nor

night
was

That has

there breathed,breathless, by Itself [inessence]; been] nothing different from It,nor beyond It.
One
u

[or

3. 4.

The Then

covered

germ

buist

forth

by

mental

heat. This the

"

first came

Love

upon

the spring of mind. it, between

poets in their hearts discerned, the bond

5. There above. 6. 7. He
"
"

being and nought.

it above
or

The
were

ray which

shot

across

these, was
nature

below

mighty productivepowers,
can

beneath

and

energy later.
or

Who Who

declare whence knows what

this creation ?
its source,
or or

The

gods came
created not/'4

"

then

whether
He

not?

who

rules it in

highestheaven

knows,

knows

And

in the

followingpassages

we

mark

the

pro-

1 "

"

Injure," accordingto Muir.

V
,

R.

X,

121.

MUller'a transl. is in Sansk.

same.

Lit

p.

569. Muir's,in Scuuk-

Texts,
its

vol

is essentially the iv.,

8 Of the and monotheism of the Hindus, recurring at every stage of their history, influences, see Lassen, II. 1105. independenceof foreign *
*'

K, X.
other
can

129, translated

by Mttller and Muir.

Colebrooke

translates the last clause,

none

know.'1

THE

HYMNS.

lip
solution imperfect ascribes it
to Beyond
atlve

found
the
a

yearning to

transcend

that

of
ere-

mystery

of existence fiat :
"

which

creative special
"

P"wer*

That

which

is beyond the earth and

sky,beyond gods and spirits ;

hold,
who in which all the these go

what
were

earliest assembled

embryo
? Ye

did know

the
not

waters

gods
about

Him The with ?

produced
of

things.

Something enveloped in mist, and

"

else is within

you.

chanters

hymns

unsatisfied

idle talk.1
was

Who

has

seen

the First Born ? Who

went

Where
to ask

the life, the blood, that knew earth ? when He it.7 Wise held

the soul of the world

"

it of any

What ask

the tree from which

theyshaped heaven
on

and

men,

indeed, in your minds,

what

He

stood

the worlds."3

It is the Cause
as a

inadequacy
definite form

of all

conceptionsof Original
that
one

of existence

of these

poets
sprang

would from

he when express says, exists not."4 that which

"The

existent

There
that

is but

one
:

solution
the

of these

and mysteries, and divine

is for all time moral

unityof

human

through the Every one

and the
ever us
o

being.
deities is
a

of these Vedic "This

us

moral

dian guarThe moral

saviour.
'

day,
from

risingsun,
sin obtain
come we

deliver have

ye gods, with sin." "WhatO

*Je'"enti Vcdic
wor-

may

committed,
:

Indra, let
not

ship.

the safe upon

of day light us."

let

the

"Preserve and

us,

O
our

ness long darkAgni, by work and

knowledge,from
for
our

sin

liftus up,
man

for who

life."

"Thou

leadest the

has

followed

from "Deliver us paths to acts of wisdom." is the constantly evil recurring prayer.6 "The gods are not to be trifled with." "They are in their hearts." with the righteous : they know man wrong
" "

R.

Y." X. 8a.
,

"

I. 164, 4. Ibid., I

X. 81, 4. Ibid.,

"

Ibid

X. 7a,

a.

"

Ibid

I. us*

6; II. 27, 14:

#, 14: I. 35-

I2O

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

"They
wicked."
so as

behold

all

things,and

hear

no

prayers

of the

to

Rudra, 6'May I, free from sin, propitiate attain his felicity, distressed by heat one as
I" "I have committed
as a

finds relief in the shade do ye, O Far son. ill-behaving

faults,which

gods,
from
me

correct,
be
or

many father his

bonds, far be sins."

of" is the

"May
burden
to

our

sins be
a

removed,"

"repented
rude

of

whole

hymn.1
have

What
meant

tribes,unused
the terms here

self-examination, may

by

"sinning" and "repenting," may not be We mate readily overestimay easy fully to determine. their moral aspirations. But we shall err even if we more recognizein their hymns nothing seriously better than the desire to buy material advantages from their deities,or the fear of losingthese advantages, or It is of suffering outward at their hands.3 penalties of wrong-doing from which the very clearlya sense that worshipper is seeking relief. It is conscience pricks him, the rebuke of his moral ideal. Because the evil he thinks or does offends himself, therefore Its penalhe holds it an offence to the All-discerning. ties,
translated whether

inward both
"

distress
as

or

outward

failure and be

loss,
"

and

kinds,
he

will hereafter
as

noticed,

are

confessed,
to
a

construes to

rectitude

which with

he the

signs of aspires.

its It

opposition is purity
weak-*

of

heart, it is peace

conscience, that these

confessions
with
earnest
:

Their pursue. prayers and ness ignorance are

"

simple
laden I
am
"

of

feeling.

I do

not

recognizeif
"O who
13, IS!

like this

in mind."a

the desert, to
i *

one VIII.

Agni, thou art longs for thee."4

II. 33, 6} II. 34,5:

I go on plexed perlike a trough in

R For

V, VII.
this kind

32, 9; of
at

*" ""
other

criticism, see

Hardwick, Christ and

p. 9,
10,

Matters^ I. iSa,and

even

Wilson's Lectures
"

Oxford (\^},

R,

y.t I. 164, 37"

X, Ibid.,

4t

""

THE

HYMNS.

121

The
His and

moral

law

is

eminentlyembodied
the

in Varuna.
vawnajtu
or """i

name,

kindred Zend
"

with
"

Greek
zw,

Ouranos
to

the

Varcna
us

from
to

veil

limn,

surround

remands
J

the

outermost

confines which

of
folds en-

the universe.
the

He

is

the Limit, essentially

thought

of these

it from of whose
farthest the

being bewildered immensity. He

wise ordinances His space. all

simple natures, and protects and oppressedby the mysteries is the measurer of depths,
them

round calm

in.

His

world

is

safetyof
man's that

beings and
be loosed.

is unswerving legislation forms.54 His worship expresses of natural He

is

instinctive

sense

law, of the
as

bands and

cannot

adored

framer

order of the world ; everlasting who appointed the broad paths of the sun, prepared in the firmafrom of old, free from dust, well-placed ment; holds the stars from wandering, and keeps who from overfilling "The the sea. the streams tions, constellavisible by night,which by day, go elsewhere his inviolable works." Wise and mighty are his are
"

sustainer

of the

deeds He

who

has stemmed
on

asunder

the wide

firmaments.

high the bright heavens : lie stretched apart the starry sky and the earth, and made great for the days."3 He is calm and immovable, channels the Aryan Fate : inevitable things are his bonds." * Night,with its mysteriousdeeps and steadfast orderly watches, is his specialrealm ; and he it is who brings back the sun after passing to his place, to reappear Thus the world was invisibly through the heavens. felt to be stanch with orderlycycles, instinctively long before the conception of law could be fully formed.
"

lifted

* *
*

Lassen, I. 758.
JK. P., VH1.
4*.
*

Ibid

Roth,
,

Die

fochsten

GMttr

d. Arisclun

V. 85 ; VII. 86, 871 I. 24, "". d. Deutsck. V'olker (Zcitschrift

Morgenl.

VI. 7a).

122

RELIGION

AND

LIFE*

But
divine

in law

this

physical order
shone decree

was

reflected also the

claimed pro-

which

in the

conscience, and

eternal
"

against moral

disobedience.

By day, by night,there is said one thing. The is spoken to me conscious heart." ! same by my own This unseen Eye of the Night beholds all that has
"

been

and

all that shineth

will be
as

done."2

To

Varuna who

the is offended

darkness
at

the

light.

It is he

the evil-doer, who

"

is satisfied

sin ask

is put
what

away. is my

Desirous A
w

offence."3 says of

only when the of beholding thee, I later hymn from the

one

Atharva
or

Veda

him,
sees

If
as

stand
near

or

walk,
knows third.

hide, the
two

great Lord
flee
hath

if

he the

what He

whisper together;
should He

he

is there

who

beyond

the the

Varuna. of men."4 He
Deliverer from evil,

counted

sky would not escape of the eyes twinklings

takes away This
an

is

"

merciful

to

the

evil-doer, and
from the

sin" extricating man

not moralityis plainly

its bonds."6

bondage
the

of

exorable ina

wrathful

nor physicalnecessity, judge. It has sightof

blind

fear of

divine

compassion,

that spares
1.
"

and

restores.

Let

ma

not

yet, O

Varuna,

enter

into

the house

of

clay.

Have
2.

mercy,
"

If I

have mercy ! Almighty, like go along,trembling, mercy of !

cloud

driven

by wind, have
have

mercy, 3.
"

Almighty, have Through want

shore.
came

thou Strong One, strength,

I gone
.

to

the wrong
4. Have
"

Have
on

Thirst

have mercy ! mercy, Almighty, the worshipper, in the midst of the waters.

mercy,
"

5.
" *

Almighty, have mercy ! Wherever we men, 0 Varuna, commit

K., I.
24,
". "

an

offence before the

*.

Ibid.,I as,

n.

" "

VII. 86. Ibid,,

R.

Muir, V.

p. S3

Miiller, C*ifa I. p 41.

r." VII, 87} I. a$, "t.

THE

HYMNS.

123

host heavenly
have mercy,

; wherever

we

break mercy

thy law throughthoughtlessness,

!"
*

have Almighty, trust

Similar
to
names

in

all the

Vedic

the love inspires forgiving gods. They are all called

prayers

by

the

Saviour
been

and

Father.
"

It has for

said that

we

look

in vain

in the Vedas
Ar
anseng

psalms, or hymns commemoratpenitential benefits."2 ing the descent of spiritual

is
true

This
in

of moral cvlL

only
of

if

we

take

these

their Semitic sentiment

piety,the meaning. In fruit of moral obligation, yieldingmuch

expressions Hebrew most

less an and tenderness, is yet more or over sublimity God tends bearing despotism. Its austere and jealous with dread of to paralyze the worshipper's freedom having done, or of being about to do, something that claims. Hence trenches upon exclusive and sovereign of contrition, and to dwell a an disposition intensity what is called the "malignity" of sin, amounting, on in the ultimate ology phases to which Christian thefor self-contempt has developed it,to a demand and
even

self-abhorrence Now

as

the

first condition

of

nothing like this will be of Aryan in the Vedic other religion found or any origin. But it is not to be inferred that such religions foundations. If they do not rest on moral and spiritual know nothing of these moral agonies, so liable to and enslave the mind, they are for this not narrow of recognizing the inevitable penalty, reason incapable piety!
and
the need and of divine renewal, involved in evil thinking

it is certain that

living. ignoble

gods are not jealousof the beckon libertiesof their worshipper. They cordially the world a on genial every side, and make
*

On

the other hand, the

"" K, VII. 83.

"

Hardwick, I. iSz.

124
climate

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

energies. If there is danger lest of this entire spontaneity should relax the authority conscience, there is at least impliedin it a guarantee of freedom and progress indispensableto conscience itself. It does not dwell mournfully and hopelessly the enormity of offence; but passes the past, nor on on readily on to greet fresh opportunity, accepting the future as still its friend. This and moral elasticity standing ready recovery of self-estimation, this good underopment and a happy develthe conscience between
for all his of all human
of
a

powers, in

is the needful

corrective

despotic moralism
earnestness

Semitic

has
man.

and religion mingled with

culture, which
its better

gifts

to the inward

life of
to

The
The
Adi-

Hymns
remarks

Varuna,

which

have

suggestedthese

tyas.

criticism upon concerninga common of non-Semitic religions origin,are not the illustrations of of Seven the Vedic conscience. Varuna

only
is
are one

Ones.1 or Adityas, Everlasting

of Aditi," who is "The

These

the

"Children

Unlimited,

Sleepless, beholding all evil and things,far and near, good, the innermost thoughts of men, irreproachable protectors of the universe, haters of falsehood, punishers of sin, yet toa, and abandoning none, forgivers they "bridge the and uphold the heavens for the paths to immortality, sake of the upright."2 And the herdsman to them like prayed that he might escape the vices that were in his path;" calling them to spread their on pitfalls him, birds spread their wings over as over protection their young."3 Of these the nearest to Varuna ja
"

Immortal

Light Beyond."

Mitra,
i 1

"

the Friend."
sup* a, Zeitschr.
d. D.
"

Roth,
R.

ut

Af.

"., VI. 69; Mutter's Rig Veda, \,Nott^

a.

9.13*

K., II. 27.

Ibid, VIII. 47,

See Muir, V. 57.

THE

HYMNS.

125
known O
to us,

Neither

is the

rightnor
nor

the left hand what

of givers and afraid, be guided by you homes, may I, weak our Far or nigh,there that is free from fear. to the light l who is in your leading." harm to him can come no mortals Imthese of the light," Though called "children neither what is before
are

is behind.

not

to

be
are

confounded
not
mere

with

the
Their
. .

spint-

heavenly bodies:
the

they

phases
been

ofuaimeanIns"

Sun,
to

as

the later Puranas

them.

have

sup-

conceived as They were the unseen support and background of his radiance. have of the spirit. Their Their light was very names moral and religious import,born of the conscience and the heart. Friend, Protector, Beholder, They mean They Sympathizer,Benefactor, Giver without Prayer.2 from the evil spirits, druhs, that follow or preserve in the sins of men." oldest Aryan faith centres The The these Shining Ones. Adityas are, in fact,radiant have that the visible heavens witnesses always been recognizedas the symbol of a Higher Light,through

posed

represent

which

the

soul

lies for

ever

open

to

infinite wisdom,

and justice, In

care.*

all ancient than

there religion that of

is

no

name

more
"

teresting in-

Aditi, the

"mother

Themother

of pay

the

Aryan gods.
;

To
to

maternityall
bosom
ot

deities

oflhcs"dsderness ten-

reverence man

and

the

its infinite

must

refer

his whole Max

conception of

the

divine.
name

Aditi," says
to express

Miiller, "is the

"

earliest

invented A-diti

the Infinite,

the visible infinite,

one

is the

unbound,

unbounded,
a name

might
tant dis-

almost

say, the Absolute.

"

It is
more,

for the

East, the Dawn,

and
in
one
1

but Dawn

Beyond
"

the Dawn; of

place

the

is called

the 'Face

/?. V., II. a;, ii, 13.

Roth, ut su^ra.

126

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

Aditi.' unbounded

In

her realm

cosmic

Aditi, however, "She,

the

was

Daksha,
Yet
here

Beyond, the beyond earth and sky." Beyond "the powerful.'* Daksha, literally who is thy daughter; after her,
order

she is The

gods."1
And

Daksha
it must

is also
be

said

to

be

born

of

Aditi.2

noted

that this

ology phrase-

of descent but ideal

that

does

not ;

indicate

cession, succhronological we

relation

just as

may of

equal truth,
that power

light

is the

child

say, with and power,

offspring of light. Yet there all* doubt be no that this reaching forth to an can embracing Life beyond and behind specialforms of the two conceptionsof deity, an ultimate in which under the symbols of male and female, love and power, in the interchangeableness of Daksha combined are of being, and Aditi at the fountain is but a typical, experience of the expression of the whole religious
is
the
"

"

Vedic

poets.

For

we

find the

same

unlimited

ity capacout

invoked,

in each
a

and
care
'

every

deity,to
a

reach

with beyond itself,

absorb all the rest.

and

power

that should

The
The

study
^act

of

the ^ie

Rig
earliest
a

Veda

has

revealed
,

the
we

easiest

^iat

apotheosis of which
of

apotheosis have

record

was are

form

homage
to

to

virtue.
men,

Some who

of had

the

hymns
are

addressed

deified

attained

their the

divinity through
The miracles

beneficent

work*.3 artisans
them

They
of
the

"dexterous, humble-minded
ascribed
to

gods."4
was

indicate

what

then

duct.
act
1 "

They

had
the

restored Oriental

thought godlike in cott* their parents to youth ; an

mind, of all social virtues.
IV. TVjrfr,
10-13.

to typical,
MUrer*s
R.

Rig Veda^
7*" 4, 5.

I. p. 230, 237 ;

Muir, Sanskrit

r., x

Ne*ve,Myihe des Rfrhava*

Roth, Brahma

und die Brahmantn,

in Zcitsck.

Ott., I. 76.

THE

HYMNS.

chariot for the dawn, that daily a They had made They had blessingsmight be brought to all men. sacred vessels for the service of the gods. multiplied They had created, or brought back to life,cattle for the poor.1 Their from that Ribhavas, formed name, indicates upward fruitful of Aryan roots, which most and It is movement, growth. points to aspiration related to the Greek Orpheus, both names closely bolizing symthe arts of orderly and rhythmic construction ; and to the German able Elfen, denoting the busy, serviceelves.2 To to these divine seem helpers,who have in some been respects identical with the p/tris, in their ancestral fathers of families, especially or

beneficence, prayers

were

addressed

for

the

same

Thus the older deities bestowed. blessingswhich and ascends stands among the good man to heaven, in the shine the gods. The of the generous stars firmament: they partake of immortality.3They are who like the Asvins, those divine physicians, enabled the lame
to

walk, the
were

blind

to

see

; who

restored slow

the

aged
weak,"

to

youth,

guardians
with
snow,

of

"the

and

relieved burns

cured storms.4 the

cattle,sowed

fields,and delivered
This instinctive

sailors from

of recognition the Vedic who had

divine in the human

a

gave The Life.

"

shape

to

idea of

Future

The Llfe-

Futurc

first man

passed through

X.r.t IV. 33, 33, 36; V.31,3See Kelly'sln4o*EuropfaitFolk-Lore, p. 19 " X. N"ve as V.t X. 88, 15 (See Maury, Croyances,"c., 147.) Even if, suppose*, the for of other well the the the seivices to as gods ascribed multiplication goblets worship,as " that they nnd importance of the religious extended the pomp to the Ribhavas, signify and represented the tendency to priestly in those early times, itwill be ritual," organization the less true that they were exalted to divinity for acts held in grateful remembrance none That they were beloved vicarious and for or as serviceable to men. merely priests, merely
"

official acts, the whole

4

account

of them

in the Rig l"eda disproves

For remarks
on

See Muir,

V. 242, and

R.

V.^ 1. 116-120.

the relations of the Ribhus

and

Pitris to the

elves of the or brightspirits

Teutonic

see Kelly's mythology, Indo-Eurof"

Folk-Lore*

p. 19.

128

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

death the and

waited, enthroned
into his of Men knew
"

in immortal of

to light,

welcome

good

kingdom
all human
"

joy.1

This

"Assembler been
was

King
and

in another

lifehad himself needs.

to

man, huthus

Death

Yamn's
he

kindlymessenger,
gone be of before taken
to not

bring them
for them,
2

to the

homes which

had

could

prepare from them."

and

It

was

far in Varuthe
"

na's world

in perfectand undying light,

third

heaven," in the
the Gods.
the

very "sanctuary of the sky, and of great waters," and in the bovsom of the Highest
Thither the fathers the had the earth, gone, and underneath them ; " and
on
"

air, and

sky
were

were

thither the

children

each following, which

the
men

his

own

appointed path.3
attainment

That
in

desire
where

is the
may

of

good

world

they

behold "where

their parents
the One

and

abide, free from

infirmities,

Being dwells beyond the stars."4 The the gloaming %in which morning and evening twilight, darkness the outstretched were mingles with light, watchful of arms death," the two dogs of Yama, The evitable to their rest.5 guiding men poet sang the inthat has for ever and the assurance longing,
"

come

with

it.

"There

make

me

immortal,

where

action age And

is free, and

all desires

are

fulfilled."6

And

after while

age-the simple tribes repeated the Hymn.

the
mourners

for

the

dead, in their rude

symbolism
between

of

mingled
and feet that
M.

faith
the
were

and grave,
to
move

fear, set
and
no

stone

themselves
the

placed
more,

th"

clog upon
Roth,
R.

and

in Zeitst.hr. d. D.
113,7-

G., IV. 426

It. V.t X. i, 14.

V., IX.

Hymns
jR.

in R.

V,X.

V, X. 82, 2.

Muller's Science

Rig
ney, Bib.

of Language, IT. 496. Hymn** translated by Muir, Sttnsk. Textt, II. 468,and ty Whit* Sac., 1859; Roth, D. M. G., II. 225; IV. 428.
Veda Burial

THE

HYMNS.

I2p

took
them
care
"
"

the

bow

from of

the

nerveless

hands,
and
or

in token

Nature's

bounty
the the

placing in protecting
cow, to
"

of portions ritual made

the

trustful him
mother

body of appeal to
him
to

goat
Earth
her

their receive
as a

kindly,and
her child

cover
"

with

garment
"

to warm Fire-gods, by their heat his immortal part;" and to the Guide of him to bear Souls, by his sure paths to the world of the just," To the body it said, Go to thy Mother, I lay the the wide-spread,bounteous, tender Earth. feelest ; thou covering on thee : may it press lightly it not. Pass, at thy will, to the earth or sky." And thou home to the fathers, on their to the spirit, Go is evil in thee : guarded ancient paths : lay aside what his sharp-eyed sentinels, by right from by Yama ;

the

rf

"

"

ways

ascend

to

the

farthest
a

heaven,

if thou

hast

served de-

shining body, with the gods* May the fathers watch thy grave, and Yama him "Let times depart," it is somegive thee a home."1 added, "to the mighty in battle; to the heroes
who have have the

it, and

dwell, in

laid down bestowed feet of

their

lives

for

others,
on

to

those

who "Wash says And

their him "let who

him

goods
go

the with

poor."2
sin,"
pure

is stained

the

Atharva;
amidst

upward

with

feet."
so,

the purifyingfires,

libations of water, and prayers, loved were sped on their unseen

Way
of

and

death

was
an

conquered, in

these

rude

children

unquestioningtrust in the eternal of virtue, in the fidelity of the departed, in validity

by
*

Nature,

Mttller's

Trans

1. of Burial

Whitney,
"

irf tupra. and

riteof the Greeks

Hymns, in Zeitschr d. D. M. "?.,IX. \.Aff"endix\ and " The tender invocation, a part of the burial was may it press lightly," Romans also. Alcest.,463 ; Juvenal,VII. 207. Eurip., 9

*. P., X. 154.

I3O
the

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

care

of

Providence

as

wide

as

their

thought of tude grati-

being, or
The
and
was unseen

their need.

honor
trust

paid by
to

such

childlike instincts of

the souls of

parents
The

at

the

natural world and

bond

of these life.

simple

their graves tribes with an

or

future
to
;

Sr"ddha,

ing offer-

of rice-cakes of the Hindu

son

his father's

is the spirit, from

first duty
remotest

and

it has descended

of filialpietyappears religion in all branches of the Aryan race. So great," is the sanctity of the tomb. says Cicero, Our have desired that those who ancestors departed

antiquity. This
"

oldest

"

this life should

men

be

held

as

deities." l the

Plato says above

;

"

Let

fear in the of the

first

place
of

gods

next, the
nature

souls

dead,
have
a
"

to whom
care

in the their
"

course

of

it

belongs to
Latin
"

offspring."2The
Theoi

Dii Manes

and

the Greek the

Chthonioi

"

to correspond perfectly

Vedic

Pitris,blessed
Pitris
the

inities div-

who
their

watch

over

their rites.

descendants, and
The
were

expect
in fact

tribute of
of

holy

fathers
those

families, and
the

represent
the of
centre

times patriarchal

when

religionof isolated and family,

social life and

self-sustained, was
foundation Whethe"r
The

the

of all law the

and

rite. buried
to be
or

it cannot here receive the Agni."3 Of course ious religsymbolic meaning which it holds in the mature in the poetry of the later mystics.B"ut imagination, to take it in a merely gross it would be equally wrong and
i * *

spirituaibody. of

"f tne

body was was spirit

burned, the garment

"

fire, the brightarmor

material
De II. Ltg-.,
*a.

sense.

In fact,we
"

detect in itthe natural

arae
: "

A lent. So Eurip.,

Slant manibus

(HL 64). Virgil

the great cages, hi chariots

XI. /,"?";*, ;?.

8. 14, 8 ;

K., X.

16, 4
and

the perfect So, in the later epic belief, men*

cast

off their old bodies

ascend

new

ones

of

splendorlike the

sun, and

of fire.

THE

HYMNS.

13!

germ

of all ideas, Christian

or

other, of

and soul; a body; a blending of sense the affections to the familiar the imaginationand through which life has been manifested, as organs if still existing destined to resume existence, even or after they have Vedic turned to dust. Hymns not only exhort the fire not to burn nor tear the body," but even in heaven with invoke the fathers to rejoice Even all their limbs." the gods themselves have material enjoyments. Here it is the deep natural instinct
^

spiritual clingingof
a

"

"

of respect for and power

over

that attributes permanence life,

even

death

to

its corporeal exponents.

a

spiritual body glorified from and a corporeal resurrection spring originally confused instinct. They betray the same the same of the relations of the physicalwith the perception
maturer

But the

doctrines

of

moral.

And

if this is

Christian
Of
the

dogma,
same

gross materialism neither is it so in the Vedic

not

in the

hymn.
among

nature,

and

equally common

tency of the Aryan stock, is the apparent inconsisraces early of treating if shut up under the departed spirit as ground,and dependent on food providedat the grave while it is at the same time invoked relatives, by living as moving in a freer sphere,and addressed as con-

fcciousof their veneration

and

love.1

The
same

moral

aspect of Vedic
of fire

respect for life and

armor
was

to the immortality points The spirit its uses. jmmortai to

jh his
was

not

live for self: he

Life"

to

protectthe good, to attend the gods, and

Such
intimated is the in the immortal function which
as

to

be the

like them.2

of

hymns,

represent
III. 67;

Juvenal,VII.

207 ;

Mn^ Alcest., Eurip., 463,993-1003 ; Helene, 962 ; Vii^il,

Cie. T**c*Qws^
"

{Orph. and Roth in D. M. G.t I. 76? IV. 428} R. K, X.

I. 16; Ovid's Metam.

Euryd.^
15.

X.

85

132 them adorned

RELIGION

AND

LIFE,

as

altogetherhappy
the

therein.

"They
darkness

have
in the

sky with
the of their
are

stars,

placed

in nightand light the libations ical Their

day." Even worshippers,as

when

thirst,they
immortal
men.

busy
none

in

offices

drinking up if to satisfy physof guardianship.

the actual

life is

other

than

life

of the best
"On the

path

of the who

there fathers, back

to the

are

patriarchal men,
and "He
to
succor

turn
!

thousand eightand eighty life to sow ness righteousearthly

it."

who

gives alms
to

goes

to

the

highest heaven, goes

to

the

gods/"
"To

be kind

the poor

is to be greater than

the great there."3

We

find the

same

belief among

the

Greeks.

"The

souls of the dead," says Plato, reproducing the oldest faith of his race, incline, like the gods, to the care
"

of the
those

orphans
who
act

and

the

destitute angry

they

are

kind who

to act

but justly,

with

those

otherwise."4 Vedic
NO inferno,

has futurity
traces

its heaven, but Not

that sins be

no are

very

distinct
their

of

hell.5

without

This penalties. world. of

men,
"

would
*

in Varuna's impossible

The

Druhs,

powers

of evil,'follow the sins But

these

binding as with cords."6 of the hymns are natural outpouring

simple

trust, rather than

of the i'ears or

And
the
1 2 8

is merciful, divinity and loves to efface the marks of transgression. the yearnings of the heart to brighten and warm shadows leave no room of futurity for that sternness

hates, of the poet. Their

R. A\ Sec

V., X. V., I.
XI.

15 ; 125,

III Yfkjna-valkya,
5. 6.

186.

Miiller, C7///J,I. 46.

8.
is

*-"""",
8
or

The

same

true

of the
an

oldest Chinese
daxkness.

or Scriptures, "Kings.1* The Veda has

two

three intimations of
"

abyss of
59,8.

Muir

V. 313.

R.

y., VII.

61,5;

THE

HYMNS.

133 them with its

judgment which of avenging spirit

of civilized
races

would

blacken The
up

own

wrath.1

hell theological
with
a

of

has been
a

worked

refined

vin-

exaggerationof moral evil of organic sin," that does not shrink under the name ble from staining the eternity of God with blind inexoraBut this systematized hate. ferocityin judicial and tf developedmind from the perversion logiccomes
and clictiveness,

morbid

"

conscience. with their

The

childish

familiarities

of rude

races

gods are not so audacious and irreverent as if they lack the constraints of its infernal this ; and also their fearfully demoralizing terrors, they escape
in man's perience, exspontaneity before he had begun to brood over Sponta. UCltythe hideous woe fantasyof everlasting ; and far the good impulses of we are glad to note how Nature have sped him without the goads of that dismal is
a

power. Here

period of

pure

lore. We hail the of simplicity

and these moral and

spiritual
This

frank instincts, so
a

direct, like the opening eyes of

of his limbs
at

child,

or

the

movement

play.

entire confidence
trust

in the
to

based tive intuiwas on an immortality of life,and in destiny continuity portioned pro-

in

the best desires.

a

It associated

itself with

filial and

parentallove,
who death.
O my

firm belief had entered

in the continued

interest of ancestors,

Varuna's

world

beyond
"Give my

me,

Agni, lo
mother."

the great
3

that Aditi,

I may

again behold

father and

of Buddhism, there In the earlyteaching the

seems

to have
cei

been

similar
as

effect, arising
the Kamska-

from

intensity of the North

sympathy and

pity.

Among
is no

tain savage

races,
a

dales and
*

American
2.

Indians, there

definite rdea of

hell.

X.

V., I. *4,

134
Such reliance

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

on

the

demands its

of the

affections

is

in prophetic of immortality

highestmeaning.

It

comports,
which

too, with

the

predominates in
hut faint belief in
to
as *

has perhaps led quality

of present realities genialsense Yet this very these Hymns. cate that they indito an impression existence. The
constant

ajuturc

tributes

been for example, have pitris, sented reprebrance." remem"merely an expression of grateful
the

Such

estimates

fail of

to justice

that instinct

of continued

existence
a

which

would

be naturally

veloped de-

by
earnest

healthful

confidence

in life itself. It is
son rea-

and

deep
so

in the Vedic

poets, for the very

the
seem,

that it is

Every god promise

of

and

associated with closely every good act, it would

affections.
was

the

"immortality." The of living, the feeling of real import in sense been very have actual, present experience,must tense inthe Vedic Aryans. And this in such a race as and the the germ is ever guarantee of all genuine sightin the direction of a future life. In the Rig Veda it is perfectly pure and simple : it has not a trace of the of transmigration, later schemes with their elaborate ingenuityof fear ; nor of ascetic disciplines bartering in this life for bliss in another. comfort This religion is just" the inborn impulse to believe, .to aspire ;
the natural search that finds the hand

it feels after,because it to feel. "The

it is this very
belief
"

hand

that

moves

in the

of immortality and

the

soul," says

Burnouf,
with
a

not

naked

and inactive, but living

never

clothed
a

glorious body, was

is
even
now

for interrupted in those

moment:

it

in India
rests
on a

what

it was

ancient

times, and
2

similar
1 *

metaphysical basis."
History of India,
II.

Wheeler's Le

436.

^eda^ p. 186.

THE

HYMNS.

135

Here
no

is

as

yet

no

nor idolatry

organized priesthood,
authority. The
J

ecclesiastical
had

nor

mediatorial

Simplicity

Aryans
is found

risen

beyond
races

the
to

fetichism be without

which these with

Of life and

in the lowest
to
a

worshlp-

elements,1

stage

which

dispensed

them

through higher insight. The parent, as transmitting of religion. the mysterious life principle, the centre was ate Each householder was as Arya, capable of immedithe family deities ; was relation with priestand psalmistin
is
no one
:

and the

rites were

stilldomestic.-

There

trace

of

of
were

their

no tion prohibiburning of widows, filial instincts marrying again. The

the

basis
The

of

social

order

as

yet innocent

of

castes.3 rites ; and

marriage relation polygamy, though not

are

had

its sacramental
was

absent,

tional.4 excepcustom

We of

stillfarther
appears
a

from

the barbarous
more

polyandry, which epics,and of which

distinctly in the
in but
one

trace

is discovered

Vedic A

hymn.5
delicate
sense

of the

of family ties significance

to

is

indicated in the words

"

chosen in all

represent them,
to

The

scxes

words

which

remain

Aryan tongues
level, and

equal-

of testify

this fine instinct in the childhood

are

of the

race.6

The

sexes

on

the

same

the Vedic
us

idea

of their mutual which

relations
the

strongly reminds
old Germanic
and

of that
The the

prevailed in
instances in Lubbock's
to

tribes.7

marriage rite by joininghands

1
8 *

walking round

See

Origin of Civilization. Buinoui, p. 426, Brakmanen, Affirms, continry

,

Wilson's

Intrvd.

Rig
die
in

Veda

Haug,

Brahma

und existed
seem

to

the

opinion of
tunes.

most

ars, scholever, how-

that the castes

an

oigamzed form
piove

in

the oldest Vedic

ol

At

most,

his* illustidtions
were

to

only that

geimt*

these

distiiut
90,
is

otdeis

of .society

viable

in

the

early rituals. His pnncip.il .uuhouty, K

See Muir's R.

X. lr.,

grntMallylegarded Kein,
in

as

of late origin. II. 457.

effective replyto this theory of Haug

and

Sanskrit

Texts,
" c

Wilson,

V., II.
vii.

xu "

Muir, V. 457. Burnonf, Le Veda, ch

Web^rW;;*/.

Wheeler's

Hut.

of India, II.

503.

Stud** V. 177:

Pictet,Orig. Indo-Eioop., II. 338

136
hearth
"

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

does
"

not

seem

to

imply
equal

either

ff

natural
the

"

or

ordained

supremacy
and wife
were

of the

male

over

female.1

Husband
at

in the

household, and
for

the

altar

of

sacrifice.2
the

Woman

cares

the

cred sa-

vessels, prepares

hymn.
the and

There

are

the oblation, often composes to references, perhaps symbolical,

mother holds

of the
it in her who

altar

lire, who
as a

gathers
babe
;
3

the

Soma,
sacred
There

bosom
this

to

the

mothers,
are

adorn

child

of

the

sky.4
union

hymns
the

descriptive of
sentiment

domestic The
embrace

affection, and
band of hus-

breathing
and the
woman
'*

of love.
to

wife is likened
The the
sun

the

"

of Indra
as a

by
a

hymn."
; and
As
a

follows

the

dawn

man

dawn
shows
;

is like "a
herself
to

radiant
her
to

bride."
so

loving wife
her
"

husband,
arouse

does

she,
to

smiling,reveal
their labors." ascendest.

form

moving

forth

all creatures
O

All

all breath, is life,

in

thee,

Dawn,

as

thou

! "6 Rise, daughter of heaven, with blessings

The

of religion
husbandman the earth his

labor

is honored that
"

in harvest

The
cut

prays
with

the

hymns. ploughshare may

The
a

good
a

fortune." and

physician
touch

blesses

healing herbs,
not
one

hints, with
cure

of

humor,
make has "the well

that it is money,
at

bad

thingto
A
of
or

the

sick, and
instinct

stroke.6

democratic

play in this Vedic purohita could

as

community
tillthe earth
or

functions, in which pasture flocks, as

fire."7 record

crush

the Soma have

kindle

the sacred

Some
Ethics.

hymns
^le

serious moral
of

purport, and
on

effects

vicious

domestic

happiness,in
II.

personal and which have descriptions

habits

1 * * * "

Pictet, Ortg-. hido-Ewo/".,

Weber,

338.
Lit., p. aS.
Ibid
,

/V//ci7///4,v//f pp.
i,
2

37,

38, Muller, Sansk.

"

R.

K., IX. 96.

A', r., V. 2,

II. 33, 5.

Rig
A'

/ W"f,

11
97.

3),

;
,

I.

x. 23

X.
,

4).
,

i ;

I.

48, 9^.
7

r., X.

Roth

iu D.

M.

XXV.

Burnouf, Essaisurle

Veda,

p. 227.

THE

HYMNS.

137
nature

lost of

none

of their truth thousand in his need

winner and
not
:

for human The

by
"

the

lapse
no

three

years.
:

gambler
transient
see

finds

comfort
ruin the

his dice

give
to

and gifts,

he

is vexed
homes

his

own

wife, and
Rudra
r^

the wives entreated

happy
to "take
"

of other

men."
a

is

advantage, like
anoint

trade

of his

worshippers."
he makes Here
"

Men

Savitri with
one

milk, when

man

and

wife

of

mind."
"

too

are

philanthropic sayings:
men

regard as king of
wise
man

him

who

first presented

gift."

"

The

makes

the giving of
want

largesshis pain."
his

breastplate."

*'The
"

bountiful
car

suffer neither
on

nor

The

"He poor, such

"

bounty rolls who, provided with

with
: none

of

easy

wheels."
heart
one

food, hardens
him.

against depart
let him

the

meets
an one

to

cheer
is
no

Let every

from

his

house

home."
to

Let

the

powerful be
revolve

generous

the

suppliant:
come now

look

to the
"

long path."
riches like wheels
:

For

they
has

to

one,

and

now
"

to another."

He

who

keeps

his food to himself

his sin to himself

also."

And later
this
"

here

is finally

quaint benediction
sounds
:
"

from
an

the

Atharva

Veda,
domestic
an

which age

like

echo

of

simpler
I

perform
brother

incantation

in your

house.
a cow

impart

to

you

cord, con-

with Let
not

delightin each

other, as of
nor

at the birth of her calf.

2

hate brother,

sister sister." cannot see,

Of

the Vedic

sacrifices,we
far
as we can

speak
there
was

so

tively. posiof

-Yet, so
the
as same

Meaning
SAU"lflce-

frankness other
matters.

and

in

in these simplicity Sacrifice is always from

the earliest
to

the

highest to
form, in
and

the

lowest, from
sense

the

latest best the

some

the

consecration his ideal.

"

of

one's in
30.

dearest
"

possession to
107, 117

Even
Ved.t III.

V.% X.

(Muir).

Ath.

138
lowest tribes this

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

cannot

be the
:

mere

reluctant

service

of fear, or
must

atonement

of sin

trust, and love, gratitude,

mingle in these primal relations with the invisible. And the very sincerity of the instinct involves searching for the mysterious and the noble qualities even of things,beyond their mere barter price; an effort
to

discover
an so

their
ideal the
^

values; representative
offered
these

in

other

words,
And
Vcdicsacn-

aim.

Aryan
whose

three

: gifts

the

life to all juicespromised new ficcs. inactive butter, as choicest ; clarified powers brew giftof his herds and his simple art, just as the Heand wine; red his corn and, above all,fire^ o fit1 nncl life of nature the purest of elements, the light as These his best he brought with awe,1 of man. and not choice, but as themselves only as his own taking parhe yielded them of the divinity, to whom to as

plant

their natural because than

act
a

source saw

and

home. in

He them

had
;

chosen

them

he

divineness
meet

for

nothing less
to

god

could

his

desire.
; to

In the sacrificial

he

stood their ministrant

life. It
was

not further,

destroy,
their their

their

meant

not

only

to

effectuate
to

saving power
own

towards purpose,
own

himself, but also

and
;

second

inmost

joy of finding his

that

with the inspirethe divinity speeding the inherent goodwill

them
to

nestled within

its fulfilment

in the

The this offering, bright track of the altar flame. swift to brightAgni, was thus a radiant messenger, and bring the earthlyblessingand the divine society, and winged with freedom delight. Do we not note that intuition, makes here in its early form which the his own saint or martyr see transfigured, by powers the ideal to which they have been dedicated, as his
i

Rig Veda,

I. "ji ; VI.

47 ; VI.

16, 42.

THE

HYMNS,

139

gift? Such meaning was hinted in Soma, symbol of life given for the good of men, to quicken them to "immortality." It is the vital fire of the universe
best

poured

out

through

the

mystery

of death

in the

plant,

to resurrection

in the

flame.

"It

generates the great

of day, common to all mankind."1 light This covering up of destruction by consecration, of the death involved in sacri- Human this absorption fice by the life it is to effect,this belief in the s-lclifi^ all loss, through satisexaltation of the victims above faction of the the whatever
are our some

divine

affinities within

them,

"

is forever

fact significant
name

in the sacrificial impulse, under

interwoven

Even it appears. its darkest forms with this redeeming instinct. This is

key

to

the human
race
a

painfulfact
of men.2
or

that

at

some

time
the
custom

or

in

form every

sacrifice has

been

of been

almost

It has

everywhere
as
an

regarded,to
of the sublime

greater
a

less extent,

exaltation
;
as

victim,

fulfilment

of his best

desire

his

the affections of of representing opportunity of their sins, or the worshippers, the atonement the Thus the of their hopes. assurance Nicaraguans offered themselves believed that only such the as on funeral piles of the chiefs would become immortal.3

The

Aztec

victim

was

held

to

be

the

favorite of the

lavished on him in and honor was god ; and every gift for his exalted destiny. We told of a are preparation Mexican king who devoted himself with many of his lords
to

sacrificial death, The

as

to

efface

the

dishonor chosen

of human

an

insult!4 victims
1 *

Khonds

regard
them

their

divine, rear
is

with

utmost

tenderness,
the

Xtf Veda, IX. 61.

The sad

Origin of Relifhut vol. li. ch. xviii. See also Mackay's Progress of the Intellect, Btliufi 4 * Brin ton's Myths, "c., Prebcott'b Mexico^ I. 84. p. 145.
up
on

record

summed

in Baring Gould's

woik

140
and The
as

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

teach

them

that

.noble
as

destiny awaits
free from

them.1

choice
well
or

of such
most

victims

were

blemish,
of

as

precious
that the

and

honored,

whether
or

beast

man,

in the rites of Baal, fate

Moloch,
was

Zeus, is
to

sufficient evidence

believed

be

the Ramayana, the hermit a blessing. In essentially himself desired by Brahma for Sarabhanga, believing his heaven, only defers self-immolation till Rama's coming. Having seen this incarnation, he is content, and off his body as hastens to cast a serpent his funeral pile, the fire, a enters slough." lie prepares and being burned, arises as a youth from the ashes, brightas flame.2 The burning of widows with their husbands, practised Brahmanical under not rules, and yet quite not extinct, was joining by the hope of reonly commended desired as a crown of glory the lost,but even in the eyes of the assembled also a people. It was deliverance from the doom to solitary asceticism, or to ants new repulsive relations for securing male descend"

to the

deceased.
sail It has

Mutual

attachment under
that

alone these

would stances.3 circum-

have

made

quite natural
been

estimated it are moved

five-sixths of the devotion

to

women

who

undergo
The

by

their

affections.4 among
out

of

of this rite liftsit high spirit of martyrdom which have forms those grown Pagan or ignorant notions of duty, whether

actual

Christian.

Women

have

been

seen as

seated

in
as

the if
at

their joined hands flames, lifting

calmly

ordinary prayer.5

Ibn

Batuta
woman was

reports, in

the

teenth four-

century, that the

1 *

surrounded usually

Mrs. See

Indut, Spier's
Wheeler's Hist

p.

21,

of india^ II. 116,and

*

Arnold's

"

Arnold, II.

314.

RAmfiyana, B. III. Life of Dalhousu, II. 316. Life of Eljhinstone*I. 360.

THE

HYMNS.

14!
to

by
to

friends who
while the
moment

gave
she

her

commissions

departed, spirits

tells us

it is

laughed, played,or And of being burnt. considered not rightto

two

danced, down
the

Dabistan
a woman

force

into the fire/' In the for the

Mahabharata,

widows

of
she

a was

raja dispute
the favor*

one privilege,

pleadingthat
that the she
was

ite wife, the Herodotus

other mentions

the

first and

chief.
to

custom

of the

Thracians
to

select the best beloved of the rest.1 like And

the the

wife for this honor, Norse wife

the

grief
on

Sagas
of and

refer

to

widows

who,

Nanna,
their

Baldur,

insisted

following destiny.2
Aryans,
exaltation
,

dead

husbands

sharing
the
an

their

If, then, human

it
-

sacrifice existed
have
. .

among
as

Vedic

must
.

been
,

regarded
to
a

In the Veda.

of the victim
we can now

; and

greater

tent ex-

than Even had

realize

accepted by

him

as

such.

in the become

later
a

Puranas, this barbarous

beliefs far
more

rite,which
of

part of the established

been

worship
;

Siva,

is found them

still penetrated by such

and

without

would
than

surelyhave
it
was.

cruel superstition victim the

a

Siva

declares and he
ever

the

to

be

even
et

as

himself." in

Brahma be

all
so

deities sinner
3

assemble

him, and

great

he is made That such is

pure, and sacrifices

gains the
were
ever

love of the universe." offered

Aryans
of

by

no

means as

clear of the
M

and Horse

the

by the supposed

Vedic notices

this, as
and
;
4

well the

Sacrifice," in the
uncertain ical histor-

Hymns
data
*
*

Brahmanas,
sacrifices

are

very

while

destructive

of life in any

Herod., V.
Kahkii

5.

Keyser, Private See, on

one

Life of the Northmen^ Res., vol.

v.

p. 42.

* *

Punitia, As.

hand, Colebrooke

(I.61,62); Wilson, in

At.

your., XVII.;

Roth, in

142

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

form
nowhere

seldom any

appear mention in the

even

in the of

Rig

Veda."1

There

is tinct dis-

human

sacrifices, in
Veda
to
one

terms) evidence inference for from

whole
an

Rig
of

and

the
on

only
an

allusion

them

rests

the later form

the

old Vedic of this

legend.
sacrificial

Sunahsepa,
bound his and

afterwards

centre

tale, is in the Vedic

in
to

Hymn itself simply a prisoner, who is delivered through deadly peril,

Varuna,
as

prayer
so us

Master

of life and

death.

And
hear

the

poet sings,"May
wrath,

He, the

One, far-ruling
our

without
to
me

they
in

say
me.

takingnot away day and night ; this

whom
our

life. This
own

my

heart

teaches

He Varuna
no

the fettered

Sunahsepasought
also
a

prayer, There is
rite ; and

King, shaljius
allusion for
here
to

free."2

necessary

sacrificial

ence supposing such referis in the mythic story found in the later Aitareya 3 Brahmana in which of a Sunahsepa is the son ; and bought for a price, to be starving Brahman, substitute for a certain prince, offered to Varuna, as from his birth, is taking devoted who, having been
the

only ground

this method also Varuna

to

ransom

himself

from of
a

the doom.

Here
of
a

acts

the

part

not

but destroying, function defers

God, preserving
Hindu faith.
to

which

is his natural

in old

For the

his claim

again and again he life,and when prince's

On

exacting Sunahsepa is

Weber's
Sansk. D. M

Ind Stud.% II. m. Lzt., 419, and Weber's

262.

the other,M tiller's stronglyexpressed suspicions,

illustrations to confirm

additional
two

them, in Zeitschr,
"one Sacrifice,

d"
at

J., XVIII.
the

Of the

Vedic

Hymns
"

concerningthe Horse
and Weber

least," says Burnouf, "is certainlysymbolical ;

p.

himself has shown

the

(vt supra,

276)that
1

must Sanhitft,

enumerated victims in as long listoi persons of every class, of a similar character. be, in part if not altogether, certainly

V"Lyasanevi

Wilson's /?.

httrod., xxiv.
The myth of a sacrifice Lit.,p. 408 ; Weber's Ind. Stud., II. 112. X. Spirit, by the gods (/?. V.t 90),believed by Haug to prove tbj sacrificein the oldest time,is regardedby Muir as of late origin.

" "

V.t 1.7,1, 12; V. 1,2,7.

the

See Muller's Sansk.

of

Purusha,

existence of human

THE

HYMNS.

143
his prayer,
as

"

bound in the

in his stead, older

at the

altar,answers

legend, with deliverance, bidding him "praisethe gods and so be free." Here, however, it is plainlyimplied that men were
sometimes of the offered
upr

in these The
same

#0s"-Vedic
*

ages "
a

Records
human fice'

of
sacn.

Brahmanas.

ages
as a

record

substitution of the horse victim

;

for

man

sacrificial
;

then

of the

ox

for the and

horse

then

sively succes-

of the and
was

sheep, the goat,

of lastly

the

earth

its products.1 These

mythic
of other in the

intimations

of what ogous analof the

perhaps
substituted

historic fact derive

strength from
races

legends recorded
ram

as

that

for Isaac

the

hind

received Manetho
the

story, and of for Iphigenia,by Diana, in the

that of
wax were

Hebrew

Greek. abolished

relates

Amasis, King of Egypt,

men

sacrifices

Typhonic
thrown

at

the tomb

of Osiris, and

substituted of bulrushes

figures;and

Ovid, that

images made in place of

Greek
as

into the Tiber

the old sacrifices of

are

heroes

credited

with

beings. Many living this barbarity, abolishing

Krishna
a

in the
to

And to Cecrops, Hercules, Theseus. Mahabharata myth, who punishes it as offered victims
to

crime

have

Siva, corresponds the historical

delivered Anahuac from

Mexican similar rites. These

custom
,

monarch,

who

analogies,however,
in
Tr

do
as

not

prove has
.

that the inResults.

India
Vedic
,.

went times.

back,
o

Hau"
.

sisted,

to

buch
a

testimonies,

if

.,-

mythologic,may of cruelty
to

but prove such in forms

consciousness of

of the
the

herent in-

worship, and

desire tinuing discon-

find far back them.

an antiquity

authorityfor

They
in
1

would

thus

progress,

even

stages of social
as

of to a germ testify decay. That human

itareyaBr"ktnana,

quoted by M tiller.

144
sacrifices
were

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

"

offered
;

in later there had may

not

periodsof
well

Hindu been

tory hisan as

is certain earlier age

there
was

but

have

when

they

yet

an

existence,
on

for that noble

Toltec and

civilization

the Western all

continent, whose

pure

was simple religion

engulfedin
And
there
to

the

sanguinaryinstitutions
in the character

of the

Aztecs. tion civiliza-

is much
us

of Vedic
state

make
to

hesitate,in the present

that itcould

dence, of the evi-

mingled immolation with its simple offerings of the product of the of men dairy and the plant of the field. the The Vedic gods were indeed believed to approve
have
Different forms
man

believe

destruction

of the evil-doer

who

offended
;

their

of
sacn-

hu-|e
r L

ftn(j res;stecj t}le;r c]aims

and

to

slay
J

an acceptable service. "godlessDasyus" was sanction for inflicting But this desire to find a religious extreme penaltieson real or imagined crime is from the desire to please to be distinguished manifestly him a human victim purely the deityby bestowing on oblation. The national gods of the Hebrew, an as the Norseman, and the Greek, were appealed to in the same as mies, fully disposed to destroytheir eneway,
fice.

and

to

accept for service

to
same

such

revenges
name, to
on

as

the
own.

worshipper chose the Substantially

God

inflictin their is spirit

his the

ascribed

tian Chris-

punishment, which of the belief that deity is simply a refinement would with its foes, though carried over fain deal inexorably into the other life and from physicalto eternal woe. in the New It appears Testament,1 and apfrequently parently from the lips of Jesus,2 well as from comes as he rebukes. But incomparably the intolerant disciple
1 *

in the doctrine

of eternal

Matt. Matt.

xxv.

41,

46; Romans

ix. 17-23;

Tim.

i. 20; xxv.

passim. Apocalypse,
41.

x.

33;

xii. 32;

xxiii.33;

xvui. 17, 18, 35;

THE

HYMNS.

145
that God is be

the the

worst severest

form

of the

inference of

pleased by
found in of heretics

punishment

crime
the

is

to

those and

bloody inquisitions upon

witches, in which
all

persons

Christian in
human

surpassed
were

others

certainly stances history. Many inages

for human
were or

have

in Hebrew of

annals, mistaken
this character. inflicted
on

fices,1 sacriin

They
actual

fact

barbarous

-penalties such
as

supposed
in

criminals;
and

"hewing"

hostile
or

kings

pieces,
lies famiself had

"hanging
"before
the

up"

law-breakers

tyrannical
those

Lord," and

"consecrating"one's
sword
were

by putting to the relapsed into idolatry. They Christian analogues of modern

to
massacres

Him,

who

of the heathen

of
on

Christian
a

arguments
victim

for

simply the earlier ous barbarover rejoicings in India and Algeria, and the death penalty as based
In all these cruel
ments, atone-

commandment the

of God. is held
to

\*e paying the

fcnaltyfor

his

sins; and

they

differ very

sacrifices in the proper sense, of his virgindaughter,or

or worship,2

decidedly from human such ing as Jephthah's offerthe abominations of Baal death
men

the dreadful

Chcrem^
or,
we

devotingto
may

"not
"

to

be

redeemed;"3

add, the

tian Chris-

atonement," which
death
of the best
to

is of

"

similar nature, essentially divine justice for the satisfy

sin of the

worst.
or

In the former the Vedic evidence barbarism age

of

class simply primitive abounded

;

of sacrifices,
there
or

of

course

though

is

no

in specialcruelty

their warfare,

special
in

either in

dealing with offenders, or

Of distinctive
to
33

fying gratifice sacri-

personal
there
1

revenge.
on

human

seems
xxv.

the whole
2:1

be

no

positive proof.
xxi. 9 ; Exod. xxxii. 27, 29.

Numbers,

4,

13 ;

xxi

Sam.

xv.

; 2

Sam.

See Mackay, Progress of the Intellect, II. 456. " Psalm cvi. 38; Estek. xx. 31.

"

Lcvit. xxvii. 28.

146
It is said in
a

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

praiseof Vishnu that *men him their libation face worship him, offering Free bearin* towards And to face."1 Agni is ever a companion with especial est interconfidant/' We and note in the bearing of the early this cordial freedom Aryans towards their gods. Deity was the gracious, altar and well-beloved guest" of the householder's there, to give and receive ; hearth, invited to find home food and dwelling," the people as their praised among Hymn
in
w
" " " "

reverenced
the

"

as

kinsman
the

"

and

"

friend."

So

Greeks

addressed

gods standing,and

times some-

heroes Homeric converse prayed sitting.The interests are freelywith the Olympians, whose human as profound and absorbingas their divine ; are in fact
one

and
to

the

same

thing with
or

these.

And

this

was

not

due
was

irreverence,

to

low

ideal of the divine.

It

partlya form of childlike confidence, and partlya unknown slavishness was to which manly self-respect, and impossible. While sentiment the religious is yet is a strong defence ; untaught by science, this freedom
and
must

wherever be

in such

epochs

it does

not

exist, there

fear before the phantoms of the grovelling religious fancy ; and thence that blind intolerance and slave. crueltywhich befit the spiritual savage It is one of Jthe grand compensations for all erinvolved in polytheism, that it consulted rors Ourdebito Polytheism, individual the than stern liberty far more

exclusiveness has principle

and been

absolute

will

of
to

monotheism. be the
w

Its

stated finely The

soul

of forces."3 grow
in every

protects its

own

independence right to
balance

direction, by creating a
the basis
s

divine

of powers;
" 1

of

which
i, 20;

is in its instinct of
VI.
a.

X.

K., X.

i, r

Ibid.,IV.
les

VI. 16, 42;

94.

7"

8; I. 31,

10.

Me*nard,La

Morale

avant

Pkilosofkes, p.

THE

HYMNS.

147
the it has of religion followed its

to equal justice

all.

And

thus while

the

monotheistic

Semites, wherever

proved ungenialto many forms of Aryans has been a growth, that of the polytheistic the full expansion of human heartytolerance, inviting But for Greek and culture, Hebrew nature. liberty concentration on the Unity of God, descendingthrough its Christian modifications, would, with all the purity world of its spiritual ideals, have been to the modern a The legacy of moral bondage and intellectual death. had that its truth, which saved from us early error
one-sided would fact
a

native instincts, has

and

narrow

view

of

another

truth, which
in gods was of expression

make

it

error.

Faith

in many

of that manifoldness recognition human becomes fore, there; and by which the divine really tion, evoluin the beautiful and orderlypath of human been it has not wanting; so that we know how in fulness of free opportunity One to worship The The of culture. and integrity keys of progress were committed to any singlerace not or religion.Greek eternal heard and inspired ; alike Jew alike were divine messages to the truths, and bore generations liberal for the mingled to be whose more day was The Semite has sought lightof this twofold dawn. the principleof authority in the divine; to preserve the Aryan, that of development in the human. Only the
maturer
reason

of

man

could

learn

the true

ing mean-

of

both

these

and principles

their

unity in Aryan

versal Uni-

Religion.
The
are

Hebrew,
unlike Indra

or

Christian, and
other.
to

the

Bibles of the

very

each
or a

The
the

resemblance

of praises goes,

Varuna

after all,but

John, with

littleway. all its Alexandrian

of Jehovah praises Even the Gospel of is touched inspiration,

148 only at
warmed of
nature

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

certain of and
and

pointswith

the mind.

creative

imagination religious ardor has

the

Aryan

Semitic of the dark

illumined

life.

many But the

"

Rishis

passages also, lovers and

searchers

of the
owe

debt
and

we

to
or

the
to

Light, saw" what they sang. The and psalmists of Jehovah, to the prophets Christian to overnot likely ideal, we look are
But
we

undervalue. historical
whether sole

do need

to

be reminded The

of

other

and obligations of Athens,

affinities.
or

monothcist,
was

Rome,
modern it from

Palestine,
faith.

not

the

parent of

our

The

which plastic susceptibility

secures

permanent

intolerance, opening broad

every of and and
the
our our

paths of experience in far as it depends on the past, direction, comes, so affinitiesand descent. Our liberty polytheistic
science, the
sense

of free communion

with God
"

Nature

ideas, laws, through principles,

rather than

are or

in
the

line of the Veda

of the Thora feel

no

Gospels.
from God
not

These

Aryan through their

apart from
his
own own

children
thirst
to

separation
To
them

know.

is deity
the free

man,

but in

him, revealed
look

in

play of
sense

energies. They
eyes,
not
as comes

straight
to

at the facts witli their

aliens,and under
able dis-

ban;

no

of

"fall"

in between
made
to

the

natural

nor sight,

is miracle
no

age dispar-

the familiar

facts of life ;

exclusive

incarnation

meaning of Nature as a whole ; no external authorityjudges or supplantsfree thought, pursuitof truth. The modern spirit aspiration, nizes recogits own features here in their infancy. This is plainlythe inextinguishable spark that has flamed at
limits the divine
last into
our

free

arts

and

sciences in the

and

beliefs, and

shines

with

steady radiance
diverse

civilization that

issues in such

a"s Goethe types of universality

THE

HYMNS.

149

and this and his

Humboldt

and

Emerson. which

And

for

the

germs wisdom

of

our

larger
to

opportunity,
man's

guarantees
future and of the
all

gladness genial

present
life and
as

and

thought
his

of

outlook its

upon forces all

that

home,

fearless

hospitality
courage
the whether
natural
assurance

to

laws;
and

home-born

to

use

faculties

open
slaves
oi

paths

of

we

are

not

prescription, religion,
but

to

person,
to

creed,
universal

or

distinctive of
the

heirs

truth

self-respect
whose the ideal frank

whose

religion
progress,

is

rational,
we

and

the

liberty
back

is

endless

must

"

go

to

Aryan
beside

herdsman,
him
on

inviting
his

his of

gods

to

sit

as

guests

heap

Kusa-grass.

IV.

TRADITION.

TRADITION.

A
"**"

ND

Brahma
The down This the
causes

said age
;

to

Manu,

'

Divide the is
on

the

Veda,

O the of

Sage!
is gone

is

changed; thing
the
not

strength,
the

fire

every from
were

path

decay.'"
us

passage
Hindus

Vayu

Parana

shows

that the
out

later

without

perception ures Script-

of

which the

brought
Veda

three

ritualistic

of

simple Rig
of
are a

Hymns.
faith

The
to

spontaneity
We

germinant
to

greets

us

only
of

disappear.

pass such tread

as

from
as

primitive
every wherein led
were re-

Limits

Aryan

piety along
seemed

track,
to

dcsenei^y-

ligionhas
find
from
bitter the the

fated

we

should further every of

discouragement, promise
guarantee
the
see

being

ever

of

the of
a

morning,
coming
the for

not

lapse
human fall. the

self-reconery
of the

nature, We shall

nobler this of

depth

apparent
for

social
caste

equality exchanged
;
an

complex
for

hierarchy
the

this

liberty of private priesthood

past
lations, reve-

worship
this

despotism
for the

of

official
echoes but of

inspiration
themselves

pedantic
as

regarded
"

mediators

of which
not

yet
we

older have

gospel, just
a now

those admired fear.

to

same

manly
as

Hymns
to
see

made shall

rebuke,
this

to

compel,

servile

We

genial
and

practical vigor yield

expiatory

sacrifices

the

154
terrors

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

of
to

transmigration ; this
the enervation

freedom

of the among

taineer moun-

of dreamers
a

tropical
a

banyans

and

palms.

In

word,

we

shall note

fold two-

degeneracy,caused by the forces and Physical Nature. Organization But this is by no means a full account
and that
we

of Ecclesiastical

of the process ;
our

may
must

deal be

fair

measure

in
enter

tion interpretaof spirit into the its

of it,we
these inner
own

able

to
we

into the
enter

remote

civilizations, as
a new

would do it

life of
sake.

to personality,

for justice

At
Onental
~.
.

the

outset

then, let

us

that Worship appreciate lies

not to at

Tradition^ of J
ental

which It is
(

the
-

root

oC-Qtithe

wcnship of
the past.

faith.

be

judged by
an

patent vices

of modern

whose traditional^?;?, ever-open of faith,but a form

preferenceof outworn, is not of inquiry spirit

of unbelief. from else
was

lifelessfinalitiesto
a a

foundation

the
was

shadow, flowingaway trailing livingsubstance of worship. But, whatever Oriental veneration for the Past wanting to it,
is
a

This

at

least

fervent and

supreme

faith.

That
we

found prosaw

sentiment absorptionin religious

in the

which

Veda
races. reverence

is

Eastern* form of

typicalof the whole mind Their was tradition-worship

for the Eternal built their
:

of
a

these rude

it was

awe

before
hewed

cvcrlastingncss. They
out

temples and
on
a

their

caves

and

their rock

statues

scale that

It was because the religious symbolizethis awe. old as the books, rites, legends,hymns, seemed as and patriarchal and streams stars trees, and memory held that they were went not back to their beginnings, Their belittled the fleeting sacred. lives, permanence the vanishing dreams and deeds of men not : it did minister to their vanity, but to their humility. Man should

TRADITION.

155

could have
of God.

to

the

things so ancient and so stable,only If the hoary head the patribelieved was archal chrism, the visible sign of divine appointment much God should oldest priesthood, be more
had white
with the love and
no more awe

present in words

of
come

told un-

; words generations death than they could

which
be

could back

to

traced of

to

any

mortal
as

birth. have

The
seen,

earliest in the

sense

immortalitycame,
a

we

feelingof traceable through the jfr/Vmor with to become one aspiration

home
; for

continuous

existence
in the

and progenitors, them

in their inviolable

the
was

serene a

silence fit shrine

to

of the hold

past in which
the moral

they

dwelt

and

"The idealism of their descendants. spiritual pitris," according to this faith,"are free from wrath, intent ties, on purity,without sensual passion; primeval diviniwho laid strife aside."1 It was have a worship founded the apotheosis of the tenderest in gratitude, "A sentiments. ing parent'scare in producing and rearbe compensated children," says the law, "cannot in a hundred of ideal love years."2 This authority and duty penetratedall worlds. Even the gods could
not to turn recreant to

the

past, and

forsake

their duties

without voked inev"*n progenitors, penalty: they were in sacrifice, of their by the names by the priests, ancestry.3 special such conditions,Bibliolatry deserves Under tain cera As these old Vedic Hymns, Revercnce respect.
to be collected, ar- for process of time, came and Yajurranged,and enlargedinto Samaveda

in

the

uas"

veda

indeed of ritual service, we for purposes note the failure of inspiration, and the growth of ecclesias"

Manu,

III. 192.

"

II. Ibid.,

227

"

Muke', Sanskrit

Literature

p. 386.

156
ticism
;

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

yet there is something tender

the

as

well

as

noble

in

the faithfulness with which

"

Hindu
state to
;

cherished
"

them

as

reminiscences
from

of

former

"

as a

words

long line who stillsought him with yearning care, of ancestors, who and cherished with the whole were strengthof his affections ; their primitiveSanskrit the very language of God ; their syllables full of virtue that they so needed not to be uttered or even understood, onlysilently whispered in the heart; yet every one of them laden with ineffable meanings, which endless commentaries sought in vain to exhaust; laden with Briihmanas, thousand a Upanishacls, Sutras, Pur"nas ; literally
by
schools
texts ;

heard

above,"2 committed

him

of wells
ever

biblical science of

founded

on

their mooted

theology, literature,science, legislation,

be drawn much so brimming, let never off from age to age.3 It is but a childish thoughtof but this child is Humanity! Then : everlastingness how how utter colossal that outgrowth of the intuition, that faith,how prodigal that toil in its service ! And if age be indeed better venerable, surelythere was than for any other that ground for such Bibliolatry has
ever

for

existed.

What

records, what

institutions, can
When

be called Solon

time-hallowed of the

by

the side of these?

of Greek wisdom, the antiquity old priest of Sais led him through the sepulchral him the tombs of a hundred showed chambers, dynasboasted
1 8

The Manu
nor

redanta.

Afanu.
eve

(XII.
to

94-102) declares

the Vedas

"an

givingconstant
been, is,or
makes has

not made light,

by

man,

be

measured
are

by bis powers.
burns
out

All that has

shall be, is revealed

by then

all creatuies
,

all authority all prosperity is given,by the imparted, sustained, the

tatm
"
"

which knowledge of tht.se,

nature

of sin, and
"

one

approach the divine

out of them

though he
"

sojourns in this low world

U. M.
:

Brahma

milked
;

three
ures meas-

holy letters,
of verse,
was
"

A.

ihtee mystic

words,

"

Earth.

Sky,

Heaven
essence

three sacred

from

the

and these immutable the things, Gfcyatri: and salvation to him shall be sanctity beginning, the II.

of thiswisdom

that

who

ceaselessly utters them

with faith."

74-84.

TRADITION.

157
annals
that he

ties, recounted
years, and that there lived

to

him

the him

of nine
was

thousand
a

admonished
no

but

child,
no mote re-

aged
Solon,

Greek.
nor

"You

have

that is discipline the panditsof Benares must hoary with age." What who think of the Christian missionary, would supplant their veneration for the Sanskrit Vedas by claimingthat his Greek has transmitted divine guardianship or even is his advantage? his Hebrew Scriptures? Wherein

tradition, O

any

Is not every

Bible
one

cup who

that holds

what

the the

drinker

wills?

"

Every

pleases,"says

DabLstan,

in favor of "may derive from the Vedas arguments his particular creed, to such a degree that they can mystical, support by clear proofs the philosophical, Unitarian, and atheistical systems; Hinduism, Judaism, Fire-worship,the tenets of the Sonites or Christianity, consist of such ingenShiites ; in short, these volumes ious meanings, that all who parables and sublime

seek A with

may

find their wishes

fulfilled."l

mature,
races

self-conscious

generationcannot
their
own

compete

of instinctive

faith,upon

childish than making itself more and grow is what to inquire own liberty represents, in of age which tion-worship tradia nobler way, that very authority Nature is older than but dimly divined. of Man ritual or Bible, and the personality more erable, venwith years, than all his tions." even specialrevelaWe the tasks forsake the insight cannot nor of the child. of the man for the unquestioning credence without
"

ground, they. Its

But

in the

child

we

none

the

less admire

tender

respect for age.

glory;
sense

"

a our

of

cloud of recognizethe "trailing inborn filial instinct towards eternity ; an life. with imperishable affinity We
1

Dabist"n, ch. II.

2.

158
To the

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

consciousness unfolding

of the

race

as

of the

individual, the first great mystery is memory.

its divmc
Junction.

All

dear

and

honored

things pass
sleep.
There
up

into

one

that

evokes

them

from

their and

death in

is

incessantlyovercome,
In renovation the this

swallowed

rection. resur-

light of endless preservation and fact of immortality is first revealed.

us

Megasthenes tells
in India
to

that

no

monuments

were

erected that

the

dead, because
make
are

the

people
now

believed

their virtues would

them far

immortal

in the memory

of posterity.
when
man

We

away
wonder

from before

those this
one

bent

in natural

days ence experithe

of renewal.

The

memory
our we

is,for
has

us,

of many

faculties, into which mind, and

as

science
have

analyzed
but
as

with

which

grown them

too

familiar

human

instruments

to venerate

of mysteries the wonder

power. of
as

But

to the

awakening

soul it was It

wonders,
it was,
race.

the power

the earliest It
was

the

might well be, man purely spiritual deity of the huonly preserver of man's winged
"

of powrers.

words," the
future
; and

his only conductor between its stupendous achievements

of the reverent
treasures

past and
were

his

at once

result and For many

warrant

culture

it received.

experience, of hymn, meditation, and ritual, accumulating in its keeping alone ; and from remotest time, were transmitted the immense more depositwas faithfully than by the later devices of writing and printing. on" The "the rememberer/* the "bearer prophet was Never to forget was the most of an ancient message. sacred and tender duty. The Greeks preservedHomer
Down alone for four hundred in their memory years. evidence there is no positive of to the time of Buddha

genturies the

of human

TRADITION.

159
not

written
not

Sanskrit.
mean

Veda

does
at

does

Bible, or Book
The Hindus Words remembered ages

Scriptures, all, but, more ally, spiritumean no

Wisdom. for it than

"

know from whole

dearer

name

the

beginning."
was

Through
transmitted

indefinite

this

literature

in this invisible way,

and practice,1 of the penman,
stern
even

mnemonic hand of

by means guarded from

of incessant the desecrating

after the introduction

writing, by

contempt.

And

as well as by traditional prohibitions it has been finely suggestedthat the

ample
and

satisfaction afforded

to

every

need

of intellectual

communication, by their splendid culture religious have of the memory, prevented the early Hindus may from inventing a written alphabet; an achievement such the Chinese, Egyptians, which other races, as to their inability and this to mature Hebrew's, owed In Plato's Egyptian intellectual instrument.2 more myth in the Phredrus, the god who invents letters as a is told that he is doing detrifor memory ment medicine to remember to the mind, by teachingmen wardly outof foreign marks, instead of inwardly, by means faculties. We the at least admire can by their own of Nature, in opening the resources fine economy of while as yet science had not sein men, this faculty cured of preserving and other means transmitting tinuous thought. How; should we ever, in this age of disconreading and ephemeral journalism, chopped feed for ruiningthese powers, to realize,as come how vast Muller has well suggested, they are? Oriental worship of tradition has its own Thus even
" "

proper

root

in human

nature,

and

its noble

germs

also

See Miiller's account

of such exercisesin Hindu

Sansk. Lit., p. schools,

504.

"

Pictet,H. 558-

l6o

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

of future turned

dignities ; nor
faces, like

had
our a

those children

of memory

their

traditionalists, religious
dead Hindu
1

to coldlyand unbelievingly

Past.

And
Oriental uaiisman
lde'll"
nt-

so,

when

we

see

the

slowly elaborating
CT

his minute

ritualism

in that stilllife along the years ago, until

Ganges,
he had

twenty-fivehundred
out

transferred,

of his

brooding thought
into all

of the works
or

its Everlasting,
and

inviolable
cannot

permanence

ways,

we

permit

involved puerility
its incentives
to

in it to hide

any superstition the fact that it brings

nature.

also

respect for human

were

That

hypocrisy and
this
the
as essence

in any
of

quite as possiblein other form, is palpable; but religious Oriental ritualism was reality. certainly sanctimony
with sacrificial cord, ascetic, girt

The

gesticulating before animals and plants, bowing to his platter, trils walking round it,wetting his eyes, shutting his nosmouth and by turns, muttering spells as in a of the breath, dream, performinghis three suppressions whispering the three sacred letters, pronouncing at intervals the three holy words and is to measures,nature,
reason,

absorbed

and

common

sense,
as

in many

unedifying spectacle; yet,

modern he will

compared
and
esteem.

ways, an with much

formalism

of
a

less

detailed moral

visible sort, "These

"

compel

serious

Wilson,8 are gesticulations,1' says Professor of ridicule, because not subjects reverentially tised pracof sense and by men learning." That quaint writer, James Howell, the contemporary of Sir Thomas
Hindu

Brown**, whom

he

in

frankly:
1

I knock

resembled, tells us many ways thrice every day at heaven's gate,

in the first

See of

the

detailed of timps rites, regulation microscopic food,and auguries

book
"

Law YAjnavalkya's II. 74.

Code, and the fifthof Manu.

"

Manu,

Essays

on

Hindu

Religion^II

57.

TRADITION.

l6l

besides

prayers
as

at

meals,

and

other
a

occasional clean

lations, ejacuas

upon

the

my pray

hands, and
a

puttingon of lightingthe
I fast thrice
a

ing shirt, washAnd "c.

I

candles.

thrice

day, so

week,"

These

in the Oriental spirit, quaint devotions, somewhat its round help us to distinguishthe idea which may of observances ism sought to embody, from the formalof mercantile piety that pays ofT a business-like and rites ; setfixed rate, in days, words, God ting at a Personage, a Church, a apart for this exalted that it may Bible, an abstract morality, keep its houses, and trades, politics, practicalprudence for quite other

dedications.
an

Oriental
to
cover

ceremonial
the whole,

was

at

least

tially essen-

effort It
not
was

of life with

divine

relation.
did

cease

recognized that the primacy of religion at some men given point, where
to

may

have

chosen
outward

draw law

the and

line.
set
as

That

is not

ion religon us

whose like
a

plan

fastens

thumb-screw,
off
to

is endured
the pain which

penance,

and

gladly
of its

thrown

escape

and
are

awkwardness
a

constraints.
to

Relations and

flinn eel in

theory
so

be

unnatural,

shown
have

systematic evasion,
either faith Behind
or

practiceto certainly little to

of the

in

be do

by
with

freedom.
old

religions, ideal. The there ism despotof priestcraft does not explain such phenomena the requirements of Burmese law, that a priest as I eat not to please when eating shall inwardly say, but to support life ; when dressing, I put my palate,
the
ff " "f

dreary ceremonialism is the aspiration of an

on

these

robes,

not
"

to

be

vain

of them,

but

to
w

conceal

my

nakedness

and that

in

taking medicine,
be the
more

I desire

recovery,

only

I may

in diligent

l62

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

devotion."1 whether the

must

That
or

minute

regulationof
we

the should

form,
find

inward
not

outward, in which

death

of

spontaneity only, but

mind,
which
a

of

sincerity,
habit
was

be taken the Oriental

or

in connection

with the permanent in each individual

of

itself,more

less,
of

constant

of reproduction

the

original meaning
demand for

the

precept.

The

instinctive

of life
the

enduring thingsrequiredthat the whole should reflect divine unchangeableness,from

relations
to

largest

the

least.

There all
must

must

be

nothing hurried,
and action
serene,
an

erratic,

impulsive:

be fixed

image
was

had

surer

brooding deity. Human than determination the impulses of

of
the dearest

the moment.

Fate

of divinities

to these

contemplativeminds,
an

because

it expressedthis idea of

unalterable
for absolute

path,and
devotion

satisfied this instinctive yearning

to

the
to

ideal. religious
revolt

Where

plicit againstimin the chains of habit, which they fdith,men move have forged, with slight of bondage, themselves sense and \\ithout moral the degradation which always \\iih enforced enters conformity. There is freedom of ReligiousForm. in spontaneity, even It is generallyallowed that the Oriental races wear in worship their robes of ceremony, whether
reason

has

not

yet

come

its sure

Its ficedom.
or

~.
in

manners,

with

'.11

real

ease,

and

even

strange grace,
"

in

There

is
we

more are

in India/' in

spiteof endless petty elaboration. and grace all classes civility among classes told, than in corresponding
"

This is because Europe and America/' a is spontaneous, without and doubleness etiquette in the person, a wholeness, a genuine rebuke
1

their selffaith.

Ma'com,

Travels

in Burmak.

Allen's

India, p. 483.

TRADITION.

163
and religion,
an

Manners actions of

are

here

part of
ideal

common sense

grow with

punctiliousfrom
the

instinctive There

accord
a

form.
and the
even

is, I doubt
in the

not,

kind

of
as

freshness
he

freedom of his

Hebrew
seven

boy,
times

binds his

thongs
over

tephillin
his

round

wrist, and
formularies
every and
on

thrice

round every that

and finger,

repeats the
at

bit of
passes

food, and
over

sight
For

of

change
the

the
new

face

of Nature,
the

"enjoyment
some
as

of

any
measure

thing."1
the

Hebrew

stillretains in
the

infantile
in

faith in

forms

natural

body

of

piety,and
a

piety which
ritual.

clothes It is
or

the whole Form

as

of life in

time-hallowed

not

stick that is forms

that

constrained, ungracious,
not

undevout,
its

but

do

express

the

life in
ease
an

unity and
of

integrity. In
Oriental
as

the

instinctive is
even

and

freedom

routine

there

of that insignificant, wise and justperson, whose every act is unconditional, inevitable, preciseas the planet's sweep.
to

be

image, not so faint perfectlibertyof the

"

Slightthose
Thou

who

say, amidst What

their doth

healths, sickly
so, but
man

livest
are

by

rule.

not

Houses Entice From Who

built

by rule,and
:

commonwealths.
can,

the his

hasty sun,
line ecliptic

if but you beckon

lives

by

rule

sky ! then, keeps #ood company."

the

There
a

is

of passions and self-idolatry social order

and

ties, cupidimoral

failure of respect for great which

traditions of civilization, on
as

and

culture,
remand tradition
-

and decency stand, that would purity barbarism than all the to infinitely us worse worship of the older races combined. well
as
1
1

See Instructions in the Mosaic

113.

from Religion*

the

German

of Johlson (Philadelphia,

830), p.

164
The the laws

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

ritualism of Eastern
of

devotees

is of

course

not

freedom intelligent of culture and

use.

to living according

universal

But

at

least the flow

the

ease,

sion, precifrom

and free

minute
of

perfectionof both,
the
ever case

alike ideal
two

surrender

whole
so

life to

faith;
cases,

though
and

this faith be in the

different in the
the

though

one

principleitself be

but

germinant, in
When
we

the other

mature.

recognizetherefore that in all the history "t" religious forms there is nothinglike Hindu The Pi. of thmmiit. ritualism for complexity, thoroughness, and rigor,we reallyconcede to this people a certain preeminent We conviction. integrityin its religious in fact a great, all-surrounding abstract here have idea, admitting no promise, comexception, no evasion, no Jt is the first product of limit. no practical
.test

that

pure

bruin-work

which

makes

the

inward

life

of the
suns

Aryans of the Ganges. In and towering forests,one

energy
of

their clime element

of beating
old

of the

Iranian
forces

made

vigorous protest against the

"

physical nature,
create

the
own

intellectual
vast

element.

It would

after in idea

its

even aspiration,

though
and whole

it were

only.

Of

the

manifold
was

wealth

of which

this dream-life

beauty capable, the

of Hindu to the history poetry, from the Vedas is the impressiverecord. In philosophy Puranas, and
more

the contemplativefaculty religion, produced yet marvellous results. and It

was

Its grasp

on

pure

ideas
them

was

traordinary, ex-

its faith in

livingby
It
was

absolute.

bound

to

take the whole and

rule.

of life into its bound

mighty

impulse to
all forms world
whose

create

to construct

of action in the very

sure

image

of its own be

eternity ; a
ness absolutethat in the

freedom and

should

in the So

of its

perfect ways.

TRADITION.

165

absence

of

that

struggle
which

with educates

practical
us

conditions
to

and

for
and

visible

uses

independence
and ing, all-ordainideal the in

progress,
became in

ritualism,
the natural

all-pervading language
as

of
to

its

more

so

proportion
or

it

sought

organize
communion. would this

itself

Brahmanical
For how

other

ecclesiastical
and

insignificant
to

impotent through Heart-deadening

But let it
us

the

vidual indi-

come

appear,

seen

absorbing
asceticism

vision

of
but

everlastingness.
a

was

natural

result.

remember fail of due

that ance balthe virtue.

all

real from

self-abnegation,
the

though
and social

may

practical
the aim element dreams

energies,
of

none

less And

truly
its

involves

substance

practical
our

upward
an

surely
of
rolled

deserves

thoughtful
however the

study,
the mist

as

universal
in

religion,
it and

of

between

goal

it

sought.

V.

THE

LAWS.

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

"IT

THEN of

Vedic

inspiration ceased,
traditional of
seers,

there

came

ages
Guwihof

*^

organized
or

religion.
succeeded
about

To
the the and

the

Mantras,

Hymns

^^mutioiw.

Br"hmanas,

or

theological
of

homilies the

hymns

explanations
of
in

sacrifices for
are

rituals,
use

definitions of formulas

faith,
prayer.

directions

efficacious
the the work

They
formed

of

priestly class,
of the
or

gradually
or

by

development
into close
ritual
;

old

patriarchal

family

religion

clans and

fraternities, with
for the
most

distinct

functions

in the

dealing

part,

naturally

enough,

in

quite spiritlesspedantry
on

and

verbiage, ringing changes

superstitious
and pompous

"revealed

texts

"with after

verbal

commentary,

the

manner

of
traced the

biblical
this

tionaries functionalism tradi-

everywhere.
even

Miiller latter

has

in

the

part

of

Vedic the

period, hymns
ity authorpressed ex-

busily
for

at

work

arranging purposes.1

and

combining

ceremonial became

Gradually
the

priestly

elaborated itself in
on

in

caste-system,
These

and

ideals natural
on

of
wants

legislation.
of of the
the

were

based

in and

part
in

social

tion, organizaas

part

the

logic
than

religious idea,
of these old

Sank.

Lit** p. 456.
families
were

There

were

more

twenty

clans,

out

of

which

sacerdotal

developed.

170

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

received, traditionally
class. Doubtless

and

developedby
were

its representative such

there

many

codes,

ships;1 schools and fellowpriestly but their ecclesiastical compilers could hardly of imposing them have possessedthe means the upon populationof India. It is probable therefore that they carried into practice were only in so far as they really opment, develand beliefs. Their embodied popular customs

emanating

from

different

too,

must

have

been before
have

very
so

slow
vast
an

and

ages
rules in

must

have

elapsed
we

many edifice of
even

and

relations could
find
as

been

constructed,

theory, as
men,

simpleabsolutism,
and in the

and presented,with a serene of gods if by universal consent of the

Dharmasastra of Manu.

Manavas,

monly com-

called the Laws This

serene

self-assurance, in fact,rested upon must remember, we recognition. Law itself,

lic pubwas

of religious but the mandate sentiment, and originally oldest the was cribed legislation everywhere honestlyasto the gods ; for these ruder secret ages heard whispers of an eternal truth, on the acceptance and of which depends the life of the latest rightfollowing and freest
states. at

It is still undetermined

what

period the theologsocial ideal of the

embodied
ever

*cal" mora''
Ageofthe
code of

and political, schools been became

Brahmanical
code.

in this

It has

usual,

since its translation it next of the

most

in

to place by Sir William Jones,in i794"2 oldest Vedas, as one three to the antiquity

few

great landmarks
and
1 8

of dated

Hindu

literature

and

Orientalists have

it somewhere centuries before

between
the
Lit.

the

eighth

thirteenth

Christian

Parishads and Charanas.

The
version

See Mailer,Sansk

here used.

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

171
evidences
of

era.1

Yet other recent

scholars

find the

this great

inadequate,and hold its date to be aqtiquity the most eminent of these being unknown, altogether
Muller. that Greek that It is certain

Max

authors, from
courts

the

time
to

of
no

Alexander, agree
written

Hindu Lassen

appealed
be
to correct

codes

though
do
not

may
are

in his

suggestionthat only,and
were

their references prove It

on

sions specialocca-

that be

such

written

laws

not

in existence.

must

allowed, too, that

use

; writing and this cannot in India beyond the be traced back True, a wonderful ment developage ascribed to Buddha. of the memory the place of books ; and supplied the Vedic as preserved by oral tradition hymns were

codes depend legislative

the

current

of

alone
customs

for centuries, so, doubtless, and

rules.

were

definite social
as

But

code

so

elaborate

this,

embodying
human

the whole and

full

Brahmanical

system

in its developed

form

to application

all branches

of

conduct, would
and

imply a
duties

common

ing understandwritten

of relations

for which

docu-

This

is the view of such eminent

vet

authorities

as

Lassen

and

well fJurnouf, as
;

as

of

Koeppen in hi"
of the Dim
numerous

into thorough investigations

the

lustoiyof Buddhism gencial agi cement following is a

in

and

Wcbei's

exhaustive iesearches" into the literatureof India result in the judgment that it is the oldest Hindu Codes.
The

grounds

of this The

rne

given

by
The

eke r, Geschichte d.

Alterihnms"
a inoie

II. pp.

96, 97.

suniinaiy: ninny

oldest Buddhist Sutras describe than this code, and

must
era.

developed stage
a

of Bi.ihmaiuMn
aie

icspects far back

thereto)c have
It
is

laiei
in

oiigm: yet they

the Buddhist the Buddhist

tracualle

beyond
h"rata.

the Christian

piobably cited

legends and in the MahabSuti

name,
as aie

It is cognizantof only tluee

also. It
contains

Vcclas, while
no

acquainted
makes

with the latestVeda

allusion

to

Bivldlmm

by

and

only
s

who denied the Veda, as was generalreference to lationalists It knows, Buddha. to previous nothing of the worship

in fact clone of

by

many
to

-chco Buddhist

Siva, familiar

Sutras ;

of nothing

that of Vishnu-

Krishna,

"

its only allusion to Vishnu

"

and tins aftei a puiely Vedic manner, sag* of doubtful antiquity, while it fieely mentions kings famous in the Vedic ep"C heroes,

being in a pasof the nothing finally

knowledge
had

extends

no

faither India

th.m

the

its geoFinally, age. graphical Vindhya Mountains, though the Anans

cm eia.

conqueied much
Introd*
it

of Southern

long befoie
133,

See 1

Lassen, I. Sco, Bur-

nowf,

IHist.du

Boiuitihisme^p.
to

Koeppen,
as

p. 343-244.

Wilson,Introd.

it Rig Veda, places

38; Weber, Vorlestingen^ the fifth as ear'y cen'uiy ux.

172
ments

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

of And the use absolutely necessary. such documentary form for systems or ideals of jurisprudence been undertaken in India* not to have was likely of the until a comparativelylate period; both because all general dislike for written teachingsand because disinclined to limit themselves authoritative priesthoods are appear
to defined came,

and

recorded

rules.

Such
no

tation self-limi-

doubtless, only when

have been
even

it could

longer
the advance

be

resisted, and

may of Buddhism.
not

compelledby
these

Yet

considerations

would

diminish greatly
at least in

the

supposable antiquity
elements. That in its of the

of the Code,

its main
a

present form
Brahmanical

it represents

gradual growth
additions

belonging different periods, is more than to very pecially probable,esfrom the confused and contradictory elements it alludes to earlier At all events, in its legislation. doubtless incorporated elements into codes, whose are in form of all that are this,the fullest and most perfect Of these Indian to us.1 codes, earlyand yet known
late, there
would
seem

ideas, and

contains

to

be

no

end.

Stenzler

merates enu-

forty-sevenlaw-books
besides Manu

by

different the

authors,
codes of

twenty-two
and

special revisions;
now

"Yajnnvalkyaonly being
to

practically
are

accessible metrical Both

us.1

Most

of these
on

books, however,
texts.

versions, based
these

older

codes

define the extent the

of their territorial "law of the land

validityby callingthemselves

gazelle." It was that a portionof the peninsulalay outthus admitted side their jurisdiction. Whatever be antiquity may late the origin ascribed to Manu, or however of its
1

(Aryavarta) where

dwells

the black

Sten/ler,in Weber's

Indiscke Studien, I. "36" *yj.

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

73

present form, it is difficult to find the age when

have the

it can

by practical recognition It is in fact people of India.

Manavas,
founded
on one

had

any
but

large portionof
the

Law

Code ships fellow-

of the

of the

old

Brahmanical

and

is

age, and
reason

as

of sacred texts, guardianship valuable doubtedly unmainly as embodying what was Orthodox in its most Brahman? sm vigorous of the recognizedusages \Vell as a vast number
common

institutions of ancient for in believing,

to not

Hindu

life.

And

there

is

accordance

with what of the best

is stated

by
ever

Mr.

Maine

be the
as
a

opinion

scholars,

that "it does

whole

actuallyadministered ideal picture of what, in ought to be the Law." 1

As
m

represent a set of rules in Hindustan, but is an

of the

the view

Brahmans,

further evidence
as,
we

of

later
that

than origin

the

Brfih-

an

may

observe

the

Manava-Dharma-

s"stra

belongs to
Hindus

the class
as

of
or

writingsdefined

by

the

orthodox

Smriti^

tradition,in distinction

from

Sruti, or revelation.
the

It is difficult to
a more

explain this
recent

fact,except upon
was

that supposition
to

dale
as we

ascribed

to

itthan

the Brahmanas,

which,

held of their antiquity to be were by reason ing receivas verbally inspired. For it represents Manu the eternal rules of justice Brahma from himself, and as delivering them to the ten great rishis,who him of all divine master as reverently address

know,

truth.2

this inferior position, the Notwithstanding

1

Brahman-

Ancient

Law,

p. 16.

See

Soc,) 1851,VI, j Annals

the Jaw of the Burmese

of Rural emphe.

Sykes, Polit* Condition of Bengal, p. 104. The

But
we

At*c. Code

Inda of

Journal R. As.
Manu
is

nominally
it to suit

ate

told

that

eveiy

monaich

altt-is
or

himself,and
from in
9

that it is null for all practicalpurposes, IWtalcom, Travels

to Mtittu. in

being

never

produced

pleaded

courts.

BnrmaJi"

Notes, IV.

Introduction

174
ical
commentators

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

have
as

not

foiled

to

recognize its

in whatever relates to their authority And traditional faith. they labor earnestlyto prove, not here, that Mann's quite true to their bibliolatry him knowledge of the Vedas equal claims gave with their authors ; yet they bring the testimony immense
value of

Vcdic

text

itself,that

"

whatever

Manu

said

is

medicine."1 Of
all Institutes of

Government,
the

this, to the Brahand The

man,

manical
ame.

was tribes,

consummate

sacred
word and

flowen is kindred

Manu

Thought. signifies
mcns,
as

with the Latin

also with
race

indicates the honor nature.2 divine

paid by
The

the
name

Aryan
thus

to

the

tellectua in-

expressive of

in the human, revealed was intelligence apr and to the plied by the Hindus mythical first man firstking, as to many other imaginary rishis in primeval are k'gend.3 The Institutes called by his name in twelve books of metrical sentences, covering all of speculation branches and ethics, of publicand private life. The first reveals a Cosmogony ; the second and third regulate and Marriage as duties of Education the first and
treats

second

stages of Hindu
and Morals
; the

culture

; the

fourth

of Economics

; the

of Diet and fifth,

or

Purification,also of Women
the duties of the third and of

sixth, of Devotion,

fourth

stages; the seventh,

;

Government
and

and Criminal

the

Class Military

the

of eighth,
the

Private

Law;

the

ninth, of

mercial ComMixed
;

and Classes and

Servile

Classes; the tenth, of

Times

for Regulations

of Distress

the

1
c

in Midler, p. 80- 103See quotations

Minos of

(ijeeks,Mcnes
M.

of

Egyptian,Mannus

of

Germans, Menw

of Welsh.

See

11.621-627. Pictet,
"

See

Ztschr. ef.D.

G., IV. 43^; Muller, p. 532.

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

175
the

eleventh, of Penance

and

Expiation ;
Beatitude.1

twelfth, of
self
in selfishness

Transmigrationand
As
is and nothing, that

Final

the basis of Brahmanical of their

is that speculation
ethics

that

self- Basis

is hell, so

the substance

of their

abn"sation. juris-

prudence is
The
theoretic

of discipline
aim of the

entire

self-renunciation.
is the
utter

Manavasastra

of selfish desire. It is absolute despotism; suppression but a despotism by the conscience rather than over it;

subjects by rulers, but of souls by their religious idea. Manu begins, and Yajnavalkya of the Law ends, with reverent to the Selfascription existent. Highest and lowest castes alike confess its
not

enslavement

of

terrible sanctions, present and

future.

Its minuteness

of

is unequalled. If we should judge Oriental legislation must we prescription by the principles apply among ourselves, we should say that its regulations, purifications, endless reach of absurdity had an penances left the slightest not loop-hole for the self-assertion of will. or reason private They are doubtless framed with of the priesthood, special regard to the prerogative as telligent appointed,and as conscious of being the indivinely and controlling class ; but the legislation was well as by it,and demanded as lawyer the priesthood, of this class as complete self-abnegation it exacted as from the Pariah. The Brahman was fullyinvested with the duty of concealing itsinner meaning from all but such as are worthy to receive it from his sacred and* an lips ; and appallingsecrecy repelledcuriosity
" "

The

Law

Code

of

Yajnavalkya,probably next
the second

in the and

order

of.time
of

to
our

Manu,
era,

ami

referred by Stenzler to the period between

fifth centimes

covers

the same substantially ground with its piedecessor,but with much less of detail, and in a and diction in many respects peculiarto itself. Its speculative Btyle contents different are

from those of Manu, comprisinga

man,

curious treatise

cm

the

phvs.calbirth and

structure

of

and
and

that philosophy

shangelycombine*
It consists whose of Geiman

positivetendenc.es.

fancies with mystical,Buddhistic, astiological three $ooks only, which have been translated
version our

J?4;),"om foyStenzler (Herlin,

extracts

are

taken.

176

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

repressed ambition
sacrifice. He and has

in the

lay
his
:

classes.
to

This

is their

also

surrender

himself,
;

body, mind, to faithfully

dreadful

soul, to its ascetic observances precepts,

ages.
whole this
on

and

fulfil its minutest

penalty of
a

for transmigrations sweeps

Thus

master

instinct of sacrifice and

the

compass

of life

thought.
a

It

is because

instinct, however
we

blind, has
even

noble yet essentially

elements, that
like caste, and

find

and spiritual

social thraldom

with bristling with

insensate
to

ceremonies
subdue

though alive penalties,

We
see

the endeavor

selfish

desires.

this alike in the

and brutal which

with which implacableseverity are appetites punished, and in the

runs

sensual lence benevoarteries

in

fine

veins

and

broad

through
revenge,

the

wrath and gloomy organism, forbidding binding the heart to the least of sentient in its way
:
"

creatures,1 and
of the modern
"

the tendernesf anticipating

poet
He

prayethbest
All the dear made God and

who

loveth best
and

things both great

who loveth

small;
us,

For He

loveth all."8

We laid

see

the

same

endeavor

in

the

upon

servants,

priests,and
beneath aim

democracy
caste ;

of renunciation
in the final

disciplines kings, a deeper the tyranniesof

stern

and

of

the

whole

to

make
wards re-

saints whose
; whose
" *

motive

shall lie in virtue, not freedom shall be

to

in its

ultimate

lose them-

Manu"
A

IV. 238, 246; VI. 40, 63. with tenderness strikinginstance of this mixture of superstition
for

to

the brute world)

chanced to

as

of self-denial, in Manu is in the penance discipline prescribed kill a cow sacred for the Hindu, fiom his sense inviolably ; a creature
a

having
all

of her benefits to his

fathers
and
move,

in

the

early nomad
dust raised

days.
when

The

offender "must
stand

wait for months when

a

day

on

the when

herd,

quaff the
and
must

by their hoofs ; must they liedown.

and, in wl"tever

they stand, move

cow

they
or own

lie down

by

them

Should

fallinto any trouble

not

fear, he

relieve

her ;

heat, rain, or cold, must Manu,

XI.

seek

his

shelter, without

having cared for the cows."

109-116.

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

77

method shun all worldly to Deity, whose honor as poison, and seek disrespect as nectar,"1 alone." 2 God And we on reposing in perfectcontent it in the creed which see inspiresall this asceticism, and it to have been a forced livingfaith, not an enproves The bondage : resignationof all pleasures is better than the enjoyment of them."2 The self-renunciation was product of Brahmanical the Yogi, a creature of penances, purifications,
" "
"

selves

in

"

1C

and

ascetic

feats

the

conventional

type

of

os"'

itself paints the law book ; whom degradation as crouching at the foot of a gloomy banyan, his hairs his nails him, and growing in, growing over the tip of his nose, on or moping gazing listlessly along with his eyes fixed on the ground, lest he should ant or unawares worm ; waiting release destroysome from his body as his wages," yet wishing servant a life nor neither death, and receiving his food from others without asking it, as the due of his austerities for the public good.4 Unpromising enough ; yet the
"

heathen

desert
were,

monks
as a

of

Christendom

in

the

fourth

century
tainly cer-

class, less gentle and

thoughtful,and
Eastern
the the he

far less while

cleanly, than
from
of

these

devotees
same

they drew unnatural theory

drew from Hindu
a

dogma self-abnegationwhich
And,
such

Christian

others

caste.

repulsiveas
as

may

be, the Yogi is

conditions

specimen,

these

crude
to
a

social

could

furnish, of

devotion

purely

Under contemplative ideal. even squalid asceticism appears protest. For sensualitymust beset the temperament fiercely
1
"

all the
as
a

circumstances

moral positive
all the
more

have

of

the

Hindu,
34-

under

Man*,

II. 162.
95*

Ibid.,VI.

43.

Ibid.,II.

VI. Ibid.,

4*, 45,

"8. 63 i Y*i"*valky*, "I.

45, 62.

178
hot
more

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

suns,

amidst
was

voluptuous physical nature,

to

the

he these

devoted

seclusion

and

meditation;

in fact a vigorwere disciplines ous reaction againsttitanic attractions in the senses. Their very name, heat, hints of a tapas, signifying the moral torrid climate, in which was sense finding This virtue is of the passive itself severely tried. dom, Hindu and freequality, lacking self-consciousness divine instinct strugglingagainst hard cona ditions ! Man shall complete its command ; but how know nothing, and be nothing, apart from the God of his ideal thought ; and in findingHim all things else Such is its law and its promise. To shall be found.
and relentless escape the
enter

finite dream,

and

and

to

into the real and

petty limit of self, eternal, as a blessed life

the

worthy
and

of all

price,is the mystic desire

flowered, each

into which
own

all hour

have great religions

in its

way. Brahmanical

The

poets

knew certainly attractive

how

to

picture their
even

wilderness-life civilized

hermitages are in the Ramayana, as well as by K^lidasa, described surrounded as by spacious lawns, well planned and scrupulouslyneat ; frequented deer, and by antelopes, birds, creatures $haded by taughtto trust in man ; laved trees; fruit-bearing by canals, strewed with \\ild-flowers, and set with clear pools,where white lilies, symbols of holy living, spread their floating wet petals,never by their contact with the element here the peaceable beneath, to the clear sky.1 And and wives, purified saints, husbands tinual bodilyby conablutions, and spiritually by happy meditation sacred themes, lived amidst supernatural on delights
"

for

the

in very mind.1 The

colors,

"

B. I. ; Sakitnta^ R"ighuvatiia"

Act

I.

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

in the

societyof

celestial with

guests, and

received

the

in their leafy hospitality out huts ; performing stupendousfeats of asceticism withtheir simpleroots and ; multiplying physical injury herbs into splendidbouquets, largeenough for armies,

visits of their admirers

with

resources

beside must,

which

those

of

Hebrew

and

Christian be
we

miracle

to this Oriental

tame. hopelessly

Through
which

the

imagination, dress, mythological

have failed in
pation occu-

detect

an

ideal

could

not

some

degree to
and
we,

reconcile

ascetic life with natural

social in

good.
are

And
not

fact, find that the active virtues

honor
"

forgotten. "All
w

to

the

house-

The

activc

holder," says the law,

fulfilhis duties." view
to

and
who

let him

faithfully

virtues-

He he

fame, while

givesto strangers, with suffers his family to live

support them,
touches

in

distress, having power

with honey, but lips

to

his

swallows the

poison.

Such

virtue is

counterfeit." l
not

And

allowable

tillthree

purely contemplative life was had activity stages of practical

the student
some

been

passed through :
of and
to

life ; domestic
sort ;

ried mar-

social service of life, or

and

anchoret

kind life, a
creatures,

missionaryfunction,to feed the forest preach to disciples, doubtless, like

"

St. Francis,
shall he

the

fishes

and

the fowls

also.

"

Low

applieshis mind to final beatitude, before having paid the three debts, to the gods, the fathers,and the sages ; read the Vedas according to and sacrificed, to the best of law; begotten a son; his power."2 Then only shall the twice-born man, and his hair turning ^revivinghis muscles relaxing gray* leave his wife to his sons, or else, accompanied
" l

fall who

Manu, XI.

VI. 35Ibid.,

l86

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

by her,
subdued

seek organs

refuge in

with forest, There

firm

faith and

of sense."

he is to

live, patient
towards

of extremities, a
all

perpetual giver,benevolent
with of the
roots

beings,content
teach

and

fruit, studyingwhat
attributes of God
;

the Vedas

being

and

outward things; in the hot proving his mastery over covered season by adding four fires to the sun's heat; unin the cold ; puttingon wet garments in rain ; air and water til on and, if incurably diseased",living
his frame

decays
Thus
he

and

Lis

soul
to

is united the final

preme.1 with the Suof disciplines meditate

the

advances

on

sole employment is "to Sannyasi, whose the transmigrationscaused by sin and

rewards of

perishabl im-

virtue,
its offences
to

on

the

subtle

essence

of the
all "all

Supreme
So
is
" "

Spiritand
"his

complete
are

existence

in

beings."
that
;

burned
nature

away;"
is extinguished with

repugnant

the
are

divine

higher
he

worlds

illuminated

his

glory,"and
Here the

is "absorbed of the

in the divine
and

essence/'2

balance

active

passiveelements
events

is indeed
alone
;

lost, since the ideal of life is contemplation

elements
in this
are

but both

at

all

recognized*

and

bly respect compares very creditawith Christian asceticism, by insisting, as that has
the system
or

seldom duties
Far
as

never

done,
to

on

the

fulfilment

of

practical
before
met

passport
in the

contemplative repose.
ages,
era,

back

the

without Hindu rebukes

vain ;
3

doubt

long
was

Spirituality,

Christian

formalism
:
"

by
"

these trenchant
sacrifices become

By falsehood
For whatever

devotions. by pride,

By

its fruit perishes." a gift, proclaiming

"

purpose

a man

shall bestow

any

to according gift,

that purpose
1 "

shall be his reward."4

VI.
1-31.
*

Manu,

VI. 6a, 73, Ibid.,

81.

Ibid, IV. 237-

Ibid.,2i4"

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

l8l

"

One

who

confesses voluntarily

his sin

so* far,cast shall,

it off:

when
u

his heart shall loathe

the taint then only shall pass away." l it,

sins, perform penance, under prehaving committed text of devotion, disguisinghis crime under fictitious religion' such impostors, though Brahmans, are despised."* who "A man performs rites only, not discharginghis moral falls low : let him dischargethese duties, even duties, though he be
no

Let

man,

not
*'

constant

in those

rites." 3 his

He

who

governs
more

passions, though he
to be

know
one
4

only the Gdyatn,

who governs them

or

holiest text, is

honored

than

not, though he may

know

the three Vedas."

Though
that

with

Eastern

extravagance

it is said

where else-

"sixteen

the

constant

month,

will

suppressionsof the breath, with repetitionof the holy syllablesfor a absolve even the slayerof a Brahman for
also that
tainly foregoingcercould give only a repentant spirit

his hidden

faults,"5 passages

like the

imply
such

So this frank confession of to the form. efficacy bibliolatry as a clod sinks into a great lake, so is Veda" should every sinful act submerged in the triple
"
"
"

be taken
:
"
"

in connection

with

such

precepts

as

the

lowing fol-

of injuries purified by forgiveness ; the negligent have secret faults, of duty,by liberality tation."6 by devout medi; they who

The

wise

are

"

Of all pure

purityin acquiringwealth things,

gains this
with clean is

is

pronounced
is

truly with earth and water."7 purified pure, for the Veda student ; patience for Penance purification brings the wise ; water for the body ; silent prayer for the secret sin ; truth for the mind : for the soul the highestis the knowledge of God." 8 of darkness Let the wise consider as havingthe quality every act of his having done, or doing, which one is ashamed to or being about in the he seeks celebrity do ; to that of passion, every act by which world ; to that of goodness, every act, by which he hopes to acquire
most
not

excellent ; since he who

he who

hands

"

"

" " "

Manu,

XI.

z"9-*32.

Ibid.,IV. ig8. Ibid.,XI.

24933, 34-

" 6

Ibid.,IV.

ao4.

II. Ibid., V. ibid.,

118. 106.

" "

Ibid.,V. 107.

Y"jn., III.

82

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

ashamed of doing, which or knowledge, which he is never The bringsplacidjoy to his conscience. prime objectof the foul is pleasure worldlyprosperity quality ; of the ; of the passionate, good, virtue." l

divine

"To

be

hermit
''

is

not

to

Yajnavalkya :
him
not

this
one

comes

bring forth virtue," adds it is practised. only when

have done
to

Therefore, what
do is
to

would

not

him, let

others."2 the Christian

"God
The s int.

Spirit," says

must they wno worship Him Hear the and in truth." spirit

Gospel, "and worship Him in

Hindu
thou

Law

"

"

friend

to

virtue,that Supreme

which Spirit,

believest

alland is an resides in thy bosom thyself, perpetually, knowing inspectorof thy virtue or thy crime." within thee, If thou art not at variance with that great divinity go 3 to Gunga, nor to the plain of Curu." not on pilgrimage The soul is its own witness,its own refuge. Offend not thy
one

with

"

"

conscious
"

soul,the
wicked
see

supreme said the

internal witness in their

of men."
'

The

have and

hearts,

None
own

sees

us.'
4

Yes,

the

gods
"The

them,

within spirit

their

breasts."

wages death." Law

:
"

of sin," says

the

Christian

Bible, wis
the

Retribution,

Quite

as

distinctly says
comes

Hindu

"

The

fruit of sin is not Little

immediate, but
or

like the
man.

harvest,
if fruit,

in due
not
"

season."*

it eradicates by little,
sons

the

Its

in

is himself, here

in his

in his sons'
not

sons."*

happy, nor he whose wealth from false witness,nor he who in mischief." 6 comes delights and vait* rich for a while through unrighteousness, One grows his root up."* at lengthfrom quishes his foes ; but he perishes will preserve* will destroy "Justice, being destroyed, ; preserved,
Even

below,

the

unjustis

"

It

must

therefore whatever

never

be violated."

"In

never extremity,

turn

to sin."9

l " "

Manu,

XII.

35-38.

*
"

VIII. 84, 85. Ibid., IV. 174. Ibid.,

"

Y"jn., III. 65. IV, i7a, 173. Ibid., VIII. 15. Ibid.,

"
"

Mtnu, Ibid
,

VIII
IV.

Qi, 9* 170.

"

IV. Ibid.,

171.

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

183
the

"Let

one

walk
"

in the

path

of

good

men,

path

in which

Ms

fathers walked."
"Vice is
more

dreadful

by

reason

of its

than penalties

death."8

"Whosoever,"
break
The law sin the
"

says

the

New

Testament,
is
the
one

"shall all."

one

of these

commandments,
of Manu affirms sins with
a

of guilty
same

Dharmasastra of

natural
the

integrity."If one his virtue, as destroys

water

member,
will let
out

singlehole

all

in

flask."3

Let he

one

collect virtue

by degrees,as
to

the

ant

builds world.

its nest,
The Life.

that

may

acquire a companion

the

next

Future

For,
to
4*

in his passage

his virtue thither,

only

will adhere

him.

Singleis each

man

born

; alone

he

alone dies,
on

receives

the reward

of his

doings.
him

When

he leaves

his

body

the

ground,his kindred

retire with
"

averted

faces,but

his virtue

Let

gather this,therefore,to
hard follows

accompanies his soul. secure an panion inseparablecomtraversed after death

!"
4

through the gloom,how

"The

to be
man

onlyfirm
order
to

friend who

is

justice."5
of

In

discover
us

what
note

is the first
some

substance
of the

this

Brahmanic humanities
"

ideal, let

Humanities.

of the Code.
and
a

The
be

care

pain

of parents

in behalf of their children

not can-

repaid in

hundred

6 years."

"

Reverence

for age

is to the young,

life, knowledge,and sick, the

even

fame."

"The

old,the blind,the maimed,

the

poor,

the

laden,are to be treated with marked "Knowledge, virtue,age, even

respect,
in
a

by

the

heavy king."8
have
spect."9 re-

Sudra,

should

The

diseased

and

deformed concerned

were

avoided what
was

ficial in sacri-

which acts,10

only

physi992*7.

"
"

Manu,
Ibid
,

IV. 178. IV. 239*242.

121.

" 8 " "

Ibid.,VII. 53.
VIII. Ibid.,
Ibid
,

" fl

17.

II. Ibid., II Ibid.,

117.

" "

Ibid.,II.
I. J'4/i*.,

II.

138 ; VIII.
161.

395 ;

Kfc/*.,I.

116.

Man*, III.

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

cally as
were

well
no

as

unblemished. spiritually
to

Yet As

they

"in

wise

be

insulted."1

Homer

disguisedas beggars and to hearts, so, according outcasts, try men's sick the to children, poor dependants, and Manu, The to be are regarded as "rulers of the ether."2 not to be taxed;8 are old, and helpless blind, crippled,
the deaf and
and those

picturesthe gods going

about

dumb,
have

the idiotic and lost the

use

insane, the maimed,

of
a

who from

limb,
be

are

indeed

excluded the

but inheriting,

must

supported by

heir, without
father's

stint,to the best

oldest
son

of his
must

power.4
support

On the

the

death, the

endow their sisters.5 family, and the brothers must his family is The over authorityof the householder almost absolute; yet he must "regard his wife and his own son as body, his dependants as his shadow, tenderness."6 His prehis daughter with the utmost scribed is, that generous givers may abound prayer in his house, that faith and study may never depart
"

from

it,and

that he

may

have

much

to

bestow

on

the

needy."7
"

guest
;

must

not

be sent

away

at
come

evening :
in without
season

he

is sent
or

by the
of
8

sun retiring

and,
not

whether

he have

out

son, sea-

he must

sojournin the house

of in solidarity

entertainment."

The

sense

social ethics is well worth like the

: following
"

as noticing,
"

shown

in passages
flees and
; and

The

soldier who

is slain shall take

on

himself

all the

sins of his commander

the commander other

receive

all the fruit of

good
"

conduct

stored

up

by the

for the future life." due actions,

:

sixth of the reward

for virtaous

the whole

ple, peo-

belongs to
not,
i

tfoe king who

protects them
him."9
* " "

if he

protects them

sixth of their
IV.
141.
202.

falls on iniquity
* " "

Manu,

Ibid.,IV. 184. Ibid.,IX.

III. Ibid.,

Ibid.,VIII. Ibid.,IV.
VII. Ibid.,

394,

" "

Ibid.,IX.

104-118.
105.

185.
94;

Ibid.,III. 250..

VIII.

304-

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

185

tent, condecalogue not only commands coercion of the veracity,purification, resistance to appetites, knowledge of senses, but abstinence and of the Supreme Spirit, scripture of wrath, and the return from illicitgain, avoidance of good for evil.1 Forced contracts declared are

The

Brahman's

void.2

Transfer

of property
to

must

be

made
on

in writing.3

are Royal gifts

be

recorded

permanent

slander, peculation, against ; laws intemperance, and dealing in ardent spirits ishing punjudgments, false witness, and unjust iniquitous and imprisonment; laws providingfor the annulment decrees ; enforcing the sacredrevision of unrighteous of pledges and the fulfilment of trusts ; justly ness of partners ; dealing severely dividingthe responsibilities with conspiracies to raise prices to the injury either forbid gambling altoof laborers ; laws which gether, drawbacks or ; laws discourageit by regulative declaringpersons reduced to slavery by violence free,
tablets.4
are

There

laws

as

well

as

the

slave who his

own

has

saved

his master's

life, or

who

purchases
in

freedom.5 crimes
arson,

Penalty becomes
which involve the

merciless

dealing with
as

greatest mischief, such

and
"

coin, counterfeiting
"

selling poisonousmeat.6 The king shall never transgress justice." It is of majesty,protector of all created things, the essence
and eradicates
w

his whole

race," if he

swerves

from
in their

those who duty.7 He shall forgive pain : if through pride he will not

abuse
excuse

him

them,

he

shall go
i " "

to

his torment."8
"
"

Manu,

VI. 91.

VIII. 168; Ydj'n., II. 89. Ibid.,

I. Ibid., 317.

K4/"., II. 84.

Ibid., Ill Mann, 285; II. 270;
VIII.

3"8-

Manu,
i

IX.

221;

YAjn.t II.
199,

4,

82,243; 31, 305; 58,164,

"

949, 259;
"

211, 230-233;

Yfy'n , II. 282, 297.

Ydjn., II. Manu, VII. n,

182.

14, 28.

VIII. Ibid.,

3'3"

l86
"

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

king,"says
generous,

Yajnavalkya,

"

should

be

very

enced, patient,experithe

mindful

of services

to rendered, respectful

old,

modest,
of loose wise in

firm,truthful, acquaintedwith the habits,nor

low able inclination, criminal Vedas."

laws, not
to

censorious, nor

hide the

his weak of

points,

reasoning and in and in the three livelihood,

"

law, in

art

procuring a

of his subjects." protection guished is not extinfrom the people's The fire that ascends sufferings life."! their king,his fortune, tillit has consumed family, he What he has not, let a king seek to attain honestly ; what has, to guard with care ; what he guards,to increase ; and what is

Higher

than

is the all gifts

"

"

increase

let him

give to
"a

those

who

deserve

it." l

He
make
must

the

people."2 He should war only for the protectionof his dominions; the fears, of laws, and even respect the religion, force must conquered.3 Punishment by military
shall be

father of his

be his last resort.4

remembering what is due to honor,*' shall not strike the shoot with nor poisoned arrows, the non-combatant, the sleeping, weary, the suppliant, the severelywounded, the fugitive, the disarmed, nor one already engaged with an opponent, nor one who ing yieldshimself captive.5 Civilization has added nothto these humanities of military chivalry. To sum in thought, in deed be done all, "let not injustice or
The

warrior,

nor

word

be uttered that shall one's progress

no

cause

fellow-creature
"

pain :
who
have
no

it will bar caused

cause

to

final bliss,"6
creature

He

has

fear

to

the smallest he

shall

for fear when be easy

to

dies."7 the idea of

It may
Moral

not

comprehend
with
caste

justice
these do not in the

which the

mingled
of

such

precepts

as

sanctions.

such
"

Yet legislation. incompatibilities proceed side by side

340,

cruelties

I. 308-310. 334, F4/V/.,

316
I. 3*5'

* "

Mami"

VII.

80 ;

Y"jn., I
"

333.

" "

Mann,

VII.

168, 170, 201, 203.

90-93;

Ibid.,VII.

108;

Y"jn., I. 345.
Mdnu,
VI. 40.

Mattu, VII

*#*.,

^fo**,

II. 161

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

187
For with the

and laws, theologies, State

as

bibles

of all races? of law

such, the
with notice We

reconciliation noble

love,

of government future.
motive
"

instinct,as

yet lies in the

that self-interest is This sanction

for benevolence.
to

suggested as is constantly
even

appealed
the
to

in the of
a

New

Testament

also, and

in

Beatitudes make this

as

Jesus. But it would be ground for ascribingsuch

in

irrational

delicacy
Hebrew
and mane hu-

of

affection
to

appears

both
cause

Hindu than

and noble

ethics

any

other

primary

feeling. Laws may suggest interested motives, But Law and they must itself appeal to sanctions. springs from the natural instincts of love and care, well as from the eternal social dangers. And as so piety of the heart had its large share in the oldest legislation. With decision breaks what natural a self-respect ^ forth through the slavery of abnegation, and law, in such despotism of custom cepts preof
"

an

older
not

stoicism

as

these

"

One

must

despise himself for previous failures

-ever

let him
l

pursue
"

fortune tilldeath, nor

think
on

it hard conduct
not
on

to be
: a

attained."

Success

depends
own

on

destinyand
;
as
a

the wise

expect

it from without
"

the union one's

of these action
on

on

depends 3 another, pain."

The A

All that

single wheel, so a brought pass." one's self givespleasure: all that depends
car

goes

the fated is not

to

"

habit of

causes takinggifts

the divine
even

to light

fade." sudra

"

believer in the
a

may

receive

pure
even

knowledge
from
basest
a

from

and
,

lesson

virtue highest

chandala

; and

woman

as bright

may
a

nectar

from gem even be taken ; from

; even

the
a

foe, prudent counsel

family. Even from poison of speech ; even from child, gentleness from an impure substance, gold.""

* "

Manu, Manu,

IV. 137IV. 160.

"

W"-"

I-

348-350.
186.
"

"

IV. Ibid.,

II. 238. 230. Ibid.,

88
It may

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

be asked reduced
to

how

much

of all this

preachingwas
true,
as

Natwe
oriental

of

? practice

It is doubtless Oriental Codes

\ve

have

said, that

!^rather
classes rules

of civil

and aspirations than from which they spring, conduct. and political They are the

express convictions of the actual

vast

ideals, repositoriesof national life, of individual traditions more and philosophicalsystems, customs
or

less

sacred, laws
out.

more

or

less

carried

deal in the
too

They have also an and boundless, superlative

recognized and imaginative form,

and
must not

be

literally interpreted.These considerations apply alike to their good and evil ; and we must guard alike and over-praise.But this much againstover-censure
may be said. before The the Greeks Christian of Hindu who
era

travelled
were

in

India

centuries

enthusiastic

in their admiration

morals.

They

told of

kings spending the whole day in the administration of the honesty of traders, and the general of justice, the infrequency of theft, dislike of litigation ; of left open without bolts or bars ; though houses were of loaning money without seals or and of the custom witnesses. They praisedthe truthfulness of the men of the women.1 Whatever and the chastity tion deducmust

be made

from

these testimonies
are

and But for

mistakes, they
us

not

without

for ation exaggertheir value.

the main soul

import

of such

precepts is that

of truth, the nobility recognized and love through its own stance of the justice, resources, testimony. ^^ bore witness to the universality of its own inspiration.There they stand written in their old beautiful speech called the Hindu Sanskrit, or as back to how much older times than such it,pointing the human
" " *

Arrian,Strabo.

See also Duncker, II. 283-287.

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

we writing

cannot

tell.

And
or

to

affirm, in the exclusive

other

interest

of the Christian,
were

any

that
men

they
and
"

not
even

women

deeply felt then,were

sea

and

dispensation/' bravelylived by

indeed

To To

sound find
a

God's bottom

with

stillof

earthly plummet, worthless clay."

"

The

barbarities
"

of

this

and dark do not many sions. In all times and stand and side
customs

legislation and they are disprove our conclu- The darker

civilizations, verities
side-

by

side with
contradict

falsities; and
the best

barbarous claims

laws of

theoretic

states.

The

better

moments

of

people'slife
;

record their
as

their natural

for good capacities

and
not

of these be

unjustor
the
to
measure.

cruel

traditions of law Would

it be

must
some

taken

fair in

future historian had

no

assert

that the American down

to

conscience the year

better

1865 than a slavery basis of representation and a FugitiveSlave Law? It would be more certainly just to say that American had been throughout, the struggleof the two history opposing ideas, Liberty and Slavery, each existing in the consciousness of the age and people, potentially less apprehended by individuals ; and that and more or this the laws, so far from showing the stage at which had arrived, as a definite personallightor darkness point, gave merely the general resultants of the strife If then instituted wrong. with long established and
"

ideal of freedom

the

barbarities

of the

Hindu

Codes

were

even

crimes

like those

of mature

instead of being,as civilization,

they to a great extent are, results of childish fears and superstitions, they would still prove nothing against of ethical truth stood that a high sense other evidences mind. side by side with them in the Hindu

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

In fairness of
"

we

must

note

that the
the
as

even beginnings,

customs

which

advance

of practical
*

How

inter-

intelligence stamps
founcj

enormities, instincts, by
And the

are no

to
means

be

jn half-conscious
to
was

discreditable
we

human

nature.

condemn control

perhaps

the effort

legislation to modify actually

the earlier mis-growth. Whoever have been, they were legislators obligedto make may institutions. What fects deto us the best of existing are and have been timelyreforms in their codes may Solon's laws gave functions restraints. remedial political to a degree, according to wealth ; thus continuing, from office. the old exclusion of the people as a whole from But he was a yet thereby enabled to lift them and to procure them, in compenmore position, abject sation and for such defects, their archons general powerful checks on the aristocratic party. assembly, of this great Athenian decree Another celled canarbitrary the Yet just debts, and debased currency. the poor from burdens which it delivered they could no longerbear, freed them from personal seizure for debt, and produced an abiding respect for the force of I made the land and the people free," contracts.1 his said ; and^ Aristotle reaffirms this claim he on Portions of the Mosaic behalf. legislation concerning that seem to the last degree cruel the Canaanite races, and barbarian, were ment reallya limitation to the treatof certain most alone, of dangerous enemies to enemies Traces as such.9 applied usages previously in many of similar efforts at mitigation observable are and their
"

ff

severities of the Hindu The better

now
2

Code. which many

impulsesin
seen
105.

of law,

to

be

inhuman,
*

forms persistent in rude originated

xx.

Grote, III.

Deut.

10-18.

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

Ipl historical
of

ages,

have

seldom

been

recognized by
into world
were

and scarcely enter inquirers, heathenism by the Christian The elder

races,

the in

estimate

for of the

example,
nature

general. fullyand They

led

tensely in-

convinced and
were,

of moral

ev^TheOrdeaL

the
on

of certainty the other laws.

moral

retributions.

of the invariableness hand, ignorant These

two

inevitably of testing to the use of the Ordeal, as a means guilt by It was an appeal to divine interposition. simply an in the ill-understood effort to find decisions of justice of physicalnature that the elements operations ; to prove under moral were sovereignty. The Sanskrit for ordeal words signify"faith" and "divine test." "The fire singed not hair of the sage Vatsa, by a of his perfectveracity."1Nature is pledged, reason when in other deal justly, to words, appealed to. Christians tell us why a miracle should Can be not wrought to save a truthful Vatsa, as well as to punish should not a tying Ananias ; or why fire and water
discriminate old Hindu between
courts
as

of natural

conditions

the well

saint and
as
K

the
cases

sinner

in the

in the

of modern

in the recorded manuals" reprobates the struck by lightningfor violating But there have
is in

as

drowned

or

Christian

bath? SabFor
age, cour-

fact

great difference.
a

while it may
in
races

indicated not

littlefaith and

of physical laws, to believe that ignorant subordinate and to trust its cause Nature was to justice, to imply something very unlike to her defence, it seems the lightof a either of these qualities to renounce and of religion, scientificage in the name persistently of an ignorant to cling to the superstitions one. Manu knows only ordeals by fire and water, or by
'

M*HU, VIII.

116.

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

touching
invocations and

the

heads

of

one's

wife codes

and add

children
tests

with

thereon.

Other
"

by poison

for example, by being by various processes, weighed twice in scales, drinking consecrated water, touching hot iron with the tongue. In the trial by bar for seven a red-hot carrying paces, however, leaves the hand to be wrapped round maining were ; in that by rea certain time under water, the legsof another of the year for embe clasped. The could seasons ploying
the

different forms
to

of ordeal the

were

determined those who

with
were

certain

to

regard undergo them.

and the

interests of

Women,
were or

children, the
to

old,

the

sick,

weak

not

be

ordeals

by fire, water,
except in
ordeal
one race cases

poison, but

subjectedto by the scales

were

only.1 Yajnavalkya implies that they

be used The of any
to cannot
or

not

to

of great moment.2 called

the

be

special barbarism
it appears
the
never

religion, though
The
to

have

existed

in China.

Arab,

the

wild

African, alike defer

husband had of

Hebrew And
the

his "bitter the

Japanese, its authority.3The of jealousy." water

Church tells
us

historian

Christian
her

that she "took

the ordeal

under

especialsanction,"

sprinkledits
enacted

red-hot

iron with
the

with solemn

her

holy

water,

and her

its^cruelties Down of
to

rituals within

temples.4
the
means

twelfth

century, it

f?

afforded

priesta
whose
moment
1

awing the laity,by rendering the of Divine into specialinstrument justice,

to

hands

every fall."5
of these

man

felt that he

was

liable
was

at

any due
;

And

its final abolition

in Zeitsch. d Stenzler,
D. M.

For

summary

laws,see

"., IX. 661-683

Manu,
* * *

115 ; Asiett. Res., I. 389II. See Stenzler's Introduction, p. vii. XA/"M 95. VIII.

See

Pictet,II. 457, 458. Force, p.

271.

Milman,

Lat.

III. Christianity,

v.

and Lea's Superstition

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

93

quite
and

as

much

to

the

revival
communes

of the
as

old
to

Roman
the

law

the

rise of the

free

ance repentin

of the Church. Personal Manu

or

deformities

and

diseases

are

regarded
Treatment of

as a

in

of sin in the present the consequences the law classifies previous life. And

physical

they according to the sins from which it declares that the victims proceed. In one passage of them too from to be despised ; 1 excluding some are
them the Sraddha,
or as

defects-

feast in honor

of the dead.2

And

this

is superstition

like that, infected

a

in origin The of physical evil under instinctive law. a moral world the material to presumption that it becomes while show allegianceto the moral, is of course, of a growing up among ignorant races, the source But we must not superstitious expectationof miracles. ment developforgetthat it is this very instinct to whose the abolition of every ground by science we owe for believing or demanding miracles ; its ultimate form being the conviction that natural laws are themselves the desired expressionsof universal good. Hindu The law prescribes towards contempt which deformed the physically and diseased is limited and within defined lines of conduct; strictly towards* deis evidentlyan this legislation endeavor to modify and restrain, as well as to respect, the instinct that physical evil is a punishment for crude unfortunate The be despised as sin. not to were with to be treated such. They were kindly and even respect.3 They were exempted from publicburdens ; and although avoided in the act of sacrifice as being
"

similar

wide-spread as the ordeal ; it has, the Jew and had the Christian, and the effort to comprehend the mystery

"

Manu,

XL

48, 53.

"

III. Ibid.,

150.

"

II. Yfy'n.,

004.

194

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

Dlemished, and in the choice of partners for life, ably probto not reasons, physiological yet they were be expelled from society rites, ; and, after prescribed could freelyassociate with other people. also sanguinarypunishments on the prinThere are ciple of "eye for eye and tooth for tooth." And eye. ye made ^ese most tion are repulsive by their connecof caste. This with the 'enormous inequalities the basis of all first cruel as it seems, forms principle, in the requital of and ideal justice at abstract essays left to the crime. Some of the severest are penalties back criminal's own execution, as if falling on a posed supin of their rightfulness recognition spontaneous mind.1 And their barbaritycannot be exhis own plained on any theory that leaves out of view the fact

for

or

that their makers of the

on a

had

at

least

an

intense

abhorrence
must to
"

crimes

they punished.
iron.

Adulterers
were

burn the

bed

of red-hot which
hath

Thieves the
the
to

lose

limbs

with
a man

they

effected

theft.2
same

withal Wherebe

sinned, with
itself of hint

let him

punished,"

recommended

these

unflinching
was

judges as the maxim the stern out following

of sensual But the law
excesses.

natural of

right.It
in

but

nature

its retributions

knew

how

to

providecompensationsfor
As if dissata

Sympathies
of the law.

a^ endurance Jsfied with of these

of its barbarities.

them, and
of

way who

out

bonds

looking upwards for judgment, it says: "Men

received

have the

committed

offences, and
due
as

from

kings
and

punishment
as

them, go

become

clear

those who

pure to have done

heaven,
well."8
was

A
1 "

similar reaction
Manu, XI.
100,

the severity of against

of the commonest
"

statutes

104.

Suicide is one

forms of penaltyin the East*

VIII. Ibid.,

372, 334-

VIII. 318. Ibid.,

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

to naturally

be

expectedin

the

case

of false witness,
were

in view

of the tremendous
to

which penalties for the

tached at-

this crime, both this

present and

the

future life. And

the

presumptionmay
falsehood is

exceptionalfact
wherever the has sinned

that

help explain lowed, expresslyalof any caste, caused

seem

death

of

person

who

would inadvertently, in the courts.1

to

be

by
as

givingtrue
such
extreme

evidence

It would

if the affections

sought

assert

their

precedence,in
duties, to the
way

cases

of the In

conflict of the
same

demands
account

of literal fact for the

singularscale of fines and commutation of penalties, based, by a crude of eye for the principle natural justice, on life for life. They are not mere a money
of crime, but the under This the modification of
a

may forfeits in
sense

we

of and

eye
measure

harsh

lex lalionis

influence

of the

humane the natural

sentiments.
character
of the

indicates relenting
better than

in legislation detail. It is not to be believed that the punishments by selfby branding and mutilation, the expiations
torture
out

Hindus

the barbarism

of the

and suicide,even
with any

for minor
the

crimes,
is much

were

ried car-

thinglike

of precision
so

our

western

to conformity

written law.2

There

diction contra-

and in spirit such frequent manifest exaggeration, much letter, so tinguishin of disconfusion of law with ethics, and such difficulty and positive between dogmatic statement command, that this natural inference from the general between
27z/*,II 83. of legal prohibition concerning the use of animal food and disregard very great the of is animal destruction life, b y the Brakmans, described in Heber's Journal, vol. ii.
104;
* *

different texts, both

in

Ma*", VIII.
The

P" 379*

196
character the Law Even
infanticide
and smtee.

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

of the Book
the

race

is

not

set

aside

by
of

the

text

of

itself.1 infanticide and sati bears Hindu

are

historyof
to

witness character. in the

this natural No
traces

gentlenessof
of
these
customs

in Yajnavalkya. Rig Veda, in Manu,or of tropicalenervation, They arc a later growth, partly partlyof social misery. But nobler elements3 found also
her the the
at
were

involved
;

in and

the

widow's

desire
was

to

follow due
to

lost husband

female of

infanticide

marriage
bride.3
the

custom

giving a costlydowry
barbarities
were

with

Both

these

abandoned

earliest Their

afforded by European influence.4 opportunity rapid extinction in British India was

mainly the work of the native chiefs themselves, under like Lucllow, Macpherson, and of men the persuasion before British interference, many Campbell.4 Even them endeavored to control of these chiefs had by
their
own

unaided

efforts.

The

natives

now as

ally gener-

regard the
;

river sacrifices of children

and

sati,since its abolition,is seldom

condemnation.5

disgraceful spoken of
out not

but with Later

Free treat-

pandits have
from regulations
to

not

hesitated

to
as

rule did

such
seem

the old laws

lawyersuifable
times.

their times, upon established for

a

the

ground
Hindus

that age
came

they were
In

less advanced

of the world.

the

progress

of the

It has been

acutelyobserved
And
so

(La CM

divine origin of laws in the older codes

of the chap,xi.)that "the principle Antiqitt, it made for their subjects impossible to definitely remained
we vie

abrogatethem."
and

the old statutes

tenor.

side by side with

may

later

ones

of

ferent dif-

often humaner these codes

In this way
;

the contradiction* explain partially the

with which

abound

though, as

shall see,

rule

was

not

without it"

exceptions, even
1 4

in the remote
on

East.
p. 740.
*

See

chapter

Rig Veda,

Elliott'sN"

W.

India* I. 250.

Ludlow's

British India, II. 738,149, 151.

132,

"

Ludlow, II. 149; Buyers'sRecoil, of N. India^

235;

Allen, p. 418.

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

denunciation

of Mr.
a

many

ancient
"

customs.

''Among
the
;

these," says
sacrifice of of widow of the
use

Wheeler,
a

may
or
a

be
man

mentioned
the
a
: a

bull,
to

horse,
brother

a a

man

become

the

father

of

of

deceased
at

"or kinsman
of

appointment son by the the slaughter

and
the

cattle of

the
meat

entertainment
at

guest;
feasts of

flesh

the the

celebrated
name

dead, stillperformed under

It is pages
not
so

of sraddhas."

much

of this Code

as

of crueltythat darkens the spirit insatiate self-abnegaan tion, superstirespects

*

which suicide.

in

many

is
to

kind

of

noiissetf-

abnegation*
answer

And,

for full
nature

all

us lesson. justificaseem

tion of human sufficient

to

under their

these

aspects, it may

point to
and
his

may
with

be

said, "is the

car

end

"Here," it consequences. of Hindu virtue; here, in

Jagannath
her

of human

slaughter,in
been

Kali with

sword

of human These

in Mahadeva sacrifice, deities have

his collar of sculls." belied.1

"

greatly
should

The
causes

Hindus

certainlybecame
to trace.

sensualized,
we

from

easy
as

If, however,

we nature, condemnatory of human admit that Christianity does not reinstate it,since must this religion fell into similar degeneracy, and since its theology still retains this dreadful destructiveness in The records of Christian ideal form. an superstition

accept the facts

are

more

dismal

than

those

of

Brahmanical.

The

fanaticism

of the Donatist of kindred

and the human It has pages

to

sacrifice of the
been

Hindu
that

are

nature.

well said,

"England and France that ought to cause history

*
"

have

in their

religious
else to

them
under

be silent, or

Instances

of victims throwing themselves

are
now

been rare, and

unknown.

won"hip than self-immolauon." the pilgrims to thU shrine is in of the of destruction in figures
or e/il,

have always of Jagannftth of Vishnuopposed to the spirit The mortality 134.) great among p. conditions. The fact due to neglect of sanitary symbols relation to spirits of other deities referred to have more the wheels

Nothing could be (Hunter's Ortssa,

more

to

death

as

such, than

to

human

which sacrifice,

has

alwaysbeen infrequent

198

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

againstHindu rites with bring their charges of cruelty some humilit}T."It has been computed that several
millions and of persons have been burnt as heretics,sorcerers, Chriswitches, in Europe,duringthe periodof tianity.
In

Cadiz thousand
to

and

Seville in much
a

alone

burned It is
not

two

Jews
dwell should

Inquisitors l singleyear (1481).

this aspect dark of the

the

desirable But make

on

subject.
combined

why
us

all these

pictures
dismal

sceptical concerning the spiritual

The self-tortures and the

faculties of man? fanaticisms

that

of his through the long history beliefs are not there to prove his moral incapacity : they teach the very opposite. They are birth-throes, even the less genuine,of blind and bitter indeed, but none is the Yogi, There his divinity.Let us face the worst. crawlingin agonizingpostures from one end of India whole to the other, or sitting days between scorching with seared fires and gazing at the sun eyeballs and There is the Shaman brain. cuttinghimself bursting dren with knives, the Moloch worshipper passing his chilthrough flames, the Aztec piercinghimself with of his kinsmen out the hearts aloe thorns and tearing There the reeking teocalli. their are on on Stylites columns, Flagellants beating themselves through the of Christian Europe, and all the mad streets penances
reach

and is

savage

suicides of the Desert with

Monks.

And

there

JesuitLoyola iron whip; his corpse" into the

used
at to
a

girdleof briers and merciless followers "as a giving themselves

hands of "Grand
"

Masters,"
and

to

be centives in-

their absolute

will;

dismal

dreadful
that

contempt
whether

of human its

nature,
not

almost
some

start

the

doubt

originbe
to
no.

from

demoniacal

Power,
*

doomed

self-annihilation.

But

Jost,Gfsch. 4. yu4*nik*mt, HI.

THE

LAWS

OF

MANU.

199

other that
to

scenes

are

at

command,
your

and

to

these

you You

hasten
turn

you

may

recover

respect for life.

on

Christian
stake
;

saints
to

dying serenely
great martyrs

the
the love the

rack

and

at

the

the

of

world's
;

later

day,
at

witnesses

for truth,
on

and liberty,
before all

and

stand

last

reverently
to

Calvary
ascribe
have "man

consummate

sacrifice soul.

which
seem

you
to

this from the

majesty
death brute's has

of
to

the life.

You

passed
was
on

"There,"
here he

you becomes
on as

say,
a

level:

God.
But

A
that

new

nature

surely
and
as

descended needless
to

him."

is

impossible,
have done
these
errors,

it is

impossible.
we

You
read

injustice
dark ever how-

the

soul.

Can

not

between

lines, and
dismal

discern and

that

the

endurance
and

for the

demoniacal,

endurance
one

for

truths, however
in common,
not at

benignant
that that
true

and

divine, have
? significance

point
Do

and least
he
assure

of utmost
us man

they

will

suffer all things

It is not
even mere

for what

believes

and

sacred?

superstitiousterror
Fear does

that
not

makes

martyrs
these

to

stitions. superof but

explain
fear.
assure

extremities
"

self-sacrifice, these

mournful

self-crucifixions,

something
they
and cry

that

masters

They
of

hint

of

aspiration,

for

light,they
a

progress.
awe

They
before

are

impossible
a

without of

sentiment

duty,
are

vision

triumph
that
man

beyond
has

pain.

They
he

signs, even
assurance

they,
of
to

in his very

substance,
has
or

those
owe

spiritualdignities which
to
some

been
some

believed

supernatural change,
introduced

all-creative

element,
alone.

by

Christian

and

Jewish

revelation

VI.

WOMAN.

WOMAN.

HPHE
on

Dharmasastras the
or

are

unquestionably
than of the Law Fall,

no

wiser

nature

of

woman

of

Moses,
is

the

mythologists
the

Adam's

n.nduiegj*.
latlon'

Manu
was,

as

positive as
the
man

Christian world in

Apostle general
and
the

and

as

Christian is her

has that
sexes,

been
her

hitherto,

that

appointed
This is

head,
of

prerogative spite of
all And
or

is

to

obey.

theory

in with

age

and

Scripture,

rapidly vanishing, "might

discuss
to note

analogous
it is of that form in

pretensions
less of

that
to

makes its evils the

right."
in this

import

now

society
nature

than which

it is

remedial

forces
even

human when

mitigated "might"
than in it is the
now.

those of
man

evils,
was

in times
most

the

relative

in

respects

much
status
ms

greater
of of
woman

The in the

general
declarati

East that
tf

is

given
she
never

the

Law

books,
t

is

"unfit seek
own

by
ft;"

nature

for "she alone

independence,"
is
"

and any
assumes

must

that

never

to
f?

do

thing

for the

her very

pleasure
her

that
as

wife
river

qualitiesof
This is
our

husband,

is lost in the of
must

sea."1 "feme

precious
essence

modern

principle
"

covert" herself

in its purest
up
to

The

widow remain

give

austerities

and

unmarried,

J//IMM,

V.

147,

u8

IX.

3,

22

I. 85. ]'"$/*.,

The

old Roman

Law

was

similar.

See

Thierry, Tableau

dt

r Em

fire /foam*/*, p. 979.

204

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

preparing for
husband Hebrew wives made
on

reunion

in

the

next

life ; l while

the the

could, and
law the allowed

should, marry
husbands
"

again.2
to

As

plea of
ff

mere

their put away uncleafcness," so the Hindu

as

mere

unkindness,"

well

as

barrenness

or

disease, sufficient ground for supersedure; while

exhorted
the
woman on

it

her

part,

on

pain

of bestial

the basest husband to revere even as transmigrations, in later times, like the Hebrew Brahman a god.3 The patriarch,might by law have several wives, though of different castes, cording having claims to preference acto the

order

of their classes

and

neither

his

lute thing as absoHe could take every thing from either property. from all.4 This of them incident, affecting an or was all alike, of the old system of patriarchal them thority. auThe of polyandry,or possession of custom wife by several also pfevalewj husbands, was one ; originating? during the Middle Ages of Hindu history in the necessity of male offspring, as partly ground of of physicalsupport.6 hopes as well as source religious This the theory, was easilymatched, we may
nor

wife, child,

slave, could

hold

any

"

remark,
recent

in Western time. But human

ideas let
us

and observe
to

institutions, even
the
worst

of

counteractions effects.

provided by
1 " 4

nature
*

its

Afanu, V. 157-162.
Dent.

Ibid

V. 167-169;
77.

1'4/W.,I. 89.

xxiv.
IX.

Mamtt

IX.

81 ; V. "A

154;

I. JKo/;/.,
*

Mann,
imolve

85 ; VI 1 1. 416.
a

woman'
not

property her."
are

taken

by

her husband

in distress, this does

the

or

for

performanceof
the

duty, he need
violate other

restore

(}'"/".,II. 147.) Yet

very in stringent

not

right

to

laws,which
III. 52. tells us

of protection

Macaaghten, p. 43.) The (Essays on Sanskrit Literature^ III. 17, a 8) in India was, by the older laws, free to do as "he would with her property ; but that a widow " made in later times effortswere to depriveher of this right At pre"cnt, in Bengali" be is acknowledged by all to be mistress of her own wealth." adds, "a woman * The the and even custom universal same tribes! necessity explains among savage the of advanced ones, like Hebrew tribe of Benjamin, capturing wives, practised by more
property rights of
is
woman.

(Mann,

language in the

text

perhaps

too

strong.

Wilbon

and

dividingthem

among

the captors; the

custom

which tended
woman

of

course

to

ensure

other

of bondage, in qualities

permanent status of

under aucient laws.

WOMAN.

205

in againsttotal enslavement rude times by the operation of two causes. Naturaldei. She was fences of as recognizedby man involuntarily deliverance, and as apbringing his spiritual pealingto his physicalpower for protection. the former Of these recognitions, due to her was In early times a man function. procreative Reijgjous furtherance. for help, and for honor, depended for safety, The of his children. the number on sons patriarch's The estimation of an Egyptian," his strength. were Woman
was
woman*
"

secured

says

Herodotus,

"was,
number

next

to

valor

in the

field, in

to the proportion day, the prayer

of the
to

for
were

children, many hold men's on

says
"

the

l To this oflspring/' in the Nile Valley is laborer him aid in his toil. They life beyond death. dren," Chil-

of his

"

the

Greek

poet,
the saviors up of fame
on

Are Even

for the dead

as

corks

buoy

the net cord from

the sea, the

Upholding
The the

itb twisted

abyss beneath."*
transmitted

of mysteriousprinciple of
man,

life,as

by

seed

is the risen

earliest above

of object

veneration of Fetcentre

by
of

tribes that have As

essence

the

condition
it is the

ichism.

of the

familybond,
the

and embodied patriarchal religion, which for male offspring, determined of the principal of Europe races and Roman of the law watched for ages

in that demand

tions early instituGreek

and Asia. the

over

tion preserva-

the as familylines through male offspring, It is tradition. rite and ground-work of religious easy to explain the fact that interests of this nature In so were excessively developed among the Hindus. relations with the firstmale child centred the religious
I. 136.
*

JEachyl., Gb?/A*r/,

497.

2O6

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

always been the primal necessityfor the Oriental man. Through a the debt for the gift he pays his progenitors of his son
past and
future.
own

male

child has

which life,
assures

is held of

the the

mosf
like

sacred

of all dues, from posterity.1 believed of

morial me-

and

himself
The

payment
was

by

the

Hindu

happiness of to depend
For
became
was

his
on

ancestors

the
an

performance

rites in their honor male descendants.

own

by
a

line of uninterrupted it not through a son that

his

existence

part of that

continuous

which was probably the first and generations, of his own ? The simplest sign to man immortality laws declare that by a son one obtains victory, by a son's son reaches the immortality, by a great-grandson he overcomes the great solar heaven."2 "By a son darkness (ofdeath) : this the ship to bear him across. line of
"

There

is

no

life to him

who

has

no

son."

Kalidasa

the joy of a king in the birth of a male child, pictures as resembling that which is felt by the Supreme, at His own the thought that Vishnu, as manifesting subof His Universe.4 tance, is a guarantee of the stability The Upanishads record the tender forms by which a father at the point of death transfers his whole being The for son to his son.5 (futra) means very word

deliverer

from, the saint has

hell called
a

put.

In the he
sees

Mahabhis
cestors an-

harata,

vision, in which
this

descending into
in consequence of descendants Romans
son,
1 8 * 6

limbo, heads
laws

downwards,
line

of

the

extinction The

of their male of the Greeks who

in him.

and
no

as

adoptionto the father prescribed line.0 his sacred duty to his own
IX.

had

Manu,

106, 107.

Aitereya. BrahntaiM.

Roth, in Weber's
Citi

Ind.
fi

Mann, IX. 137. I. 458. Siuet.,

Kaushitaki

Ragkuvansa,
See references

III. in La

Upan. (Weber, I. 409).

:

Antique^ I.

ch. iv,

WOMAN.

207

exaltinghis stronger sex to wards, afterdid heaven, finding therein, as Christianity in the "well-beloved Son," the ground of his
Here
then
was man

salvation.
was

But

eveti

to

this end

the wife and and sacred

"

mother

In her : concerning woman husband," as Mann you shall be born again." "The himself an it, becomes embryo, and is expresses of time."1 And born a second so marriage became invested with the sanctions of a sacrament, necessity and conscience piety. Nature enforced, in behalf of woman, to be the respect that seemed fused. relikely and heaven Since immortality come through descendants," says Yajnavalkya, therefore preserve The
to
man
"

by nature, gods said

after all, the

sole

path.

"

"

and

honor

woman."2
:
"

So Manu
"A and
man

is
3

when perfect

he consists of three,his wife,himself,

his son." "A

wife

secures

bliss to the

manes

of

his

ancestors

and

to

himself."
"

She

is

as

the

goddess

of

abundance,

and

irradiates

his

dwelling."4
Hence
the and of marriage purity great simplicity relation by times, a more equaland just
"

in the Vedic far than recorded than this

was

in those

of

Manu

though nothing in

the

marriage rites of later times indicates other mutual respect and unityof interests.5 Through motive, it must have been that polyandry religious " the polygamy of still more got rid of; and even

" Manu, IX.' 8 ; Yty'n^ I. 56. Y"jn., I. 78. * IX. 28, 26. Manu, IX. 45Ibid., 0 See fullaccounts of the marriageritesof the Hindus accordingto the later Vedas, in Weber1 s Indische Studien,vol. v. 6 existsin some This custom still and is ascribed the Nairs, as parts of India, among " *

fay Mr. Justice Campbell to the modification of that widely spread custom Hindus, of a wife passing on the death of her husband to his brother: "This

among

the

successive

2O8

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

recent

ages
a

was

much

modified the be

by it,being
of
a

made
riage mar-

rather

last resort
not

where

end religious

could of
came

otherwise and

attained, than
desires.

means

loose gratifying in fact

to

lawless

Polygamy

prohibited except for such causes declared as are justgrounds for dissolving expressly which the marriage contract, among long continued the chief.1 Again, as with barrenness was naturally of securing male offspring the Hebrews, the necessity led to the transference of the wife by her husband to"( relative,or sapinda, for the purpose ; but the a near solemn motive of the act led also to the most religious precautionslest this infringementshould be abused for sensual purposes.2 These few of the legal defences that inured a are A the to woman as recognizedway of immortality him whose uncontrolled brute strength, mere by srfch But they her his slave. have made motives, would giveonly a faint idea of that fine compensation which have lent her weakness, nature must through her hold upon man's dearest hopes. And function enlisted on her beher procreative as half his religious her physical so aspirations, inferiority appealedin rude times to his generosity
be
-

and" the grace

to

tenderness.

The

laws

of

Manu

had

put that
her

they consigned

dependence to which lifelong the ground of protection.3 on

where the great holdingbeing here transformed into a joint contemporaneous holding/' otherwise c ould be secured." not of that Ethnology of India, children, obtaining object, see Ditandy, Potsit As marriage relations, to the influence of this belief on p. 135.

Indiemu, p. 137. 1 Macnaghten, 60.

8

Mann,
the

I.,IX.
a

in many
under

respects
care

Manu^ IX. 59, 60; Y"jn.t I. 67, 68, states of society, even polygamy was plainly ill-governed 3. female for to assigning captives, example, a recognized safeguard, status,
In rude and
a

of a household. Manu' a husband, and in the partial management his wife by employinghear"in sedulous instructions to the husband, in the art of protecting of wealth, in purifications and female duty,in the preparathe collection and expenditure of

WOMAN.

2O9

runs regard to her helplessness through the in which she was specialprovisionson those matters liable to be oppressed. On certain grounds, even "for bearing only female children,"1 a wife might be superseded; but "not a beloved and virtuous wife," a

And

who

must

never

be wife

set

aside

without
to
"

her

consent.2

superseded
in all without

is entitled
whatever.

sufficient maintenance
a

cases

It is

crime

to

leave

her

3 support."

Unmarried

daughters
with
or

inherit So
in

their

mother's

estate

equally

sons.4

general,though
erty" made
up

the

wife's

pcculium^
kinds

of six different

of

specialpropand progifts, nounced

be used

hers, positively

could

nevertheless

of distress ; 5 yet a special in case by the husband male relations who take provision consignsto torment property.6 A wife unjust possession of a woman's

could
or
a

not

be

held A

liable for the

debts

of

husband

supported good wife is to be faithfully tion, against his inclinaby her husband, though married from duty,8 A father is forbidden to religious for giving sell his daughter by taking a gratuity tacitly the son is charged to protect her in marriage; 9 and after the death of her husband.10 his mother Insanity in a husband, impotence, and extreme vice, are held
utensils*' (ix H), are evidently of household superintendence her to her own which are regarded as her most dictated by the fear of trusting dispositions, This diligent and preservation of the wife fiom vice, which protection dangerousenemies. is made so essentiala part of his own of a complacency which might have savors salvation, had the making of the laws. been rebuked,had woman Yet, as thingswere, it must have her doubtless his from and as to expresseda real sense n eeds, judgment special proceeded the law commands, weakness and exposure to rude assaults. of her physical For instance, *' if he have while away ; for his business wife to a fitmaintenance him, abroad,to assure of subshe may be tempted to act amiss, if distressed for want if a wife be virtuous, even "istence" (ix. 74). 8 * " J'4/"M I- 74Mantt, IX. 81, 8a. K4/W., I. 73. " " II. 117; Manu, IX. 192. Macnaghten, 44. Macnaghten, 61; 1*4;*., and the
" "

son.7

tion of dailyfood

Mann,

III. 52.
too. "

IX. Ibid.,

Jty*., II. 46. IX. 4. Ibid.t 14

Mtinu% IX. 9$-

2IO

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

sufficient which

excuse

for aversion
be

on

the

part of the wife

nor

must

not

punished by

desertion

tion deprivacould

of her And
not

property.1 this regard for the

to

weakness

of

woman

of her true appreciation strength. Thus, as we have justnoted, it is upon her bases not only a perthat Manu of protection need petual tions wardship,but a most vigilant system of restricher from the perils and occupations, to preserve her natural frailty was to which pose presumed to exBut the injunctions end in what her. to these for this presumption is decidedlya fatal admission ; only are truly secure namely, that those women who are by their own protected good inclinations." 2 So Rama screen a enclosing walls can says, "No woman. Only her virtue protects her."3 fail lead
to
a

certain

f'

"

In
s.

fact,a
has

far been

greater

amount

of domestic those who the

tyranny

presumed, by

regard only
war-

oppress.G,) overstated.

the
rant"

letter of the

law, than

facts will which

rpjie secjus;on of females been But

prevails

in India, for

part of
other distrust.

example, has despoticsystem.

in the

causes,

main, than

regarded as forming itis probably due to marital jealousy and

that it is of hammedan Mo-

The

Brahmans
was

maintain

and -origin,

merely
With in origin which

in

self-defence Moslem and

;

adopted by the Hindus against foreign brutality.4

have

both

Hindu, it may

had

its

modest

reserve

in that instinctive life of Eastern

reverence

penetrates the whole

the
course

races,

and

passingin
into
a

tal, like every thing OrienThe of the veil by use rigidetiquette.6 of ages,
*

" *

Manu,

IX. 79.

Ibid.,IX.

12.

"

R"m"yana.
401.

"

xliii. Wilson, Tfaatre of th* Hindus^ Introd., ; Buyers, Recollect, of India, p. De Vere, Pictur. Sketches of Greece and Turkey, p. 270.

WOMAN.

211

Persian
times

females it was

seems

to

have
as a

been

derived

from

when

regarded
A Buddhist

social elevation.1 of this

and sign of dignity lation legend illustrates the re-

to religion

democratic

reform

on

the

subject. The wife of Buddha, the wishes of the veil, against Good her marriage,saying :
"

more

than

the

sun

and

moon.

thoughts, my manners, my It would Why then should I veil my face ? of their seclusion, the women too, that, in spite
"
-

the rejected court, immediatelyafter need no women veiling The gods know my qualities, modesty. my

it is said,

appear, of the

much influence in classes exercise as upper affairs as among Europeans.3 In the Hindu
women are

family epics,

described and

as

intercourse and

movement,

showing

themselves
women,

Married free in India

s

independent in their entirely where travelling they will, veiled.4 freelyin public,and unwere perfectly especially,
intercourse
with the other
own

in their social

sex;6
cause

and
at

Sakuntala,
court

in the

drama,

pleads
even

her

the

of

King Dushyanta, and

boldly
nature Recognition
ofwoman-

rebukes But

him. these hints of the of

woman

compensative forces
us

of

in behalf
were

lead

stillfarther.

Here demon-

suited to scarcely her finer spiritual strate gifts. Yet in proofs that woman literature abound she now of does, compel recognition it may have the
been shown

circumstances

Hindu did these

as

law

and
as

then,

though algifts; since

duct con-

then,

it has

been,

more

by
we

service of the

than by lips

the

of life. The
1

ages

are

now

studying are

not

those

of the

Gobineau, Relig. tt Phil.

St. Hilaire.
See

d. t'Asta

* 4 "

Centratt,p. 348. " Admin* Prichard,

57.

of India,

II. 89.

Williams,Indian Wilson, ut tufra.

Epic Poetry^ p.

212

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

and wife, simple Aryan household, where husband equals in age, in rights,in serviceable industries, ministered hand in hand to the holy fires on their hearths.1 altars and They are ages of southern betrothed in woman, polygamy and caste; when in law for ever a child, superseded at childhood, was her husband's pleasure, forbidden to read the Vedas rites. In these times, too, to take part in religious or of polythe epics reveal custom the semi-barbarous andry, wife by several of one although this possession in the stormy social husbands must even certainly, conditions
which the Mahabharata

describes, have been

exceptional.2 The later,shows proRamayana, indeed, somewhat found But "wen respect for the marriage relation. this poem, abounding in manly sentiments^|j|(j^l women, frequentlyfalls into the tone of^jpmempt their perpetual minoritysuggestedjfe which where as Bharata Rama admonishes of the duty of a ruler
always
to

treat

them

with

courtesy, while
withhold from

he

should all

disregardtheir counsel, importantsecrets.

Yet,
what
w

and

them

under

such

circumstances Not

as

these, observe

the law

itself confessed. the

mutual

till death fidelity and

only did it declare duty between supreme

reward the
woman

husband three

wife,3 and

"virtue, riches, love, the

of

of human desire," to be "the objects their mutual and pronounce friendship,"4 of the man."6 the highest beatitude It

admonished

See Mann,
In Manu

IX.

96.
toleration for it. The had little of for the protection
women

indeed it is not mentioned,and Brahmanism

Himalaya mountaineers

explain the custom

as

necessary

during the long absence of their husbands on Lloyd'sHimalayas, I. 255. * " Jty*, L Manu, IX. 101.

distant expeditions for

trading purposes,
28.

74.

"

Manu, IX.

WOMAN.

213 honored the deities

or

him

that

where

females

are are

are

pleased,and

where

they

dishonored, vain;"
on

made "their

rites miserable, all religious

are

while the

imprecationbrings utter
The inference
that
women

destruction
must

house."1 be
stantly con-

therefore and

with supplied that Eastern in

woman

ornaments

and need

Western of But

logicon
law
went

gay attire shows stands these matters

at

common

reconstruction
the

the

hands
than

of

herself. In
an

deeper

ners. man-

outburst of Oriental be greater than

a

reverence

it proclaims

mother

to

thousand
sum

fathers.2 of all

In

calmer, didactic mood,

consist and
them

it defines the of

duty

to

in assiduous

service

one's
as

father, mother,

teacher, as long spiritual "equal to the three worlds

even same

they live, holding

the three Vedas
"

and

and the
to

commands

that the wife of the teacher, if of

class,sha.l be treated with the respect shown rite in honor In the Sraddha, or memorial himself.3

of the

those the female side on or ancestors, pitris, be forgotten.4The must not Swayamvara form of by the marriage, after free choice of a husband maiden is celebrated by the later poets as well as
,

in the Vedas.5

And

Burnouf in India

has
was

gone
never

so a

far

as

to

affirm

that

marriage

state

of

servitude forms of

for woman.6

It is certain

that, of the four

marriage recognized as valid by Manu, involved such subjection neither necessarily ; while, in tinctly disthe Prajapatyaform, bride and bridegroom are "to perform together their civil and enjoined duties."7 religious
.

We

have

here, it is true,
*

no

such

testimonies

as

*
* *

Mate* III. 55-62. YAjn., I. 242; III. 4* Essay on the feda, p.

II. Ibid.,
R.

145.

II. Ibid.,

aio.

'

V-* I. 116; RaghuvanJa, VI.

213.

Mattu^ III. 27-30.

214
those who

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

of Herodotus inform
us

and

Diodorus

concerning Egypt,
was

that
to

in that

country it

customary
women

for the

husband business Yet whose

obey

the

wife, and
the
men

for

to

manage
at

home.1
women

plied the loom certain classes Yajnavalkya specifies

debts their husbands
on were

affairs while

of

bound

to

pay, And
the

because Wilson Hindus

dependent
tells for
us

their

labor

for

that
was

all the

contempt

support.2 shown by

women

learned The
at

Mohammedan

masters.3

by them of their Ramayana shows us

feet

King
to

Dasaratha

prostrate
to

the
him

of

his hte

wicked

her wife, entreating

release

from

promise

grant her
in

any

boon in

literature

abounds

In fact, Hindu might ask. amusing illustrations of submisshe

to

siveness husbands.4 The

Influence

husbands

wi^es

as

well

as

in wives

to

gentlenessof
to
on

Hindu

character

was

favorable This
,
. .

the

sway
^

of these
on a

subtler forces.
,

has
.

pubhc
fsurs"

af-

been

shown

great
in

scale

in

political,
have

mercantile, and

domestic
as

life.

Women

ruled had
wars

empires
their and

in India, in

full share revolutions

the

Egypt and Assyria,and bringing about the frequent

States. The and the the brates Teutonic, cele-

of the petty Hindu Greek

over

Indian

epic, like
feminine
and

control

destinies military admirable

of

states,
ment

Kalidasa

describes
a

the

govfcrn-

of

Ayodhya by

mythic queen.5

sisted reAmong the native rulers who have heroically shown have foreign invaders, none stronger than Lakshmi Baee, the Rani, or queen, of qualities held the British Jhansi ; whose wonderful generalship

"
*

Diod., I. Essays
on

37 ;

Herod., II. 35. Sanskrit Literature^ III.

* *

Y"jn., II. 48.

See Wheeler's

17.

India, II. 569-57*.

WOMAN.

215

army
field.
the

in check;
as a

dressed

her troops in person, killed on the cavalry officer, and was and who Rose
was

headed

Hugh enemy's side

Kour,

Sir

declared
the

that the best of

man

on

Rani

Jhansi.1
the

Another
to

'Rani, Aus

being elevated by
in the

British

the1

disputedthrone of Pattiala and revolted disorganized

competent
to

have

govern changed its whole

to

Panjab, an utterly state, "as the only person it," is recorded by the historian
condition in
less

than

year,

reducing rebellious villages, bringing up the and establishing order and security revenues, where.2 everyMalika

dowager of Oude, educated in 1866, to a knowledge her son, who was dispossessed of ancient and modern coming literature, resultingin his beauthor of high repute, and surroundingher an and himself with persons of literary distinction.
Aliah

Kischwar, queen

Bae,
to

the

Mahratta

twenty years preservedpeace

herself the

of Malwa, for queen in her dominions, devoting

culture of her

happiness,and rights,
her

people. It was

said of

that it would
to

have become
her

been
her

regarded as
enemy, Hindus life
was

the

height of
were,

wickedness
not to

or,

if need

die

in

defence.
that
a

and

Mohammedans
be

united And

in prayers

her

might
this her

lengthened.
be

of

so

rare
a

modesty
no

great queen,
to praises,

that she

ordered

book, which
took

sounded

and destroyed,

notice

of the author. certain Notwithstanding allowed

women a

cally precepts, the law has practiin the

larger share
the
statutes

ment manageChristian

of property than

of

most

nations ; and

they have

shown

abundant

shrewdness

"

Arnold's Dalkousie, II. 153.

"

Griffin'sRbjahs of tfo Panjab, p. 138.

2l6

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

and

tact

in trade.

"

In

secular family affairs,

or

ious, relig-

their influence

is very

great, and almost

supreme. business with his

Seldom

can

man

transaction, without

complete any important having settled the matter

privy council, in the female apartments."1 "As the lute law in Ceylon," says Tennent, "recognizes the absothe property conveyed to control of the lady over her of large marriage portions to the custom use, has thrown woman an extraordinaryextent of the
property of the country into the hands of the females, and invested them with corresponding tion proporlanded of careful and in authority work
on

its management."2
us

recent

very

India tells
of

that "in the

familycircle,
field for her

daily

rounds

domestic
woman

duties, interests, and

has
a a

enjoyments, the sympathies which

Nor
intellectual recognition,

Hindu

puts her

quiteon

level with

her

sisters of the West."3 have "f the intellectual

respect. There
four

of capacities are hymns in

boasts
women.

women

failed

the
seven

Rig

Veda

j^yfcmaie
and of

risliis.4 Malabar

ancient moral

sages,
sentences

of

them
are

were

The

Avyar
few

rules

of
are

life ;
a

Here

taughtin the schools, as golden and the name. deserve they certainly specimens:
"

"Honor

thy

father
Learn

and while

mother. thou
art

Forget
young.

not

the the

favors thou of society in thy own

hast received. the

Seek

Remain good. Live in harmony with others. Ridicule not bodily infirmities. Pursue place. Speak illof none. Deceive not even not a vanquished foe. thy enemy. Forgiveness is sweeter labor. than revenge. The
sweetest

bread

is that earned

by
as

Knowledge

is riches.
on

What The

one

learns in his is he who

youth is
knows

if engraven as lasting Speak kindly to

stone.

wise

self. himto

the

poor.

Discord

and

gambling lead

"

Buyers,p. 399. Adminutr. Prichard,

"

of India, II. 89.

"

in Ceylon^p. 157. Christianity Weber, YerltsungeH, 37, 38.

WOMAN.

2iy
who violates his

misery.
There without is

He
no

misconceives

his* interest
a

promise.
any virtue

sleep without tranquil

To honor

good conscience,nor
mother is the is
most
"

religion. worship. Of woman

A littleHindu

thy

acceptable
l

the fairest ornament

modesty.

work

"

on

Deccan

Poets," by

pandit,

1829), tells us that Avyar, (Calcutta, been a foundling, to have was erated vensupposed by some Sarasvati. the daughter of Brahma and as
Rameswamie She
woman,
was

the like

child

of

Brahman

by

low-caste

Vyasa and other great Hindu ages, personof the servile and, though brought up by a singer class, excelled all her brothers and sisters in learning,
and wrote, besides

poetry,

on

astronomy,
same

medicine,
mentions

and geography. chemistry, female other many of a potter.

The

work
the

poets, 'among

them

daughter teaching
of

Though
the

the
we

law know know

Vedas,
not

women prohibited that priestesses were

from

teachers Brahmanical

princes.
schools,

We

that the

there

were

Colleges of the Middle and women Ages, at which kings,priests, united in the enthusiastic study of metaphysicaland it is reported that moral science ; and of the women astonished the masters limity some by the depth and subof their thought, and that others delivered
responses In* the
or

unlike

famous

Saracen

from

state
women

of trance.2

Dramas,

always speak in
men

the

Prakrit
or

common
"

dialects, while

use

the

Sanskrit

"holy speech. These softer popular dialects derived by decomposition from the Sanskrit are believed by of the female organRenan to be special ization, consequences its independent activity and to prove in the
1 3

From

Schoberl's Hindustan

in Miniature.
;

Megasthenes, Ncarchus

in Strabo, XV.

Weber,

ax.

2l8

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

stiucture

of the the

language.1
into and

More

is significant
to woman,

the

fact that her

means

Prakrit, thus

proper

introduced

literature, has
forms
the

by gradually
of the

and

supplanted the Sanskrit, present spoken languages

of female
torkal influence

basis

of India.

So that the stamp

is in fact
of Hindu

development

conspicuous in the hisspeech, as an informing

volume
to

and

force. determining It would requirea separate

to
*

render
""

justice
T.

the fine appreciation of womanly

l

qualities
literature.

Literary ap-

precisionof in what
woman.

we

already know
noticed

of Hindu

-^ jias been

that, in recognizing these,

draw

the

poets abandon

exaggerationand

from

ture.2 na-

tender and noble than Nothing could be more these ideal pictures, too, so wide a range of covering, and desire : the chaste love of Rama andSit", destiny her courage, fortitude,and womanly dignityunder his unjust her mastery of all forms of evil suspicions, of by moral purityand spiritual insight ; the fidelity Damayanti to her unhappy Nala, tempted by an evil his crown, first to play away and then to flee spirit from her for shame and at his beggary, but followed redeemed of love, which thought at last by that loyalty only of the misery he must endure in offending against his nobler nature fate, of Savitri,controlling ; the piety charming the god of death himself, by her wisdom life to her dead and love, into givingback husb'and, and sightto his blind father, with his lost crown, and the glory of his fallen race.3 Equallyintuitive is ,thc of woman's noble manhood to inspire sense a power
"

with

absolute

devotion.

The

Mah"bh"rata

describes

Dt

rOrigine

du

Liwgage, Pref.

p. 38.

* "

Monier

Williams, Indian

Savitri and bat"a van,

Epic Poetry, p. 54. Episode of the MaAMter

WOMAN.

219

the

passionatelove
lifetime
"

of Rurus, and
to

restore
own

his Pramadvara,
to

imploringthe gods to his to yield up offering

be added

hers.

give thee half my future days,beloved, thy lifebe drawn from mine." Light to renew
I

And

Kalidasa

traits,of
for his young
on

ern givesus the tale,wrought out in Eastthe wasting griefof good prince Adja

wife, whom
has

the

fall of celestial flowers from

earth
;

her bosom

called

away

pursuing

perfumes and sounds through all sweet his mind and to be or forms, refusingto turn away comforted, the mighty griefslowly dividinghis soul, it grows, a as bough will rend the wall into which until after wearing through eight years of pain, for his young son's sake, living and faithfully patiently and images of his beloved, and on fleeting on pictures transports of reunion, in his dreams,'* he freelylays with the aside the ruined life, body for an immortal the gods.2 In Hindu and among lost one, poetic justice the fickleness, unfaithfulness, or harsh suspicion in towards true womanly love, which so often recurs Eastern story, is always visited by remorse, distraction, where cribed or despair; and even changes of heart are as"

his Indumati

to the malevolence

of offended from these

evil powers in saints, they are

of

or no

the wise

dictions malefreed

while

knows born

and which teach humility truth, penalties, friended they honor outraged virtue by proving it beWhat European poet by the eternal laws.3 better than Kalidasa how gracious a soul is
nature

in

at

the touch
a

of woman?

Sakuntal",

her plants like cherishing

L
,

sister,
"

.,

Ragkuwnsa,

See especially Sakuntate

and

the R"m"yana.

22O

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

Her Its And With

moisteningin the stream tillshe had fondly own poured parched lips, roots, purest water on their thirsty
"

Never

when oft,

she

would

fain have

decked

her hair love

their thick them

Robbing

blossoms, in her clustering * not e'en of a single flower,"

own

infuses into them

her

affections feel her

the

woods, the
and

flowers, the forest creatures,

like the breath
"In
sorrow

coming

going

of life and

the blast of death.

of deer
on

for her loss the herd

to

Forget
Ceases

browse

; the

peacock
trees

the lawn

its dance their

; the very

around
"

Shed Their
"

pale leaves
Sakuntala

like tears, with

while

they dismiss
2

dear

lovingwishes."
to endure

He

who

would

wish

her
to

the

hardshipsof
wood with mellowed
"

penance the blue

would leaf of

attempt
the

sever

the She

hard

lotus."
some

is "the

fruit of virtuous beasts

actions in holiness

former

birth."

Wild

respect the
;

of

in the deserts
men

the

noisy caravan

Damayanti, wandering halts, and the rough

The

beseech

for her

benediction.8
woman

poet of the
like
an

Mahabharata Schiller.
The

singsth" praiseof
wife
is "man's

earlier

other

half, his inmost

5

friend, source
of the in his

of his bliss,root

of his salvation with his

sweet

friend

one, solitary

consolinghim
a

words,
like
a

duties She

like

father, in
his

sorrows

neglectof manly duties, him of the forgotten and admonishes God within him, the witness and judge of human Deserted deeds. by refuses to recognize her, the Saher husband, who kuntala of the epic says with dignity:"Thou, who knowest is true what and what is false, O King]
reproves
1

mother."

Williams's translation. Nala and

Ibid.

Damayanti, Episode of the Mah"bharata.

WOMAN.

221

on scorning this child of bur love, bringestshame thyself.Thinking, fl am alone/ thou hast forgotten is in the heart. from of old, who that beholder Doing it is I.' knows wickedly, thou imaginest,'No one But the gods know, and the witness within thee : sun and moon, hearts, and the day and night,their own The the deeds of men. of God, behold spirit justice that dwells within us judges us hereafter." is Rama's Sita, the ideal wife in the Ramayana, for being "primeval love," not less tenderly human She compels him, by her devotion, to take her divine. with him into his exile in the wilderness, overpowering his reason and will alike by the higher wisdom of for his anger love. She rebukes him againsteven foes of gods and men, the Rakshasas, demon as becoming un-

one a

who

had

assumed

the

consecration

of

him the first to subdue life; and warns religious a risingsof evil desire, since even great mind may almost contract imperceptible guilt through neglecting

moral

distinctions

with

which

frankness
one

Rama

is monished ad-

and delighted, is and dearer

to
me

"O replies, beloved.

are

Sita,
You

who

is

not

not

have

spoken
in

ingly, becom-

you

than

companion my life."1 Fully to

we

virtue, and

appreciatethis
remember that

of womanhood, recognition is nothing less than R"ma Even the the wife of the demon him person

must

incarnated

deity.
the

Ravana,

Satan

of

epic, warns passionson the

he who

against gratify ing his sensual of his beautiful captive;??for

of
a woman

forces the inclination become likens the

"

shall die

an

earlydeath, or The R"m"yana

white
lotus from

the

prey the wind

of endless

disease." the

that drives away

"

too
1

bees thirsty
6.
11.

to

"

the

modesty

Rfanayana,

222

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

that drives the coy bride

from

her husband." enemies. should

whom

Sita, on
Saved
I revenge

her from

part,

can

forgiveher
she says,

cruelest

their hands,

"Why
What life.
to

myself on
pays
the

the servants
to

of Ravana,

harsh

mands com-

drove

injure me?
a

I have
I would
not

suffered

penalty for
are

former

others who
sense

also enforced

evil."

What

punish exquisite

of the

of picture
to deceive

womanly love is in the by the gods, who, Damayanti, surrounded

fine divination of
all taken the

her, have

form of

of her

chosen

Nala,

and

mingle

in the

crowd

suitors, in her

father's hall!
"And
reverence

Damayanti
before the reveal

trembled

with

fear,and
to

folded

her
their

hands

in

shapes,and
presence and revealed

gods, prayingthem Nala, that she might

the

resume

immortal
lord

choose
at

him her

for her truth

in

of all.

Then

gods

wondered of and

and

love,
And
not
on

Damayanti
mortal their

saw

straightway the tokens the four bright gods,

; for

their knew

godhead. they were

nor

heroes

there their

was

no

sweat

on

their
as

brows,

dust

garments,

and

garlandswere
not

fresh

if the flowers And

were saw

justgathered,and
also the true the
was

their feet touched

; for he

the earth. with

she

Nala

stood

before her
and

shadow

to falling

ground, and twinkling eyes

on

and droopinggarland, And wreath she went of radiant And

a

moisture
and

his

brow,
his

and

dust

on

his raiment. threw him

a

took

the

hem

of

garment,
thus from

and chose all the

flowers
sound of

Siround his neck, and

wild
sorrow
t

for her lord. but

*

bwst

Rajahs ;
Nala

the

gods

and

sages
! you

:ried aloud, Well

lave

done

'

And

said, Since, O maiden

for your husband, in presence of the gods, know that I will be your faithful consort, ever in your words, delighting
chosen
me

and be

so

long as

and thine,

my soul shall inhabit thine alone.' " '

this

body

solemnly vow

to

The dead
as

lamentation

of Tara,

the wife of is
as

Bali, over

the noble

body of her husband, any thingin poetry.

'

touchingand

Wheeler's

History of Indw,

I.

484-

WOMAN.

223 thy child, thou, to

in the bosom of whom

"Why
children
"

Icokest thou
were so

so

dull

on

thy
if

dear ?
to

Thy face
I
see

seems

smile

on

me

death, as

thou wert
"

alive.

thyglorystilllike sunset
the moral interest of crime

on

mountain's

head.11 *

As
nemesis

the

Iliad

centres

in the
Woman
.

that

follows

the sanctiagainst fo

the

Ramayana inspiration oftheEpos* in the public and centres privatecalami ties incident to polygamy. It is the attempt of naturally wives to set aside the rightsof the of the king's one of another, in the interest of her own son offspring, the miseryof the that bringsabout the exile of Rama, self, people,the death of the unwise, uxorious king himthe capture of and this last of the But

ties of wedded

life,so

that of the

Sita,and the
the in

war

for her recovery

of portion Trojan war while

part epicis but a Hindu counterpunishment of the rape of

Helen.

the Greek

heroine Sita

shares

inality the crimideal of

of her captor, the

Hindu

is the

the faithful wife. The crime which leads

on

the

woes

in depicted

that

epic,the M"habharata, is a gambling made match, in which a monarch, desperate by continual losses, finally wife, an playsaway his own is rebuked which the spot by a Brahman, on atrocity who represents the eternal ethical law ; protesting that "lost himselfbefore he staked his wife, Judhishthira and having first become a slave could no longerhave the power to stake Draupadi." Without into definite criticism of all these entering ideals,I cannot forbear quoting the excellent remarks of Monier Williams in his sketch of Indian Epic Poetry.
"

other great Hindu

R"m"yana*

B.

iv.

224

RELIGION

AND

LIFE-

wSita, Draupadi, and

our

Damayanti,"
more

he

says, Helen

"engage
or even

affections and

interest far

than

be doubted that in these delightPenelope. It cannot ful of the purity have true representations we portraits domestic of Hindu in early and manners simplicity times. Children
to to
are

dutiful

to

their parents brothers

and
are

missive subspectful re-

their their

superiors ;
elder

younger
;

brothers

parents

are

fondly

attached

to

their children, and welfare

;

ready to
are

sacrifice themselves

for their obedient

to

wives

husbands,
and do

yet show
not

much
to

loyal,devoted? independence
their
own

of character,
; opinions

hesitate

express

husbands
treat
women

are

tenderlyaffectionate
with respect and

towards

their wives, and

them

courtesy
and

daughters
modest,

and

generally

are

virtuous

when occasion and spirited, requires and : love harmony reign throughout the courageous of domestic family circle. It is in depictingscenes that belong to affection,and expressingthese feelings human in all times and nature places,that Sanskrit epic poetry is unrivalled." Reverence for motherhood is here carried beyond

yet

"

all other
sons

forms

of respect for natural all

ties.
at

The the go

divine feet of

of

Dasaratha,
mothers. may

gods,
Rama,
break

all bow

their humanthat

obligedto
his
vow,

into exile
moved unnot can-

his father

not

is indeed

by
concede

his mother's the

to
a

unmeasured she founds

distress,and
on

claims

the

Sastras than is

themselves,
due
even

greater respect and

father
;

obedience his exile he

to

yet from
affection

sends
to

messages that other

was

of

profound
of his

to

her, and
criminal

even

wife

father whose
own

ambition
bids his

the

cause

of his

and disinheritance,

WOMAN.

225
form of

brother both.

Bharata

pay

every

pious

attention

to

of these two inspiration great epics is indeed They nothing else than the Worth of Woman. her not only as imparting a divine thoioKy in celebrate dignityto every sacrifice for her sake, but asgenera' conquering all moral evil through her constancy and faith. In this whole cycle cf mythology, it is always who woman destroys the dreaded powers, and revives In the natural of good. the energy symbolism of the Rig Veda, "the divine Night arrives, an immortal goddess, shining with innumerable scattering eyes, with their splendors ; and darkness to her men come The
as

birds

to

their

nests.

She

drives

away

the the

wolf

and

the

thief, and
the

bears

them

safelythrough

daughter of the like a young them wife, arousing every living on being to his work, bringing light and striking down of the days ; lengthener of life ; fortunate, darkness ; leader the love of all, who brings the eye of the the holy fire. "The god."2 Woman great prepares sacred uttered of the sacrifice have mothers praise, and decorate the child of the sky."3
And It is remarkable, life for male
male
as

Dawn

arrives, "a

gloom."1 ing sky, shin-

in view

of the

the

reverence

of Hindu
bine comsexes

that offspring, and female

to

later

theogonies
treat

elements, and
the
as or

both

equally necessary
in

Manu divine

as

well

tion, conception of deity. Creain the Upanishads, proceeds

male

from
and

the

Love This

Desire, becoming twain,

the
to

female.4

of co-essentiality

two, the

for all

manifestation

of the

absolute, is

common

Hindu,

* * *

F., X. 127. R. y.t IX 33, 5.

R.

"

R.

V., VII
the less

77.

Perhaps symbolicalexpressions, yet Uf, I. 43

; Wilson's

not

significant.

Manu,

I. 32 ; Brihad

Essays

on

Hindu

Religion, I. 241, 245.

226

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

Egyptian, and androgynous,

Baal-Baut;
or

Phoenician
whether

religions.The deities are or Brafcma-Maya, Osiris-Isis,

nations they flow in series of twofold emacosmogonies,Oriental, through all pantheistic

Gnostic, Neo-Platonic,
as even

under which

names

not

so

familiar

these,
In most

"

names

it is needless of equality

to enumerate.
sex

cases

the

divine

is still of the It

further deities is
a

representedby
are

the fact that these wives

also

and their sisters,

thus co-eternal.

illustration of that greater breadth of symstriking pathy have and panwe already noted in polytheistic theistic forms of religion, as compared with intensely

of the monarchical, that this cosmogonic recognition in equality

Thus it is the
sexes was

confined
to

to the

former

class.

quite
the

unknown

the

old
as

monotheistic
to the

of severity

Hebrew

faith,as well

tively distinc-

form, which Christian, in its original

masculine alike in its
name

the prefers of

of God

and

its choice
as

Saviour.
come

Only
stand
was

with
w

latest

heresy does God,

Honor and
was

God,

to

as

Our

Mother."1
in Hindu

mother

indeed, both
to
a

deityas ship, Egyptian worto

carried any
male

function

point beyond what or authority. To

rendered

to

Isis,greatest of
were

whose Egyptian divinities,

myriad

names

woven

into this

on"5

the most

tender

of all, answers

the Vedic

Aditi,
And
The word

"

feminine.

gods."2 is the fact that in all the less significant not isfeminine* the Word older Eastern religions Thought, in its purest symbol, is thus awarded
Mother of all the
fr "

So

it is only in the later Knbbali.stic

on

theologyof
we

the

and Oriental influences

as

their

that faith, See

find the first emanation

Hebrews, subsequent to Greek of Deity conceived

the

"the
"

great Mother."
of

(Sohar.

Bert hold's

Christologia., " 23.) And

"

Book

of the

the

Wisdom

Solomon," under similar influences, praisesits female

of God.

0o^to,lf as

mirror of the power

*

Herodotus, II. 40;

Apuleius,Metamorphoses.

WOMAN.

227
In India,
as

to the
woman

weaker physically is the genius of

"

sex.

Sarasvati,
"

art, literature, eloquence,

ever

is,
the

in short, Hindu

the Word She

"

the

holiest

symbol

to

the wife of Brahma. properly At her festivals,as goddess of learning, all books, gathered in pens, and other implements of study,are mind.
the

is thus

school-houses and

in

India, and

strewn

with prayer

white
her

; and barley-blades is coupled with the Vedas name and her love invoked, writings,

flowers

in

the

and
as one

all the
with

sacred
that

of

Brahma,
says
the

"the

great Father

of

all."1

"Sarasvati,"
"The
or

all Rig Veda, "enlightens

intellects."
men."

gods made Speech, is

says
u

Ila the "the

instructress

of

V"ch,

melodious

Q^ieen

of the

gods," who

"

myselfdeclare this,which
man

is desired make him

by gods
terrible.

and

men." him
a

"

Every
I make

whom

love, I

I make

a priest,
"

seer." him wise."

2

Here
"

is Indra's
art

of praise

Lakshmi

"

Thou of

mystic and reasoning,

"

spiritual knowledge.
the three and Vedas. thou

Thou

art

the

losophy phi-

"Thou

art

the

arts

sciences,

moral

and

political
3

wisdom.
"

The

worlds

have

been

preservedand

reanimated

by

thee."

"e

Every

book

of

"

which

is known

implantedin Durga, it is woman popular belief, and

evil
,

knowledge," says the Hitopadesa, is by nato Usanas ture or Vrihaspati, As the understanding of women." who slays the Satan of the later
delivers mankind this from the fear of

for which
Wilson's

service

goddess

is adored

by

all

" *

Essays, II
I. 3,
12

190. I. 31,
n

Rig Veda,
Vishnu
Pur

VIII. 89, 10;

X. 125, 5.

"

Ana, I. ch. ix.

228
deities and

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

saints.1
woman,

In the

myth

of the Kena

UpanisBrahma
to

had, itis a
She
and the

Uma,
a
none

who

edge. represents divine knowlbetween

to reveal

is
:

shining mediator
but she is able
to

gods

Indra

"who

it was

that had

appeared
when

their them, enforcing

adoration, and vanished

too

theysought to approach
Uma
as
one

near."

The

three

divine

epics also daughters of

them

describe the

of the

great

mountain

king,
worlds for power

Himavat,

all of

renowned

in the

three

for force of

and contemplation,for chastity, And

as

Rig religious ment, developof the gods,"so in the have Aditi, "mother we have mystical Puranas, at the end, we Durga, or the eternal substance of the Mahamaya, defined as
"

expounding divine wisdom.3 Veda, at the beginning of Hindu

in

in the

world, soul

of all forms,
whom

whom

none

has

power

to

praise; by
After
christiamt
and Hea-

the universe it is absorbed

is created,
at

upheld, preserved,

into whom

last."3

uiism.

the task of Christianity, from woman legalincapacities ^m'incipating Such to be accomplished. yet remains progbeen made in this direction s actually

eighteen centuries

of

cannot

be

of any distinctive religion. Physicaland social science, intellectual culture,

laid to the sole account

and

have rTecessity practical

had that

more

to

do with itthan brotherhood

either which

Christian

belief

or

of spirit

has held to be its own Christianity peculiar of its churches affords The history a whole as grace. in this form no ground for accordingthem superiority, Hindu law forbade world. The of justice, to the heathen the Vedas, or to officiate at holy to read woman councils Christian and rites. Popes, echoing the
Si

quoted in Muir, Sanskrit

See texts in Muir, IV. 367.

Ttxts, JV. 371. * I. 247. Ibid., 371 ; Wilson's Essays,

.

WOMAN.

229
interdicted her

great Apostle
not

to

the

Gentiles, have

but from only from assumption of the priesthood, the assemblies, or administering speaking in religious has been in rite of baptism.1 Christian legislation A more unjust to her than Manu. pointseven many makes death law of Justinian concerningdeaconesses is there in the the penalty for their marrying. What Hindu code harsher towards
law

females from

than

their exclusion of

by English common
so

"benefit

clergy,"

which for crimes a they were put to death clergyman could commit with impunity,and for which Have Hindu laws was a man simply branded ?2 ? of widows prescribedthe self-burning Eighteen ing centuries of Christianity elapsed before it ceased burnstake for heresy. Is the absolute at the women of husband and father the oldest despotauthority ism? still in the law of England, which It survives vests parental rights in the father alone, to the entire exclusion of the mother ; giving him power from the children her during his not only to remove but to appointa guardian with similar power life, over that
"

them

after his death.3

"

What

could

be

worse

than

the

feme covert," the absorption of of European principle her legal existence during marriage into that of her in the very language of the husband, still described Hindu Law

Or
or

what

shall

we

say of the facts that has

;

the Ecclesiastical

Canon

Law

been

the

source

of woman's
so

severest

disabilities

and

that it is

only in
the
re-

far

as

the

secular

has prevailed over principle

ecclesiastical that any

1

progress

has

been

made

in

Laodicea; Carthage; Autun

of

(670 A.C.); Avx-la- Chapelle (816); Paiis (824). The

the

Synod
Work
* *

Orange

(441) forbids

ordination of deaconesses.

See

Ludlow,

Woman1*

in the Church, Wendell's

p 65. Btackstont, I. 445,

n.

Wtttmituter

Rtview

for Jan. 1872, p. 30.

230

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

moving them Europe has Many

which
have

of witches in modern persecution in Hindu ism. or no parallel any other barbarof woman, of the legaldisqualifications

?l

The

descended

from

feudalism, make
heathen appear

her

the wardship among in comparison. respectable And

Treatment
on

perpetual almost

the

other

hand,

as sex

we

have
was

seen,

an

instincto the

tive respect for the

not
was were

wanting
the in

world. pre-Christian byd^r!nt

religions, ment

It

command-

of

nature.

Its roots

religion,

generosity and in love. Judaism and Christianity helped it onward, by their and by stern protest againstpolygamy and sensuality, beneficence. But the sublime ideals of purity and be remembered, Church, it must was anticipated by of Roman noble movement law, which a steadily
in
moral

appreciation, in

transformed

the

status

of and

woman

from

almost

total

bondage

"

in respect of conjugal, equality marital, and proprietary rights. It has been said with truth that Roman jurisprudencegave her elevated than that since assignedto a place far more her by Christian culmination governments."3 The liberal tendencies
in

into freedom

of

under the of laws

a

Christian of

emperors, in

as

shown especially

Constantine movement,

her

favor,
had
mass

was

the

issue

secular

which

been

of

penetratingfor centuries through the whole Roman Under Christianity itself, legislation.
was

the

progress
ones

slow
;

of earlier that this

and
"

later emperors undid it is admitted even by

:

the work

religion

did not

take
races

full
had

tillafter society

the older

Troplong of civil possession been rejuvenated

Law,
p. 153.

1 "

See

Blackstone, I. 445;
Rw.

also Mint's

Ant

tent

Wtstt*.

for Oct. 1856.

WOMAN.

231 sources.1
we

by

fresh lifeinfused frorti new

Without
must

paraging dis-

the services of the Church,

to justice

render

that far greater which Teutonic

came

help

towards
a

the

tion emancipaqueen
was

of I
as
mean

woman

from

different quarter.
a an

those
as a

tribes,to whom
who gave Rome who

good
mean a

king, and

those

free "barbarians,"
sex

empress.2 brought with

and

them

of equality perfect
;
a

in all the domestic the wife

was

social relations
not to

with

whom

accustomed
from the

yield up
while and

husband,
spear,

dowry, but to receive one the endowed each formally

sword,
in token of

other with
common
"

steed, and

fenced were publicduties and claims ; whose women of their own and "guardians with chastity," children ; of sanctity somewhat and prescience who held that
"

was on
as

inherent peace
an nor

in the female
bn
;
war

sex

;"3 who

entered

neither

without

oracle

whose

female
tree

forms, whether
on

the priestess consulting mythology conceived destiny in as Valkyriuror Nornir, at the

; to

of life or the
as

the field of death

and
a

whose
woman,

oldest sented reprefuture

to

poem,

Voluspa, was who a divinity

men.

ascribed unveils

the past and

gods

and

But behind rise the

Roman,

Christian,and

Teutonic

helpers,

and grand Greek ideals of Wisdom Greece and and Demeter, with their *""Maternity,Athena consecration air. not of thoughtonly,but of earth and of the familywas The inviolability in Hera. enthroned

The their

awe common vows.

of

all

deities beheld

Hestia, the

earth,

as

mother, and
And
even

the witness these

of their stands

most

sacred

behind

Egyp-

* *

Troplong,Influencedu Christ ianistxe,p. 218. of Camps." See Thierry, Tableau Victoria, Mother
"

de F 61.

Empire Remain,

p.

189.

De See Tacitus,

Mer.

Germ.,

c.

18, 19, 8

Hist.)IV.

232 tian

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

Isis,Goddess
of the
her land
own

Mother, crowned
with
her

with

her

thrones,

shieldingOsiris
ruler

outspread wings, co-equal

its saviour of from the lost
;
;

and during his calamity, distress

tender

through
and
even

seeker

of divinity

love

and
on

truth

his deliverer of evil

;

bonds,

his avenger
the brute

the powers
to

creatures

human

commending for their gratitude

sympathy
beautiful in
"

and
the

which I

How help in her beneficent work. tion myth ! l Diodorus gives us an inscripshe says what she well might say,

What

have calls

decreed,
her

none

can

annul." of

And ages,

Apuleius
These

"Nature,

beginning

parent of all."2
natural East
root
at the

spoke clearlyin the Far faith in maternity also. There the was as of redemption,long before men bowed
instincts
a

shrine of and

Catholic beheld

"

Mother
the

of God."

When

of hell and mysteries of Womanhood, heaven through faith in the sanctity of a: spiritual fresh confession need, they but made in other forms is as surelyrepresented in the which And old Hindu Epic, Drama, and Sacred Hymn. free opportunityand when becoming culture shall Dante
have been
at

Dominic

last achieved

for

women,

and

the

old

contempt

their intellectual for-,

shall capacities better clearer

have

everywhere gone to its place,it will be has been but that the recognition could not of what anywhere have been
Recent
women, movements

stood undervision hid. of

wholly

in India
recent to

for the better education

and

the

mission

(1870) of

the leader

of Hindu deliverance

Theism from
1

England,

in the interest of their

the marital,

social,and ecclesiastical

See Plutarch's Isis and

Osiris.

Diod., I.

27 ;

Apuleius,Metamorph.

WOMAN.

233

oppressions
ancient
waters
women

of

ages, afresh
are

are

but

the renewed

springing
power. for
caste.

of

these Native

with

Hindu

being
distinction

educated of

the

medical have western north-

profession, already

without
on

Some "In
are

entered

regular
are

practice.1
"the
to

India,"

we

told,
best

pandits
promote
the in the

always
cause

ready
female
noble

to

do

their

very
2

of
recent

education." mission
so

Miss

Carpenter,
found in
us,

her

for

this and
as

purpose,
so

intelligent
in

Hindus
that she

earnest

wise tells best

their
to

interest their
them
was

it,

was

fain,

she the

follow for

ing, leadto

convinced

that themselves.3

way

emancipate
And that
our

hopes
this
to

are

strengthened,
race

when

we

ber remem-

contemplative

would
whomsoever that

naturally

be

disposed
as

regard worthy
caste

intelligence, by
of

fested, manithe potism des-

respect;
not

and

even

of

could from it is but

wholly

exclude and the

the

special
with of
a

gifts people
East.4

of

woman

hospitality just
to

honor,
Brain

whom

call

the

At

the bee

school

of

Dr.

Corbyn

in

Bareilly,

where

twenty-eight

native

girls

are

now

studying,
2

Victoria
Admimstr. in

Magazine, of India,
I. 78, 80.

April, 1871.
II. 73.

Prichard,
Six Months

India,
Woman

The

position of

in

Buddhism

will

be

noticed

in the

sections

relating

to

that

religion

VII.

SOCIAL

FORMS

AND

FORCES.

SOCIAL

FORMS

AND

FORCES.

TT
"*"

has

been
to

usual the the

to

ascribe

the

social

system
of
a

of

the

Hindus

deliberate germs
of

artifices
caste
are

origin of
castcs-

priesthood*
instinctive,
can
we now

But

in the of
man.

not

in the

self-conscious

age

Nor that

accept
in all

Niebuhr's
cases

sweeping
consequence
meets

statement

"castes

are

the

of

foreign

conquests." question
system
natural The
:

Neither what

theory
social in the

the and

all-important
is
a

Of

needs

aspirations
nations

so

general

early history of

the

expression? religious instincts

makes he
a are as

old

as

the

social.
out
The
caste-

The
priestly

savage of which
man

fetich his
awe

of

the

wooden the of

sticks

churns with

fire ; and
to

medicinehis
own

listens

the

din
an

rattle
a

or

drum.
person

The
out

sorcerer

makes
or

image

of

diseased
own

of earth with the

grass, of of

and, confounding his

the his This individual
own

processes ascribes power of

life

represented,
a

to
over

this the

work disease.

hands is the but rude

a more

magical

beginning
refined

religious mysticism
of
the
to
"

and

it is

form

same

superstition,"when
a

the

crucifix

is the the in

believed
crosses

possess life and

divine the

efficacy in removing
of
death from

of

anguish
likeness

human

being

in whose

it is made.

But

238
neither
case

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

superstition express the the primitive is not tribes nature whole truth. To merely hunting-ground and pasture, but mysterious Endless motion livingPresence of invisible powers. and endless rest, broodingstillness, sounds, inexplicable in these children of the stir strange yearning qynd awe shall solve these mysteries, Who open eye and ear.
does
and draw the secret
runes

the word

"

of life and

death

out

of the
sitive sen-

nightand
and dear

the

day

? He

whose

is most organization
subtle
seer

to the to

contact
men.

of these

forces

shall be

holy

ruler.

The
him.

is the first nized recogpeople will live to honor, die grateful The natural stand
afar

appease talks with

go in among

to

They will for gods and spirits

the clouds and

off,while
Moses
us.

he

their sake.

shall

for lightnings

Vasishto
nihilate an-

tha shall pray

our

for

us

to

Indra, the storm-ruler,

of Nature fulfilsall interpreter chief or king. ideal functions, except that of military He is magician, astrologer, physician,philosopher, And is eminently sincere. leader. he poet, moral
foes. This

It is his faith and

and

that feeling

make

him

what

he

is,

ing give him his power over the people. He is meettheir deepest needs well as his own as ; being than others by those powers more impressible plainly all confers. As yet there is no priestcraft here. which is felt but as a chaos of undistinguished And nature as archy so societyhas reached nothing like a hierpowers, A division of labor is in fact just of classes. beginning in this instinctive respect for the inspired, or possessed person. Such is the Aryan purohita; such the Hebrew ndbi rock.1 Both are properly The name natural seers. or purohita, meaning one who has charge? shows how
1
i

Sam.

ix. 9 ; Judges xvii.

Lassen,I.

795.

THE

CASTES.

239

described allied itself have the sentiment we closely rites. As social with the performance of religious not relations are only developed,this class become and counsellors of but teachers and singers, psalmists the king.1 They direct his policy, simply because "T^at king withstands his they are his wisest men. who honors a purohita; enemies," says the Rig Veda,
"

and The

the
seer

peoplebow
teaches his in

before

him

of their
to

own

accord."2 who

his wisdom

his

children,

have to They come their reit is simply because esoteric mysteries ligious ; but well as natural as susceptibilities disciplines of physicalor psychologhave put them in possession ical knowledge which the multitude can receive only in parables. By. and by the seers become an organization.These into closer TheBrahthem draw hereditarydisciplines for such purposes combination as grow naturally of their public functions ; and we have out Levites, The Hindu thus transformed, purohitas, Magi, Brahmans. bound into charanas and parishads, schools are and associations for definite objects, such the guaras dianship of formulas and rites,or the study of Vedic hymns. They are divided into forty-nine gotras, or who trace their descent from the families, seven holy rishis,"and the mythical or other saints who figure in their traditions ; and these gotras are governedby strict and social regulations.Gradually the text religious becomes than the soul which created it ; more precious and than at last its guardian is holier even itself. freedom and ardor of the Veda The hymn are supplanted formulas of the oracles of Nature doctrine, by

follow

honored

paths.

mans-

"

Sam.

xxiv.

it. xo.

X. V., IV. 5, 7,

See Roth, in Zeitschr. d. D. M.

C." I. 80.

'

240

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

by

ritual law. of

corporate

authority grows

up,

by

force

intellectual

which religion,
the Brahman

and in the name of supremacy circumstances favorable develop into

caste.

The

heroic

life of the

Greek

cantons

in the
a

older

forbade Aryan spirit

class

this distinct of the

separationof

ious relig-

community.1 But the contemplative Hindus, passive, fatalistic, yearning in the lassitude of tropicallife for self-surrender to the caste ideal powers, to tendency, gave full sweep and became its typicalrepresentatives. is the history of priesthood in Such, substantially, It begins in the natural a^ times. gravitation The priestfrom
the rest
hood.

Of
the

ppWer

to

the
a

wisest

and
an

friendliest

men. or a

Ages, Gregory, standing for

In
name

Middle

Martin,

Ambrose,

the weak
iron

and
and

oppressed in
for every
act

the

of

God,

made

knees penance

fierce unshorn of

heads

bow

down,

and

do

the prophet stood in the mornBut where ing injustice. of a religion, its by and by stands the priest, his honors, but not his spirit. functionary, inheriting of every organizedreligion. In the It is the destiny Eastern the degeneration was arrested not races by science or political liberty. But, on the other hand, it escaped that sort of ecclesiastical Jesuitism which follows the deliberate refusal to recognizewhat these teachers bring. For the impulses of nature wrought it: a real faith,both not against through the religion, and people, made in priests devotees and martyrs after

its own The

kind. other
castes

likewise

begin

in

certain

rude

The

Roman

king were there one and the same person ; and, both in Hellenic into its own the political element gradually absorbed the religious civilization, and generaluses. shaping it to practical
and priest

and
rent, cur-

THE

CASTES.

24!
of
the tribe
The
castcs-

forms

of social

need.

A
must

portion

comes beother

It agricultural.

be defended

from

sudden the

incursions, in its quietsettlement

or as

along
as
more

Ganges
and

Nile.

The

Soldier,

pendent, inde-

of the free
scale than

holding more roving life,will

the
one

firmlyto the stand higher in

His
with function

traditions
the is social
an

Husbandman.
:

dispensab in-

he

assumes,

this social

nence, pre-emi-

burden He rules of publicdefence. special not as by the might of the strongest, so much by of the strongest. Contempt of labor in the the need ancient communities was comparative, not absolute. there In all of them are recognitionsof its worth, Works Hesiod's and Days," or the lives of such as the
"

early Romans,
labors of the
those

like Cincinnatus and priest

or

and
are

Cato.
more

But

the

soldier

prized than
The

of artisans

tillersof the earth.

to

pursuits

of settled life begin armed nomad

; and

exist,on

mere

sufferance

by

the

by
as

the

only so far as prothey endure tected class. Again, the handicrafts, military
subservient
so we

they arise, are and agriculturist;

castes.

to

the

wants

of

the

have

the natural

order

of the
ample, ex-

Veneration and
the

for of

parental disciplinesand
an

need all

exact

transmission

of

employments hereditaiy. Force of fellowship, tradition, custom, accomplish the rest. becomes Thus organized by the laws of presociety cedence in public service. In its originthe baleful is not confined to Egypt and India, caste system, which form has appeared in most but in some at a races tive certain stage of development, was simply an instincof Labor.1 effort for the Organization
1

methods, render

Quinet (Gin*
the European

tUts Religions]has
in

traced

between striking parallel

Hindu

caste*

and

classes

the Middle

Ages, another

epoch

of social reconstruction.

16

242

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

Plato himself, in his ideal

to

Republic,supposes

classes

in a natural division of labor, and originated of each to its own function to be that adherence justice the generalgood requires. I cannot doubt that which of a Plato's justice"is the philosophicalstatement natural ideal, which had much to do with constructing the earlier forms of society. An old Hindu myth gives the followingsolution of have
"

our
" , Hindu , ideas

question.
*"

Brahma

created bade him

son,

and,
and

of the

on-

callinghim
^^ ^

Brahman,
y^

study

Kinofcastcs.

wild
was

him.
not

son, more,

tfae attackS Of fearjng beasts, he prayed for help ; and a second son created, named Kshatriya,or warrior, to protect in defence, he could But, employed as he was provide the necessaries of life ; and so a third sent to till the soil ; and once as, Vaisya, was

g^

he

could

not

make

the tools, and

do

the other

needful
all dwelt

service, a youth called

Sudra

succeeded, and
The Brihad in

together, serving
says that

Brahma.1

Upanishad
the

"Brahma The law

is in all the castes; books

a

form

of

each."

and violent

the

older

mythologists deprecatethe
the

idea of

originof
from

system, and
God
; the

affirm

that all the castes

descend

One
the

priest proceedingfrom
his
arm,

Brahma's

head,
his

soldier

from

the

husbandman Buddhist

from

leg, the
which

s'udra from
castes

his
as

foot. the

accounts,

describe

consequence
A discourse the

of
as

social

degeneracy, none
been
to

the and

less represent them elective.

a

having

spontaneous
himself
:
"

attributed

Buddha

contains

legend of

following

purport
1 *

Creuzer, Relig. de VAntignit^ I. 227. Manu, I. 31 ; Yajnavalkya, III. 126

90,

passage
rest

to

similar effect in the Rig Ved* Mullet's Chips^ II. 308.

(X.

6, 7) is believed

to

be of later

than the origin

THE

CASTES.

243
ruler
a was

When

outrages
called

on

societybegan, a
for such service

elected

to

serve pre-

order, who
He
was

received

portion of the

produce.

them.

of lands,and afterwards or Kshatrya, as owner Khattiyo, happy. But his race was nally origiRaja* as renderingmankind and of perfect of the same with stock with the people, equality of the increase of crimes, the people apThen, by reason pointed

from among
and awarders in living of huts

themselves
"

Bahmanas,
a

or

suppressors

of vice fond

punishment,
who also

class which
; and

afterwards
were

became the

of

in the wilderness
were

these

ancestors

of the

Brahmans,
Other

stock.
were

persons,
wessa,

who
or

called

of the common originally themselves as tificers, ardistinguished Vailya, while others, addicted to but all these classes
out
were

therefore

hunting (ludda),became equal with the rest of

classes
came

sudras mankind.

at

first

from Finally, their

own
"

of

all these

persons led

who

despised
the

tations, castes, left their habiI will become

sawana,

and

wandering lives,saying,
Thus sacerdotal
a

or priest." ascetic,

class, being formed

caste.1

from

all the rest, does

not

properlyconstitute

the Bhagavadgita,givingthe philosophy of Finally, Brahmanism the subject, refers these subordinations on of natural to differences disposition(jguna} among in other words, to moral men; gravitation.2This of slavery offered by the later the defences resembles

Greeks

and
to

modern

Americans that the

to
a

and

serves,

like
are

these,

demonstrate do

worst

institutions
sense

compelled to
and But
must

homage

natural

of

defend
common
"

themselves idea which

by

the pretence of Hindu

right, justice.

the

all these of my

ties authori-

suggest
and

the intimation
"

theorist alike

is

of spontaneities order and

social

thologist, lawgiver, in their origin, that castes were, vine growth, pursuing,both by diconsent,
common

human did fail the

to

the

common

society. Nor of the people

1

sense

recognize that
is
,

good of and humanity of the separation

Sykes's Nota

This

legend, as
India

translated by Tumour,
Sec

given
vol

in full in Colonel

on

Ancient
*

So

the Vishnu

(Jmtrnal of Roy. As. and V"yu Purftnas.

vi.)-

244
the
classes
a

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

by

absolute

difference it

of
in

origin was
their ideal

self itof

delusion, and

refuse

place

history.1
As
The

far

as

lowest

the

regards the three upper explanation now given

to be

castes
seems

in India,

adequate.
caste
was

castes.

]3ut ;t js
;
an

noted

that
not

the

lowest

black

that

its

name

S'udrais
;

Sanskrit, but designated

tribe indigenous

and

that its caste

\\ould thus
the

appear

to be

the result of

degradation conquest by
than

invading Aryans.'2
are

There Sudra.
from the

many
are as

outcast

classes, even
"mixed castes,

lower

the

These

the

product of
of the

which,

confusion

marriages," according to
Michecaste

evils proceed.3 Doubtless law, all possible relation of the

that the whole let's opinion,

to the

system

but an was indispensable policyof aborigines the part of the Aryan tribes against on self-protection is entitled to some absorption into degraded races, regard in explaining this intense hatred of mixed which find throughout the Brahmanical we marriages, of lowYet there are also ignoblesources legislation.4 has had caste miseries, and it is plain that priestcraft ple its sh^re in elaborating a system which began in siminstincts of mutual help.
1

MUH

has

established fully

the truth of his statement

is

(Sansk. Texts,
an

I.

160) that "the universally

the earliest

separate origination of the four castes received by Indian antiquity." Abundant

or was

far fiom passages

being
in

aiticle of belief describe

the

R"m"yana
'

Krita white

age of man,
"

in winch "men
to
one ana were

"

righteousnesswas
alike
in one

supieme,

when

'"

the soul of all when

beings
"tha

when devoted

trust,knowledge, and

obseivancej"

castes

were

deity,used
says,

and practised one fonnula,rule,and rite, but one Veda, formeily later in the Tietft, or enteiing
was

c'uty.''
of

And

the

Bhagavata Pin God, and

the The
may

(IX. 14, tS) there

essence

speech, one
age.
2

one

Veda caste, the triple

and

erate degenthan

Unless

Aryan

occupation\ias,
calls the black and the

as

Maine
"

believes,a colonization rather

hated of India
out
"

conquest.
or

Rig
mean

Veda

skin the

(IX. 73, 5). Varna*

the

caste,
as

color,
the

Mahabharata

carries

idea, representing

Brahma*
the
"

having created
Weber
353
\

Brahman

and white,the Kshatriya red, the Vaisya yellow,

18
,

S'udra black.
Manu,
VIII.

Vorlesnngen^p.
X.
45-

Duncker, II.
4

12, 55 ;

Lassen, I 799.
p. 40.

Bible de t

Humanite,

THE

CASTES.

245
owed their

The
to
ern

Brahmans
sources

must

have

supremacy
origin of

other

than and the

physicalforce.
Mahratta
and the

In mod-

Kashmir

the

country they

^1"!!*ity.

still rule

by
has

brain

pen.1
his

The chief

Hindu

always

believed

that

power

blessing and cursing. According to Mann, by which they destroy their Speech is the weapon the priestVasishtha The foes."2 Ramayana makes the Kshatriya Visvamitra overcome by the miraculous In the Rig Veda, of his staff. botli these power for later times representatives of saints, who became alike fiurohitas;and the whole third rival castes, are
lay
in
"

book had

is ascribed
then

to

Visvamitra.
the

No

contest

of classes

arisen, and

without
or

regard

to

the
were

priest,3Even
the

honored was poet's inspiration he was soldier questionwhether it probable that any such internecine
the two orders
as

conflict between

that described which ends

by

poets in the

myth

of Parasurama,

ever Kshatriyas, really occurred, it is plain that nothing of the kind was ble possiuntil the caste system had become fully organized. the primary source been could it have In no case of priestly supremacy. Parasurama himself, in the legend,is a Kshatriya, and destroys his own est caste, not merely in the interof Brahmanical for the murdered priestly revenge tribe of Brighu, but also from motives of a personal It character, the Kshatriyashaving slain his father.

in the "extermination"

of the

would
war

seem

from

this that

the

reference

is to

civil

inside the soldier caste.4 Lassen

and

Roth, upon

the

whole,

regard

the

con-

" 9 "

Campbell
Manu,

on

Indian
33.

Ethnology, Journal Bengal Society, 1866.

*

XI.

Kurnouf, Esstti Mini, Sansk

sur

le Veda.
m.

Wuttke, Ge$ck.d.Heidt*tk

II. 321

Texts, I. ch

Mxht"h.,

IIL

246
flict of Vasishtha for the
over

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

and

Visvamitra

as

victoryof

Brahmanical times.

pression symbolic exorganization

the
name or

simpler life of Vedic

indicates, has

Visvamitra,

as

his

always represented the

in

cratic demo-

popular
races

element

Indian

faith.

And with

the his

outcast la

have

been generally

associated

mily.1
When
far

how

effected, or organization of castes was its development ever proceeded, is not easy to
this A rationalistic Buddhism have this existed
must

determine. of which

and

democratic
was

element,
pression, singleex-

distinctive
seems

but in

to

every

epoch

of

Hindu

thought;
the of the
war s\ so

and of

have

grovsth
of tale

Brahmanical
must

dered constantlyhinauthority. The have been

a

progress A civil
as

stem

therefore and

slow.

barbarous

destructive

ter characex-

the im
has

of

Paras'urama
.

implies

becomes

t re m

ely

probable
been

If, as
later

conjectured, the conflict occurred

a

in very

Buddhist

times,

it

must

still have

been

of

different for the

character

from Buddhism

that described

in the

legend;
a

historyof

gives no
as

record
of

of such

conilict in any

form.

Nor,

matter

fact,were

the

Kshatriyas "exterminated;"
the

either
once.

"three

times,"'as
descendants the
est oldare

poet Nputs it, or

in

even

Their

abound
seats

Rajputana
Hindu

and

the

Panjab,
In the

amidst

of

civilization.
the

epics there
:

still signs of

in superiority
treat

soldier class

tains the chiefas nary merce-

often

Brahmans At
the

with

contempt,
of

sacrificers.

marriage
or

Draupadi,3 the
;

The

word

vis

means

piobably
the

to

occupy

hold

(Greek, oiKOf

Latin, vicns;

lish, Eng-

wwvt), and
caste, and
8 "

indicates

settled

househf/ding
One.
.

class; hence

Vaisyas, the

agricultural

Vishnu, the prob.ihlv

preserving

Wheeler's

History of India^ II. 64

1.

Campbell, ut snffa.

Mahdbh.,

THE

CASTES.

Rajahs
whom
to

are

at being humbled indignant

by

Brahman,
in

the maiden

chooses

for her

husband

ence prefer-

all her

Kshatriya suitors.
to

Manu,

indeed, believed

have

been

himself

of kings, who perished Kshatriya,records the names divine of not by reason submitting to Brahmanical arm right. But this means only that the spiritual
claimed the and secured

mastery
as

over

the

temporal,
did in

in

maturity of both,
every
out

it afterwards

tendom. Chris-

Like
was

thingHindu,
of
an

this

worship
to
'

of

priesthood
iinuu,

hewn

abstract

conception.

With

whatever ends

base

elements

mingled, "

whatever

J"uMllood

ship oil

"fcai. that theory was justice and that puncould be administered only by justmen, ishment belonged only to the pure.1 As the Egyptian priesthood represented the national idea of absolute occasions to duty, and exhorted the king on solemn man the use for the publicgood,2 so the Brahof his power

exploited,the

was

held

to

be

an

"incarnation
to

of

Dharma,

or

Sovereign Right
the
treasure
as

; born

promote
The

of duties/'3 chief of
his

and guard justice appoint a king must The

Brahman
declares

ministers.4
rule force

Brihad

justicecreated
it the weak the Brahman

to

"Through
Therefore

shall
was

overcome

(Kshatriya). the strong."

inviolable, world-maker,
even

venerable world-preserver, transmigrationsare

the

rible gods. Horpenalty for assaulting

to

the

him,

even

with

blade

of grass,

and

barbarous The years

ishments pun-

for of dust
atonement
1 3 "

wet

slaying or mutilating him. as by his blood are counted

murderer.5
30,
90

grains
in the

of the
Mamt,
Mann., VTT.
I.

Down
2 "

at
Dwd. Ibid
,

his feet, and

Yajn

I. 354.

Sicul. VI 7

98,
314,

"5", 59.
215-

Ibid.,IX.

ji"; XI.

84,

IV

166, 168,

Yajn., II

248
ask Let

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

if forgiveness, him

you

have
the

confuted

him

in The

logic.
sea

suffer, and
fire

nation

perishes.

fails, the
prayers

goes

out,

the the

moon

dwindles,
He
world

if his is the is but

and

for offerings
the

people cease.
:

producer,the healer,
the
outcome

deliverer of which

the

of the virtue may

he
caste

is the visible without

sign.
to

He

violate every from

rule of

sin,

of distress : though extremity shall not be the king die of hunger, the Brahman taxed, his contribution being alreadyinfinite. He is be but venerable from his birth ; though a Brahman ten old, and a Kshatriya a hundred, the former years is the father, and all things are his.1 relieve himself To
its
mean-

invest

individuals

or

classes

with

an

exclusive

i"g-

divinitybelongs to all forms of organized And hitherto prevalentin the world. religion
to

worship of the Brahman is i'.stypicalform, of what which superstition, folly, and despotism it is capable. But such criticism,however does not explain the facts of history. We just, would recognize that sentiment, in itself eternally crude and blind expressionin this found valid, which old absolutism, so as to give it currency with human What it aspired to, in its imperfectway, is nature. in fact achieved only through the mutual stimulation of free, vigorous, The question which races. practical Brahman he, worship properly suggests is whether
it is easy

show,

in

this

whom the

the

progress of that

of

civilization has

shown and

to

be

real

goal
the

imperfectgroping
of
states

striving,
of service

whether

true

preserver conscience

and

sustainer

worlds, he whose

outraged, whose
indeed
the

stayed or
1

suppressed, is
Mann,
XI. 206;

shame people's

IX. 316; X.

103,

II. 135;

I.

100.

THE

CASTES.

249
laborer for

and

loss,

"

whether

the
uses,

justcitizen, the
has
at

universal
and

ideas and

last

adequate recognition
to note

respect.

Meantime

it is well

how

strong
the
most

an

impulse to this natural unpromising features of

absolutism of
a

veneration Hindu
not

underlies

life.
have

Brahmanical
mere

could

been

the

were

of

out imposed from withbody of priests, Priest and sentiment. the religious on people of the indispensableness alike swayed by a sense spiritual help. They comprehend that to bring

device

this is

to

sustain the world;

that

social order, custom,

;

derived are inspiration, duties is to recognize him that

to

from
who
to ore,

this has deal

that

the

first of and

this

to

give ;

stay this product is people. Here, in the crude

eternal idea, which in

destruction

to the

is the fine
are

these latest ages

gold of an still engaged

Here is at least a sincere effort to working out. himself divinize spiritual was help ; and the Brahman of the impulse, even servant a believing substantially directed it to effect his while he more less selfishly or
own

supremacy. He

wrought
He
bowed

out

the his
own

laws, under
neck
lower

sense

of

tion. inspira"

under
castes.

the

yoke
J

Responsibil-

which

he

laid

on

the

This

i
rd man*

the alloy of priesttrue, whatever certainly The craft in his legislation. tive theory being that primibelonged only to the just,its organ must power

firstmaster

himself.1

As

far

as

the wretched

Chandala himself
or

lay beneath
was

this incarnate the law. shall Let

be

god, so
him turned mouth

far the

god

beneath

violate into
a
"

its

precepts

he disciplines,

demon

whose To

food

is filth, and

whose

firebrand.3

Mami,

VII. 30;

Y"jn

I. 354-

Manu,

XII.

71-

250

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

neglectthem
Dante's

is

to

make

way is

for his

own

destruction.

Christian

Inferno

of Brahmanical
shall
extracts overturn
not

sin.

in these penalprefigured ties "If, as judge, the Brahman

shall himself

it shall overturn him : if he justice, the dart of iniquityfrom its wounds, he be wounded thereby."1 If he begs gifts
uses
a

for

sacrifice, and
he

them

otherwise
or a crow

than
;
an
a
~

for sacrifice, if he
outcast

shall become
low-caste
man, ;

kite

begs
in

from
the
woman,

he and

shall if he

become marries

next

existence he

low-caste

degrades his familyto her caste, and loses his own.3 For his marrying a Sudra the law woman, declares there is no are specified expiation.4Crimes will change his nature which into that of a Sudra in law three days.5 The forbids the king to slay him, Yet it even though convicted of all possiblecrimes.0 for capital offences, also prescribes his banishment declares it permissible to kill him, if he and even attempts to kill.7 If he steals, his fine is eighttimes
that of
a

Sudra

and, if he accepts stolen property, he

thief.8 Care is taken indeed that

is

punished as
milder
than

the
to

he shall be able

compound
;

for the severest

penalties,
a

by
law

penance

but

the
none

of recognition the less real, nor The

higher
are

his

own

will is easy
of

his bed

expiationsan
was
rose

burden.
roses.

Brahmanical

not

made

The
one's

demands in

of asceticism
caste

in

proportion to
is
a

elevation

life,and
matter

the

Sudra

freeman

by comparison,
Whatever

in the

of ceremonial

bonds.9
the

the rights

Brahman

possessedover
1 *

lives and
*

property of others, the

8

Manu"
Ibid
,

VIII.
III. 19.

15,

12.

Ibid
,

XI
X.

24, 25. 92

Ibid

III. 16, t7.

fl
8 "

Ibid

"

Ibid.,VIII.

380.
Ludlow'i

"
0

VIII. Ibid., For

some

350
curious

Ibid.,VIII.
on

vj7, 340. the

effects of this fact

relations of the castes,

see

Bnti\h

India,

1. 53.

THE

CASTES.

25!
should subdue his

law

insisted

with

energy

that he

be just and merciful, and return passions, good for of his evil, on penalty of losingall the prerogatives sell spirituous He must birth. not gamble, nor liquors, mate nor indulge any sensual desires. Nor must we estithe practical of these saving prolightly power visions, beliefs from which and of the religious they sprung. Alexander
"

and

his followers

found

the Indian

l wise, and just." Gymnosophists blameless, patient, under plines the Egyptian priesthood, And analogous disci-

to

the

Hindu,
ancient
to

seem

to have

won

like reputation

in the
tract to
was

world.

A
and

sent

Hodgson,
the doctrine

little interesting communicated by him

very

the

Royal of
of

Asiatic

in Society,

which
castes

the

Buddhist
out
a

author

confutes

of the

of

the

mouth number

Brahmans

themselves; proving, by
drawn be

great

examples
nor

from
a

their sacred of birth He

writings,
nor

that Brahmanism
nor

cannot

matter

race,

wisdom,

observance Brahmanical
that

of rites.

shows
were

that

many

leading
by
"bad

authorities Suclras

from
become
to

low-caste Brahmans effect that

mothers,
their

many

have

austerities ; will

quotes

Manu

the

into change a Brahman Sudra, that virtue is better than lineage,and that a less royalty without goodness is contemptible and worthas ;" also the Mahabharata, saying that the signs the possession of truth, mercy, of a true Brahman are that origiself-command, universal benevolence ; and actions
as frugal Megasthenes,for example (De Situ Orbis, ch. xv. ),descnbes the Bi.ihmans with in living; conveisation avoiding animal food or sensual p'easure. intent on senous And such as are willing to hear. Scholasticus,in the fifth ceijtmy, says of ihem : "They worship God; never question Providence; always in piayei tinning ton aids the light, 1

wherever and

it may

be; live
sweet

on

what

the eaith

spontaneously bungs ioith

to

in delight
a

the

sky

woods, and

song

of the bads;

These

were philosophers co

in fact the

sing hymns ideals of the highest

on

-God, and
in

deshe

fit fine

lite."

Greeks

morality and

religion.

See Mai

Polo,and

the Aiabian

\\riteis

India
,

also

WuttLe, 463, 464.

252

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

but one caste, the nallythere was of rites and vocations. diversity
woman same

four
"

arisingfrom
men

All
are

born

of
the

have wants."

the
*

same

organs,

and

subjectto

These
condmon thesudra. of

considerations should
ft
on a were

may
Hindu level
at

do

the

nioral indeed

we injustice caste-system in placing with modern slavery.

show

the

The

Siidras
of
were

the

mercy

of

fearful

system
races

oppression. Lt'galpenaltiesfor
neither
more nor

enslaved
in

less barbarous written of and

the

Code
codes

of

Manu
old

than

in

the

unwritten

of the

Slave

States

America.

Slitting

and ears, pouring hot oil into mouths sary cuttingoff lips and branding foreheads, are necesof any system which undertakes to make adjuncts in old time or any form of slavery its corner-stone, thraldom of the Sudra The was new. very distinctly stated. "Though emancipated, he does not become of

tongues,

free, since
natural
to

none

can

divest He
can

him

of

a no

state

which

is
as

him."2

possess

property

3 and must not accumulate a Brahman wealth, ; against !4 And lest he give trouble to the superior race a kind of colorphobia, too, certainly underlay the old bondage as

itdid the later. Whether

the Sanskrit

word

for caste

to the color of the skin or not, at (varna) really points itis certain that the lowest present a doubtful question,5 The black, or nearlyso. caste was indigenousraces of India, according to good authority, are negrito.0 called black skins," As the Dasyas in the Veda are the Aryas are the "white friends of Indra." It is so
w 1 * 6

Trnnsac

of Roy.
VIII
414 374-413

As.

Soc., III. p. 160

8

Manu,

Ibid.,VIII
;

417.

Mtrir, II.
sense

Lassen, I. 407-409
Schoebel

Duncker,

II. 55.

Ibid.,X. 129. In the Rig Veda,

vanta

has the
'

of lace,
on

tnbe. says

(Researcltes, p. u).

Campbell

Indian

Ethnology', in Jour

Ben". Soc.^ 1866.

MITIGATION

OF

CASTE.

253

preying of the fair skin on the dark ; and, in the overbearing oligarchy of British rule in the native posterity India, its penalties on are falling of those Aryan oppressors.
an

old sin, this

But
a

there

is this difference.
than

The

Brahman The

nized recogI)iffercnce
ofLastem

higher law
slaveholder

his

own

gain.
an

modern

made

his power

his law.

Caste, in its generaloutlines,was

of the social and faith religions and rested
every

outgrowth
:

westem

of the East
the

sltUCly-

denied slaveholding the West. that Caste held

affronted
on a

conscience
in

of

belief of the
:

reciprocal
under

duties

member

system

and restraints rigid responsibilities

on mere

rested slaveholding
a

force and
was

fraud, and the belief in

reciprocity

Man and incidental. exceptional escapes of from both systems not by miraculous intervention moral but by the deeper forces of his own Christianity, As these have driven American and spiritual nature. so they have in past times slaveryto self-destruction,

of duties

counteracted, and
tendencies
The of Hindu

continue
caste.

to

counteract,

the

worst

and military the Brahman

mercantile
and the

classes Sudra
;

intervened and
a Checks

tween beto

series of mutual
...

checks
*

pervaded the system,

. ... ,

oppression in the caste system.

which

graduated
"The
essence

its

their force.

tyrannies, king is formed," says Mann,

of the He is ordained

and

mitigated

Ro"'ahy.

"out
and

of

the

eight guardian deities,

protector

exercises

their functions.

of all classes in the

dischargeof their several duties."1 In the Ramayana, the king of that model Brahmanical for not Ayodhya, "takes tribute of his subjects, city,
his
own

use,

but

to

return

it to

them

with

greater

Manu, V. 96

VII. 80, 35-

254
beneficence
it
to

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

; as

the Sun

drinks

up

the
f'

ocean,

to return

the earth in
to
are

rain."1 vivifying
tears

Bharata," says
fall from those children

Rama
who and

his

brother, "the

which

condemned unjustly herds law of of him who the

will

destroy the
with is under

the the

governs

By

Mann,
his

king

partiality.5'2 a bility responsicent of inno-

to equivalent blood shed by

on

power.
courts

The

burden

the

him.*1

Me

is commanded

first dealing with offences: then by severe reproof,then of corporeal pain ; and to

large measure to proceed mildly in by gentle admonition, tion by fines, then by inflicuse

falls in

severest

methods

only

as

last resort.4
are

All persons

according to the and by reference

interests under

obliged5to adjust their controversies laws of their own order, particular

to

those

who

are

familiar

with

the

: kindred, fellow-artisans, cohabitants question of villages, decide lawsuits, and meetings may entitled judicatories. for the purpose There are are judges appointedby the king also in these courts ; and and an appeal lies from these to higher ones, to the king himself. finally lie is exhorted mild and discourse to conciliatory law codes abound in injunctowards litigants.The tions to adhere to justice by conscientious upon- him of the cases brought before his tribunal. investigation from the priesthood, He is to appoint a counsellor who shall check him if he act "unjustly, or partially, versely." perthe judicial And assemblies to are subject

the

same

rules.

We

are

reminded
not
2 "

of the official oath

the

of the
1 8 6

Egyptian judges
B.
I.

to

obey
11.

king
127.

if he

RtlmAyann,
VIII J/rifiif, These

Ibid.,B
Ibid
,

18. administration See Trans, of

VII.

104; taken
u.

VIII.
fiom pp

rules foi the I"a\v.

are justice

Colebrooke's
174-104.

elaborate

Digest of Hindu

of Roy. As.

Soc.^ vol.

MITIGATION

OF

CASTE.

255
Hindu his

should

command

them

to

act

unjustly. By
does
not

law, the judge who

real

sits silent and

deliver

opinion is
in the

deemed is
to

guiltyof
be lined shall make

deliberate twice
the

falsehood. volved penalty in-

The

unjustjudge

suit,and
The

injuredparty. of causes only

rather
than

king
who and

shall
are
are

persons

good the loss to the appoint for the trial "gentle and tender
wise, cheerful, and

austere,

who

disinterested." The dasa's

poetic ideal
was

of

Hindu
rr

royalty is
even

found

in Kalion

King Atithi,
invincible
no

who,

when the love

young
of
his

the

throne,
who

through
nor

people ;
he had

spoke

vain

words,

recalled

what

given,inconsistent only in this, that, having overturned enemies, he lifted them again fiom the earth ; seeking fire attacks not as water, practicable, only what was the forest ; to consume though the wind is its servant to amassing riches, only because gold gives power in war; even help the unhappy; loving honest ways homes making travellers as safe as in their own ; be to sending the poorest from his presence enabled
generous voyages
to
over

others,
the

as

the clouds
;

come

back

from

their

sea

making
must

enemies

tion feel the infec-

of his virtue."1
The
as

severest

caste-laws

have and

been

inoperative,
L()0sene,, ""^i^-

the

numberless

contradictions

absurdi-

ties of the code that

the

amply
made

manifest.

It is certain

could never legal in Mann which have been inflicted by any physical power the have seen, could have possessed; and, as we priesthood of serious doubt whether this legislation it is matter ever in India. To learn the had very extended recognition to other witactual condition of things, must resort we
1

cruelties

R"ishui"imi, XVII.

256
nesses.

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

I have who

alreadyalluded
before and
the code
at

to

the

testimonyof
era, tc

Greeks
the

visited India of

the

Christian

excellence

royal
that

They report
reference
to
a

further

administration. judicial courts judged without

whatever the
;

to

any

written
the
case

and

such

is

great

extent

present time, local

usages

written statutes.1 takingthe place of positive the lines of caste were Practically, always illdefined,
.

Interchangeahieness the
cnstcs.

like shifting "

. , .

waves

of sand
a

blown satire
"

by J
its
i

of

th e winds
.

of the desert
,
.

constant
T
.

on

pretensions

to

immobility.
some

Inter-marriage has
of the mixed classes

always
have valuable

been

and permitted, treated with the

been

respect.

Colebrooke,
described

in

paper

on

has subject,

the

and of lixed orders in Hindu society, disintegration of its "impassable walls the breaking down of caste classes. They were by this subdivision into mixed to endless multiplied variety at a very early epoch ; that the division into that it seems so hardly possible four distinct classes "ould have really prevailed in India for any great length of time. The of necessity, could, in case higher castes the occupationsof the lower; and the Sudra assume in trades belongingto the class could not only engage above him, but even "gain exaltation in this world and the next, by performingcertain lawful acts of the 2 "In f.ictalmost twice born men." every occupation, the profession of a particularclass, though regularly is open to most other classes. The only limitation is the in the exclusive to teach right of the Brahmans 3 ceremonies." Vedas, and perform religious
" " "

1 * *

Manu,

Maine, VillageCommunities, p. 53. X ,111. if. 81, 96-99, 128 : }*"?/" Colebiooke, in Asiatic Researches^ vol. V.

MITIGATION

OF

CASTE.

257 carpenters of live

One
or

ing buildemployed on the same be observed the same diversity ; and among may all other in dockyards, and the craftsmen on great laws works. Manu's caste are perpetuallyviolated, attached. the severest those to which are even penalties
castes

often, may six different low

we

are

told,1see

It is well known
of Madras Brahman officer ;
an

Bengal army has been high-casteHindus, mostly Brahmans, is composed of low-caste men, army
that the may
even

posed comas

the
a

and

be

private under

low-caste
as

assertion

of

natural

democracy

little

likely to be relished in India as the authority of a general by scions of fii"t families in America, negro Men in both of low cases. yet equally inevitable in their have been castes princes and had Brahmans
service.2
"

The

President

of the

the

Dharmasabha
a

at

Calcutta

is

Sudra, while
Brahmans
are

secretary is
in

Brahman. servants."3 in of

Three-quartersthe

Bengal
in

are

High-caste cooks
the army, and

said native

to

be

great demand
The for rules the

in

families.

Brahmanical
caste
man

purity make
to

it far easier
servant

highthe

become

to

the of

low,
caste

than

reverse.4
has gone

And
on

this
from

intermixture
very

functions
to
an

elaborate

chapter of Every thing in climate

favor this system
in justice shown
a

early times, leading regulationsin Munu.

and ethnic constitution
even

tended

to

in India ;
nature

yet

there
too

the force

of and

human

has

been

strong for it,

is marvellous.
to

transformingenergy
suggest
to

that the

Such

testimonies

that

resort

super-

naturalism, either
his

explain
out

man's

past

or

guarantee
of
caste

future
1 "

progress
I. 32.

of the

barbarism
*
"

in

Rickards,India,
Muller's

Allen's

CAtps, II.

350.

India, p. 472. Ludlow, I. 57.

'7

258
any

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

form, is wholly gratuitous.They

have

thus

bearing on the adequacy of Natural Religion to the makes them of great explanation of history,which interest in the present state of inquiry on that subject. tendencies Strong centrifugal and disintegrative
Democratic
reactions.

have

revealed

themselves

in the very

structure

of fae System,

ample proof affording

in which
to

that

the

free
were

impulses
"

of

nature to

its first foundations

or priestcraft

laid refused

yieldeither

social

pride.

Manu's
says Mr.

classification

never

passed
the

in

its integrity," land

Hunter, "beyond
east

middle

of India.
caste,
as

On
a

the

where

Lower

Bengal begins,
It
never

fourfold Indus
all
men

classification,ceases.
on

crossed
tribes the where of

the held

the

west.

Beyond
Northern

this

the
at

equal."1
castes

In

India,

present day, all

functions.
;
a

mix

even socially together,

or separatedby religiousdistinctions,

diversity
next to

In

the
name

South,
has it in

Sudras
never

rank had the

Brahmans
sense

and

their
is

ing degradIn
no

which old

given
of

Manu's distinct

Laws.8
castes

truth

the
a

doctrine

of four

has

longer

The validityanywhere. and Vaisyas are absorbed into the infinite ancient Sudras of mixed no castes, now diversity longertreated with contempt.* So are the old Dasyus of the Veda.
semblance

Brahman and
in

cultivators Oude

are

numerous

in Western and the

India,
chief
are

outnumber

all others ;

and traders, civil officers,

writers

in

the

Panjab4

descendants

of the

or Kshatriya,

soldier class.

"The

appeared. Vai^ya caste," says Ludlow, "has almost wholly disThe exists perhaps Kshatriya (as soldier)

A nnnls See

of

Rural

Bengal, pp.
Lecture

102,
on

104.

Campbell, p. 136.

" "

Monier
on

Wilhams's Indian

the Study of Sanskrit.

Campbell

Ethnology.

DEMOCRATIC

REACTIONS.

259

Rajputs of the north-western frontier ; the Y"ts and the Sudra, scarcely anywhere but among Mahrattas. holds his ground ; and Only the Brahman beneath him a chain of castes, varying almost infinitely less than seldom in number according to locality, In Malabar are seventy, and averaging a hundred. only among
the enumerated Wilson from
three
us

hundred."1
that
"

And
have

of the

Brahmans

tells
their

they

deviated universally
" "

duties and habits ; that original body, few, they are null ; as a literary
countenance

as

archy hiermeet
"

and

with
that
;
"

slender

from
to be

their

countrymen
of arisen the

they
and

have
that them

ceased
"

the
sects

advisers have The

ple peo-

"

various

which

denounce fakeers and

as

impostors."2
to the

gosains and
sway,
of the has

have

succeeded
contemn

old

Brahmanical

generally

these
one

subordinations
after

ancient

system, which
Gotama national

reformer

another

assailed, from
The
most

present day. festival in India, that of religious

to

Buddha

the

Jagann"th in Orissa,
one

has

caste. always,rejected

wNo of his anxious Sudras

a

in India," says
;

Max

Miiller,
is
as

"

is ashamed

caste to

and

the lowest
his
own

Pariah
the

proud
as

and

preserve away
enters

as

highest Brahman.
defiled, if

throw

their

cooking vessels
3

man Brah-

the house."
races

Sir H. Elliott, in his valuable North- Western

on

work

the upon conclusive its

of

India, supplies
caste to

evidence

the

failure of

maintain
"The

of immobility in that region. principle into attempt of early lawgiversto divide society should which
hold
no

classes, which other,

Even
" "

communion
at
an

with

each

was

one

broke

down

in India 'love will be lord of all/

British India, I. 48
;

earlyperiod. The plan of

Chips,II.

ReligiousSects of

the

Races of Elliott, Hindus^ 186*.

N.

W.

India, I. p. 166.
'

347-

26o

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

highly of granitetill beneficial. It is like the disintegration who had a it forms fertile soil. In practice, man a Brahman not or likelyto be Rajput for father was ashamed of it, down to be looked or on by his fellowthe barriers of caste men once overstepped, ; and and that mixture fusion of the people began which has gone to our on day, and promises to continue till degrading the
castes

issue

of mixed

has

been

there modern

shall

be

no

remnant

of Behar

caste

left.
'

laconic is rice
'

proverb
of

in North

says,

Caste

matter r'.c.,

It is
a
new

eatingor not eating with others, only. like the Brahmo hopefulsign,presaging, Somaj, One and better order of things in India."1 or
witnesses the author will suffice. of
"

two

more

Says
"

Rural
in the

Annals Sanskrit be
one

of

Bengal
one

"

That

the time

foretold Indian

Book of

of the
caste

Future, when
and

the

people shall
not

form

one

nation, is
the
have

far off, no of the the does

a name

who

is

quainted accan a

with
doubt.

Bengalis
about

present day
not

They
nation."
caste

them

of capabilities hesitate for trade

noble say

that

Finally,Maine is now merely

"

to
or

Monier Williams that asserts occupation;"2 and "however resolves strict,it practically theoretically itself into a question of rupees."3 Caste, in Ceylon well as in India, is now in fact a purely social distinction, as
and

disconnected

from

any

sanction

derived

from

belief.4 religious The Drama has given expression

I. p. 167. Elliott, Leiture
was on

to the

democratic

"

VillageCommunities, p.
the fact Hindus
on

57.

the

Study of Sanskrit
at
a

(1861). He
and New be

mentions

that,a few yean

that certain

before,it
young

decided who

meeting of

Old

School

in Calcutta

Brahmans,

had

lobt caste, should

readmitted

paying a large fine and

performingpurification.
4

Tennent, Christianity in fttdia, p. 91.

DEMOCRATIC

REACTIONS.

26l

it did to the opening of in India, as spirit liberties in Europe, by protest againstthe prideof caste, which is in fact but the feudal" "

modern
shown

in

^erature.

ism

of

the

East.

The

Mrichchikati,1 for instance,

that
to

describes

the

social contempt
as

befalls poverty, in the Western

as

language, indignant
the Eastern
"

suitable

to

world
curse

"

This

is the

of

to slavery,

be disbelieved when

you

speak
look
at

the truth.
"

The with

poor

man's
; he

truth

is scorned
a

the

wealthy guests
of

him
"

disdain
me,
we

sneciks into incurs

corner.

Believe

he who
term most

the

crime

poverty
rich

adds

sixth

sin to those
"

hideous.
:

Disgrace

is

in

misconduct

worthless

man

is

temptible." con-

The
uses

same

play brings out

thread^ "that
measure

Brahman

thief

who
to
a

his sacred
to

useful he

appendage
would It

Brahman,"
to

the he

walls

scale, and

ing pandit,"stuffed with curds and rice, chanta Veda-Hymn ; a pampered parrot." A king is, in another represented as commanding the passage, impalement of a priest. Again, the brother of a slain giveness king, dragged about by a mob, is set free by the for-

open Brahman

the

doors

would

force.

ridicules

of the

subjecthe
"

would
as a

have

put
of
:

to

death

unjustly. A
and what of
made
to

slave is shown say,

to

model will

integrity,
cannot

Kill

me,

if you

do

ought not

be

done." ordered

A
to

chandala, the
execute
a

lowest

all outcasts,

when
"

supposed

criminal, replies : "My

1

father,when
you

about
have
a

to

depart

to

heaven,

said

to

me:

Son,

whenever

to execute, proceed slowly; for culprit

perhapssome

good

man

may
1

buy the

criminal's

liberation ;

perhaps

Translated by Wilson.

262

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

son

may
an

be born

to

the

and king, break

a

generalpardon
the of rulers
"

be

proclaimed;
escape in and place,

perhaps
every
one

elephant may
; or

loose, and
l

prisoner
take

the confusion in

perhaps
may

change

may

bondage

be set free.'

The
in other

lower
ways.

castes

have

established
have

claims
been

to

respect

In and

Ceylon they
amidst
amount

the

only

astronomers,

attained

certain

calculating eclipses and

stars.2 It is
Influence the native tnbes.

fancies astrological of scientific knowledge, noting the periodsof the their

probable that
native

the intercourse

of the weaken The

Aryans
and very

with

tribes has
caste

helped system.

to

disinancient

of

tegrate the

popular rites in and agricultural origin,

all classes
a

honor

of serpents, doubtless

of

celebrated

in which prove
the that

unite, amidst
influence Most
caste

democratic

throughout India, holiday pleasures, has proceeded from

these

aboriginalraces. alyvays been free from

the

of
;

tribes have

have

many

bravely

resisted

invader
a

among

maintaining
their

heroic

barbarism, many
The the

rocky fastnesses, independence. And, with all of them have shown primitive
distinctions
as

their

virtues which
men.

ignore conventional
Bheels
are

among honest

described

"more

"

as Aryan Hindus," and their women having a higher positionthan those of the latter race, and in all reforms in behalf of order taking part actively Khonds and industry.8The believe that to break an is to oath, or repudiatea debt, or refuse hospitality, invite the wrath of the gods.4 Another writer speaks of the Kols towards the kindly spirit of each other." Kol girlis never The abusive : her vocabularyis as

than

"

" * "

Wilson's Hindu
See Mrs.

Theatre, vol. i.
Booh*

Upturn's Sacred India. Spier's

of Ceylon, Introd. xiv. " Laaaen, I. 377, 378.

DEMOCRATIC

REACTIONS.

263
as

free

from

bad it."1
has

language
"The

of this kind Santhal

is full of

whole

Bengali's village," says

a

It works in common. joys and sorrows gether. worships together,eats totogether,hunts together,

Hunter,

"

No
a

man

is allowed

to

make

money

out

of

here work quoted, stranger."3 In the interesting which extends the democratic over "village-system," back to the aborigia large portionof India, is traced nal tribes. They must, at all events, have shared it from the earliest period with the Aryan immigrants. 3 Ludlow as depictsthem in general terms "savages, with and them, yet honest scarcely a rag to cover

truthful, as
and

all free

races

are."
on

"A
the

tithe of the

care a a

benevolence
recent

expended

Hindus,"
the hill

says
races

stillmore noble and

writer,4 "would

make

people." However enlightened strong some the unanimity of the of these expressionsmay seem, best observers points at least to a strong democratic force as working from this direction on the Hindu
social Such

system.
the force of democratic
"

reaction
a

within

this has

oldest system of social wrongs,

been generally
ness

system which
Such
the

taken

as

type of their

unchangeableprotest

under

heathen

influences.

began with its beginning, and steadily smote in pieces; against its iron jointstill it broke them indeed introducing but preparing the way not liberty, for it by dividing the bondage to an indefinite extent, for better affinities. atomizingthe elements as it were
that And
this old Brahmanical the

code, wrecked
bears

and

stranded that

by
1 " *

sacred

instinct of freedom,

witness

Bengal yournal,
Lewins, Races

1866.

Annals

of

Rural

Bengal, pp.

zoa,

208, 216.

British India, I. 19.

of

S. 27.

India, 349;

also

II. Journal Bengal Society(1866),

151.

264
man

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

theocracies, always greater than his own or kind, and will despotisms,of whatever oligarchies,
was
never

abide

in them

as

in his home.
as was

But
Positive

further, so
of

far

possibleamidst
caste

series

changes to
stood
its

like these, each

*

has

always
*

nghts

of

really
managing the lowest the

by
.

itself
,

in
its

politicalmatters,
".

lower castes.

,", affairs

by

own

; suffrage

and

even

have

the always had, notwithstanding well-understood

as

theory of
defined

law, certain

and

well-

civil

rights, such
Caste
some

that

to bestowing property, learning

acquiring and read, and performing

of have
even

certain

sacrifices.1
to

usages

been

found

resemble

in

respects the ancient

Teutonic tribes.
to

popular

institutions of the
in many itself,

European
of all

parts of India, has

men

helped
;

Slavery equalize
slaves,

caste,
and
a

since
Brahman

castes
a

could Sudra
had

become

might
some

serve

bar, while, in Malasideration con-

slaves, in their turn,

than

have

higher social

of the free castes.2

must
a

Slavery
Slavery.

in India
on

be

from distinguished

caste.

It stands
.

different basis and wholly J

of
.

oriiri"

nates

in

causes

more

nature. superficial

According

to

the

Mohammedan

law, there

is but

one

: namely, punishment ground of enslavement justifiable of infidels fightingagainst the true faith. According Hindus, fifteen to the are causes enumerated, among -sale is the substance which self voluntary or involuntary of several, and punishment that of others.3 The strong language of the law concerning a slave's portant imreceived in fact many natural destitution of rights He could be manumitted ; if qualifications.

he

saved
1 *

his

master's
Northern
in

life,he could
Indm^
314, 4157 ;

demand
471.

his free-

s Buyers'

Allen, /W/"*,

Adam,
Adam
,

Slavery

India* 131-133. and Mohammedan

Law*

Macnaghten'b Hindu

SLAVERY.

265
;

dom

and

the
both

portionof
his slave

son

if the

only son
became

of his free

master,

mother

and

himself

enslaved for by virtue of that condition alone ; when otherwise, his bondage or specialcauses, voluntarily of its grounds.1 Contracts ceased with the cessation made of an absent master, for by slaves in the name the behoof of the family, could not be rescinded by him ; nor there was cial any bar to the institution of judiin his master by a slave against proceedings ; nor, practice,to the reception of his testimony thereon.2 We has in India must not observe, too, that slavery been alike It
was as

in the West
races^

an

incident
even

of

race,

but in

attached

to all

and

to

all classes the

society.
as

therefore
be

impossiblethat
as

relation

such
thing some-

should

held,

in Christian

countries, to be
its victim.

organic and essential in laws Notwithstanding Hindu mere cattle,though they could
with
the

speak
be
to

of

slaves

as

transferred

Distinction

soil,or sold

from

hand

hand,

and

"/Jjfwt"em

though India,

in Southern slavery. especially has been graded,3 deand past descriptionmiserable be said that slavery,in the yet it may fairly
we

their condition,

sense

in which
not

have

been

used

to

understand
not

the in

word, has

existed
on

in India.4

It does

claim

Chief foundations.5 religious declared the law that JusticeHarrington distinctly of slavery had connection and immediate no usage with and that its abolition would not shock religion," the religious of the people. Manumission prejudices that country
to rest
"

1 " 8

Manu,
See

Colebrooke, in Macnaghten, p. 130. VIII. 167; Adam, p. 17.

the accounts

given by by Thomas

Adam Ward

: and

in

valuable pamphlet

on

Slavery in India
from

(printedin London
documents,
*

"

Co.,

full of statisticsdrawn 1841), Chronicle.

*

official

originally prepared for the Morning

315.

Buyers, 314,

Macnaghten,

p. 128.

266

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

itself, on

the other

hand, is regarded as

an

act of

piety
law

expiativeof offences ; and by the Mohammedan it is expresslycommended merit. as a religious form in which slaveryappeared in ancient India
so

The
was

mild

that the Greeks

refused
"

it the there

name are
are

;
no

Megasin And these

to

thenes

that declaringdefinitely

slaves

India," and
even

Arrian times
no

that "all and in

Hindus

free."
which

in

later had

regions of
it is not

writers

knowledge,

easy

find

the abstract idea of chattelhood, as the Hindus among Western has wrought it out. Everywhere, ingenuity

for

example,
those scope,

are

traces

of the

of right

the slave to
as

heritance in-

; while

the "Law

of Nature,"
customs

the Romans had

a

called

ancient
was

ethnic

which
to

versal uniI of

always
that
an

favorable

his claims.1
exact nature

venture

to

affirm

nothing of
idea

the

Western
either
or

slaveryas

existed in the

older

East,

the Hebrews, the Persians, the Chinese, among the Hindus. The to systematic reduction of men

things could
instinctive
races.

hardly
It

have

been

conceived

by

these

self-conscious belongsto socially know who to generations, enough of ideal freedom comprehend what the negation of it implies. It is a full made satanic of sense possibleonly by a mature personalrights. The earliest approach to it,so far as I know, was by polished ethical philosophers of Greece.3 But
Appeal of
caste
,

there

is all

family likeness
races

in the forms

of

slavery

in
,

and
could

times.
not

And

that

theoretic

quitereach the absolutomoiogy. .gm Q" Western bondage was, within the limits of caste, developedwith extreme precision. The idea
to "

basis which

Maine's Ancient

Law,

158-160.

"

B. Aristotle's Politics,

l.

ch. 4-6.

SLAVERY.

267
abstract

of caste of

everywhere rests upon an men.1 organicdifferences among

"nature" be adored.
a

postulate
in

Thus,
to

Manu,
to

it is the pray,
to

of

Brahman
"

read
"

Vedas,

It is the

nature

of
a

a^ KschaSudra
to

of triya to fight,
serve.

Vaisya

to

labor, of

This

became

the system belief grew as up insensibly, fixed, and its distinctions hereditary. Then
sary neces-

further, by a priesthoodwent of development. With law those subtle of theirs, they spun out an ontology of caste. laboringclass represented the physical world tion" in their philosophyan
and obscurity the will) which and The maintains Brahmans delusion. The

the Brahmanical

brains
The

of

ac-

struggles up
itself in themselves the

a kingdom of unreality, soldier caste represented out of this lower region,

contradistinction

therefrom.
the in

represented

only real life,absorbed As for the lowest caste, it lay outside the ideas, an opposite pole of negation ; though
rcalm^ spiritual
it would from
seem

purely deity.
of
here

world
even

that

no

absolute
one

evil

was

affirmed, since

might rise into the highest it was attempted to through transmigration. Thus of the soul a colossal servitude by the structure justify
the lowest
caste

and value

the constitution

of the universe.

To

us

the chief
sity neces-

of this attempt is in its illustration of the

which
account to

compels
the
never

of injustice to render every form in mankind. of justice natural sense sufficed

man.

Mere

power

to

vindicate And

any

despotic

system

in the

sight of

in this fact
real

guaranteed from the first an ultimate of social ethics. and appreciation The
1

lay perception
en-

ceaseless

See Grote,on

Plato's "guardians,"or "golden and

silver men,1' and

natures,

on

the way
to

in

which

they

would

necessarily regard the

"brass

and

iron"

ordained

lower

functions and

destinies. Crete's

Plato, III. 214.

268

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

forcement ideal
bar
to

of all institutions to of conscience

a

plead their
at

cause

at

the of

leads

last, without

need

miracle,
It
as
was

true

commonwealth.
that caste in

inevitable been

should

be driven
to

in India,

slaveryhas
abstract
test

America,
of
nature

upon

grounds
it has
or

its falsity justify and right. To this

a

theoretic
before the

to

come,

whether years

thousand

Christ
to

two

thousand

after him.
was

years And

appeal
we

defences ontological since

seen

its refutation, the suicide

just as
American For
a

have

it

to

be

of

slavery. deeper dialectic

was

came on
own

to

rebut them.

And

Brahmanism
to

driven,
in

its

own

the

utter
came
was

denial
to

of its

social Buddhist

logicalground, principle.This
reaction. For

result

pass
the
as

the

Buddhism
as

abolition
moral and

well
on

physical recognizedmetaof all distinctions principles,

upon

founded of universal
cal
caste

caste,

the

consequent
from

affirmation

brotherhood.
has
never

And

this BrahmaniSo
close

lay the appeal to truth to honest inevitable was so error, The three thousand history pure reason years ago. of this reaction will claim our attention at a subsequent
stage of these
But
Democratic

fully recovered.

studies.

we

may

go

behind

the
in

of spirit Hindu

caste, mind.

to

far

nobler

tendencies

the
not

The

old r^Hi!-

recognize it at all. dummd. The afterwards names given the three upper found in these hymns, but not as indicative castes are of of social distinctions. Brahmana is appellative Vais'ya, Kshatriya,offeree ; and Vis, whence prayer; of the people in a general sense. the old Indeed cratic have seen, a were pastoralAryans, as we very demoknown disto have no community. They seem Hymns

Vedic

do

DEMOCRATIC

TENDENCIES.

269
in like
as

tinctions
householder

resembling
had himself The

those

defined
seer,

Manu. the

The

his chosen

Hebrew,
of his

who only of Brahmans descended from soldiers, and of Vaisyas taking part but of times when in government, the whole tion populathe nomination of a King.3 assembled to ratify is inauguIn the Mahabharata,3 King Judhishthira rated So the by the united action of all the castes. cil Ramayana tells us that Dasaratha called a great coun-

might family.1
or

offer sacrifices
not

the

head

epicsspeak

of all his ministers

and

chieftains
the

to

discuss
;

the and like their

appointment of a son to that all the people were

manner

share

government

to

express

their

gathered together in and preference, give

is the ideal of the
a

advice.

The His

divine Rama

democratic
a

prince.

sanctityin
ideal of

epic

is itself

ence transfer-

from the Brahman to the religion this soil of on Kshatriya; an affirmation of liberty chiefs praise him for continually inquirThe caste. ing after the welfare of the citizens,as if they were
"

of the

his

own

children, afflicted
in their

at

their distresses

and

joicing re-

the the

joy,upholding the law by protecting innocent and that all so punishing the guilty ; of bearers or people,whether they be servants
or

burdens, citizens
monarch
to

ryots, young
as

or

the old, petition

the istration admin-

install Rama the

move

in coadjutor brother

of

Raj."4
him from

Rama's

Bharata,
to
as

seeking to
the crown,
resort

his determination his father's

vow,

yield
a

in obedience the

to

last do the

you
1 *

appeals to not lay your

people. "Why,
Rama?"

people!
And

on injunction

Weber, Vortesungen^p. Mahibhlrata, B. H.

37;

Lassen, I. 795.

* *

Lassen,I. Rtaayana,

8xi. B.
11.

27O

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

both sides,and on peoplereplythat they find reason cannot judge the matter in haste. into little the first divided from The people were under clans to this day independent chiefs. Down of the the tribes of the Panjab, that oldest homestead free from consolidated Hindu archy monAryans, remain
and A

caste.1

populationof India, about fifty hundred native millions, are governed by about two Such is the force of the centrifugal chiefs. principle of local independence.2 Small, self-governed munities, comand traditions, adhering to local customs and exist all organized in guilds and corporations, of royalty and the shadow under India, even over caste, persistent againstthe protests in many ways of these institutions.3 The authority type of this free is the Sikh, whose Bible says : spirit
quarter of the
"

"

They

tell us

there

are

four

races

; but

all

are

of the

seed

of

Brahm. "The
"

four
not

races

shall be one, and abase

all shall call

on

the Teacher.
to

Think

of caste, but

and thyself,

attend

thy

own

soul."

the full titleof Originally conceded. Title to the religiously

hnd-

the laborer
"

to

the soil was declare who

The

old sages

that cultivated land away the wood

or

is the property of him cleared and

first cut
as an

tilled it, just

is

antelope belongs to the Even mortally wounded.4

land.6 This natural

first hunter
the

by

whom of

it the

feudalism

ownership Rajput princesstillacknowledges the ryot's

in the hold upon the soil and the

rightof self-government consequent

1

thereon

have been

See Weber, p. 3.

"

Westm

Rev., July, 1859.

"

" '

Sansk. Lit.,p. 53. Duncker, II. 105 ; Miiller, Asiatic Journal, New V. 41. Series,

Afo"", IX.

44.

DEMOCRATIC

TENDENCIES.

27!
times in what

embodied
are

by

the

Hindus

from

remote

"VillageCommunities."1 mune By this system the land is held by the villagecoman as organizedwhole, having complete village the for distributing produce arrangements
called the
munities-

coin-

among
small and

of a certain laborers, after the payment at different times, to the king fraction,differing the the local chiefs. The
has village
waste

its arable used

land

by all as head-man, appointed by or pasture. the rajain the old time, but now officer. a hereditary in all transactions He with is the agent of the village of taxes the government, the assessor according to
property, and
Yet
all matters with

cultivated

by all, and its It has its judge

land

the of

manager
moment

of
are

the

common

lands.

determined

by

"free

consultation with The

;

the

and villagers,

disputesdecided
is
plete com-

the

assistance

of arbitrators."2
the littlecommonwealth

of organization

ent judge, its collector,its superintendof boundaries, its notary public, its weigher and its priest, schoolmaster, ganger ; its guide for travellers, and police ; its barber, carpenastrologer ; its watch ter, its letter-carrier, smith, potter, tailor, spice-seller; and burner of the dead ; all functions being irrigator, in most and all work hereditary paid for out villages,

having

its

of the

common

fund.3

Within

the
an

limits of Oriental

instincts this littlecommunity is

a

independentunit;
all the

"petty republic;" containingwithin itself of stability satisfaction ; elements and mutual

"

organ-

"The

of every "ecured
" "

rightof the sovereignextended thing acquiredby hi" subjects ;

his own."

but

he was owner only to the tax. Theoretically, as fully they had their rights, practically
in

as

Ritchie, British World

See Wheeler, History of British India, II. 597.

the East, I. 179 Hunter's Orissa, (1^72} vol. ii.

Mill,British

India, I.

217;

Heeren, Asiatic

Nations, II. 259;

Westm.

Review

fa

July, 1859; Ludlow,

Brit. India* I. 61.

272
ized for the

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

and profit of each familyin the security otherwise or assigned it, and positionhereditarily of its contribution accordingto the recognized measure And these villages, it may to the publicservice. be added, have bound from very ancient times

been,

not

frequent in-

togetherinto largerorganizations, members.1 They containing generally eighty-four illustration of the principle of Mutual admirable are an influence over in mankind Help) and of its controlling of social life. The members of the earlyorganization India itself has such primeval republics,of which other tradihave tions been styled one vast no congeries," of political duty than what this form of government transmitted from immemorial has antiquity. memberment disthe They trouble themselves very little about of empires ; and, provided the township of perfect indifference remain to intact, it is matter becomes ternal them who sovereign of the country, the inThe administration continuing the same."2 that may not only be system in fact rests on principles with actual Hindu called congenital tribes,but go back The tie which to more primitive social relations. of these village unites the members communities volves, in" rf

as

Maine

has
the

shown

in his remarkable
common

work

family their origin in descent, Patriarchalism, the earliest constructive principleof The social life. same profound student, in a more of equal interest,has volume added recent to his between the Indian communities and previousparallel Slavonian and the Russian a village-brotherhoods,
on
i *

Ancient

assumptionof a suggesting unmistakably

Law,

N. Elliott, Wilkes's

W.

India, II. p. 4.
Sketches of the South

Historical

of India.

See Heeren, Asiatic Nations,

II. 260.

DEMOCRATIC

TENDENCIES.

273
of the iirst"

of the very description named to organizations

a

close resemblance
the old
too

Teutonic
to
"

townships,
be

resemblance and

"much

strong

accidental,"
same

"

in especially

their

presenting
united

the

double

ship, kinby common of and a exercising joint persons company These Indo-European affinities ownership of land."1 will of course origin suggest to the reader a common in the primeval life of the race sion previous to its disper-

aspect

of

group

of families

into different Mr. Maine

as

nationalities. from from forms the character of

munities, comvillage
Thcir ties" 2 hber..

infers well
as

other of

data, that the

oldest
are

discoverable collective he finds

property in land
individual of

rather
a

than

ownerships

though
among
races.3

periodicalredistribution
have been universal

the Jand

families to
The Hindu associated

among

Aryan

idea of freedom is certainly villager's the with rights of the corporate

body

of

which

he

is

member,
the

rather
of

than his
own

with

personal independence,
as

and

notion

dividuali in-

limitation of these
to

traditional The

corporate

is substantially new rights profoundly alterative to the influence subjected

him.

idea is doubtless

of this whole
of of

system,
ideas and

now

Yet
no means so

the
as

defect

European personal
be

stitution in-

freedom
;

is

by

great

might

inferred

since

these

corporate

rightsconstitute the natural body of political consciousness, assuming the form of organic guaranties
and sacred
trusts.

The

Family, moreover,

has

its

does not penetrate, sphere,within which the commune protected in part by patriarchal traditions of very means great sanctity. Personal property is by no
1 "

Village Communities Ibid.,p. 76.

*

in the East

and

the West, pp.

8

12, 107,

127.

Ibid.,p. 82.

18

274
excluded from
owned

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

the

system
less

and

even

the
to

arable

land,
vators, culti-

though
It is

by all,is
or

marked

off

different

by

more

permanent
too, that the

arrangements.

to be

observed,

absorptionof
is

prietary prono

rightsin
means

land

by
Hindu

the

commune

by

universal

in the
over

villages. Whole
and Central
as

races,

like the
are
"

Jats,spread
1

Northern

India,

described excessive

an

thoroughlydemocratic ; cravingfor fixed ownership in

as
one

having
land,"
the

the

of which

but to a very patriarchal, great coast, and in degree representative. On the Western the land is largely the broken hilly regions especially, held by privateownership.2 And the isolated homestead
not
so

every is government

has

his separate

share, while

natural in
an

to

the

Teutonic

races

is in fact very

common

India, notwithstandingthe

denc}rof
to

strong tenpopulation like the Hindu, agricultural

of
a

seek

the

advantages

communal

system

of

cultivation.3
found the
to estates
as

Seventy

years

ago,

Sir Thomas

Munro ject subtheir well

lands

in Kanara

owned

by
who

individuals inherited

government
; and
"

assessments, understood

who

as property rights

Englishmen."4
Ramaswami

Naidu,

native

of reputation official,
a

in the

British,service, prepared
of those in the ancient

careful

memoir
came

of
to

the tenures

States which

be

Presidency.5 It contains full the native sovereigns of India, a evidence that, under portion of the cultivators possessed full proprietary rightsin the soil,while another portion merely paid a for protection, tribute to the kings in return according
included
1

Madras

See

Campbell'selaborate
p.

account

of Indian

Ethnology', in

the

Journal of tfie Bengal

p. 114.

Societyfor 1866.
2 4

Campbell,
See

83, 134. JKev.tJan. 1868.

* B

Maine, Village Communities*

Wcstm.

Journal

R.

A.

S., vol. i. 292-306.

DEMOCRATIC

TENDENCIES.

275

of their products. It gives us proportion also a full description of the constitution of a village itarily community, and of the eighteensalaried officers heredattached to it; of their appointment by the and of the distribution king in newly conquered territories, the clearers of of free proprietorships among the land. "This ownership," says the author, "the cultivators enjoy to this day, because hereditary right
to
a

fixed

to the

soil is vested

in them."1
no
"

Absolute
commune.

is equality There
are

part of the ideal of

social parallel
strata
;

a
"

Hindu
and in

many

parts of India
Yet
on

outcast

classes

are

attached

to the

probablybelonging to indigenous conquered villages,

races.
even

these

outsiders boundaries

are

held
and

tative authoriletter-

the and

subjectof
of the

the

carrier
to. the

burner

dead, who
other

usuallybelongs
functionaries, a

lowest

class, is, like the

free

with proprietor, and

races

official fees.2
; nor
or

The
the

people freely
constant

discuss laws
of

customs

can

mixture inter-

of

more

less democratic

tendency,

India, have going on for ages all over of individuality Hindu failed to supply elements to that the village observed life. It has already been tion an exclusively Aryan institusystem is by no means in India, but indigenous also;8and, even it where been is predominantlyAryan, the native tribes have quite freely incorporated into its membership, and shared its elements of political equality. This hospitality is so characteristic, that the natural working of the system is probably preferablein such respects to the changes introduced interference,which, by foreign
which has been
i

Wilson

India, (///"/.
no wan

that "the 418) declares distinctly

from the
ancient
8

proprietary rightof the

derives tovercign
*

ant

laws

or

institutionsof the Hindus.*'

RAmasw.

Naidu.

Hunter's

Orissa, vol i.

276
in Maine's

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

jealous corporate than had to vested exclusiveness, clinging rights, viously preof the institution existed.1 Looking at the history discern hints and openings, as a whole, we may the subjectof which on light promise to throw much of Hindu zation. civiliindividual freedom, as an element The breaking up of the old caste-system of these local the one on hand, and the persistence liberties and unities of the agricultural communes on in facts of great historical significance, the other, are the idea of personal estimating the degree in which rightsand duties is probably alreadydeveloped among
view, has induced
a more

the

races

of India.
have

The

extent

to
ana

which

the

munes com-

Kshatriyas into of cultivators the further the class question, opens how much this permanent devotion to agricultural have clone towards -the industry may counteracting
absorbed Brahmans exclusiveness
The

of

caste.

affirmed to have been villagecommunity is now the primitive unit in all Aryan tribes. These political little Indian republics have been trulycharacterized as the indestructible atoms of which out empires were formed." Many of the largestcities of India were
"

sive villages.Every succesof the soil has been master compelled to respect with which units his them, as the real proprietary Wherever deal. the English have authoritymust abolished them, the people have returned at to them the earliest opportunity. Their extension, not only all India, Aryan and native, but even over beyond Java,2makes them the ground fact of Oriental history, and especially of Hindu character. And, interpretative
" "

collections originally

of these

1 *

VillageCommunities, p. 167. Raffles, quoted by Heeren, II.

260.

DEMOCRATIC

TENDENCIES.

277
and barbarous

after forms

trying all
of

their

own

bungling
the latest

political surgery,

experimenters in
of this ancient
race,
an

governing India find the main features best suited to the genius of the polity
consistent with social order. for preparation which
to

and

most

It has been

admirable

that

ship, system of full personal proprietorlong

is
ere now

should

have

been

accorded

the Hindu The

people.1
an

school-master and
'

essential

member

of this
J
_,.

s\stem; J
a

virtue of his function by J

enjoys
J

Education.

lot of tax-free land

"

In

every
am

Hindu

by which village

giftof the

commune.

has

retained

its old

form, I

assured," says Ludlow, "that the children generally are able to read, write, and cipher; but
we

where

have there

swept
the

in

Bengal,
Trial

villagesystem, as peared."2 villageschool also has disapaway

for the

the

by jury (fianchdyct}alike
,

tion determinaJunes.
T

of law

and

fact, is generally a part of this "

as

; system of self-government

is also

special
and

service for the

discovery of criminals,
Mr.

the

ing escort-

for
the and

Reynolds, who was employed years in suppressingThuggery, testified in many of the village praiseto the vigilance police, highest him in tracking offenders aid afforded to the
of travellers. for hundreds of miles. of India He
"

sometimes
as

went

so

far

to

call the

villagesystem

the best in the

world."3

For

full account

of the

see village land-tenures,

Mackay's Reports
once a no

on

Western

India,.
8

British

India.,I.
;

62.

In

Bengal alone there

most

were

less than

eighty thousand
to
a

native

schools

though,
in

doubtless,for the 1835, theie

133,
was a

part, of

poor

quality. According
four hundred

government

Report

villageschool for every

persons,

Missionary Intelligencer,IX. * Ludlow, J.66, 1I-344-

193.

278
The and each

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

panchdyct juries vary

number of
two,

in

their

in the

their and
*

members. the

composition, Originally

It is a judge one. common saying in India, In the panchdyct is God." its administration And, though not always incorrupt, the whole on is, according to good authority, larly singujust." The influence of the elders of the village often induces contending partiesto yield points of to forgivethe injury.1 difference, or even In Nepal, both civil and criminal cases referred are to the panchayets, at the discretion of the court, or of the parties members the wish ; the being always appointed by the judge, each party having the right nominated. The of every man of challengein case and in other cases, each five members, name parties,

party named

"

the

court

adds
to

live

to

their
a

ten.

The

verdict
case.

must

be

unanimous,

effect

decision

of the

These

paid any compensation for traveljurors are never The loss of time. or prisoner can ling expenses cross-examine and the always confront his accuser, witnesses The is commonly witness against him. the Harhansa, which is placed on his head sworn on with solemn reminder of the sanctity of truth. If a
a

Buddhist, he
on

is

sworn

on

the If

Pancharaksha

if

Moslem,
with
the
to

ihe

Koran.
of
the

partiesare
at

dissatisfied

judgment
the

courts

law,
the

appeal

ministers

assembled first to the

in

they can palace at

Kathmandu;

applying

satisfaction from to obtain failing the palace gate and callingout, Upon which fourteen officers are assembled the case, and give final judgment.5*
*

premier, and, if him, proceeding to ! ! Justice "Justice

"

to

hear

AT. Elliott,

IV.

India, I. a8a.

"

Hodgson, in Journal

R.

As. Soc." vol. i.

DEMOCRATIC

TENDENCIES.

279
the
natural

The towards shown which

Hindu

mind,

then, retained

bias

which was so republicanism distinctly RepuulCan in the Aryans of Vedic times, and tcmiencu* reached such tonic growth in the Teuenergetic Neither the hot sky of the same stem. races

of Central
to

India,
such

nor

the

caste

system, which
eradicate

it stimulated
germ.
to

rankness,

could

this

Its fires

broke constantly Mussulman Mahratta

forth in

organizedefforts
the

expel

the

invader

from

soil.

The

near came confederacy,which overthrowing first the Mogul, and then the British republicof independent empires in India, was a military central chiefs, loosely related to a authority. The iirst peaceful religious at Sikhs, or disciples^ roused became, when by Moslem puritans, tion, persecuafter ardent apostlesof political liberty. Even in the ended the long and bloody struggle which still of the peninsula by England, there subjugation

formidable

remained revolt

the

energy

to

combine

in

one

immense

ing againsta foreigndespotism that h#d been peelthan for more the race the land and demoralizing to deprive to compel the government a century ; and the colossal East India Company of autocratic power. A brief notice of some of the most importantfeatures
of British rule in India, which, it must
have been be

remembered,
will be the

succeeded
not

by
in
a

much

better

methods,

here

introduced,
of

censorious

towards spirit
a

people
reader

England, for whom

because such
a

I cherish review

most

cordial the

respect, but
to

will enable

do

something

like

their of the Hindus, and qualities are stantly condegeneracy, so much harped on, is, as we inherent told, owing to viciousness specially in the heathen heart.

justiceto the to judge whether

natural

28O

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

The
ForeiRnmisgovernment; land system.

English systems
have
the

of

land

tenure

and

taxation
of

been

more

prejudicialto the rights

than
,

village communes
or

the

TV

Mahommedan

/r

whjch

they supersededt
farmers of
revenue,

Under
took

the from

the latter,
a

zemindars,
to
a

fourth

half

name,

produce of paying themselves

the The

the ryot, in the

out

government's
thus
acted. ex-

of the

revenue

English
who armed
;
a

transformed

the

zemindars
the

into

positive owners,
and
on were

to paid quit-rent

Company,
distraint extinction

with

powers

of

summary
utter

the tenants

the system involving

of native the

was

which had stilllingered, favored rights, by of the Mussulman tion.1 administrageneral irregularity The presidencies of Bengal and Madras ing becomthe Ryotwaree system impoverished by this policy, tried, in which the zemindars were supplanted by

the

government

and villagers;

the on levying directly tax-gatherers, fruitful of corruption, this proved as

extortion, and
would often Mussulman of his

outrage
deliver

as

the other.2

The
the

bribe which
clutch the of the

the

ryot from
not

collector

would

assuage
one

Christian
with

successor.

The

was

rapacity generally
insisted

content
on

payment

in

kind, but

the

other

having money
the

; thus

not

only throwing the peasant

so

into

grasp

of

usurers,

that

he

was

at

last

obliged to
The

alienate

his

land, but
to

also

country of preciousmetals,
older the

enrich took
a an an

taxation
w

draining the a pany.3 foreigncomportion of the

assumed assumed city capa-

actual

crop

; but

of each

field then

English fixed for produce, and

35
Rev^
IXEast

price

for this, and

from

to

40

per

cent

of this fixed

1 2 "

See

Westm. Led.

Jan. 1858.
Indie*.

Ludlow. Ibid
.

McCuIluch's

MISGOVERNMENT.

28l

sum

as

its share

for ever." of
the

The

effect

was

to

absorb and in

larger part general to sweep

of
went

the

actual ryot's the whole.

income,
From and

away

the

time

Clive,2 the
on

material

exhaustion

social

misery

until, as in the Putteeincreasing, steadily daree plan,which was adopted in the Panjab, isolated efforts were the made towards to a partial return native villagepolity. In 1838, by the exertions of many ers, leading reformwhom were George K h conspicuous among ind.aSoThompson and Daniel O'Connell, the "BritClety' ish India Society" was organized, a natural offshoot from the great movement against Western slavery, for the purpose of emancipatingthe masses in Hindustan, and at the same opment time, through the develin that countrj by free of the culture of cotton labor, to abolish slavery in America by destroying The the English market for the slave-grown article. the land made ring with apostlesof this movement and eloquent denunciation appeal. They brought a of the condition the wretched flood of light to bear on Hindu Their speeches assailed the pretence laborer.
" "

that
"

the

Government

was

owner

of the

soil of every

India,
man's

with

the

field."

rightto take They proved

decreased the

what

suited it from its extortion

that

of

rent

made
tion cultiva-

private property
had

in land

and impossible,

that

in consequence
tax

in the ratio of two-

thirds, while
same.

assessed it for

continued

nearly
taxes

the
on

They

denounced
waste

laying high

the

cultivation of

lands, for the express

purpose

of

to preventingthe impoverished ryots from resorting these. They pointed to a long series of appalling
1 *

Gen.

Briggs's Speech at Glasgow, Aug. Macaulay's Essay on Clwe.

i,

1839

282
famines in

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

one

of which

five hundred

thousand

sons per-

perishedin a single year, while grainenough was being exportedfrom Bengal to feed the whole number another of which with a pound of rice a day ; and scribed They deswept off three millions in Bengal alone. ruin the of Hindu manufacturing industry, to sixpence a head and the fall of British imports down the rulers of the the population. They warned on detestation in which held throughout India, they were of desperate revolt that were of the elements ing. gatherof Hindu The horrors slavery were spread out of the British people, who before the eyes were just from their West then India off the chains striking of corporativedesbondsmen.1 Yet potism twenty years were yet to elapse,findingtheir natural result in the terrible scenes of 1857-58, before the worst features of the old land system in India began to yield to the civilization of the age.2 chievous misThe policeof the East India Company was as
as Pohce.

its
not

revenue

system. J

It

was

de-

scribed but The

a

"

as

only powerlessto
and of the

repress

crime,

great engine of oppression

corruption."
courts

venality and
were
-

arbitrariness among the

became of the

intolerable, and rebellion.3

The
Opium
trade.

leadingcauses

monopoly
were a sources

of

opium
of
revenues

and

its

compulsory culture
evil. At
one

enormous

time
were

fifth of the

of the

Company

Of

value pre-eminent
in

abolition of slavery and

and
as 8

George Thompson, both in advocatingthe with a thoroughness defendingoppiessedand defrauded native rulers,
wete

the

labors

of

eloquence which
was one

entitle him

to be called the

apostleof
slave.

East

Indian emancipation,

he the

of the bravest of

helpers of the American

See

si eeches

Thompson,

O'Connell, and
on

Societies dining 1839 and

8

1840, for abundant

Ludlow, ch.

xix.

Macaulay's Essay

Briggs, before the British India and startling statisticson these points. Warren Hastings.

MISGOVERNMENT.

283

perniciousinterest. The loss of effected was as nothing compared productive industry

derived from this with the moral ruin it entailed.1 It
was

the

decisive

ably remarka testimonyof Hastingsthat the Hindus were with temperate people before evil communication The toxicatin of inthe Europeans had corrupted them.2 use Brahmans to the by the drugs is prohibited the higher native law, and is stilldisreputable among In the rural districts intemperance is still classes. but wherever rare; English rule is established, and It foreigninfluence active, it has greatlyincreased.

is admitted
character

on

all hands

that has

in

these

localities the

of the

people
and

Mohammedans under The

Hindus

the effects of alcohol Mohammedan for the

changed, and that both are rapidlydegenerating, and opium. a

is nowise sible respontrade. It of the

government

terrible results

opium

repressedthe cultivation of the poppy as long as it able. was Ninety years ago no regular trade in East India Company's officers The opium existed. chests into China. began it by smuggling a thousand Thenceforward the "fosteringcare" of the Company eign, developed it till it "enticed all India, native and forChristian and Buddhist." In 1840 the Chinese chests of destroyed twenty thousand government for a than half the importation opium, being not more In 1858 the production in India, of single year. which England held the monopoly, for exportation
into
1

China,

amounted
"

to

seventy
crime in the

thousand

chests.
Mr.

Westm. II.

Rev*) July, 1859.

Half

the

opium districts"said
a

Sym
the

(Ludlow,
Dr. Allen

300),"is due

to

opium.
that

One
he

cultivator will demoralize

whole

village."
except

(India, p. 304) declares

knew

nothing in
in which

modern

commerce,
was

slave-trade, more
*

than reprehensible

the

manner

this business

carried

on.

Ludlow, II. 302. * Allen, See testimonies collected in Thompson's pp. 478, 479, 497. Friendf Yearly meting in London, 1839.

Address

at

284
Government,
never

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

down the

to

the

rebellion

of

1857, not

only

effort to repress, but steadily slightest the of it upon encouraged it,urging the legalization to resist a Chinese rulers, who as strenuouslystrove their dominions. that was land, Engdesolating scourge India and China in fact, "found comparatively restraints free from intemperance through the positive
made

of Buddhism
in these

and

Mohammedanism.
the most

She extensive

has and

lished estab-

countries

deeply

debauchery the world has known."1 in India," The intemperance of the British soldiery Dr. Jeffreys in 1858, "appears to be bounded wrote It is command. only by the opportunities they can
rooted
"

to

lamentable minds

extent

associated

with
on

the

of the

natives.

Once,

in Christianity quiries making inmy descendants

a

into the

creeds the

of certain

black

of

Europeans
Mussulman

in

Upper
me

Provinces,

well-informed

Christians,that he they were plicity) knew it (speaking not disrespectfully, but in all simdrunkards. from their being nearly all of them The example of Christians, and the efforts of government for the sake of revenue, to multiplyspirit-shops Drunkenness are changing the habits of the natives. is becoming prevalent, whereas formerly there were
informed
few who touched salt
enue

alcohol

in any

form."2 fifth of the

rev-

The
salt
mo-

monopoly
"f the

afforded

another

Company.
salt-mud

The

peasants

were

for-

nopoiy.

bidden

their main

grain of
own

door

Not a agricultural purposes. the sun-evaporated salt left by nature at his could be placed by a native on his tongue, or
affirmations
are

the very reliance for

of the

river mouths,
"

These

last facts and

taken

from

work

The British on by Dr. Jeffreys

Army
*

in India

(London, 1858). See, also,Ludlow, II.

303.

Jeffreys., p 19

MISGOVERNMENT.

285
the trade in salted fish was

removed

into his hut At

one

"

and

destroyed.
article the
cost
was

time

the

priceof

this necessary
cent

raised to thirteen

hundred

per

above

production.1 The by English supersedureof native manufactures of suffering amount machinery created an R. f in India classes to manufactnumerous scarcely among The be paralleledin the history of labor. a in England, slave-growncotton of America, manufactured had forced on a woven was once people who
of
WCSt

for their native

own

use

the finest fabrics in the world.

not

The

looms

that

long

before

produced annually

stopped eightmillions of piecesof cotton goods were cities and villages, the altogether. Once flourishing ruined. of a busy and thriving seats were population, Dacca, for instance, once a city of three hundred sand thouthousand to sixty inhabitants,has been reduced
;

and

its transparent muslin, will pass

the

"woven

wind,"

whole is
"

dress of which
a

almost

thing of

through a finger-ring, a past."

were across

The and In

older

governments

careful
the

to

build
J

roads

secure

communication

country.

T Internal

1857, the "Friend

one

of India"
we

confessed made Four been

as

thatcommum-

"for

good

road

have

we or

havecatlon'
five thousand in

suffered twenty to
miles of railroad

4 disappear."

have

since
as

projectedand
several

great part constructed,

miles have of canal
to ;

well native
the

thousand

but

the

begun
created

recover

from

hardly industry can terrible discouragement

internal the

by

the
on

long-continued neglectof
the

communication,

part of the invaders, and

*
*

1 8

Ludlow, Thompson, "c.

Ludlow, I.
10.

Allen,449. Allen, See, also, p.

327.

286

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

incessant

shocks
to

of

conquest

and

civil strife which

they helped
The
A Agriculture.
. .

introduce. Purana
the sacred

Skanda

describes
stream, broke
'

the

descent

of

Gan^a,
f

through t"
fall and

the tresses

of her
waves,

Vishnu, which

her

scattered

She followed to the land. bearingfertility she was whom to the steps of Bhagiratha, granted, of heaven, as reward of his a drop of the waters the consecration in Such all-conquering devotion. and love for mythic lore of the popular enthusiasm is streams. Nothing in the Ramayana fertilizing more eloquent with genuine national feelingthan the is identified episode in which the descent of the waters of all the gods. It represents the beneficence with
"

them

as sons

sent

to

revive

the

ashes

of the

to Sagara, reduced of the all-nourishing earth,in spouse Fire," because they reproached him

of

sand seventy thoudust by Vishnu,

his with

avatara

of

carrying

away

the had

sacred

horse in

of their father's

which sacrifice,

These through the worlds. the symbols of an are agricultural people ; and the like the Greek is manifestly whole myth of Ceres and of the death re-birth of and Proserpine,significant vegetation. Serpents,ill the popular mythology of India, seem this oldest interest of the community. to represent

they

sought

vain

The

festivals in honor
of the

of these

first owners

and

pants occu-

old, rich and

children crowned have with

ground are celebrated by young India. poor, throughout Western

and The

holiday, and
flowers.
are

the the

In

serpent figures are Sutras, Puranas, and

with respect, The lar poputhe

Epics,these
and faith

animals
in

always mentioned
abound.
to

incarnations ascribes

serpent form

this veneration

for gratitude

MISGOVERNMENT.

287

shown forgiveness husbandman of his who

by

the

killed

of serpents to the queen her little ones by the stroke

plough. of this agricultural Thfe prodigious monuments related to the old Hindu ardor, so intimately religious faith,have been treated by later invaders very much similar achievements as by the ancient Peruvians were of South America. treated by the Spanish conquerors
Of
the

innumerable

canals, reservoirs
native
were

and

tanks

for

built by irrigation,

and

Mussulman
to

ments, govern-

tlecay,and the in contributions paid in by the people for their repair, with ancient custom, accordance were appropriated to
other

great numbers

suffered

purposes.1 Wherever afforded, as especiallyin

the

has been opportunity the Punjab of late years, the improveentered with vigor on natives have ment of these long-neglected sion works, and their extenthe upon
a

suitable scale. forces demoralizing When

of
we

To

such

the

Hindus

have
_ .

been

for centuries. subject J of the and condition filthy

read

therefore
Inferences.

the villages,

destitute

agricultural population, for explanationeither to shall not need to resort we shall to religion. We caste or appreciate McCulloch's abundant proofs that this poverty and misery are owing to that misgovernment of which we largely We outline.2 shall here have given but the merest the force of such appreciate testimonyas that of the Bombay Times," in 1849, ^iat the boundaries of the of the East India Company could be discovered dominions by the superior condition of the country subjectto their sway ; people who had not become despondent state
*
1 8

of the

Ludlow, II. 317;

Commcrc.

Arnold's
on

Dalhousie^

II. 282.

Dut., artic'e

Ktiit Indies.

288

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

or

as

that
common

Campbell's, who "the longer we

and grave

affirms, in his work

possess
a

on

India,
more as

province,
"

the
or

does half
a

perjurybecome
century
Provinces We
shall
were

Sir

Thomas

Munro's,
of
the in

since, that
"

the the

habitant inmost

British

abjectrace
with energy of Commons

all India." which

appreciate the
in had the been

Burke
the have

declared

House
driven of

that, "if

English
left and
no

from
their

India, they would

dominion
than

better

traces

hyenas
and
a

Systematiccontempt
m-treatment-

tigers." outrage by British

of
course,

officials
that
common

^ an

as

so

niuch

matter

for

Englishman
looked
servants

to
as a

treat
a

natives with

was civility

upon had

prodigy ; and the government general impression that it

into bad odor with the Company.1 bring one Impressment, plundering of houses, and burning of the kick, the buffet, the curse, mal-treatment villages,
would in every

form,

such
"

as

made that the

men

like hold

Metcalfe,
for
a

wonder Napier, and Shore year," brought the ryots to the that

we

India
at

conviction

last, as
of

missionaries
"the

confessed

in their conference

Christian

religionconsisted

and drinking freely, the rightsof niggers."2 The of gross immoralities Europeans in the early period of British rule in India of the term Christian in fact led to the use as a byword, of "bastard ;" and, "had having nearly the sense laid aside, it would been have the name altogether been a great blessingfor those parts of India most frequented by Europeans."8 It can therefore hardly
1 a 8

caste, eating beef,

1855, in having no trampling on

Hon

F.

J. Shore.
II.

See, also,Speechesat Friends' India,tp. 107

Meeting

in

London*

1839

Ludlow,

365.
;

Uuyers's Northern

Sanger, History of Prostitution^p. 423

Rev. for July, 1808.

MISGOVERNMENT.

289
in the than than
out
;
a a

be

held

suggestiveof specialhardness
heart, when
sway,
we

natural

heathen

find, after
there
are

more

century
hundred

of British thousand of

that

less

Christian

converts

in India millions the

of and

tion populathan of

nearly
thousand

two

hundred out

less

twenty

of

millions forty-five

Bengal.
It remains
to

add

one

more

item Not

to

this

sad
C1

detail
Slavery.

of Christian
the

influence

in India.

only did
f

existent gratuitouslysanction Mohammedan Hindu and law slaveryby interpreting in its interest,needlesslyplacing it under the shield of institutions of the natives ; respect for the religious the sale not only did it everywhere permit and justify

Company

"

of this kind
an

of property external for

among

them for

;
a

not

slave-trade,

courage only enlong period

carried

on

the

supply
secure

of India the
arrears

by
of

Arab Sea

traders

with

the

coast

of Africa

and

Red

; not

only
It the
men

sell slaves

itself,to

revenue.

steadilyresisted
abolition
as

numerous

endeavors the

to

obtain

of Hindu

slaveryon

part of such

Harrington and Baber, from 1798 to 1833.l Not directed till 1811, was against the slavelegislation trade ; and the law then made prohibitedthe sale of such persons only as should be brought from abroad
for
this
no

express purpose,
effect.
the

"

limitation which of British

whole

rendered

it of

increased

Every extension traffic,opening the

fresh victims.2 for
In

territory
to

domain
a

of importation by Earl
was years, Parliament

1833,

duced bill intro-

abolishing slavery in five emasculated in its passage so through of Wellingof the Duke by the opposition

Grey,

*
*

See the

stated in Adam's case fully Slavery in in Parliamentary Documents Judge Leycester,

India.

for 18^9, No. 138, p,

315.

19

290 and

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

but a timid recommendation finally far the evil as to mitigate to the Company be found convenient should courage enas ; serving only to of the and confirm it. The earnest agitation subjectby the British India Societyin 1838 aroused fresh interest; but the East Indies and Ceylon were excepted from the great Colonial Emancipation of that I learn that any complete Act of Abolition Nor can year. has been What passed,down to the present hour. is the fact that this here especially to observe we are
ton

others, as

to come

out

continuance
excuse

of
a

so

barbarous

system has
for the

not

had

the

of

necessary

regard

and prejudices

interests of the
made that the

tigation people. Judge Vibart, aftiikan invesported 1825, reby desire of ^overnmcnjjp classes of tlfFrlindus were respectable of abolition, and very -that the

stronglyin
had

favor
no

medans Moham-

great objection.Macaulay, as assured by the ablest of Secretary of the Board, was

the
no

Company's civil servants danger in the attempt.

Parsees,
and

that In

there

would

be

1833, four
to

thousand

Hindus,

Mohammedans

memorialized abolish the

Parliament, thanking it for its exertions

slave-trade.1
the would that of

It

was

the law

opinion of
itself,if
slaves immediate of

Mohammedan free
the almost

lawyers that rightly executed,

in India;
nor

able

all the

has with

Hindus

any

connection

their But
J raits

or religion
we

their system from

not to

caste.

hasten

this be
an

criticism
"/
*

to

an

estimate without

which
ol

could reference

fairly presented
oft-told

otherwise history, neecj[ng no fresh recital. Charges of gross depravityare constantly brought againstthe Hindus
Hmdu character.
1

such

Pamphlet
"

on

from official documents; Slavery in India, compiled largely

printed by

Waid

Co., London, 1841.

HINDU

CHARACTER.

29!
and
in

as

people.

Such

writers

as

Mill

Ward

seem

to

be

incapable of finding any

good

them.

Of

these

sweeping accusations, falsehood, vindictiveness, and the most been have sensuality frequent. The best in refuting them.1 Dr. authorities Jeffreys agree allows himself the extravagant statements that "every child is educated to avoid speaking the truth, carefully of interest or and "that necessity," except as a matter each for the other's ruin or death they will compass Colonel Sleeman, on the contrary, tells smallest object."
us
a

he
man's

has

had

hundreds

of

cases

before

him
on

in which his

life depended or property, liberty, he has

telling
Mr.

He

; and

refused

to

tell it,to

save

either.

of thirty those whose were Elphinstone, opportunities in the highest positionsin Indian scribes service, deyears "for and the Rajputs as remarkable courage with self-devotion, combined gentleness of manners softness of heart, a boyish playfulness and and an "No infantine simplicity." almost set of people among he continues, "are the Hindus," so depraved as the The are villagers dregs of our own great towns. everywhere amiable, affectionate to their families, kind all but the government and towards to their neighbors, The honest sincere. and townspeople are different, but quiet and orderly. Including the Thugs ami

Decoits, the

mass

of crime

is less

in

India

than

in

Thugs are almost a separate nation, The and the Decoits are desperate ruffians in gangs. merciful and Hindus a mild are gentle people, more freedom Their than any other Asiatics. to prisoners from they point in which gross debauchery is the in to most advantage ; and their superiority appear

England.

The

See

especially Montgomery

Martin's

admnable

Report

on

tfie Condition

of

India

292
of purity

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

self-esteem."1 to our flattering "Domestic slaves are treated exactly like servants, regarded as belonging to the except that they are family. I doubt if they are ever sold."2 It is highly that Siva-worship through Hindus creditable to the the lingam, once the symbol of reproduction, widely found "no hold on to have .spreadin India, is now and to suggest no offensive ideas." the popularfeeling, "that it is It is but justice to state," says Wilson, India unattended in Northern by any indecent or ceremonies it requiresa lively indelicate ; and nation imagiin its symbols to the to trace any resemblance they are supposed to represent. The general objects of indecency from absence ligious public worship and rein the Gangetic provinces was establishments Stuart, and in fully established by the late General better authority to actual practice every thing relating
manners
'r

is not

cannot

be
to

desired."3
the

The

licentious
same

customs

buted attri-

state
to

to be

sakti-worshippersthe and then seldom practised, by

authorities
; and

in secrecy

be

held illicit even

for sensual

their supporters, if instituted

Statistics show that gratification.4 the profligacyof the large cities of British India of that of European communities hardly exceeds And similar extent. to the amount existing actually habits of Europeans have the largely contributed ;

merely

while form
these

the

efforts of the

government
done well much
as

to
to

diminish

this

of

immorality have
influences,
as

counterbalance the older

bad

ceremonies religious
1

which

suppress involved it.6

to

British World History of British India, pp, 375-381. See Ritchie,

in the JSeut,

186.
* 8 8

Elphmstone, I.
Wilson, Essays

350.
on

Religion of Hindus

', II.

64

; I. 219.

I. 261. Ib^d.,

Sanger, History

of Prostitution, p. 423.

HINDU

CHARACTER.

2p3
as

The morals
to

of opinion great diversity of the Hindus

is doubtless

to

the
1

practical
"

due

in

part
must

Moiality.

the great varieties of moral

so

type that

exist in that of influence

complex a population as India, subjected to such variety of foreign

for thousands that the of years.
have It does been
more

immense

and

not

appear,

however,
to

Hindus

inclined

is true of them This than other races. sensuality even as sharingthe almost universal cultus of the productive whose in nature, to principle symbols seem have representedthe sacred duty of man to propagate of his kind. They have always had sufficient sense the statues of their gods in a way proprietyto carve their vices must not to give offence to modesty.1 Yet the whole have been such as belong to the impreson sible of tropical the passiveyieldraces, ing temperament fibre that obeys the luxury of illusion and reverie.

The

truth

must

be somewhere

between

the the

unbounded
dus Hin-

praiseslavished
and
the

by

Greek

writers
censure

on

ancient

excessive criticism.

of

their descendants

by
the

Christian
It is in
case no

unmindfulness
a

of these

in probabilities for this

non-

that I add

few

more

good

words

Christian
w

people

from

competent

witnesses.

Malcom

Bengal sepoys in his day without admiration." in general Hastings said of the Hindus that they were gentle and benevolent, more tible suscepfor kindness them less of gratitude shown and inflicted than prompted to vengeance for wrongs any people on the face of the earth; faithful, affectionate, tation submissive to legal authority." Heber, ^hose detesof India was of the religions intense, yet records Hindus similar impressions. "The brave, courare
could
not
w 1

think of the

Stevenson,

in

Jour. Roy. As.

Sot..* 1842, p. 5

294

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

for knowledge and mo'-t intelligent, eager improvement; sober, industrious, dutiful to parents,
teous,

affectionate

to

their

children, uniformly gentle and

patient,and
attention I
ever on

more

to

their

and easily affected by kindness and than any people wants feelings Doubtless
these

met

with."1
other

statements,
;

like

those have

the

side, are
in

highly colored
of the "The character

but and

they
says

great value
of "arc

view
authors.

portuniti op-

their
a

Hindus,"

Harrison,2
relations

mild, peaceable people, fulfil the

tolerable
exactness,

naturally kind to each other, and always ready to be hospitable, where even poverty might exempt them : they are It is a common deficient in filial affection. never thing walks of lifebestowing a third to find people in humble half their scanty income or even on aged and destitute ardent tribute parents." I will only add the somewhat
of
life with of the

Mohammedan Akbar

Abul

Faz'l, vizier

of the

great

Sultan

in the seventeenth
ft

competent

witness.
"are

Ay
of

in Akban\

century, a thoroughly The Hindus," he says, in his affable, cheerful, lovers religious,

mirers justice, given to retirement, able in business, adof truth, grateful, and of unbounded fidelity. their soldiers know And it is to flyfrom the not what field of battle."

What such
pore !
must
a

inhumanity must
race

have

been

needed Delhi and

to

rouse

to

the

barbarities of

Cawn-

It

be
not

remembered
tne

that these of the

barbarities

were

Cruelties of
the
war.

work
were

t]iat ti^y

people as a whole, and quiteparalleled by cruelties on

invaders of both
were

the

part of the
The

Christian horrors

before

and

afterwards.
1

Cawnpore
*

the work

Hebcr's

II. 369, 409. J"mrttalt

English Colonies, p 64, 66.

HINDU

CHARACTER.

295

ents, body guard of savage adherhis own soldiers "refusing the women to massacre and children, which was accomplished by the vilest of the city," while his own officers sought in vain to dissuade him from his monstrous purpose.1 Dr. McLeod invokes his countrymen to public confession, of indiscriminate with shame and sorrow, slaughter in cool blood by Christian gentlemen, in a perpetrated below them the level of their enewhich sunk mies."1 spirit
"

of Nana

Sahib

and

his

The

atrocities of this war, in fact the natural

to

on

the

part of the
an

Hindus,

were

excesses

of

able excit-

people,driven
crimes seventh
as

madness,
massacre

not

the

causeless

of

merely by such the loyalthirty-

Sepoy regiment,at Benares, such treacheries the broken as promise of higher pay to the army of convictions of the Oude, such outrages on the religious of cartridges native soldiers as the compulsory use greased with pork, but by a long-continuedseries of
enormities
that

had

become

habitual.

As
or

illustrative
two

of these, the fact will suffice that, a year the revolt of

before

1857, investigations by

the

ment govern-

brought to lighta regularsystem of torture of the most even revoltingdescription women, upon which for years had been applied in many parts of India by native officers of the Company, in the collection evidence of its revenues This and for extorting insurrection was but the last of a series growing out of
similar
was

causes,
common

and

upon of

the

greatest scale

of

all.

It

gared dispossessed kings and begall to arms chieftains starting up and springing and India ; the issue of a policyof annexation over alliances," pushed for half a century by "subsidiary fraud, and force ; of the industries of millions bribery,
cause
1

the

McLeod,

Davs

in NortJtern

India,

p. 68.

296
drained, and

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

the hoarded

wealth

of ages

swept off,to
;

fillthe coffers of

rapaciousforeign masters
contempt
race

of systematic

outrage and

as

of the

lower

animals,

practised upon
and of
a

whose
runs

literature is

magnificent,
;

whose

civilization

beyond
shut

historic record
out

system of exclusion, which

from office and
the

the native of

India

: military

issue, in
the

civil or whether opportunity, short, of monstrous misgovernmen

ment,
to

which

noblest which

had

labored
the

ally ineffectu-

reform, and
an

had

made

justsuch
mind
or

in

earthquake as this, for every India, merely a questionof a few years

It could
had
:

coming of thoughtful
more

less

of time.

not

be

said that
the

the

East

India of the

Company
Hindus

attempted to

suppress

religion
to

it would

give
the in

little countenance
revenues

and missionaryefforts, the superstitious rites

it even of

derived
most

from classes
;

ignorant

yet it had

not

succeeded fenrs

the

calming the
knew beliefs and

nervous

of the

slightest degree in Sepoy army, which

that

its character

by

closest

contact,

the

native

traditions would
and military

be

recklessly trampled out

interests.
throw the

by

its mere It is

secular

justiceto
both sides.

by no means of sibility
t}ie "East
to

to my purpose the terrible scenes

responupon
no

of

1857-58
I

India

Company
or

alone.

have

desire which

hide
had

either the difficultiesof the

to

with position

they

deal,

the

ized previous semi-barbarwhich

in

condition many

of the

Hindu^States, upon
was an

their rule respects certainly The

ment. improve-

later

of the and weakness brutality, corruption, Mogul princesof India, had disorganizedthese
;

communities
were

and

robber

tribes and

robber

chieftains

spreading desolation when the French peninsula

through portions of the and English began their

HINDU

CHARACTER.

297

for its possession. Still more importantis it struggle affairs after to recognize the improvement in Indian
their administration
"

withdrawn

from
"

the
was

East

India

Company in consequence by the British people.

have been

of the revolt New

more

assumed

civil and

criminal

codes

introduced,
the been
the

interests of offices have

wisely regardfulof the other native tribes; municipal and transferred in some degree to native
of
rents

talent; and

extortion

has

been

ably measur-

guarded against. The results of these changes, it is claimed, are vation, alreadyapparent in improved cultiadministration, and happier social life ; purer though such terrible facts as the Orissa famine in become 1865, with its record of governmentalneglect,
all the While labored for with of the
we

more

discreditable, in view
.render all due credit
to

of

such who

claims. have

those

to

and are ing laborbring about these measures, still more important ones equally consistent of the age ; and while the noble record spirit officers and

individual

scholars,

like

Bentinck,

Elphinstone, Briggs, Crawford,

Jones, Lawrence,

of British India, should ceive rethrough the long history of science and humanity,1 the lasting gratitude fail to note would also the bearing of the not we claimed for a juster on policy, happy results so speedily That and character. the questionof Hindu capacity should have generate Mogul oppression brought about the de"

social condition of That should

4

of the

natives

at to

the their

mencement com-

British such
at

rule, is nowise
as

credit. dis-

amelioration in the
I would

is

now

described
the
to

follow

once

track

of

earliest
review,in the

The

which reader will find this record,

gladly pause

here

pages

of Kaye's Lives

of Indian

Statesmen^ Arnold's

DaUiousie^ and

other like works,

familiar to the publicin England and America.

298
fair

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

afforded them, after more than a opportunity in of this rule, is surelya strong argument

tury cen-

their

favor.

And,
Neme"is,
i

after

all,the conclusion
must
"/

we

draw
"/

from

this

painful history
writers whose

differ widely from

that of

springsfrom their natural of a higher civilization over sympathy with the victory rection, lower, and from that only. This crowning insura reflects more credit on in the view of history, If Macaulay's the conquered than on the conquerors. logic be admitted as fair,when, in his brilliant essay
view
on

the life of Clive, he affirmed India is

a

that

"

the

event

of

our

in history
are

proof
all

that
we

wisdom,

that

around the duplicity imitating compared with what wre have word reliance can only power in India on whose placed," what inference could be drawn when reversed by unanswerable facts,and premise was in event proved an utter absence of confidence
"

and uprightsincerity ness have could gained by is as nothingwhen us gained by being the be his the the

government
What echoed
a

of

India

from

end
the

to

end

of

the

land?

pieceof ironydoes

complacent self-eulogy,

! voices, become respectable of European government in India yields The event When different lesson. the rajas of Oude a very in procession marched to give in their adhesion to the after the conquest of that kingdom, British Government,

by

so

many

less

"all," says McLeod, lands, and

was

"were

thankful

for their restored there

one

the

hope
have

of British
us

protection.But
our
own

not

one

who
not

loved

for

sakes

; not

who
even

would with
one

tolerable did
not

not

who

preferreda native rule to ours, of life and property ; protection destruction regret the unrighteous

HINDU

CHARACTER.

299
war

of the almost

Kingdom
the

of Oude."1

So, in the

of

1857,

in sympathy with Bengal army was the rebellion.2 It was universally recognized at that time that the long-continued rule of England in India had in no of that degree reconciled the masses vast '?If the of their masters. empire to the authority

whole

Russians

should

march

an so

army late
as

into in

Scinde," said the

of 1868, "a spirit

"Westminster
disaffection

Review,"
and desire

the agitate change would refusal to accept or whole country." This persistent to trust selfish and despoticrulers, with whatever civilized unimpulsesit may be connected, gives hints of And humanity finds its real interest higherloyalties. and fact that, after centuries of wars in the impressive Persian, Afghan, Mongol, Mohammedan tyrannies, survived and Christian, there should yet have enough in the latest invader of the old Aryan fire to turn on wrath indeed Such determined revolt. and desperate in the most smoulders gentle and laborious races, its frenzycomes is most at terrible when and in them last. has In the East
and

of

in the West selfish

alike, a
for

Nemesis

awaited
races

proud
and
the

and

nations

weaker

than

themselves.

the
are

Hindu

dissimilar

patienceof the ; but the wrongs qualities

do
not

exploiting The passion of American Negro

of both
are

avenged.
The Hindus
are

deserve

contempt

on

any
*

ground.
_

They J

made

for noble

achievement

in

phi-

Promise.

in science, and even, losophy, in aesthetics, activities. with Western help, in social and practical full day has not yet come. Their vitality Their is far but in from spent: they are not in their senescence,
1

Days in Northern

India, p. 88.

Ibid., p

166.

3OO their
are as

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

prime.

Their

often ferocious chiefs,

often heroic and

crafty, Hyder magnanimous. Sivaji,

others, were
their
cause

and

Ali, Tippoo Saib, Holkar, and soldiers, and

death. India has

brilliant
to

for fought valiantly

no

the

lack of subtle

thinkers, learned merchants,

of
nor

scholars, able yet of

generous An

administrators, shrewd

helpers in
made

the

improvement

the

by British officials in 1829 constructed of public utility by represents the works in a single individuals,without view to personal profit, district of half a million people,as amounting in value besides plantations to nearlya million pounds sterling, Hindustan two-thirds of the villages.1 of trees enclosing people.
estimate has native and scholars of eminence both in Sanskrit of Sanskrit editorship the philosophical contributions well as to works as and journalsare at this time especially ethnological

European letters,whose

of great value. and Mitra ancient Western

was

Deva

Sastri of

mastered

the

Eastern

systems
with

Astronomy.
task of

entrusted

the in

coins discovered Brahmanical

1863, and
Buddhist

Rajendralal expounding the has brought out

works. the author The of

important
lamented
an

and Deva

Radhakanta Sanskrit

Bahadur,

immense

member

oT

numerous

was an encyclopaedia, learned European

honorary
Societies.

Fresh works

editions of

of the national

epos,

and

other

great

with valuable commentaries, antiquity, within revisions, have paraphrases, and learned few the auspices of the a appeared under years Asiatic Societyof Bengal, which of owe very much well as their elegance to the pertheir excellence as sonal and munificence, of native industry,ability
1

See

IVestm. Rev., July,1868.

HINDU

CHARACTER.

3OI

scholars.1
as

There

is ample

further

friction with

that, ground for predicting Western thought shall elicit

specialgenius of the Hindus, it will be found Western desiderata in our capable of supplyingmany in ways civilization, as yet unimagined contributing by us to the breadth and fulness both of our religious
the and social ideals. effect of
a

The

sensuous,

climate enervating

on

the

Aryan has, however, been in many ways powerand defectbecame a prodigious. His very idealism persuasion of the nothingness of the individual. inclined his intellect The lack of practical stimulus and turned his first endeavor to contemplation, at the into what looks to us more of Labor like organization of Idleness : the drone an priestat the organization head, the drudging menial at the foot,the lazy soldier, Hindu in between the two. on life, a blight industry,
its twofold

aspect, grew

more

and

more

like the great and

rivers it dwelt overflow and

by, in
return.

their alternate flood In

failure,

Thought,

great, broad,
face

still, dreamy
to

sea,

its bare, motionless

a

upturned

cooped and stinted stream, with broad stirred here and however there, girt strips treacherous slime. desert and even of thirsty Surely these dead-weights of to find, under it is refreshing endeavor for co-operaphysical nature, the earnest tive the unconquerable work, the love of agriculture, of liberty. The degeneracy itself has its germs It does that the not physical hopeful side. prove the spiritual overmaster must everywhere, inevitably
the

sky;

in Action,

Many of these

are

mentioned

in

synopsisof

the recent

of the publications

Asiatic

Society of
to the

Bengal, in Zeitsckr. d" D.

have than
60

Bibliotheca Jndica
more

M. G., XXV (1871), p. 656. Their contributions been of especial value. Gildemeister(2?/"/. Satiskr.t 1847) of
our

mentions

Hindu

scholars

time,besides

100

earlier

ones.

3"2

RELIGION

AND

LIFE.

except
illustrates
itself brain
in

under the

specifically
universal

Christian
that the and whatever

disciplines.
life that

It

law,
or

spends
to

thinking
its

dreaming,
under

fails

put

its

into

hand,
unmans

disciplines
becomes

or

"dispensations,"
even

itself,
dream.

and

impotent

to

think

and

II.

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

I.

VEDANTA.

VEDANTA.

I "^

^HE

theme of

now

before naturalness
since

me

recalls of

profound
left
The
as

imCirde

pression
my
mind

the

theism,
wonderful is the

on

many

years

by

the

symbol,

circles Form. in and and the

of

Stonehenge.
in in
the

The

circle

integer
of the

of

Repeated
seasons,

apparent
in

courses

stars,

vegetation,
all sway
on

alternations with of the

recurrence

of

life

death,
consent, also

crowning
it held
;

natural
in

forces soul

the

rude where
the

shipper wor-

and

there

the

round lines had

the
art.

plain,
meets

only
eye,

the

sweep

of

self-re-entering
or

whether altar in

above
its

around,
even

he of

built

his
stones,

colossal out with-

image,
almost had than

out

natural

cement, child
w
"

without laid his

The
on

half-conscious
her central

of

Nature

hand

truth,

Greater
is
a

the of

many

is the

One."
interest form and that of

It

fact

psychological
in circular in been and

similar

megalithic origin Germany,

in

structures

toric prehis-

have

found

Ireland,
The

Scandinavia,
oldest of this
us a ments monu-

Arabia,
Southern
The

India.1
are

Asia
of

probably
art

acter.2 charvery of

history

religious
use

shows

early

and

wide-spread
or

of

this

natural

symbol

wholeness,
1
*

all-embracing
(Paris,
in

unity.
Lubbock's Branch
cromlechs
are

Ethnogtmc
See Meadows

Gattfotse

1868),

520;

Prehistoric

Man. As. Soc.

Taylor,
Stone

Journal
thinks

of Bombay
theue

of Roy.
of
more

(IV. origin.

380).

Ferguson

(Rtitte

I\Ionni}tcnti")

recent

306
It is
,

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

nearly two
learned

hundred

years
that

since the
cover
*

Cudworth's
J

demonstration
was

polytheism of
of
a

Universality
of the idea

the ancient world faith Jn Qre

but the

deeper

ofun.ty.

was

bias

The Supreme G{}Ai argument and mythoconfined to certain great philosophical logical by a strong dogmatic systems, and marred of the ancients from the wisdom towards deriving
sources.

Hebrew of

It did

not

deal with the natural

us a

laws

show belief, which religious in the earliest stages of unfolding of

; and

theistic germ

of mankind mind.

trations growth. Illusdant these laws are however, quiteabunnow, the grounds of this all-pervading aspiration should be recognizedby every thoughtful social

conclusion of science; but Unity is the sublime The soul is religiondoes not wait for science. than the understanding. It blends clearer-sighted of and awe and saint in the wonder poet, philosopher, he simply sees and feels. the child at what The cannot most quite escape unreflecting savage
the
Its

impression that he is the

J

one

cause

of the

grounds

which of acts make multiplicity up his life. jje at j^agt unconscjousiy follows this thread of inward unityin dealingwith the varied phenomena of outward nature. Just as he shapes an ideal in the within him, so image of every passion and propensity he is always more less haunted or by the intimation in the image of some highestall-containing presence, which all these passionsand of that personal identity tary propensities represent. In all his worship of elemenforces, there is the play of this guiding instinct,
innatuiai intuition.

ed Intellectual System (Harrison's

I. 43t; London, 1845). See, especially,

II. 226,

246, 300.

VEDA

NT

A.

307
mental
are

tliis law

of his inner

being.
referred Unknown

As

growth
attained. first God,

vances, ad-

higherforms Either the gods are

somewhat

of the intuition back

whence

to

to

in the dim
or

they all

Its di, verse ff lorms.

living deity, and in these ways have been shaped certain Greek is and Semitic theogonies, or else, if that point made not yet reached, all the gods are one implicitly ; in the Vedic hymns, where have seen as we worship is effort for supreme the same* an always essentially
emerge,
"

to a

constant

central force of

"

devotion

to

each may

and be

every
ever so

name

in

turn.

sciousness Self-consuffices

rudimentary,it
of the the lowest it is
are

for this

implicit unity in the movements in instinct. All worship,even

least
:

ious religtribes,

has

at

this

in

common,

"

that

an

ward up-

look
to

the

names

of

deities primitive with

terms

found
over-

be

associated curiously
or

that

mean

head, above,
motion. The

with

root-sounds

that

attitude of subjective less similar resultant in worship is always a more or of blended hopes and fears. And, on the other hand, less of these emotions the objects are or always more ing referred to the all-surrounding and enfoldconsciously contains in its mysterious Whole ; which depthsall of help and their minor capabilities harm, and which finds constantly it the orbed present, whether eye looks upward into the infinite spaces, or traces the the horizon searches or light, paths of all-pervading line. The rude cromlech The

upward signify these simple minds

speaks
belief in

to
an

the

sentiment.

religious and all-embracing

in

universal

diverse One, however all-controlling specialto tribe or religion.It is

form, is
In

not

human.

the

308
sense

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

I have

Maximus
is
one

God

to say with exaggeration are agreed that there Tyrius,"All mankind and Father, and that the many gods are
no

noted, it is

his children."1

Even

from

the rude

races

of America

already referred to bring ample testimonyto this tendency of belief, in of supreme less perfectly or names meaning, more conceived if not clearly as expressiveof unity,even advanced involvingit.2 What, to a more stage of f The deities but forms of deity reflection, are gods
and

Africa, the

latest researches

are

but the

ff

co-rulers

with

God," this
on

one

name

essence

of
in the
as

szuay^

which

the

expressing specialforce Maximus Christian

of

each

depends.

Neither Hebrew
term

in

Plato

nor nor

Tyrius, neither
Fathers, does
the denial of One

Psalmists
so

gods, Supreme.
"

often
the
a

used, imply contrary, the

diffused heathen there
are

On

sovereign unity
of life and

receives

thereby
manifold

greater fulness
powers,
ff

relation.

His

through his works," says invoke by different names.

many
names,

Maximus,
Of
the

we

gods,
us

but

one
"

nature."
as

"Let

worship

Him,"

says Proclus,

deities,as the God

as

of all

the wrhole race of unfolding gods, the unityof all unities,

ones,

holy

among

the

holy
"

and

concealed

in the

intelligible gods." Owing to the Nirukta, Deity," says the Hindu

lauded in many of the One
XVII.

greatness of the
"the One
are

Soul
bers mem-

is

ways.

The

different

gods

Soul."3
See, especially, Lamennais, Essai
De
in Belloguet, a

Dissert

5.

srtr

?
on

de

Religion^ ch. xxvi.

learned the

word

Matiere en Indifference Druidism {Ethnoghtie of

Gauloise, has

carefullytraced
On

this belief

through

various branches
of the religion

the Celtic. family, especially

the theisticelements

in the

Aryan Babylonians,

the

Chaldceans, and Phoenicians,see

*

Brinton's

Origin and
"

Myths of New I. Development of Religious Belief* Texts, IV.

iu-

Furst, Gesch. d. Bibl. "//., I. 45-49. World, ch. li.; Livingstone's Africa ;
274.

Baring Gould's

Muir's Sanskrit

VEDANTA.

309
in

These

poles of unity and varietycoexist

We
was

strictly
f of Polarity
" ,
.

theistic religions also.

o

call
"

the

Hebrews
above all If
a Theistic fauh*

monotheists

but

Jehovah
was
a

God

gods,"
Hindu in
a

and

Elohim

plural noun.

Vishnu, Siva, synthesis reconciles Brahma, has its tripersonform of theism, so Christianity
God.
both Even

of ality adorers
were

its liberal Christ and

sects
a

are,

in

substance,
Gnostics

of

God.

The

Unity, yet with hypostases God ruder and ceons thirty-fold. The they made adores saints and pictures, Romanist holy coats and He would handkerchiefs. probably find it difficult to of personal reliance, from separate these, in his sense which he nevertheless knows and to be one deityitself, the idols of the Christian world Practically, only one. numberless. like their are They are not personified, do not analogues in the ancient world ; so that we -polytheism. apply to this form of worship the term And probably be hard to prove that the yet it would of Supreme Unity was sense intercepted by swarming
believers in
a

Divine

divinities in the
than

average
these

Greek

mind

more

ally effectutraditional
trade.

it is

by

materialistic of modern

and

the fetichism idolatries,

and society

The

idea
as

of

the

Infinite and

tion Eternal, in its distincthe

spiritual realityfrom unlimited special desires, has

to be

cravingsof renewed continually

vague
one

by

thinker this
"^

and idea

prophet, as
of
o

of old.

As

infinite
'

Mind,

in

itself,and
Intuition one
T
. .

containing all things, has

man,
so

never

been
been
;

lost by J
its flame

of in-

it has It is

not

anywhere
vital low

wholly the

absent.

organic and
burned

and

destructlble"

Moses, only to startle some Pythagoras, Zoroaster, into making fresh appeal to of reality, to himand recalling the simple sense man
has
at

times

310 self. from for

in

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

The

Greek

the East
two

Mysteries, brought, it is probable, effective specially by the Dorians, were

years, in this direction moral and sanctions
as

thousand

well

as

maintaining faith in destinies beyond death ;

times
seem

and

spiritual
men

almost
been

all the

great

of ancient To
the

to have

initiated into them.1

"

those the
common

philosophersindeed ancient gods spoke of

beheld hearth
the Father

the
a

largeutterance
One
;

"

of

transcendent

while the

popular faith

all its deities

at

gathered at

of Hestia,

the world's the

were

centre, and

around
of

popular
Vishnu

Eastern

Jove. Even mythology

Brahma

monstrous

figures of this vestiges

his necklace ideal* Circle, natural

inevitable instinct.
and
on

with his foot in his mouth,

or

his coiled serpent, but

with the

of worlds,
that sacred

are

mythic sport
returns

with

line which
the One.

into itself;the

symbol
Hindus

of

The

three-headed,

hundredand

armed, thousand-eyed divinities of the Greeks

did but

the

numbers, in order to embrace multiply the play of a Pythagorean the more in unity. It was instinct in the rude imagination of childish races. To find this sense of a Supreme Unity or wholeness all religion which absolute on rests, in its most Hmdu The pieroma. must form, we appreciate the philosophical Here the very was capacity"of the Aryan Hindu. field for his vast generalizations upon a few observed abstraction, his passion for data, for his measureless
1
"

Go He He

on is

in

the

one,

and
in

woiks

right path ; and contemplate the one ruler of the world. Him From born ; only aie all things self-proceeding. mortal all." all, unseen by eyes, yet seeing
Clem.

quoted by (OrphicHyn.n of the Mysteries,

"

Alex., Exhort,

to

the Heathen, VII.)

of mind, such as in tequiredof you when prepared purity III. 31). The Eleusinian mysteries mystenes" (Epictetus, you approach the rites the of called Inttia* both because they are indeed beginnings a life of true princip'es, are II. 14). "Of De Legibits^ and as teaching us to realize a better hope in death" (Cic., need " (isocratee, most in them stands human nature Pattfgyr.).

When

you

pray, go with and

"

VEDANTA.

31T of the
most

pure

All forms thought in its ultimates. of unity, from the simplestto the involved indeed
a

ception con-

subtle,
It of

were was

in the -nebulous Pleroma which may be

fulness

of his idea.
terms

(to use
the

Neo-Platonic

speech),from
of the world

various

theologicalsystems
as

drawn
;

forth,

ceons,
course

at

least
as

construction by speculative ideal

though

of

but

in the be unfolded to foretypesof what was of science and practical use, by other times and solidity In the Hindu mind, it stood more energeticraces. simply as the free play of pure idea ; the unityof all
essence

and

all existence

the

sweep evolution

of

an

Infinite

Circle; deityas inclusion

This is the central
sun

and

of all forms.

philosophy; the key to its religious actions. mysteries, and its philosophicalreWho so worships this or that special and separate being," says the Brihad Upanishad, worships determination, not totality, worship thou Soul, in
" "
"

of Hindu

which It is and

all the differences

become

one."

how to note interesting swayed the Hindu mind,

this from

haunted aspiration

infancyto

Develop-

the
terns.

most

abstract Students

introversion
like

Pictet
"

of its later sysMiiller beand

"^^^1
du

thought.

monotheism," they find signsof an original in the primitivefaith of the preor implicit, positive
lieve that Vedic
me,

times.a
a

Cosmic

theism

would,

as

it

seems

to

expressionfor what was nor opposed to polytheism, sense, yet in distinct primitive revelation, from which
be fell away. A

better

not,

in any
sense
a

any
men

wards after-

Hymns
universe
" "

of the Veda, with

I. iv.

step further down, in the earlier find Varuna^ we rounding the

of the sun's

order, maker

paths

and

Br"ad.

Muil'.r. Sansk.

LU.* pp. 528,559

Les Aryas Frintiifs^II. Pictet,

704-714

312

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

preserver
sense

of all sacred soul

;

limits, alike in the worlds

one

of

and

absorbing into
of moral

the

stinctiv primitiveinand

notions

sequence

spiritual

lieved of justice, providence, and fate.1 It is beauthority, that this name Varuna, identical with by some Ouranos father of of
the
a

the

Greeks,
was

whom

Hesiod oldest

makes in

the

Aryan have requireda long It must, however, mythology. distinct and positive time to mature a conception of so in the Vedic Moral Order is contained as Hymns to If in a more -primitive Varuna. meaning his name have \vas given way to that reallythe oldest, it must of the Supreme in this of Indra, as the next name of wholeness. sentiment, or sense development of religious gods,
Like
not
a

itself the

Varuna,

Indra

concentrated

all powers:
sense

at the

far off limits of presence,

stars

thought,but
the the ethereal
moon

in the

of into the

closer

felt in fade and

expanse,
wanes

which clouds

the

and

resolve lightand shadow shifting their mystic play. The vast abyss of creative light all phenomena, and deity in the symabsorbed shone bol of Fire, through man and beast, through star and

melt,

and

sod.

Then,

as

introversion

concentration
nearer

of the

grew, idea religious

came

more

definite

around

lightas

image"ofthe conscious soul, at once self-centred and radiating through all ; whereof the Sun was the became natural symbol, and under so names many the next emphasis,or phase, of unityfor the spiritual all the verses of the are tracing. Then process we in the Gdyatri: we concentrated Veda meditate are the adorable on lightof the divine Savitri." All its deities are resolved into gods of the earth, the air,the
w 1 *

See Roth, in Zeitsckr,

d, Deutsch.

Merg.

Geselts'

h., vol. vi. p. 77,

Koeppen, Religion

des

Buddha,

I. p. 3

VEDANTA.

313

sky, "whose
but there
is

names

differ
one

only

according to their works; godhead, the Sun, life of all

beings,of motion and of rest." * All these are further "lord of creatures" or (Prajapati) gathered into one ing "deityof them all;"2 and, again,their whole meaninto the sacred is absorbed monosyllable A UM,
and
even

drawn

into inward

concentration mind fixed

in the
on

triple
preme."8 Su-

of suppression Or
of

the breath, with all

the

symbolism
are

is

dropped, as
;

consciousness
the had

explored
whence,
in
"

and the

that

depths questioning
of life,
all

the

about

how,
been

the

and

whither

which
these

minds thoughtful stirring

through

ages,

is solved

One

Eternal

Soul"

invested

with

every Goodness.

appellativeof Infinite Power, Wisdom, Brahma, Adhyatma, Purusha, had one

alone "Spirit

meaning.
as

is this All." dismiss

"Him

know

ye

the One

Soul

alone

all other

words."4

Such which Let world

to Unity in pantheistic instincts, aspiration nothing but absorptiontherein could satisfy. of this change from the us recognize the nature of contemplation.Natureof of action to the world

the

Probably it was by the mass

traditions
1 *

not

to

any

great

extent

shared

thePr"cess.

of

the

Aryan

indicate
commentary
The
: see

intense
lessen, I. 768

community, whose epic to sensuous susceptibility

2

Old Vedic

Colebrooke, Essays, I.
constant

Manu,

II. 83.

OM mysticsyllable

(anm)
"He

is the

signof
it

that

worship of
as

\\hich pervades Hindu unity, Zendc

was a ava

thought. Bumouf
"

(Sansk. Diet.) refeis

tkit is to be"

toav.zttz,
more
"

fiom the

(thiso"ie\ m irking existence,

The and

But,

it probably,

combination

of the inithls of the three main

elements of Vedic

deity,
to

Agni, Varuna,
as

and

the Maruts. dream

ng,
as

Mandukyn.
o

Upanishad
her

refers the three

as

letters
out

Brahma,
as

ing, wakto

sleeping;in

woid-,

manifested
; while

ward1 y,

manifested

himself,and

^manifested, in the unity of his

essence

the whole

word, abolishing

of the letters, The formula of the Bhagathe distinctions icpresents his absolute nature is Om tat sat, or " God the same is t/tat [ie.t the universal]reality." Later still, vadgit.t unites Brahnri, Vishnu, and Siva in a trinity. It expresses the Buddhist oneness syllable formulas of prayer. of Saint, Law, and Congiegation." It is the preludeto all Buddhist
'*

To

the Brahmanic

Om

tat

sat

conesponds the Thibetan

Om

mani

pidme

hdm

In sum,

of Hindu Asia,fully throughouteastern represents the continuity and itsdevotion to ideal unity, religious sentiment, through all phases,epochs, and results.

this sacred word, adored

Mundaka

U pan ishad, II. i. 10;

ii 5.

314

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

The simple enjoyment and a stormy physical energy. developed into vigorous impulses of Vedic life were all the finer moral which it required physicalpassions and spiritual of the race elements to check, and which indeed very graduallyyielded, to the enervating even influences of climate and social organization.Yet it is reasonable that a tendency to mystical to believe and so profound as is contemplation, spontaneous shown in all the religious compositionsof the postVedic age, implies a deep root in national character, and in affinity have been with the instinctive must have ready alof the people. We religious temperament In these there noted its germs in the hymns. is already a ground of diverse tendency; many of them being of a thoughtful others of a and peaceful, warlike and even nature. revengeful, which sentiment The are we change in the religious involved a loss of that enernow getic, considering certainly healthful
which life,
sense

of the real world

to

and

the present It
was,

belonged

the Vedic

age.
on

ever, howinward

effected life of ideas thus secured

by
make

intenser

concentration
the

the

and

principles. And
the process
an

compensations
in the

important one

of religion. history of the result need not surprise us. spirituality This was spirituality primarilythe worship of religion ""^h"Unity. A thirst to find the One in the maniof unity, We fold is intellectual inspiration. must member rehow a step in itself is the mysterious genesis It is a step of of the idea of unity or wholeness. the personality, beyond observation of facts, beyond intuitive affirmation, for which no data ; an experience of the towards
senses

The

account.

And from

the direction of the mind

the
senses

it is the passage

to

the

spirit.

VEDANTA.

315
it is in the Vedic

We The

have

seen are

how

manifest

hymns.

interchangeable. stand Each absorbs the rest, and might readily for the whole. ; light is Indra ; the Agni is light Sun is light."1 "Aditi is heaven; is the firmament; is father, mother, son ; is all the gods ; is the five and birth."2 As Indra is generation orders of men; contains all thingsin himself, as the felloe of a wheel oldest these the spokes,"3 so hymns hold the later Sacrifice itself is here but pantheism itself in germ. divine life through the round of the circulation of one It is said of the sacrificial plant god, nature, man. gods
" Pf

universal, their functions

that

it contains

all

the

worlds

and
assumes

is father
the
oneness

of the
of

gods.4 So the gods.5

is uttered

the sacrificial horse And

the secret
sense

names

of
pour

in all life

in other

hymns

that

forth

thoughtful

all enfolds yearnings to solve the mystery which thingswithin and without in its shadow, the mystery of being itself. For these yearnings the universe is And universal not less profound and a mystic whole.

the
"

answer

"

In the than

the beginning It there

One

breathed
has

by itself, yet without

been."6

breath.

Other

nothing since
holds

But

the

Rig

Veda

to Theism

also.

Aspiration
worship of thousi"t. are,

for the One

and itself, of Mind.
as we

is in fact the could Thus

seen,

wforship of Thought
of
are

leave the

out

sightno
all

function

gods

creators.

There

have

hymns

in which

deityappears

in all

read of Zeus Bacchus, we So, in the later Greek inscnptions, Rig Veda Similar "c" the with lapius, compounds aie formed Egyptian /fo, as Ammou Ra,"c. 1 * Ibid.,I. I. 89, 10 ; I. 164. Ibid., 33, 15.
1

Zeus

Ra, Osiris

"

Ibid.,IX. 86, 10;

taq.

109, 4.

"

Ibid.,1. 163, 3*

3l6
the

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

and energy personality creative hymns in which above had

a

of the Mind
as

Hebrew is adored

Jehovah
as

"God

Thought. Their constant for intelligence was ; their praise, prayer of all things by of the creation distinct recognition a mind. The they gave to prayer (mantra) very name had the same meaning. And as, in later times, the believed gods were subjectto the powers wielded by
power
intense mental

gods."2 Rude profound veneration

all

they were,
for the

these

psalmists

of

concentration, concentration,
similar
was

so

prayer, held The

the

earliest times

form
to

of such
a

in Vedic

possess

mastery.3
the root
was

word

Brahma,

probably derived
movement
or

from

brih*
first
;
4

endeavor,

meaning upward used to designate

it was this very for deity, thus

this word

intelligent energy
to be

of prayer the

and

that grew God identifying there

was
a

highestname

with of

conscious, efficient Mind.

First,

Prayer,Brahmanaspati,perhaps as bearing upward the devotion of the worshipper; then of devotion considered the might of the the power as the prayer-deity, absorbs Brahma, gods ; and finally
them
meant

Lord

all. the

And

so

this

Name of devout its

essence

above

all their

names

divinization

thought,meant
and the

ligence intel-

in the its life. But

even
"

unityof
was own.

fulness of

Brahma
than

held For

amenable
the

to

all

deeper
of

"devotion

his from

involved
1 8 8

the

first the
et

worship rightand
120.

gence of intellipower

See

hymns

quoted by Maury, Croyances

X.
131,

Llgendcs, p.

Rig ^eda, Riff Veda

in

translated
"

by

Muller.

I. 67, 3, d. D.

Prayers uphold the sky." See

AT. Gesellsch.* I 66-86.

Roth, BraJima (masc.),which

und

die Br"J*

manen,
4

Zeitsch.
as

Roth,

above.

Brahma

(neuter)becoming Brahma1
the word from

pronouncer

of the prayer ; whence, later,Brahmanas,

und

dlt Brakwanen,
of these
two

1871) derives ideas, "to

the meant, first, priesthood. Haug (Brahma bination vrih, meaning "to grow.11 The comthe

aspire"

and

"to

grow," is

the

noblest

basis of the

relicrious sentiment.

VEDANTA.

317

man

to
new

with

change his ideals, and supply his faith, not ceptions symbolic forms only, but with fresh conof deity. and names
the

Through
c"

mysticaldepths
ultimate

of their
cause,

own

thought,
and
",.

and following its intuitions of being fcj

'

The

search

yearning to
it could
the

find those later

of

truths

in which of

for essential e"'g'

rest, the

students speculative
were

Veda,

many
The

whom

poets also,1 pursued

of

their way.

typicalform

philosophy
"

to
or

which scope,

their studies gave of the Veda."

rise is the Vedanta,

end,

They
was

saw

that behind
not

all forms
to

of existence

there

pure

substance,

be

nor qualified we

defined,"
say,

unconditional
alone

trulyand
"

Being, whereof is. -perfectly

the
a

can

only

It
am

"Of

all

mysteries,I
:

silence,
But

says
was

divine

One

in the than

Bhagavadgita.
a

there

closer mystery

silence

solution

speaking in all beings and worlds, questions, limitation, whether or by name yet escaping every ings by thought, and comprehended only in the breathof inward aspiration. And, that they might of All" that not to limit this "Soul seem by terms and distinctions conditions, they suggested human in Brahma, to speak of God, were or apt reverently the neuter; saying, as we also do, "It" and "That," whenever "This" moved rather, or by deeper awe;
of all
1 I speak here of the writers of the Upanishads (lit. : Sittings) philosophical poems, the fifth, to sixth, belonging*according to Mailer, Lassen, and other high authorities, is in and seventh centuries before Christ. A list of these poems, given number, 149

by
more

M tiller m

the

Journal of the German

in

Oriental
Studien*

Society for 1865, and

In prepanng these

impoitant

Weber's
used

Indiscke

of the analysis chapterson Hindu

an

philosophy,I
Sutras
of

have

translations of the principal Upanishads by Ro'cr and

;

Weber

the

Kapila. by Ballamyne
or

and

the

by Lassen, Wilkins, and BhagavadgitS.,

son. Thomttrahma-

For the VedSnta,

Uttara

Mima"ns4
an

philosophy,the
is given

authorities

aie

the

Sutras, ascribed

to

Vyasa, of which

account

by

Colebiooke.

Essays, vol. i.,

318
when the
awe

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

intimacyor therefore by
not neuter

even

the
as

of natural deepened into a recognition meaning inseparable union ; plainly not neuter an emptiness,but a fulness ;

by death,
as

gender,
which

but

transcends

by life ; not as lowest making gender trivial through that generation,the essential ground of
but
as
"

itself. personality manifested

The

truth of truth ;

"

"

The

Un-

One;"2

"Greater

than

what

is from

great;"3
what

"Higher than thought;"4 "Different G known, beyond what is not known ;

"

is

"

More

distant

than
"

what

is distant, yet
to those ear,

near,

in the
to

very

heart;"6

Unknown of the

who

think

know,
mind

though verily
of the

ear

eye

of the

eye,
"

mind,

speech of speech, life of life,"7 such the negationof they sought to express every possiblelimit, by which the necessity of Absolute lieving Being, as condition of all beand all thinking. Nor did they fail to^ put this later philosophy as points, negation strongly,at some
has the

done, and

to

declare

that

"Not-being" (asat) was

Being (sat]; 8 a formula which then it now as meant, simply the eternal need of a means, deeper foundation for thought than any definite specific of thinking for being, than forms the limited ; and
ground
of modes
under
meant

which

we

conceive

it. which and

as

The
.

neuter

Brahma existences
must

itself,that reality
more,

makes

all

contain

than

comes

be

interpreted by
the

such

sentences

It goes. these : w The True. shines. is

Brahmana highest Through Truth Truth

" " " " "

of the wise wind

is the

the flight, the

sun

blows,

is the

support of speech.
II. ii i. 2.
" 20. * *

By
XII.

it the universe

Brihad
Mmtdaka Kena Kena

Upanishad,

Mann,
Mitri

50.

Up., II.
Up., I.
3.

Up

(inWeber's

Intl. Stud, I. 273).

Mundtika

Uj

III. i. 7.

Up., II.

3 ,' I

2. i.

Chbndogya. Up., VI.

So

Rig Veda, X.

72,

a.

VEDANTA.

319
l
"

upheld. It is highestof all." It harms passed by Truth.

this."2 "The
no

Falsehood
him who

is'encomknoweth
is
no

not

eternal

world
no

is theirs, in whom lie."2

crookedness,
One

delusion,

Absolute

Reality ; unchangeableness
"

of Truth

this was what these of Substance, imperisliableness affirm ; would mystical half-poets, half-philosophers, this was what in the sacred they breathed silently Om : whereof syllable they said that "it contained all leaf is supported the gods,?3and that "as the palas'a the universe This was so by Om."4 by a singlepedicel, what "Tad," or That. they spoke aloud in the neuter "Into That (One) all This (Universe) enters, out of

That It
was

it beams.
what

That

is what

was

and

shall be."5

tible indestructhey meant by saying, "The One is verilywithout form, or life,or mind, or is another self-existent spirit."6"There name, origin, different
not
"

from

the

definition, 'He
the truth
was

is

not
'

this, He

is

that,'
"I
am

namely,
I am." of

of Truth."
the that

that

This
"I
am

highest Hebrew
which
is:
The
, t absolute

affirmation
no

deity.
^

mortal

hath

lifted my

veil,"
"

"

this
"

was

diffaent

the

-Egyptian. "Essence*,
"The
way

7'o

or,"

this

thefaiths*
"

Greek.
the
"

of

Nature
the

and

Reason,"
the

this

Chinese.
this the

"Substance;
ultimate of
our

Real;

Absolute,"

Western behind

thought. religious
individual
Thus

And

all these alike

the

reach

forms
the

of

deity,to
Brahma

ground
ages
;

of

has lived
the

on,

being itself. repeated under

a

neuter

different
in

forms

through
must
1 *
"

for without
no

basis
can

that which

be, and

which

specialwill

change
Nirnkta.
Katha

nor

Mah"ttArfiyana Up. (Weber, II. 80-95). V. v. ; Prnsna Brikad "//"" Up., I. 16 (I. 130): cited by CoUbiuuke, Ytijnavalkytt
Mund.

" "

Up

IV. 9.

"

Ufi."II. i

a.

"

Brihad.,

II

iii. 6.

320

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

control, there conviction, but

The Vedantist

is
no

not

only

no

ethical

sanction
as

nor

proper

sense

of life itself his

real.

thought on this idea of pure substance, to some detriment of the rights of human personality.A tendency to this is apparent even in the interchangeableness of the Vedic deities ; their flow into each lack of individuality other, like ; their It is matured in the pantheism of the of a sea. waves Upanishads, where the individual fades into the One ; in the doctrine of Transmigration,which and floats
concentrated
him and

away

on

tides

of

manifold

unremembered
of

lives
the

overmastering retributions. This failure all its melancholy with right of personality,
in due
not to

quences consewas

the the

later

institutions
one

of the

Hindus,

idea

of

absolute

substance,

but

to

their devotion to balance requisite qualities in to it, and bring adequate respect for persistence Nor definite forms of being and action. fail must we that these contemplativemen moved to note were by a of freeingtheir conof the necessity ception profound sense of truth and rightfrom of the divine substance human all contingency on passionsand desires, from
the lack

of

the

limits which

beset all individualities,from

the very

of caprice. of its sinking into a creature possibility the truth of personality? Did they iirthis wholly forget Did most personality they not pursue that on which

depends?
to

What
or

is the
to

meaning
Here

of the word
our

as

plied ap-

God

man?

Hindu

mystics

deserve All

attention.

specialforms
conceived
as

under
fr

which
"

deity is ordinarily
are so so

personal

andimpersonai.

sions of individualism, and i;m;t. Even for the

moment
us

expresmany of exclusion and

they
with

content

us

only because

identified by subtly

the

real in-

VEDANTA.

321
which
sense

definable

Infinite

beyond them,
in
an

involves

ality person-

of the word, of perceptionand voliforms all specific tion. transcending such In other words, limitary personal, or rather to thought, individual, deityis endurable only Being, through tacit reference of it to unconditional that know we a as deeper ground. As of divine men
indeed, but

unlimited

by partaking of the essential goodness, and right, that they are in these, their personalitystands
"

it is

nature

of

truth,
that

divine, and
so

of

all

we

may
or

ascribe divine
wills

to

God, it is
that God

to

be

remembered

that this
true

that

manifestation

is not

rightand
"

because

God

it,but

wills it,

or,

rather, it is in and

"Even right and true. deityis divine," says Plato, "by the contemplation of truth."1 It is this final appeal to the Absolute that must set offcertain volition and intense idolatryof specific a which in Christianity, inherent and is seems purpose mainly derived from its Semitic origin. The gods of Greece themselves were subjectto the Oath : if they broke into its sanctuary of truth, they ceased to be gods. And for deity demands so our reverence is personal rest on what that what is impersonal; not of unintelligent, in the sense or w^w-personal,but of universal and substantial; being held divine, only as It will identified with principleand with essence. the illusion of imagining that the Absolute is escape such specific empty, is nothing; and going behind ally forms of individuated being and will as may, traditionbe set before it as God, affirm what or directly, them that Truth, Right, Intelligence, in transcends all, also that every their substance, are God; recognizing
because it is
1

of God,

Ph*dru*t
21

c.

62.

322 one's real

on

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

his Our

his vital, rests enduring reality, personality, in these. participation Hindus, it is easy to see, were contemplative that fascinated by the idea of the infinite, so
J

Failure

on

the finite

they failed
Their

of

to justice

the

side.

introversion

lacked

of the finite. rights force the balancing other and

races

of

scientific and
were

social interests which Both

and

ligions, Aryan rethe other hand, have emphasized conscious on and plan, self-assertion in limited forms of forethought the practical relations the very life of God ; while as have and aims of these energetic races brought out in the life of man the ; so corresponding element intense faith in an exact that they have now opposite

climes

to

supply.

Semitic

to

the Oriental This intense

ideal.

will-worshipand
as

work-worship is,
the

East and
west.

however,
of the and

one-sided
in the

as

extravagance
His

Hindu

other will
at

direction. least

Mimansas
us

Upanishads
conditions
most

admonish
to
getic ener-

that, under
moral

unfavorable

life, men

have truth
to

thoroughly believed
as

in stance sub-

an

inherent of

right of
the

truth,

as

the

world,

claim
a

unlimited

devotion;
the heart
to

that

they have believed in a meaning for the

what
we

reality beyond phenomena,

and
or

conscience

in

cannot

trace

define, compared

which

ests, interexpediencies, dogmas, traditions, tries, will of masses, or personal profit personal idolaheld shadowy life and all the worlds, were even themselves to and transient ; and that they committed of their own ern this as the substance being. Our modideal is yet to be debtor to this Oriental practical We do not dream. disparageour civilization when rites,

VEDANTA.

323

Palpable signs of its need of the contemplativeelement extreme appear, and of mind in the dissipation morals practically, by and theomaterial interests and competitions, logically vast our in that utter dependence on the efficacy of a singlebody of ideal personal traditions and symbols, of saving faith. which has passed for the substance The remedy for both of these is in larger experience of the universalities of abstract thought. Eastern teach us special ethics; but it philosophycannot faith in the reality bringsinto our view an unbounded of the absolute and eternal as perceived by thought.
we

pointout

its actual

defects.

To

forsake

all dread
as

of

f?

abstractions,"
to
as

to

cease

garding re-

words, empty for these instead of nominalists, is

ideals
"

become essential

realists
for the
"

of principles truth, justice, humanity recognition in their clearness of love is the spirit and as power, the popular rewhich their application to ligion, ; a truth in our ing day, stands greatlyin need of embodyin its doctrine. That resources are our practical
so

vast, calls for all the greater clearness of idea,

of conviction, order first

to

breadth
the

libertyand
their

in self-respect,
uses.

discoveryof
is that
the

real

And

the

dition con-

abstract

become

impersonal, sacred; truth, its own

our

real ; intensely authority. This

the
is

guarantee of intellectual and spiritual progress. made there been "Nowhere," says Quinet, "has
and solemn lofty essential being as faith of these dead affirmation
in India."
*

such of

of the

rights Brahma
80uL

as

The
no

dreamers

was

in

no

in unreality, words
;

mere

substratum

of formulas

and

the

ultimate of their thought was very opposite. The 11 This is their sacred, central, ever-recurring, Soul."
1

Ginie fa

Religion*, p.

133.

324
final word. The

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

same

terms,

dtman^

-purusha^ which

in man, carried up essence were expressed the spiritual affirm there also to the deeps of Infinite Being, to what of Mind.1 we mean by life,in the fullest sense The Brahma Vedanta Sutras, or special aphorisms, are careful to prove, against the supposed negations of the niscient, Sankhya, that deity is mind, "the omnipotent, om-

Bhagavadgita speaks of the "eternal person;"3 the Upanishads, of the shines everywhere, seen within the solar lightwhich and throughoutthe orb and the human eye, in heaven world, intelligent, immortal, and for ever blest."3 aim of the Brihad The whole Upanishad is to teach of of all thingsand master that Life is the substance
ff

sentient

cause."2

The

death
"

"

Life is The
sun

oldest verily rises out

and

best."
sets

"

of lifeand

into life ; this the sacred

law ;

it sways
" "

to-dayand
sees

will sway

to-morrow." and hears forms

;

Life is the Immortal

Unseen, He
is the
'

One, names unheard, He

;

but conceal He

this." knows."

unknown,
so

"

Life is preserver soul

of all forms of the

by

lifethe universe all the

is sustained." that it is not

gods ; fit to say, sacrifice to ////", the to other, god.' As by footprints finds cattle, one so by soul
" "

"Life

whole, is

one

knows

all

things."
"

Soul is the lord and

and souls
are

king of
fastened

all ;

as

the spokes in the nave,

Soul."4

so

all worlds

in the One

"

Life

has (Prajapati)

sway

over

all in earth

and

heaven.

As

a
*

mother
1

her

children, protect

us,

grant

us

and prosperity

wisdom."

"At

man

"to

think" the
21

it was

(German, atke-m\ or elsa ""probably derived from "*", "to breathe" and was used to designateSoul, both individual and universal: meant life, used as the first person. See Miiller, SattsJk, Self,the Ego, being even familiarly
"

Lit.,p
8 8

Pick's Wdrttrb^

p.

690.

Eichhoff derives it from "/, "to move;"

Colebrooke's

Analysisof these
it
nutnen.

Sutras,Essays^ I. 338.
Other of deity are designations Bhagavadgtt^ ch. viii.n. i,

Schlegel translates

"Oveisoul"
on

and Tha

"Overworld."

See, also, Thomson's

funtska,

(XII. 12)is to similar effect. Sttryn Siddh"nta " Brifutd VI. x, x ; I. v. 33 ; I. vi. 3 ; Ufian.* " Prewui Ufa*., II. 13.

I.

iii ; I. iv; I. iv, 7

II. v, 13,

VEDANTA.

325
than He

"He these

does

not

move,
senses,

yet is swifter
obtained
He him. is

thought:
was

never

have In

gods, the
rest

gone
near.

before. He

His
this
"

He

outstripsthem.
it."
a
l

far, yet also

there,so
or

is within

All, yet beyond

As birds

repairto
*

tree

to

dwell

the world

repairs to sleeps
is

the

Supreme."
"He in

is creator, and him

;

all that He

moves

breathes

or

founded mind."3

and

is their

goal;

indestructible

life and

The

ideas of Absolute and

Realityand
are

Infinite Mind,

of

Substance
and
are

Thought,
fast
as

here

reconciled.
nature

gence Intelliof

its unknown

basis

in the

alike held

essential elements

of

Being deity.
not

Greek

Plotinus
must
were

said
ever

that

the

One

could

dwell

alone, but
Not

for

bring forth
and desire

souls affirmed

from
to

himself.
be ring stir-

less

love

these

deeps

of Oriental

ing
the

to

go out of for absolute

: the long- Manifestadeity self, the impulse to sacrifice L"0"el^Ug the phenomenal, unity for Desire,

manifold

life,is there.4

The

Hindu

Kama,

like the

"

A Veda Orphic Eros, is primal impulse to creation. first came hymn says of the self-existent: "Then And love upon one it, the new spring of mind."6 of the Upanishads puts it thus : The Soul supreme become desired, 'Let me many,' and performing holy all things."6 Another work created speaks of his 7 The Self-existent said love as all-embracing." Let me within himself, 'In austerity is not infinity. sacrifice myself in all created things.'"8 The endJess theme of the Vedanta philosophyis the production
w " " "

" * " " T

y"jasaneya Sank. Upan." 4, 5. II. u. i, 2. Mvndaka Ufian., f II. ch. a ; Sankara?s Hist. PJiiU"s." Ritter, Rif
Veda. X.
129
;

Pronto, IV. Brihad, I 4. " Taittariya, II. 6.

Comment-

on

Mullet's

Sansk.
II. 62.

Lit., p. 564.
'

AmrUattada

Ujan^ Weber,

gotapatha Brahmana,

Muir, IV.

35

326
of all

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

life,of mind,
and the /aces,

the from

elements,
the
to

the

worlds, the
One.1
content

sexes,

indestructible

"Prajapaticauses
to

his life

be

divided, not

be alone."2 But
not
even as products, distinctly they were such, could phenomena be separated as

recognized as from that spiritual substance, of facts to the most impressive

"

whose

the

was universality sense. mystical

Immortal left ; all

Brahma

is

before, behind
is this

above, below

to

right
8

and
"

pervading:
looks for

Brahrna

All, this infiniteworld."

Whoever
one

elsewhere world, or gods, or beings, be abandoned

than in this

the

divine

Soul, should
4

by

them.

To

know

is to know
"

all."
sea

The

is

one

and

not

other than
other." its
cause :

its waters,
is

though waves,
singlewith-it
He is

foam, spray, differ from

"

each

An

effect is not He is not

5

other

than

Brahma

second.

separate from

the embodied

self.

Soul,

and

the soul is he."

To
m

this
turns re-

absorbing sense
forms and
the formed

of the

Unity of
are

Life in its
as

The

essence,
into

existences
sea,

but

mists

form

risingfrom
jj^ w;nds

the

esbence.

in

again into its stillness;not only in form ; the mists are

air.

returningin rain; the atmosphere and dying changing in nature, but

and stillwater, the winds
are

According to Manu, "The Self-existent created the waters by a thought; and moving on the deep, as placed therein a seed, or egg;8 Narayana, the Spirit,
from which

He

is

himself
as

born

as

Brahm",
whose

who

again reproduces himself

" "

Mind,

by

devotion

Mundaka,
Mundaka*

II. i.; Brihad, II. i. 20.

II. ii.u.

* *

Brikad, I. iv. Brtftad, II. iv.

egg; is the

8
6

Colcbiooke's
In the ol

"ymbol

of the Brahma Sutras, Analysis Essays, I. 351. Orphic also,as in most other early systems, the cosmogentc or evolution. production

VEDANTA.

327
the bosom of the preme.1 Su-

all

things are
Here

created

from
:

is the circle
an

or creation^

rather evolution within "The

out with-

of forms, is but

endless

transmutation

things are the same. circle of being," says Yajnavalkya, "revolves Says the beautiful beginning or end."2 Upamshad :
it; in
substance,
all
"

Katha

"

The

world branches

is like

an

eternal In

whose holy fig-tree, Brahma

root.

roots

are

above,
None

whose

descend. from within

all worlds The life."

3

repose.

becomes
with
awe,

different

this, their
its this,

universe

trembles

moving
there

supreme

When from
the
"

is

no

longer
nor

any

sense

of

separation
...

this divine Whole,

common

of difference

from
All
.

in

God.

ground
words,
of

and
when

substance
the

of all forms, loses itself in the and

searchable un-

in other

soul

mystery
persons

being, one and the same and things that are, and depth
is life and

for all times

knows
"

that this

mind,

then

is reached

the

goal

feels "the
"As

and striving. The wonder joy it in this participation is called by the Taittariya of universal unity."4 song

of

all its

speech

is

common

to
an

all names,

the eye

to all

perception
tity iden-

of

and things, of
"

to all actions

agent,

so

for all souls

d

is there

essence. spiritual

This

is their Brahma." also.

to

The

same

that is here is but

is there

The

same

that is there
sees

is here.

He

passing from

death

death

who

ence differ-

in Brahma."
"

This

Soul

of all is

will to-day,

be to-morrow.
men

As
run

water

ning run-

off into

is scattered and lost, so do valleys beholding attributes as apart from this. knows what is the same, is like pure

after differences, soul of the the

But
water
9

the
on

wise,who

ground

that remains

in its

alike and place,

undispersed."
* *

" " "

Mantt)

8-

8.
2.

So the

Surya Siddh"nta, XII.

Y"jvavalkya,
Taittar., III. Katha, IV.

III
x.

ia*

Katha* VI.

i,

5.

Brihad) I. vi. 8.

"

zo, 13, 14.

328
"

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

He

who, dwelling in

all elements whose

and

forms

and

knowledge,
from within is him There

whom rules
none comes

they
them,
that
to
"

do

not

know,
is

body they
inner him.

are, who

He

thy soul, the

knows,
but

immortal. ruler, Whatever

hears

or
*

is apart from

nought."
an

Yet
Human

it is
in.

error

to

suppose
with

that
belief

spiritual pantheism
in

-is inconsistent

individual
them
as

existone

dividuaiuy. ences.

It

simply regards
the
;

in of

spiritualessence,
human
real for

ultimate
and

common

nature

and

divine

holds

that

being independent
ever

of Infinite Vedanta

they have no which must Spirit,

distinctions
as

be

One.

The

abolishes

in

deityonly, as

the ideal of devout

and aspiration,
one

that

ground
does

of

which reality

must

be

and

the

same

for all. Nor

Divine
(ran-

Kendencc.

the mere thus conceived, become todeity, of these distinctions, nor ttjlity yet their mere transcends all definite factors identity. Brahma
can

that
never

be

summed

up,
even

as

finite addition

can

reach

nor infinity,

approach
this
not

it.

He

absorbs
the

all, yet transcends

as

all ; and

only as
we

infinite,but
we

the
our

One.
own

If

observe
we

mental

processes,
a as mere a

shall
sum

find that

do

not

conceive

unity as
it appears

of

component
and the the

parts.
fact.

Always
The which

different than
roar
one

higher
sum sea

orchestral blend

chord

is

more

of those
than the

tones

in it ; the

of
;

wave-plashes it gathers into

of

the

articulate

word the

historythan
or

the The

mere

successive
very

of syllables
more

ages
to

races.

spark
more

is

than

flint added

steel
as

the salt than

must not

acid mixed
mean

with base.
than
1

So Brahma

the Whole

the

aggregate.
"

The
uncreate

One
and

has
immortal

the limitations
c.

Brikad, III. vii.

Soul

"

is

Phasdr (Plato,

53).

VEDANTA.

329
but

of

tfie parts.
into

It absorbs

them,

it rules them this is

as

and

lifts them

higher meaning.
the Vedantists
as

And

fully
of

recognizedby
the soul

the non-difference

from let
Him Yet
us

the

Supreme.
the

Again
"

hear

Katha
arc

Upanishad
; none

"

Upon
him.

all the worlds

as

founded eye of the

becomes is not

different sullied

from

the

one or

sun,

world,

by
not

the defects of the eye sullied

the

world, so

the Soul

of all

beings is
without Soul

by
of

the

evils of the
nature to

world, because
every
*

it is also the One

it.

Being
without
"

every
known

nature,

is also

them,
and

in its own."
to
me

Make

the

Being
and

different future."

from
2

this whole

ot

causes
"

effects, past, present,

who
3

They
The it

know

Brahma

in this universe

as

different from

it

become
"

free."

soul, immersed
sees

in

things,is
Soul
as

wretched

in its

helplessness:
His

when

the

supreme
*

different from

these, and

its griefceases." glory,

Both of the
"The existent them
or

aspects

are

blended
"

in

the

"

divine

wisdom

"

Bhagavadgita :
Supreme
Soul
;

non-existent

beginning; not to be called possessingevery sense, yet separate from

is without

all ; apart among

from, and

yet within

all ; both
b

far and

near

; not

divided

"Behold

beings, yet as if it were" All thingsexist this my kinglymystery.

in

me.

My

which has caused sustains them them, yet does not dwell spirit in them. (confined) Everywhere I am present in manifold forms, of being single and separable from them." by reason
"

am

the

the the fire, sacrifice,

;

incense.

am

the

the father, the

mother Vedas

of this universe
; the

the

Om, mystic doctrine,the syllable

not

tion, path,the support, the master, the witness, the habitatible the refuge, the friend ; origin,and dissolution, and inexhausseed I am ambrosia, and death ; what exists and what exists ; the soul,in the heart of all beings : beginning,middle, and

end."6
1 B

Katha, V. 8-1 Bhag.

our

1.

"

Ibid.,II. thought.

14-

"

Svetasvatara
a

Up., I.
nor

7-

Ibid.,IV.
;

7.

Git", ch. xiii. Tin*

present line of

poem

is not

Upamshad,

purelyVedantic

yet it

follows
"

IX. X. Ibid.,

33O
What all is here

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

meant

is

not

the

mere

indifference
"

of also

but things,

their
to

ideal; since
be the Best
the
sun

the

Holy
form

One and

"

declares himself "Among

waters, the
forms of the among wise.
"

in each

kind.
; among

I am lights,
ocean

; among

mountains,
A letters,

Meru

among silent

words, worship

the

monosyllable Om thingsthat
shine

among
sons, sea-

worship,

; among

; among ;

spring ; splendoritself

among

silence,
the

the mysteries ; the goodness of

good,the

knowledge of

He
"

continues
made

"

I have

and

still uphold this universe

by

one

portion of

myself."1
So in the
fr

is described

Hymn of Purusha," himself as sacrificing

:
"

where

the

Supreme
and

for the creation

support of all worlds, it is said

"

But

Purusha

who (thespirit), The

arc

above other three remains

this all, three parts

creation eternal
in

parts, He
below

is above
to

and and

be

born

be, is is but the quarter of his being : the the heavens. Ascending with these beyond the world : the fourth part die by turns." *
is all that was,

is,or

shall

A could
above
"

later treatise, not be it :

"

Vedantic, shows
as one

how

the divine

conceived

with

the

world, and

yet

As

sound exists it. while

in tunes,

as

fruit in its

as flavors,

oil in

sesame-seed,
may

so

God

in the world, yet in such He remains open

from
sun

unchanged
and shut

be rated sepain all his works, just as the

wise that He

does, Such

flowers

in its to

presence."3 and this worlds

oneness

is the

transcendence
of

all forms In
not

here

affirmed
the
must

immanent

Mind.

with there

conceivable also be

universe, it is
exaltation

that forgotten

above

it, unfathomed

life beyond.
*
*

Bfag

Git""

ch.

BurnouPs

translation, in Jtttrjd. to JBhAgavata Purdrta-

"

Jfva

Gn"n

J'rtMm, in A9tur.

Oriental

7Mtniait vol. iv.

VEDANTA.

331 the Absolute

For
and self

such

absorbed
sense

contemplationof
the
the

One, all
was

of limit ceased;
more;

finiteThesenscof

felt no

infinite of
was

thoughtabsor*niona

There its claims. extinguished individual but not the private,

name.

stillatma,

self;
the

interest that existence

was

bore

Relative, conditional
the
essence, spiritual

merged
one

in

felt

as

All in all,the

clusive in-

principle, by and through which of being was the sense not possible. I distinguish of unity, from this whole." myself," says the disciple To has recognized soul all has become soul ; mind its identity with the universal force, the primal, pervasive,
w
w

constitutive

and should it

ultimate of

reason

of

all

existence.
as

How

speak
"

any

form

of mind of Mind?

apart from
asks

this, which
the

is the

substance
one

"How,"
an

Brihad,

should

know
whom
can

[as
he
we see

intrinsically
"The
the soul which

Him separate object]

by

knows?"1

eye cannot enables us

see

itself.

How

to

see?"2

It lies in the direct line of present scientific tendency

recognize the unityTheun5tyof of mind, by observingthat all phenomena are mimL be Force, which can differingexpressions of one The other than Thought. correlation of physical no forces is pushed forward and upward, in the hope of in fact contains and conditions including that which them all ; but the result can only be demonstration, and to the even understanding,that molecule plasm protoand that all cannot dispense with intelligence,
we come

that

should

to

cosmical

forces

are
as we

identical with
are now

mind.

Meanwhile,

thought, intuition
with

and reach

in Oriental indicating contemplation are beforehand the result from

"

science, and
"

side which

Rrihad, II. iv. 14.

"wa

Gn"n

Potk"m.

33

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

precludes
have human

materialism. the

thus foreshown

history. Man

as mind, as soon infinity aspire. Let us do justice to this dream that drew the Hindu seers before upward through their morning twilight, the day of science free intercourse and of nations

Speculation and sentiment steps of experience throughout is divinely prescientof his he begins to meditate and as

could

rise upon

the East.
are

That

by

rays which

somewhat

spectrum

thus

far, and

cheered was twilight in our ern Westintercepted which they may help us to

bring out. "I distinguish not myself from the whole." is not analysis science. Quite ; it is not The gift of
the East.

This
as

lit-

tje js jt Hebrew

fear, or
modern

Greek
not

self-assertion, or

prayer, or self-dissection. It is

Christian

philosophy as
term
; nor

the clear, cold the

a

the

pietyin
knows absent.
man.

will, which
who way be

defines understanding of a worship of defisense nite present deity only as one

it is the eternal

But

poet, child,
self in the free flow loves.

saint, lover, in
infinite of
of
our

It is the faith.

loss of

aspirationand
the of the

It is the
sees

life into

grander
the

life it

and

The human

voice

EternaJ, alone

heard, takes
can

into itself, and

:
"

poet's tongue

up the but echo

its words
"

am

what

is and

is not.
"

I am,
an*

"

if thou

dost know

it,

O Jellaieddin, I Say it,

the Soul

in all"

Is

not

man

of

one

nature

with

what

he

worships?
that is he. hesitate
'

Knowing and bang.

w

Where go Whoso

his faith reposes,

there and do the

not

tjiese Eastern

mystics
under

to

say \s

worships God

thought,
;

He the

the

foundation,' becomes

founded

under

VEDANTA.

333

thought, thought,
thus Brahma."2

'

He
'

is

great/ becomes
becomes
supreme

great

; or

under

the

He

is mind,'
the

wise."1

"Whoever
even

knows

Brahma

becomes of
or

It is

only

the

prevalenthabit
is said

ing associat-

self-assertion with makes

whatsoever

done, that

shock and language like this, in any religion, the natural to repel. It is perfectly poetic sense, to the spiritual imagination,to the spontaneity of faith and the self-surrender of love. It is
not
"

selfin
be

deification," but that very

any age
or

people, the
we

alone, spirit by which vice of self-worship is to

escaped.
Not

yet have

heard
to

relation of individual
"

of the any better statement universal life than this :

"

Round

and

round, within
when

wheel, roams
and him."

the

vagrant soul,so
the

longas
becomes
"As the
so

it fancies

itself different

apart from
3

Supreme.

It

trulyimmortal,
oil in
sesame

upheld by

seed the two Soul

is found

by

pressure,

as

water

by digging
together,

fire in as earth,
is that absolute

pieces of

wood

by rubbing them
his
own

found

by

one

within

soul,through
* thing."

truth and "The

alone."4 discipline soul must churn the truth

out patiently

of every

The the

poet does

not

forgetthat
endeavor

this is the
;

end,

not

beginning, of human by paying the price.

The
earnestness

and

must

come

of this laid and

stress

everywhere
or

in the aspiration appears the sufficiencyTO know upon seeing truth. The
on

of

really knowing
Western

j^!^10
truth-

modern

mind,

concentrated

action, taught by its theology to distrust intellectual intuition in religious belief,finds it hard to do justice
to

the

ancient

"Whoso principle,
" "

knows

or

sees

* "

Taittariya, III.

x.

3.

Mundaha^
Amritan"da

III. ii. 9

Sv*t"Jvatarat I.

6.

I. 15. Ibid.,

Up*n., Weber, II. 6*.

334
truth becomes

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

not was principle moral power, it to be, as it certainly how came was, of thoughtfulmen who the resort sought to comprehend and master the illsof life? What must theyhave nature meant by "knowing," who said, "Whatever oge

truth."

But

if this

meditates
on

on,

to

that

nature

he The
to

meditates

God

attains God"?1

of the Fall of Man

tree

separates,

even

myth antagonism,the
immortal the
two

he goes: Semitic

who

of is and

Here
one

knowledge from the tree of that makes a deeper synthesis,

the is
same.
a

life.
to

be

There

pride of longing
a

worship of knowledge which of mind, but sincerity understanding,

to

is not
"

the

escape

the sway falsities,

of

the

will

by

of living necessity by truth. "Truth alone, and not falsehood, conquers truth is opened the : by in the path on whidi the blest proceed."2 "No purifier world like knowledge."3 In the simplest and purest supreme

form

of

conviction,
And

to

know

is

not

divorced

from

to

be ; in other is
one

words, the life goes

it. this sacred

into the

with

Being attends the "true distinguishes

that in this way
to

unityof highestphilosophyas well. Plato science" from "opinion," affirming

know truth is
to

thought,and Thought and

become

truth.

Of

like purport is his is but

great ethical

who see ignorance; none her laws. "Wisdom," in being capable of violating quacy, adethe Hebrew Apocrypha, shines with the same reflected in large measure from the Hellenic She is the brightnessof the Everlasting mind. Light; and, being but one, she can do all things; and in all ages, entering into holy souls, she maketh them
" 1

that vice postulate, the beauty of virtue

ch. viii. Bkag. Gittlt

"

Mundak*.

III. 6.

Bkag. Git"t ch iv.

VEDANTA.

335

friends

of

God

and

prophets."
"Whoso
no

"Bondage,"
knows
is

says

Kapila,
across

"is from
and

delusion."1

cipated, eman-

thirsts that

more."2

Spinoza
of God

answers
one

the

ages

the

knowledge
Christian is the
"

is

with whose the

And the loving Him. genius the fourth Gospel Word lipsof his ideal
"

mystic,

of

product, puts into

of universal truth shall

this truth

ion religmake

"Ye free."

shall

know

the

truth, and

you

"The says

truth

of

being
all truth that
one.

and

the

truth

of

knowing,"
what he

Bacon,

"is
For

man

is but
;

knoweth. the clouds

prints goodness
descend in

and

the}' be

of

error

storms

of

passions
ever

and
To

perturbations."3
be what
one

knows

to

be

real

is for

the

it is implied in goal of noble effort, simply because of thought. Nothing is really the unity and integrity distinction known so long as it stands aloof, as mere external the thinker, an from can object only. Mind know only by finding itself in the thing known. being is not Nothing is reallythought by us, whose made with our mystically one thought, through the which makes element common knowledge possible. Nothing is reallysfoken or named^ unless the word or it would is in some name sense merged in the reality needed the name Hence, for Vedantic piety, express. The best wornot to be spoken, but breathed ship only. is the silent."4 of Hence, too, the significance and even names syllablesfor Oriental contemplation, as something far deeper and carrying with them real than an venience. more arbitrary symbolism for social conThinking, naming, knowing, are the ideals
" "

Kapila, S"nkhya Aphorisms, III. Essay in Praise of Knowledge.

24.

" *

Ibid., II. Introduction.

BAag.

Git A, ch.

x.

33^
of
was

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

life. contemplative
to

To

them identify and devout.

with

being
its

prove

them

earnest

Is ideal

not

all intense

faith,will, love, identified with

it not make

purpose? Does thing, knowledge with

with We To be
what

thought one
and
the

with
name

what

it knows,

it means?
truth
not by by participation,

know

observation. that it of
our

absorbed
life of
our

into

our

idea

or

so principle,

is the

to find it the substance life,

"

path
can or we

and

of it as

opportunity, this,not the mere perception it. Of God is to know what else an object,
know,
save

what ?

we

have

found

as

ideal life,

actual, in ourselves

is the unfailing to universal Indispensable religion faith of all mystics, and to be are that to know one.

Veda,
search for
truth.

Upanishad,
prayer, s;re for
"

Sutra,

"

poetry,
the

philosophy,
infinite deincessant
The
gether. to-

are

possessed by

spiritual knowledge. questioningthey beset the mystery

Svetasvatara
thus: opens What form of

With of

being.
converse

"The
cause
we

seekers is Brahma?

Whence
at

are

we

By

whom

do

live

and

where

last

are we governed? Do we walk after By whom of God? And a law, io joy and pain,O ye knowers and appointed, thus: decreed the Kena "By whom Mitri asks : The does the mind speed to its work ? ? the soul forgetits origin How How, leaving can In Y"jnaits selfhood, be again united thereto ? of their chief: How Code, the munis inquire valkya's and has this world into being,with gods, spirits, come

abide?

"

"

"

"

men

; and

how
on

the soul

itself?

Our

minds

are

dark

us enlighten

these

l things."
1

K4/"., III.

xx8.

VEDANTA.

337
men

In

the Ved"nta

poems, and are questions,

vain.
"

wise

and

women

pound proones,
or

answered

by

wiser

ask

in

confounded.

Experience is revealed, Answer truly, or thy head

saints
to

foolishness
shall
us

fall

hope problems that all generations symbolically. The must stated, solved, or left reverently in the meet are shall death be escaped, How of the Unknown. care
say
w

down,"

these

each

other, let

and
of

what this what

are

the

fetters of life ?
the
sun

What
moon

is the
have
re woven

light
set

soul, when
are

and
woven

On What each

the

worlds
ever

and

is this witness, ?

present, the
! this whole

soul world

within
were

If, O venerable
I become
answer

one

mine,"could
The wise

immortal

therebyF"1 wisely, and the questioner

is

dumb.
"

The

king of
with
hear

the Videhas hast thou

sat come,

on

his throne. O

Then

came

YAjnaseeking
'

valkya. 'Why
or cattle,
'
"

Yajnavalkya?
"

Is

it

subtle what

Let

its

'Even ? both, O king of kings! questions * any has taught thee?

"

'

The

boon

the
at

them question best knower

king asks of his seers is that he his pleasure. O sages, whoever

w

may
is

of

Brahma,
with binds
with

shall

have

thousand

cattle,

their horns
with
arrows,

overlaid and thee

I rise before

warrior rises a gold." "As the string to his bow, so will two questions," says Gargi, the
"

daughter
w

of
O

Vachacknu
"

do

thou

make

answer."

Ask
on
w

on,

lead in the

And Gargi 1 questions and answers through the circle of being, resting at last unheard unseen sees, imperishable One, who

hears, unknown
that
sees,
*

knows, hears,
or

beside knows."8
"

whom

there

is

none

or

Brihad, III. IV. VI.

IV. Ibid., 22

x.

"

III. viii. Ibid.,

*

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

"

The

wise

does

not

speak

of any

thing else
action

but

the

Supreme,

his

is in the soul ; his love and delight

also." !

The
that

earliest writers
this

about

the

Hindus

inform

us

people spent their time conversing on life and death. These were profoundly lively Greeks in the impressed by the absorptionof the Brahmans

thought of immortality. Megasthenes noted their frequentdiscourse of death as the birth of the soul into blessed life. And at their Porphyry marvelled evils pressed when no passion for yieldinglife,even
on

them, and
senses,

their

efforts

to

separate the

soul from

the
as

esteeming those who died to be happiest, immortal life. receiving Nachiketas, having earned the promise of a boon
from

NachiMas

Yama,

or

Death, demands
And Death

to

know
"

if the

soul is immortal. death!0"*

"It
is O
a

2 : replies

hard

: question

the
not

gods

asked
me

it of old.
to

Choose release

another
me

boon,
this."
JV.

Nachikdtas!

do

compel
it of

this:

from

"

The

gods indeed
be found like

asked easy

old,O

Death

And

as

for what
no

thou

snyest, that 'it is

not

to understand

there it,' is
no

is

other

speaker to
this.'1
K
"

thee, O
!

Death

! there

other

boon

like

daughterswho may live a herds of cattle,elephants, gold, horses, hundred years ; choose live as maidens the wide-expanded earth, and ; choose celestial^ ! on the wide years as thou wilt. Be a king,O Nachikdtas many thee enjoyerof all desires ; but do not ask what earth ; I will make
Choose, O
Nachikdtas
sons

and

the soul shall be after death. JV. end of

"

All
man

those ! the With song.

is short. dance
"

0 enjoyments are of yesterday: perishes, the life glory of all the senses ; and more, thee remain thy horses and the like, with
should thou

thou of all thee

and Man behold

rests

not

satisfied with wealth. should is what

III. i. 4.

If
so

we

obtain wealth shalt sway.

and The

thee, we
I choose

live

only

long as

boon
1

I said.
*

Mumhfia*

Katha

L-II1. "//""".,

VEDANTA.

339
that he

"

What

man
"

in living

this lower

and

dies,

while
"

going to the
knows
content

world,who knows undecaying immortals

the real nature with
a

decays

he shall obtain
as

exceeding bliss, who beauty and love,can be

"

of such

in rejoice

Answer,

Death

! the

long life? which great question,

men

ask,

of

the

but that,whereof Nachike'tas asks no other boon coming world. the knowledge is hid." K One thing is good : another thing is pleasure. Both with different objectsenchain Blessed between these is he who man. chooses the good alone. Thou, O Nachike'tas ! consideringthe objectsof desire,hast not chosen the way of riches,on which so
"

many
"

perish.
and the lead to different of objects desire

Ignorance and knowledge are far asunder, goals. I think thou lovest knowledge, because
did not
attract

thee.
are

"They
and round believes

who with

but fancy themselves ignorant, erring step, as blind led by the

wise, go
blind. He and

round who

this world my

exists,and
not

not

the

other, is again
because

again
hear

to subject
"

sway.
"

Of

the

soul,
is the

gained by
do
not

many,

they
"

do

not

and of it, wonderful knower.

which

many

know, though hearing, of the soul, the receiver,wonderful the teacher, wonderful

knowledge, O dearest ! for which thou hast asked, is it when not to be gainedby argument ; but it is easy to understand declared by a teacher who beholds difference in soul. Thou art no to the truth. as May there be for us another inquirer persevering
like door.
"

The

thee,
The

Nachike'tas

Thee

believe

house

with

open

wise, by
both

meditation

on

the unfathomable

One, who

is in the

leaves heart, the

body, the
Nor

the soul from griefand joy : having distinguished mortal rejoices, it in its subtle essence." obtaining

is the this

questioner yet
which
of

content.

"Make
as

known different effects." of

to

me

being
the

thou

beholdest,
causes,

from Then
as

this whole follows

one

times, of

and

praise of
with
does
: deity

essential
"

being ;

spirit,

of
"

nature

It is not born, nor

nor was

it die from

it

was

not

produced
and

from

any

one, is not

produced slain, though the body

any

it.

Eternal

without

it decay,

is slain.

34""
"

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

If the both
*

think, slayer
of them than do

or slay,'

if the slain thinks, well. It does than

not

am

slain,
is it

then slain. abides

"

not

know is

nor slay,

Subtler

what of the from that

subtle,greater
and

what

is

great,it
quillity tran-

in the heart who

living.
desire

He

is free

griefbeholds,through
the soul.

of his senses,
"

majesty of

it goes everywhere. it goes afar ; sleeping, Sitting, bodies, as firm among Thinking the soul as bodiless among the wise casts off all fleeting things,as great and all-pervading, grief. be gained by knowledgeof rites and texts,not The soul cannot It can be by understanding of these, not by manifold science. obtained His soul reveals its by the soul by which it is desired.
" "

own
"

truth* Whoever and has

not

ceased his

from

evil ways, does

not

has obtain

not

subdued
even

his

senses,

concentrated

mind,

not it,

by

knowledge."
"

Know

the soul

as

the

as

the

and charioteer,

the body as the car rider, mind, again,as the reins.

; know

intellect
are

The

senses

the
"

horses, their
Whoso

objectsthe roads.2
has But the
senses

is unwise

unsubdued,
has the

like wicked

horses

of the charioteer.

whoso

is wise

senses

subdued

like

good
"

horses

of the charioteer. is

Whoso

unwise, unmindful, alwaysimpure,does

to

not

gain

the

goal,but

descends

the

world

whence mindful, always pure, gains the One. again,the highest place of the all-pervading

again. goal from

their

But

whosoever he

is wise, is not born

"Higher than is the mind objects

the
"

the

senses

; intellect

objects, higher than higher than mind ; higher than

are

their lect intel-

great soul.3
than the this

Higher

great one

the Unmanifested this is

higherthan
;

the

unmanifested
limit and
"

;4 higherthan Spirit
subdue his

nought

it is the last

highestgoal.
the wise

Let

his

knowledge

in the

speech by mind, his mind by this also great soul; subdue

edge, knowlin the

placidSoul [peaceof the soul].

1

This is Sankara's understanding of the text ; but R5er Muir, that

a

in thinks,

common

with Mdller it chooses-

and The

more

literal version would

be

"

It

"

attainable by him whom view

of the

Soul chooses

this man's

body

as

its

own."

In

context, however, the and within,

not

the same, "that meaning is substantially outward

"

the wise seeker finds God

through

revelations.

Compare

Plato in

PkrJrvs,

"

74.

"

The

"rider."

Purusta.

VEDANTA.

341
attend.
as a

"Awake,
wise say

arise,get

to to

the
Him

great teachers, and

is
as

The razor's

that the road

difficultto tread

edge."
"

The

wise and

who

tells and

hears

the is

eternal adored

tale,which
in the

Death of

related Brahma."

Nachikdtas

received,

world

"It is evident," says wonderful

Dr.

Roer, the translator

the Katha

of this the

Upanishad,

"that

derives

from philosophy, and denies knowledge of Brahma the possibility We should say rather of a revelation." l Its it grandly identifies knowledge with revelation. God is revealed wise by their own to the nature. One's soul reveals its own truth ; not to be gained by mere knowledge of Vedas, by understandingnor by science;" "not by word, mind, nor eye, but by it is desired ; the soul by which nor by intellect alone, of intellect with soul."2 but by "union in this read so much There is nothing of which we Hindu thought and worship as Immortality. The
" " sense

It is the word of all human

for

final

beatitude, for the

end

of immor-

with1 uy* is one aspiration. "Whoso the Supreme obtains ot immortality,"is the burden Immortal become precept, philosophy, and prayer.
"

those
to

who
term

know." ?
the

What

meaning

did

they

attach

the

Certainly beyond
death

idea
not

of

did
as

individuality self-conscious before these stand so definitely

before
the

dreaming
and

souls the

it does

gence sharper intelliof the modern

intenser
was

individualism

mind.4
was

But
not

this
so

simply because conceived as definitely

"

ness self-consciousa

present fact;
II.
13.

a,
" 4

Jntrod.
9.

Ibid.,II.

23.

VI.

12.

VI. Ibid., It
"

denied

in the

BrUuid(\V.

v. a*

13)that
are

after death

there is any
"

selfcon

sciousnem;

but it if explained to such as referring

become

purt strttl, one

with

Brahma.

342
because it is which hold it fast. On which
and
to

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

never

definite
to

to

the

contemplative imagination,
than seeks
to

tends

escape

it,rather

the
comes

other

hand
the

that anxious

with

growth
refinement
not

of

the
men

complexity and
and and fears which

dependence on it the understanding, relation of personal

them

things,did

trouble it in view

with

the

doubts of

beset

of the

mystery

physicaldeath.
It is here
much

that the stronger

o

of personal liberty ', so feeling in the

shows

Western

than

in and
as

the its
an

.-.^ Difference

of Eastern

Eastern

races,

at once

its value

defect. conscJu^"
ness-

Their

belief in definite creation

act

of divine this

Will, for instance,

the and

so

cherished belief the

by them,
in human

has

advantage over
it expresses

Oriental

Emanation,
sense

that

develops
and
on

of

free intelligent purpose;

hold of the individual soul
own

thus
own

strengthensthe
conscious
as a

its

existence, and

its faith in its

ance continu-

productive force.

At

the

same

time, this

nurtured not only by the belief strong individuality, other ways, brings just mentioned, but in so many
a

certain
a

sense

of isolation. that demands

Self-consciousness

comes be-

It profoundestcare. from is besieged by anxieties and fears, arising teries mysthe understanding, which thus roused to full and in itself alone, is yet incompefaith in itself, tent But a largerliberty to fathom. succeeds, which It comes of fresh self-absorption drops the burden. in the life of the whole, as in ideas and principles, and Man. the unityof God of this jealouswatch The absence over personal would consciousness the Hindus to feel cause naturally comparativelylittle interest in continued existence
treasure

VEDANTA.

343
desire
of

after

death.

Yet

so

strong is the

these

being,so entire their faith that they made for it,that they perpetually to the idea recur are of a life beyond of immortality by the sense / haunted And it is not merely another death or change. name for the joy of losingconscious being in the life of
dreamers for real Brahma. For

they

followed
to
1

the
ones;

spirit through
believed
states

future

lives
T , Individual
..

;
.

traced itback
cence

past

in reminisof

of actions from
as

done

in former of

being ;

immortalUy'

shrank

future bonds

penaltyfor present

deeds,
somehow

if

was recognizedthat personality they fully

through these manifold births. It if only as a in fact associated with transmigration, was But it would doom that to be escaped. seem impossible the goal which they yearned to attain beyond that,
and which
seemed
to

continuous

them

worth

the

sacrifice

of all

desires, could be other than a form of special positive conscious being. It is certainlythe longing of all of mysticallove and faith, to rest in no other object thought,to be conscious of no lower form of being, Yet they do not disconthe One than and Eternal. nect in conception, from this rest, even perience personal exand the
sense

of

communion

with

God.

One

of the

Upanishads,

for instance, describes

cally poeti-

as ascending to Brahma's justman about its faith there it is questionedby Him world: is and knowledge, and, being wisely answered,

the soul of the

welcomed As

thus

This

my

world Veda

is thine."

the old

conscious

Hymns of the Rig in the immortality

"

world

pray for distinct, of imperishable where

whither light, all desires

the fathers had

gone
"

before, and
even

shall be
"

fulfilled,"
U*an., Weber,

so

the abstrac-

Kawkitaki

I. 395-4"3-

344
tions of later

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

philosophy glow with assurance, of essential life ill-defined and mystical,

of
thou

ever howas

the

crown

sacrifice meditatest
thou

and
at

devotion.

"On

whatever

nature

thy

last

hour, with desire,to

heavens are go."1 "The Light;"2 "3 "the highest thought is a drop of Light; and the for its guide.4 As a has a sunbeam spirit departing its slough, so this body is left by the serpent casts Its immortal life is Brahma, soul. even Light,"5 Of the desire to keep track of the individual soul shall speak elsedefinite path beyond death, we where. a on sentiment But, after all, surely the vaguer in life is nobler ; leaving of a natural confidence itself that shalt
"

this invisible

future, in its form

wisdom involve of immortal

and

detail,

to

the

benignityand
that these
whose
must

laws;

confident
nature

what

is best

for the

relations Vedanta

they unchangeably represent.

The

philosophy,in
that
to

its

highest fdhn,
of the

immortalityaffirms
in the

the

proper

definition of Immortal

Ljfc" is soul
as

know

God,

knowledge
of God.

by J

discernment

real

being.6
world
to

Mere

continued

existence, from

world, did

constitute the substance or root aspiration, of Immortalityat all. It hardlyentered as a noticeable into the conceptionof this fulness of knowledge element No taken to prove- the and bliss. pains were And the very thought of lapsing times and fact. births was to be escaped, for the pure sense renewed one's self of inalienable and eternal being. To know the fact of Immortality, with necessary life was as one not, for such
and the evidence

of the fact, at

once.

1 ' '

Bhagavadsitb.
Thomson's

Brihad.
to p

Tejovindti Upan., Weber, II 63.

in

Bhag: Gtt", note

IV

60 ;

Brahma-Sutras^
"

Colebrooke, I. 366.
IV. iv. 14.

Brikad,

18, 7.

Bnkad,

VBDANTA.

345
idea here indicated
Forceofthis

Manifestlythe contents to be not are supposed

and
to

of the
the
terms same,
are

whenever

wherever

the it. all

same

employed
it is for

evidence-

this evidence on spiritual subject. ourselves How immortal, can we possibly know than otherwise ble, by experience of what is imperishaand by knowing that we are in and of it, and it? wTo know from thyselfimmortal," inseparable

express of essence

But,

as

Idea^

ever

the

said
"

Goethe Evidences

also,
of

"

live in

the
"

whole." which
are

immortality
of of
assurance

do

not

meet

these
:

conditions their defect

to

crude

and

fect imperis
a

and vitality spiritual

are

relation

fatal

them.
men

Such from and

those

which
a

infer

future

life for all resurrection the

traditions which

of

single miraculous
on

those of many
some

rest

testimonies

to

reappearance
as

persons
law
;

after their
and those

bodily
which

death,

through

natural

fed be spiritually can proceed on the ground that we desire, or even or by by the reflection of our curiosity Of of our the echoes from beyond the veil. gossip, continued evidences of mere such physical existence, the Vedanta nothing. It does not philosophyknows seek its data on this external plane. But whose of those of evidence, higher forms

method,
intimate that older

still the

best

we

know,

has

the

most...
.

illustrations*

relation to essential

truth

and

life,

like the best of every later faith, has piety, in Hindu full measure contents ; though their practical with of course those of a experience cannot compare larger civilization. The Sankhya philosophy proves from make the effort we to liberate ourselves immortality from the reality from the senses ; the Vedanta, of all spirit and Upanishads alike, from ; Brahmanas

346
the

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

knowledge of hymn, as Miiller

"There
no was

God

in

the

soul; and it, from

no

one

Vedic itself.

translates

death
;

in

the

beginning

death

therefore

1 immortality."

Soul
"

itself was
not
"

to

be

cient," immortality ', "indestructible,Anbe seized not to nor dissipated,

one

touched

soul

in its essence itself,

own

with

the

preme.2 Su-

It is one's
he

soul

that

teaches
"

this, "if

be desirous
pure,

of immortal

nature."

Wise, mindful,

always
the
serene

finds the

subduing the senses, fixed on God, one the refuge, place where fear is not ; the goal,
Soul
:

he

escapes

the know

mouth

of death."3
nal eter-

The
in
"

sum

was

this.

To

the infinite and

all, makes
He is

immortal the the

sun

life.

The

Bhagavadgita
darkness He is the
at

says,
hour
to

brightas
4

beyond
"

the

of death."

And

Mundaka,
He

bridge

immortality."6 "When
"

Kena,

as

the

nature

is known."6
soul
:

when the

from

in the duality the notion of being different (in essence) the soul upheld by him Supreme ceases,

of every It is "the death

says the tality thought,then immor-

is known,"

of

becomes
"

immortal."7
off

Cast

thy desires

as

the
art

serpent his slough: break but

immortal work here."8 is the revealed None space
can

this

bondage
"That

of the

heart,thou
of all

Supreme
hearts Him
or

Soul, whose
immortal. below
or

ing universe,always dwell-

in the who space

name
"

is beings,

know above

become space

by the heart. Those comprehend Hira in

For Him

between.

whose

is the Not eye.

9

in

glory of the universe,there is no his form, none the sight abides

Those

likeness."

beholds

Him

with

the

who

know

Him

as

dwellingwithin

become

immortal."
"
"

Sansk. Bh.

Lit

560.

"

Upanishads,passim
6

Bhagav. Gitd.

" "

Katha, III. IV.

Kena, II.
4

G." VIII.

Mundaka,
"

II. it.5.

" "

II. iv- ; JBrtk.,

tfvet"svatara.

Katha, VI.

15.

^vet"sv^ IV.

17-20.

VEDANTA.

317
the eternal

In

that interior

sense

in which

only is
Mayl" the phenomenal.

real, the transient

as

is

phantasmal.
as one

Conceived in
essence,

not manifold, transitional,

as

but

ever-flowingform, the world to the Vedantist referred Its phenomena him to but a shadow. was somewhat beyond, which they could but hint, which their changefulness suggested by contrast only. Every passing fact or form in its vanishing said: Not I am in me but masking thy goal, thy rest. and disguise." We recall the cry of Job out of the of the perishable : depths of this sense
w
"

"Where
cannot

is

wisdom,
l

and

where of the in

the

be found

in the land

place of understanding? living.

'

It

"The me.'
our

deep saith,
Destruction

It is not death

me

and have
to

the

sea

saith,

Not

in with

and

say, 'We the way

heard

of its fame

ears.'

God

only knoweth

it. He

only its dwelling; and

to

place.
"

Behold

the fear of the

Lord,

that is

thy wisdom

depart

from

evil, thy understanding."

"

The

wisdom

"

which

the

part also, could

in the
to
a

not sea,

find in the
nor

Aryan mystic, on his land of the living, nor

and
the

sky
also

nor a

in destruction it turned the

death,

was

him

reality; and
w

perishable to

shadow,

only as
His

knowing
"

reality.
from
*

fear

was

that foothold

by

the

of evil "was forsaking, knowing truth as the one The shifting play of forms in time and space, in that Did illusion. not truth in this sense, was they were they not change with the eye itself that beheld them? Of what could their flowing and flitting ance? give assur-

unchangeable to be a the fear of being swept tide of fleeting His forms. in casting off delusion, and and imperishable refuge,

This of man,
and

evanescence

mocked

the

infinite thirst
was

piqued

it to

negation. This

their

348
mdyd. change.
which
one

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

It It

was was

coextensive

with
not

the
in

universe the
sense

of in

unreality; yet
had learned
to

who

associate would
use

great human
the

interests with

the visible world

to

word be

in

contradistinction understood
to the world
)

their

reality.

It will

better

in the
in

sense

in which

it would

be
its

applied
evanes-

which

with such reality contrasting in this point of view would

become

its

not a nonentity, negation. It was part of the mystic's pure solution of his problem of aspiration versus nent mg* actual, of the imperfection, of ideal and moral choice between a higher and a lower aim. of that flicker of the senses Maya was his explanation which disturbed his contemplation, and mocked his heart effort to fix thought and His on Being alone. and evil, mastery of wandering desires, and sorrow,
was

Maya
mean-

not

declaration

of

and
on

of all that his ideal

bitterness

in the

actual, which
Illusion. For it meant

smote

hope, was
It
overcame

in that word
the world.
as really

It solved
;
"

the

mystery.
them

These
that I

thingsare
see
so

not

they seem.
Their
mean

It is
sense

only
is in

for the

moment.

what

my soul shall make with the real ; which I

am

them

through
even

its oneness
as

I shall know
sense,

it is

when

master

of self and

and

in

knowing
fast,full

become. Give
us,

what

we

are

now

so attaining

understanding of
current

material and work

and

social the

uses

; turn

the

of

faith

from

transcendental clear actualism the the

dream

of the East

into 'the

and positive of

of

the

West;
the

yet this substance

in

which stands

believer
us

mdyd
And

none felt,

fast for

also.

its

uses

remain

necessity less truly ; though

VEDANTA.

349

ever of whatpersistence arrived at actual being," the exactly has once of instability and oppositepole to that Oriental sense become the all-controlling transience, has now spring of thought and conduct.

what

Goethe

calls the "tenacious

in its root,

ma,

meant
as

at

first
then

manifestation
this
Meaning of
theword-

or

creation, marking these

in

real;

considered reality which

man

its is

mystery, the riddle

sense

finite existence
;

to the

of the

infinite in

generally,the mystery of all subtle untraceable and from this meaning of the powers, word and last,in this completed come magic and mage; illusion that the mystic devotion, it meant the power besets all finite things. Such of the spirit
and
so,
"

to take

up

the visible universe substance

into

its dream, its

to

turn

its

concrete

into shadow,

real positive

into unreal, and heat of faith. Some have

to
_

dissolve the solid earth

in the fervent

referred advanced

the stage
TT
"

complete conception ot
of Hindu
i i i

mdyd
;

an
.

philosFunction
of
"

_.

ophy.

In

the

earlier

Upamshads

there

is

aMayainthe

certain realism life ; and

in the idea of the world

and

Of

Aryanmind'

they present these as consul st ant tal with in any absolute sense.1 It God, rather than illusory I cannot with been has even what see supposed that mdyd reason originatedin the negations of
" "

Buddhism.
the
structure

But of

its substance the

seems

to

be inherent

in

Aryan mind, after all ; whose in its most habit, even practicalphases, is to treat its present conceptionof a truth or a thing as partial
*

Philosophy, p. 386. Colebrooke (Essays, I. does not belong to the original Sutras. Vedinta It is very fully dewil377)says that *tt"y" of the later Upanishads, such as the SvetSs'vatara. oped, however, in some
See
on

Banerjea,Dialogues

Hindu

3SO
and

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

(so far)illusion in On this habit of holding view of a better future one. the facts of experience as provisionaldepends the it. This is no of progress which distinguishes power fanciful analogy. To the courage and energy of the in Aryan race, as well as to its contemplativefaculty, the West in the East, the actual is always plastic as in the waking convertible. It flits like dreams and that beckons before the higher possibility moment, beyond. All is mdyd, as contrasted with the permanence Neither in speculation of productive Mind. nor practiceis any special form of being held to be force. reconstituting independent of this all-revising, it discerns of the world, the more The more intensely the conceptions from that are does it transfer reality imperfect;in
other words,
as

behind
turn

to

those
same

that

into the

sweep transformingflood. Mind

are

before, and

these

in

makes,

again. Yet the true limitation of mdyd comes through this the only substantial reality and as very faith in mind in the consciousness ; a fact which appears pre-eminently power of the Indo-European. I refer to the claim of the individual soul to persistence, ing by virtue of holdin itself full recognition of this validity of mind. of being,in other words, involves parConsciousness ticipation Eastern in being. No of universal dream of definite forms or metamorphosis,or of the unreality of experience, is likely the the evanescence to shake culture is enforcing, of somewhat which sense manent perof one's changing in the subjective source and desire. With us, as thoughtand growth, memory sciousness," well as with these mysticdreamers, such words as "conhover in a dim "self," identity," phere atmosof past changes and future possibilities. But the
w

unmakes,

and

makes

VEDANTA.

351

indefiniteness into surely and this

a

of these ideas is passing more and more of permanent relation to*the whole sense
comes

sense

to

be

the

real

ness, self-conscious-

to life as meaning and validity arrived at personality, life. To have once to generate the perceptionof being, and to have of consciousness it as real, is to partake of that reality.And whatever in like manis achieved ner participates by this personality detail of in its validity.So that even the fleeting eternal life and conduct assumes meaning. The use of illusion is to deepen, not to destroy,this meaning ; as interpreted friendlyto the soul, and being genially the natural index of its perpetualgrowth. We may well believe that it had its helpfuland hopeful aspects to the more contemplativeOriental mind also, seeking

giving sublimer

in

its way

to

lose

individual

self-consciousness

in the

life of the whole.

Maya
of form and
the

was

the

fine

sense

of transition,of the
each
evanescence.

flow

into form, that makes

intangible Analogues
In
ofMayaas

elusive; the
delicate

sign mythology
who
; the

of

of the

Greek,

it appears

mother

of Hermes, also

is messenger cheat

their deceiver of
trusts ;

of

gods, and the thief expectation,

theless never-

of the

whose

brisk and from

we

versatile

draw It is of the

music

the

genius can laggard tortoise of

in the keen

time.

mdyd,

too, that

trace

dialectics

chasing time and space and all forms of perceptionthrough the vanishing points of of the phantasmal transition,to end in the same sense everywhere save in "the One." in its And back to mdyd modern science comes relations, protean dance of forces ; its metamorphoses and corand to be illusory, that prove the manifold all phases of force to be in essence one.

Eleatic School,

352
The

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

common

sense

of civilization is not wisdom of Illusion.

at war

with
no

its hdispensabieness.

this ancient

It needs

mysticto see that mdyd is not to be escaped, is of realities. Does not our indeed the most so practical palpableand solid world change with the eye that looks
on

it ?

Does

it

not

mock Not
are
even

our

fixed does

ideas
mean

and

our

stable The

definitions ?

gold
;

gold.
are

boy's coppers eagles to the miser a drowning man's dragging him down
shrewd business ? How colossus !

gold
Are
for

to

him

but

what

dollars wealth, tied round

waist
to

preservation,and
Are
sweeps

so

loss of all ?

the shrewrd

the financial storm

down

the

beneath

his shadow

Room

in trembled who petty men yet for thee, great Maya, with of this world ? ! Who of
us sees

the wisest of the children

Is the

not

all
as

our

facts

knowledge relative they are ? An owl's

we

eyes

peering into
bility immo-

darkness is
an

detects what illusion.

cannot.

Molecular

Every atom vibrates with cosmic and local movements, to ear. imperceptible eye or The human organism reaches but a littleway along the scale of sensibility." And the universe is aflame and vocal with subtler light and sound that it perceives
"

not.
or

What the
nature
us

comes

with the touch rotifer ?

of the insect's antennae, Our chemist

; but

cilia of the is made she is

knows
let him

what

of, for his crucibles

to

tell and

what

the

monad

in the
to

water-drop,
as aeons

show

the relations of that

image

the world,

it

stands
as we

in the do

thought that
and
sees

combines What
an

and galaxies is
nature to

stars

hours. all
as

deity,
And
of

to

the Soul

that

Eternal solve the

Now

beneficent evil.
seem,

M"y"
if what

stillhelps us and
sense

to

problems

For then

sorrow

loss

mean

is there

in

exactlywhat they our hope to find

VRDANTA.

353
?
If inscrutable read

that in them
and vices

which
are

we

see

not

wrongs

a higher newly point of vision, then what are providence and growth, itself ? There existence is shall we and how justify take to heart the solution of these mysteries till we no the Plutarch of illusion. laws finely says, "Alter of your misfortunes nature struction by putting a different con-

not

to

be

from

on

them."
to

Always

it is man's

wisdom
and
to

as

well

as

relief

expect

metamorphoses,
loss
as

deny
read

of stability between fate thus

to
as

the hard lines

;

solid facts that resist

to
see as

us.

To

these

gain in
"

the
as

making,
life,
"

freedom,
ever

failure
to

success,

death

still and

recognize illusion,

is the

path
you

reality. Very solid

take
;
men

is

shall

granite,very rigid is and things as they are.

arc

fact

and

Undeniable

indeed

but how bee

we

they
;

"

Where
the
or

poison,the
we

finds
see

honey,"
and,

says

spider sucks proverb. What

the

are,

that

sooner

later, we

find that

the first step

to

they
that
masters

seem.

knowledge is to cloubt if things are what Under the thought of the Hindu mystic,
God
and the is

all below

illusion, hides
turns

secret to

that

pain
that his

loss, and permanent

that

hindrance
was

help.
;

He
and
not

saw

only
he

to

be

trusted did

mdyd
have

meant

knew and

whatsoever dream.

yield him
and

this to be their

delusion

Natural

illusions

protective uses,

their" fine

tions adaptathe

largerthe

and ; recognized more delights of practical in sense capabilities

more,

life.

girditwith
contacts
;

delicate talismans
hide
we

and

charms
more

; soften

They rough

sterner

fates.
how

All the

need, then,
our

that, when
we

learn
to

they play with

doubt, but
of
our

do

not

react
even

universal
the heart
23

credulity, pluck divine

And

certainties

from

dreams.

354
in the rush
of and

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

whirl of social
want

machinery,
more

the

magoria phantasthe
the

we things,

all the

of the transcendental in reality

to

conviction best world the and and

that there

is pure

highest only.
the
senses

It is better be

believe

to

eternal, the
and

immutable,
a

than to believe illusory and the ground of law

duty
The

faith, to be
indeed
in

dream.
not

Hindu
world

philosophydid
tion
was
a

fail

on

this side. it
at

Creahad its
was

illusion; yet
divine intent
;

substance fromParable
Brahma,

and
was

least

not

separated
his
him

therefrom.

It

Brahma's
w

own

maya,
so

his "sport,"his "breathing,"

magic,"

and

within

still;

not

the

outside

ball, made

nothing,and flung out of his hand to spin of itself. created the world In the Hindu by a myth that God nence a deeper hold on the immathought" there is even that it was called than in the Hebrew, of Spirit into being by a "word" something sent out and
of
"
"

away

from

the

mouth,
"

as

it

were.

"God

said, and
it was,
"

it was,"
the

is the

one

God

and thotight,

is

other.

Hebrew
Semitic and
r

fervent religion,

and

as spiritual

it and
It

was,

emphasized
Aryan
"deais.

separation between
"

God
man.

the
was

world,
tjie

especially the

,,

world

of

ideal, shrjnkingOf the soul before its own of short-coming these seeds of in a deep sense ; and alienation in the religious sentiment fear and grew which into debasing theologies no imperfectbridgeof mediation atonement work or can permanently belief emphasized oneness Hindu of God redeem.
1
"

He

who

is III.

only One, possessed of mtya, united with

i;
'
.

maya,

creates

the

whole."

Svetasvatara^ the

IV.

9.

"The the

MayS
an

of the

Vedantists," says

the Dabistln, "is

'magic

of God

because

universe

is Mm
actor,

existence,him^eif
form."

the unity of
4

reality;like

playfuldeceit.' He givesit apparent from form into passingevery moment

ch. h. /?""".,

VEDANTA.

355

with the world for fearlessly the

awe

even

the

play of illusions seeking they disguised. It lacked reality

in the

the

Semite
the

felt in Infinite.

presence
It
was

of
not
a

his

own

conception of
self-condemnation could

goad
And

of

like

his

stern

moral

law.

it

into degenerate, though in different ways, the Semitic. as mythology and rite as superstitious that reBut its ground was ligion, faith, not fear; and now for mature enough to dispense with schemes "reconcilingGod and man," affirms, as its startingof deity,it is simply resuming point,the immanence the truth with practical a higher plane, and on insight, divined. which early Aryan philosophy instinctively of the Veda, which I do not forget that idolatry claims of devoto disprove these might seem vedawor^ shiPIn the wide alone. freedom tion to the Spirit the Hindu of discussion to schools, through open the primal quesendless subtleties of speculationon tions of being and thought, the authority of this
common

bible, twisted

and

accommodated,
or

like times

the

Christian, in every way is for the most demand,

The
to

that teachers

might
tion. ques-

part accepted without

Vedanta

commentators,

labor especially,

prove that it is infallible and without human of sound;" and identical with "the eternity

author,
that the

rishis,who
saw

are

called How

them human

only.

the

faculties

hymns, really far this last theory implied that of these inspired men were planted sup,

makers

of the

by supernaturalvision, may not be easy to raises in These which are bibliolatry questions say. But the mystical worship of soul rose all religions. into the assertion conventionalism out of such easily of the of its own higher inspiration. Scarcely one of the science Upanishads fails to urge the superiority

35 6
of soul the

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

to

or study of scripture,

else

to

imply

this

thought. "Of what use," the hymns of the Rig to one who does all the gods abide?"1 in whom Him To one not know I know who said, only the hymns, while I am "What thou hast ignorant of soul," a sage replies, there But is something which is studied is name. by the whole they say, "are
"

tenor

of

its

more

than

name."9

"There
the

are

two

sciences:

the

lesser

comprehends
and

rituals, astronomy, the

;

study

of words,

the

Vedas One

the

higher is
of testimony
or

the

science

by

which It may

the Eternal

is known."3
the
two

be of

use

to hear wrote

the author ago, records a eminent

of the Dabistan, who

as

three centuries He with

an

to the

of spirit
to
one

the later Vedantists.

visit made Hindu

he the such

of

their schools

filled with admiration at what was poet, who heard there, and said, "My whole life is passed in company of devotees
and
;

but my

my
ears

eyes
never

never

beheld any pated emanci-

independence, thing comparable to

men."

heard these

the

speeches

of

few

passages

from brought together

the literature

of this gave
"

to

will show Pantheism Spiritual Soul, Duty, Deity,Life :

"

the

meaning

it

Whatever
su-

exists in this world supreme Soul. the

one

is to be Whoever soul knows

enveloped in
beholds

the

The

of the

all

thought beings in
look

premesoul. this soul

down beholds
"

alone, and
When

in all

beings,cannot
soul,when

on

any its

creature.

that all is

he

then is there no delusion, no grief." unity, is all-pervading, bodiless,pure, untainted by sin,all-wise, He and self-existent He distributed ruler of mind, above all beings, 4 years." thingsaccordingto their nature for everlasting
"

Adore

Him, ye gods,after
'

whom
"

the year
I. i. 5.

with its
*

rolling days

Chhantbgya.

Mundaka,

V"yasaneya Upon.

VEDANTA.

357
He is the lest

is

completed, the Light

and Preserver
"

Ruler

of

Life. the Immortal lights, the Bridge,the Upholder of all, of

worlds

they fall."
"

The

great,the
Ruler Infinite

Lord

in

truth,the
He bliss,
sun :

Perfect
is

One,

the Mover is

of all

that

is,the
the

of purest is Spirit,

Light and
Him

He

everlasting.
is to arisen be the

He,

like the
sun

after darkness. alone

He has

adored ancient

by the deity of knowledge."

the Perfect Soul Him Him

the

from

"By
between.

is all this universe

pervaded.
below,
or

None

can

comprehend
Not the eye
:

in the space whose

name

above,

the space

the space is
no

For

is infinite

glory there
beholds and heart

ness. like-

in the

they who
hands

sight abides his form. know Him dwelling in

or

None the

Him mind

by
come be-

immortal." Without speeds,He takes. eye He hears. He is all-knowing, ear by none sees, without ; yet known unborn undecaying,omnipresent, by meditation ; whoso ; revealed knows Him, the all-blessed, dwellingin the heart of all beings, has * peace." everlasting He is not apprehended by the eye, not by devotions nor by mind is purified rites ; but he whose by the light of knowledge
"

Without

feet He

"

beholds

the

undivided

One,

who

knows

the

soul.

Inconceivable also
near,

by thought, more dwellinghere in

"

distant the heart behold

than for him

all distant who

as can

things,and
behold."
3

The

wise
as

who

this Soul

the

eternal among know

; as

transient that

things;
one

the

intelligent among
prayers soul of inner

those
"

that

which,
the

thoughone, grants the

ruler and obtain
"

of many,

the wise, who

behold

all, as
others." than

dwelling within
4

themselves,
for this

eternal bliss ;

they,not
a

This is dearer

than

son,

wealth, than

all

things;

is

Whoever worships the soul as dear, to him what deeper within. is dear is not perishable.6It is for the soul's sake that all are dear.* The soul is to be perceived onlyby its own idea ; and only true
"

by

him
"

who

declares

that it is real."

Truth

alone, not

falsehood,conquers.
desires
are

By

truth is

opened

the

road which abode.

:"

the rishis trod, whose

the satisfied,

supreme

' "

Brihad,
Mundaka,

IV.

iv.

aa.

"
"

JvfM"atora,III.
Katka,
V.
12,

IV. VI.

III. i. 7, 8-

13.

"
'

Brikad, I. iv 8. Katha* VI.

12, 13.

" "

BrVtad, II. iv. 5Mundaka,

111. 6.

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

"

Let

one

worship the Soul

he

as

his

place, and
the

his work
same

shall not shall he

perish. Whatsoever
obtain."
"

desires

from

Soul,the
which he

He

gains that
Therefore the soul."
2

world let
one

and who

those

desires

mind. knows

desires

imagines in his worship Him \vho prosperity

"

The

wise who
u

who seeks

has

studied

the

scripturescasts

them

by,

as

he

grain the chaff." 3 dom. out do withasked how a Brahman when can Yajnavalkya, the sacrificial girdle, answered, The soul itself is his girdle.*4 They who fancy that oblations and rites are the highestend of and foolish ones know not man go round any thing good. The round, coming back to decay and death, oppressed by misery,as blind led by the blind."*
soul is free* "
"

"

There the

is

higher and

lower

science

the lower

is that of the

higher that of the Eternal One."6 Worshipping deities as if these were apart from themselves,the It is not ignorantmaintain their gods, as beasts support a man. and be should know Brahma," pleasant to such gods that men
Vedas,
"
"

free.7

'"

To

behold

the soul in itself alone

is to

subdue

sin, not

to

be

Soul is moral

subdued by it."8
"

discipline, As

by evil ones By holy acts shall one become holy, his* desire, his resolve ; as his resolve,so his work; so
so

evil.
as

his

work,
soul
"

his reward." has

not

"Whoso
'"

ceased

from

evil ways

shall

not

obtain

true

If prayer
soul is
prayer,

is

to aspiration

become

one

with

ideal

life,
lifts
rest.

then

this Vedantic prayer. eternal old And cry

pantheism
for

is itself essential-

jy a
old is
an

its religious earnestness

up

the

There
hours
" " "

hymn

guidance, help, and the to perhaps relating quoted

Mundaka,
Mundaka

last

which of life,

is often
"

in the
10.

Upanishads.
Studun,
II
75-

Bri/uut, I. iv. 15.

Amntan"da Mundaka Brihad.

III.

Up., V. Up.,
I. iv iv. 5.
10.

18.

" " " "

Jabala, Weber,
Brihad, IV. iv.
Katka

Indiscke

I. li 7,

8,

10.

Up., I. i. 5.
33. 24-

' "

IV. Ibid.,

Up., II.

VEDANTA.

359

appeals to deity as dwelling in the Sun, whose outward lightis invoked to give way to its spiritual meaning :
It
"

"

To

me,

whose

duty
to

is truth, open,

Sun

upholder
of

of the

world, the
Withhold
am

entrance

truth, hidden
I may soul let my mind

thy splendorsthat
The
same

by thy vase behold thy

am

true

dazzlinglight. being. For I

Let my

immortal.

that is in thee

I.

spirit
O

obtain

then immortality, O

body
!

be

consumed. O

Remember
! to

thy actions,remember, my ! deliver from God, all-knowing

"As

Guide,
! to
tree

Agni

bliss.
l

the crooked
a

path

of sin."

the

birds
to

repair,O

beloved
9

to dwell

there,so
to

ail

this universe
"

the

Supreme."
me

From death

the
to

unreal,lead
end
to

to

the

real ; from
overcomes

darkness

light,

from
"

immortality. This
no

uttered in

the world."8 of God."

4

There

is

misery,save

knowledge

"'

Thrice/ let the saint say,

was mean

'

I have

renounced

all.' "
Renuncia-

What
not

this absolute surrender of

renunciation?

It did

for the self-indulgence

tion-

sake
senses

of

uses. practical

and

the

world
from

of rejection altogether. His problem

meant

It

the
was

to deliver

his soul transient.

all that

was

pendent, conditional, dethese forms

And

since he tracked

of

experience through every phase of his being, it if he deliberately would at first sight as seem sought
self-annihilation. But this could
not

be

true

he of the word. For recognizedsense he strove beatitude, and highest goal for which path emancipation. Its bliss was "knowing God,"

in any called the its its

end
"

"immortal
A hundred him who

life."
fold the bliss of those reaches the world of is one gods by birth, Prajapati. But the world of who
are

joy of
Brahma

is the

highestbliss

of all." fl

"

BrUuid,
Brihad, Arunika

V.

ziv; V"yasancya. Sa*h.

Up., 15-18.

*
*

JPnutia

Up., IV.

* "

I. iii.28.

Yajur Veda Mantras. Up. (Weber, II. 178).

^vttasvatara, VI. ao.

Brifuid,IV. hi. 33.

"

360
I find
Not self-

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

no a

evidence

that

earnest

men

have

ever

made

out of the desire of nonentity. Mysreligion annihiiation. tjcs of ]iave always yearned to lose the sense in the depths of eternal separate and limited selfhood and ably, absolute being ; and they have, as invaribeen charged with desiring to abolish ity. personalfrom the charge has usually come those And to and whom the Absolute Eternal as was, nearly as

could

well
me so

be, non-existent.
it is

To

quiteincredible
in the idea in destroying, which
to

that

philosophy, religious
as

absorbed aim
at

of Infinite Life

this is, that

we

should very

any

absolute

sense,
can

consciousness

revealed

it.

And

suppose
whole
to
as

any
heart the

one

be

longing for nothing with

Great Nirvana
far

his

and

soul

efforts have
such
an

been

made

prove this.1 prove

Buddhist

But
any the

they

are

not

making
mind

thing but mystical consciousness

the clear

irrationality and from do satisfactory, the of extreme difficulty

of the Oriental of Western

stand

in

definite moulds

thought.
It should
tion
,.,..".

be

fully recognizedthat
not to

this ardent

devo-

Life

in

God.

sought "

death, but life; not

escape
error,

unreality, J

but

reality ;

perturbation,
"

of understanding,idolatry in sense, and slavery Our to things, self,absorption in it I burn the wood of duality fire is piety,and ; instead of a sheep, I sacrifice egotism. This is my

change

cpnceit of

the

Horn."*

The

Alexandrian

school

of

Greek

thought
and

was

pervaded by
1

this Oriental

thirst for the One

Eter-

Burnouf, Koeppen, St. Hilaire.

of their A

But

Duncker, Mohl, and

ch. ii.4.

M tiller have

shown fully

the weakness
*

interpretation. Veddntist sage ; quoted in Dabut"n,

Horn

is the sacrificial butter.

VEDANTA.

3(51
the
an

nal.

It

pursued
its ideal of

this

soul with
earnestness

of "ecstasy,"or identity with objectas the only reality, the Enneads

faith of which
monument

of Plotinus

remain the
same

marvellous

for all time.

to

And noblest

spirit gave
of Christian
has

fervor religious
; to the to

the

minds
the

ages

freest of those whom age

to

Church
; a

refused

recognize,from
the
the

mystic passion for unacknowledged, has been

age life in The
man. same

Infinite that, however fountain of the ideal

in substance, however mind

from
w

remote

the

practi

cal Western

the

life of the East, is

hast made
us,

tine's Augus! for

: ejaculation

Thou

Lord

and souls are restless till they return our thyself; to Thee." involved in the sense of immortality Mysteriously

is which

secret

reminiscence

of

the

"

immortal

sea

It haunts all religious brought us hither." imaginationfrom the Vedi'c hymns down to Tauler and the Theologia Germanica to Wordsworth and ;

Emerson,
and
"

and

the

devout

sonnets

Jones Very.
He who has
out
a

Say
and
l

the

Henry Vaughan Upanishads :

"

of

found God
torch

has ceased

from

all wisdom the

of his

own

as

one

puts

laysit down,

when

place he

sought

in the darkness "As the

is found."

rivers flowing liberated

*

come

to their end
name

in the sea,

losingname
the wise
to

and

form, so,
u

from

and

form, proceeds

the Divine

Soul." who He
as

By him
known.

thinks Brahma
who thinks
one

is Him

beyond comprehension
comprehended
in every immortal life." 3 does He

is Brahma know

not

Him, known.

Known

the

nature

thought.

is

truly

By

this

knowledge comes
Sufi poet
:
"

So
"

singsthe

0 Thou

of whom

all is the
*

manifestation,
and

of Thou, independent
"

thou

we,' Thyself

'

thou

and

we,'
"

Amritan"da.

"

Muwfaka.

"

Ktna.

362
Thy
We We
nature

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

all
are

are a

is springof thy being : whatever is, of thy being; billows in the ocean nature." l small compass of thy manifested is the

Thou

And
"

so

the Christian
is
a

mystic:
may

"

God

mighty

sea, unfathomed

and

unbound

Oh, Here without

the
was
w

in this blessed

deep

all my
w

soul be drowned

!"

to

abide, in the

Spirit

that is without

strife,

decay, without death, and without goal of that old ceaseless yearning to
called
the

fear,"3 was
escape

what
in the

"return In

to
a

births," as
similar

involved

I would pret interlight little devotee a song, written by a late missionary at Benares, embodying this Oriental piety. Its appeal sentiment shows of the universality to the religious could the idea better than any philosophical statement do:
"
"

bonds

of actions."

The

snowflake

that

at glistens

morn

on

Kaildsa,

by the sunbeams, descends to the plain: Then, mingling with Gunga, it flows to the ocean, And lost in its waters returns not again*
Dissolved On That Then the rose-leaf in vapor
at

sunrise

exhaled
to

in rills back

the dewdrop, brightglistens falls in nourishingrain : Gunga through green fields meanders, the
ocean

Till onward
A

it flows

to

again.

peak of Kailasa, of yesterdayflows to the main ; But the snowflake At dawning a dewdrop still hangs on the rose-leaf, But the dewdrop of yesterdaycomes not again.
the The soul that is freed from from
as

snowflake stillwhitens

the

bondage of nature,
of

Escapes
And,
Ascends It

illusions of the flame

joy and
not

pain ;

pure

that is lost in the,sunbeams,

returns

into
comes

God,
not

and

again.
not

and

goes not ; it comes

Angelus
Site sins. India*

again."4
7.

1 4

Dabistiln.

"

V. Pras'na,

Euyent'bRecollections

of Northern

VEDANTA.

363
realities the
I
must

I have

indicated

some

of the of
to

Vedanta
Defector
PurP"*e.

philosophy was what note, also,

may the in

capable
it failed
an

seeing:
see.

And

here

be

recalled of

expressivemyth
purpose

which and

betrays
will

defect Hindu

self-conscious

active

character.

All manifestation
his
essence

is Brahma's
the

into "play," returning

when

sport fatigues. In this childlike

have

mythology, he must sleep. The life of

of ages,
when

alternation

of

waking

and

the worlds,

though
"

it last for ages

come

is but
must

"

Brahma's

day
That

night must
when when
a

he

repose. when he

life fades
;
as

he

bers, slumis

expands
radiates the Hebrew
to

awakes

torch

kindled alternately from

and
the

the lightalternately extinguished,

centre

and

is recalled.
of rest is

In
cribed as-

myth Jehovah

of creation, the also. But

what

need
we

note specially

in the idea of
no

Brahmanic

conceptionis
It stirs
no

the

absence It of

of

any

-purpose in this universal

of

Life.

proclaims

law

growth.
The

hope

human

vancement ad-

spiritwakes, the spirit sleeps. That is all. Nowhere struggleor endeavor; nowhere work ; nowhere recognized as the endless progress On the contrary, fact, the meaning of the world. in this movement there is involved a gradualdegeneracy.
And
man we

find indeed

the

definite belief of four of his

that

loses
a

in successively, the

each

consecutive life : crime

ages,

quarter of

duration

virtue is of a graduallyincreases, and the prevailing lower grade. In the first age, this virtue is devotion ; in the second, knowledge; in the third, sacrifice; in external form. an the fourth, only almsgiving, as to this tenAnd the only possible counteraction dency, so

for the few

who

can

escape

it,is

reverence

for

364
the Have Yet

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

immemorial
we a

customs

of

that

first,happier age.
of

not

here

philosophy
from
was

despair?
of
in the has

way
and

of release purpose

this apparent absence

all motive

aspirationto
Nor
achievement the

union
does
seem

with

reallyfound deity,which
been the

ardent scribed. de-

been of

confidence
to

in the power

spiritual
ment achieve-

have

ing wanting, notwithstand-

theory that placed

past.
For
was

ideal of such

in the the

Brahmanical
not

faith, however,

sphere
save

of effort

the visible world. and

That
sources of

all its earnestness this

could spirituality

not
was

piety from
that

ascetic it could

extravagance
not

^J^*"
asceticism,

owing to the fact aims to practical

interest that
owe

be

directed

and

social achievement.
and

But is

our

own a

in
we

the visible have

transient world
from

legacy religion. We
not
;

derived
to

any

Oriental

it neither
one

for
uses

the

did

tianity Judaism nor to Chriscomparatively little to bring

order

out

the

of the outward
person doom of

of

nature

and

tltMi

other, in the
world
to

its founder, of
an

be

under has

indeed
powers

given
and
and

pronounced ,|he ism Judaspeedy destruction. active impulse to man's

as an

by

its idea

of creation

instant

result of
sonal per-

divine

purpose energy

will.

Hebrew

belief in the

has authority of God in helped develop corresponding qualities mind

; and

doubtless ern the West-

the

humane

motives

for

action, emphasized
the the

have by Christianity,

seconded

practical
whole,
we

tendencies
owe our

of

modern

times.

But,
to

on

faith in this visible world

Greek

and liberty
to

Roman

law,

to

modern

science

and

art, and

the

of social good involved in the circulation opportunities of thought and It is intercourse of vigorous nations. mainly the gift of energetic raccs^ and depends less than on on causes. ethnological religious

VEDANTA.

365
Hindu, it was
his

In the circumstances

of the

special

that every thing of the peril, opflowed to abstract ideas, to pure thought. As ^euten_ far back the Greek invasion, Megasthenes dcncy. as about found the Hindus spending their time in talking in their degeneracy, life and death.1 They are still, is their staff'of life. natural metaphysicians. Dogma They draw water out of invisible wells, as we do out The of visible ones, deserts swarm for dailydrink. with anchorets, practising strange rites and muttering spells. The citystreets are perambulated by painted with ashes, and carrying down mendicants, rubbed skulls for drinking vessels. Ragged gosains sit by the trees, unfolding superthe waysides and under and ideas rustic academies,2 sensual to visionary fakirs ply them dreams. The with fables and very children learn theological and philosophical sutras do as we alphabet and multiplicationmechanically, still demonized table.3 by abstraction ; They are despising practical limitations, ignoring tangible

glory,as

well

as

his

facts. Of and
course

this national forms. And

temperament
as

has its higher

passionfor invisible mysteriesdegenerated into jugglery and magic, so it of these poet philosointo the mystical rose phers aspirations and seers. There is indeed no form of religion thus far which has not had analogous results, if not forms. for example, has in these extreme Christianity, ecclesiasticism well as and borne supernaturalism as and sacrifice and love, having sown aspiratibn germs of bondage as well as of freedom.
its lower the
1 "

Strabo, XV.

59.

See Allen's India, p. 404;

Buy era's Northern

India.

M tiller, Sansk.

Lit.,p.

74*

366
The
Causes
of

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

effort of Hindu
an^ the world

devotees of action
a

to

escape

the

senses

asceticism,

p^.j.explainedas

alreadybeen in the charms protest against

has

These ascetic temptationsof a torrid zone. with the forces they commensurate were disciplines for their ausThe terity sought to overcome. very word was They did not need to tapas, or heat. carry the imaginationinto other worlds, in order to of fire. They recognized this locate their purgatories the thing they had to of sensuous world nature as Their valor and faith lay in pronouncing the master. and purity an illusion, ever-present foe of freedom of spirit. destined to vanish after all in the sole reality and If in those times and in such
to
a

climate, there
nature

was

force wanting practical moral and

make it was

represent

intellectual purpose,
so as utterly

much certainly

to believe

of the ideal soul from

to

overcome

these ascetics did in the power the world, to disenchant the

subjectionto its masteries and spells. consciousness At the heart of Hindu was religious faith in the omnipotenceof thought. Let us note the of this faith. significance The meaning of the world for each of us lies in his the mind own t'lou"'lt: concerning it. What The
n-

macyof
nougit.

is

tcr

such itself,

is the

universe

to
w

the mind,

rpj^ jnwarcj makes

we

the outward.
rr

We

receive

but what who here

give."
yet doth

In the child,

that best

pher, philosotruth
we

keep

his

the heritage,"

instinct, and emphasize exists as unconscious He wisdom. is, in his own implicit sphere, the mighty prophet, seer blest." uut it finds manlier play in the conscious use of materials for ideal ends. this primacy of the inward To forces, to this their
"

VEDANTA.

367

likeness, creatingthe world in their own the clearest practicalperceptionand the largest even hold fast,or else the "yoke social experience must with the task ; a weight, heavy as frost,and comes stance deep as life." The secret of power is to refer circumand tral surrounding to the consciousness, as Cendeterminative and force, and to provide that this ing all-constructlight by which we see, this all-shaping, itself at its genius of life within us, maintain
power of
" "

best.

Now,
must

since this inherent

make the

creative function world its in

of
some

thought
form

needs

outward
can

confess
state

its sway,

in what

where there are society it can be applied ? to which and in affirmingitself to be the sole on itself, selfreality. In other words, the ascetic maintains the senses, the peror respect, through annihilating ception of them, by his mental effort. He keeps for itself, thought sovereignby proving its sufficiency where outiuard material is wanting. Yet as actual details, elements, and forces, however strenuously

of

dignityconsist in a no practicalmaterials ing Plainly, in concentrat-

denied,
kind

are

inevitable,
over

as

is also
so

the

need

of
on

some

of mastery

them,
turned

their reactions
a

such
session pos-

unbalanced

idealism
secret

it into

claim

to

the

springs through concentration of thought alone. Thaumaturgy, the preternatural of wonder-working with elements and forms, has gift that thought shall master things, if simply meant then not uses, through knowledge of their practical them. inherent right to master through its own Thought, it says, is primal, creative: things are its its echo, its plastic material, and should shadow, obey.

of their

368
This is the

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

through the of Hindu fantastic disciplines Yogis and Chrisin thaumaturgy. the absurdity, the t;an pJHar saints ; behind that of superstition, spiritual even, pride, the insanity
divine element
are

that shines

of

course

no

less evident.
to his
own

The

ascetic has

chosen

his realm, and

Wherever and
he
to

concentrates

of it. thoughthe is master self his thought, there, for himshall control

his

own

consciousness, he

phenomena. Thinking devoutlyon the sun, it shall it shall yield him universal sight; on the pole-star,
concede bottom him all
star

powers.

Carry
shall

mind
cease

to
;

the

of the between
to
a

throat, and
his

space
reduced the

hunger eyebrows, and

Let
be

to

the
is

external

contact

minimum.
he shall

it desire

freedom

from
and

body,

and

free of all elements

and
essence,

forms.
the you

Mind,

in concentration

is here of mind,
claim

Now sovereign power. faith, you put the word power

; whether

if here have
to

instead the

Hebrew
stones

of miraculous

change
to

into

bread,
So Was

or

water

into wine.
fate that

with

the the

tied souls

transmigration.
motives
to ;

it not

consequence from

of interested

of

', wandering thought

"

its centre, fettered

the life beyond
are

things?

Think

on

freedom

then, on

self,"says
smile do. it.

the

"and ascetic^

the bonds form

broken, the very wheel

Do
we

of birth and
at

fate and

is dissolved."
we we

the

ignorance?
is
more

That than

may have

easily enough
noted, behind

But There soul.

there

is intuition of the It is the

of thought, of will, of rights childhood of a giganticenergy; the the less

not
so

and progress ; none germ of liberty crude and and for ages ignorant, of that
can

because

tions findingcondi-

higher development. And only ridicule it has left out

the

materialism
own

of its

phil-

VEDANTA.

369
least afford
to

osophy
spare.

the element

that

philosophy can
side, not
has

Asceticism Hindu.
the burden in

has its unheroic Vedanta

_

peculiarto
^ A
.

the
.

The

text

been
and for

virtually

Asceticism.

of world-weariness
"

listlessness

all times.

What

relish

unsound and

body,
of

assailed and

by

desire

enjoyment in this and passion,avarice

from the Did

illusion, sorrow
the

fear, absence
disease,
the
man

loved,
age,

presence

hated,
Or of
hear

leanness,
Hebrew
are

and "The
his down

death."1

old

preacher:
and

thoughts
devices the soul."

mortal
:

miserable,

uncertain

for

the

How

large a

earthlybody weigheth proportionof Christian

the over preaching, from first to last, has whined The and the flesh ! practical vanity of the world genius of the West, its opportunity of culture and

construction,
liness

at

last makes

this Christian

other-world-

quite intolerable ; though there are still creeds that, like the old Egyptian monks, are watering its dry sticks in the sand. But we that a religionthat should to remember are
dare social
to

claim

the state, market,

as

scientific progress, human till this ethnic

and

reform,
could
of

free fields of natural

ment, developpresent
course. internor

not

possiblyhave
interests and

existed

time

secular

largest
had

The

Oriental

world

neither

gift

place for

India to things. From Palestine, from the Veda to the Gospels, why should they not have lacked substance, to the watching soul,

this

hope

in visible

like

vapor

that

was

soon

to

pass

away?

Social

and moral aspiration enterprisecould not find play, even on midnight's sky of rain to paint a golden
"

See

also

Y"jnav.,

III. 8, 106. and hollow

"

He
as a

who

seeks

substance

in human

which life,

is

as pithless

the Kadali stem,

bubble, is without

reason.1'

24

370 morrow." And

a

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

as
"

the

Hebrew

Christ
so

fastened the

his

hope

on

speedy
"

saint put his in which

to reach

coming golden morrow

should

of the end,"
"

Hindu Life And

into that Absolute like

a

all worlds that

sink

dream.

Life, what
of mind

absolute

surrender and will

to

his disciplines
an

made

and

body

ideal

good ! Asceticism was, there at least, a brave and believing religion. This faith in the rights of mind over matter, which
of
1"

in

its lower

forms

becomes

asceticism

and

mag'c" is tae germ of that intellectual grasp and Indolifted the has thought, subtlety which above the rest in what of mankind European race holds Hindu speculation depends on the brain alone. but even not only germs, respects types, and in many of the deepest philosophical systems very noble ones,
of the West.
to

It has

been

said, doubtless
forms which

in this sense, other times

have

"

exhausted

all the

l to themselvei." peoples appropriateseverally Liberty of thought was, for Hindu purposes, perfect-,

and

in the sacerdotal
the schools

class in India.2

The

contentions

of

afford limit

nothing to

ample proof of this. There Vj^s their speculative genius. Thejjt$"eever

lieved the Infinite

the tradkions

accessible
were

to

the but

seeker

;
on

and the

and

holy books
a

helps
a sense an

way, So

to be

set

in this

goal. teeming brain, haunted by

and
we

aside for

nobler

of the

eternal
Hindu
sys-

unseen,

there say

rose

earlier,or

perhaps
Forms

should

rather

an

Oriental,

Platonism,
Pietism. of

Stoicism,

Mysticism, Cynicism,

Western

thoughtand faith kindred to these in the Hindu systems have been fermenting
i p. 88.
"

Mytkol Wagner, Allgenteine

See Muir, III. 57.

VEDANTA.

371
later

mind down

from
to
more

the

times

of the

Rig

Veda holds

hymns
in solution,

the
or

present day.
less

Its Brahma

and

the

Eleatic

the Orphic hymn 'vaguely defined, philosophy. Here, in Eastern form

indeed, and

without
"

Hellenic

energy

of will, is the last and

"

mysticalOrphic
element and
one

Zeus,
;

midst, and first, Zeus,

essence
"

Zeus,
;

ruler all."

father of Xeno-

Zeus,

and

Here

the

Kosmos

ing, phanes, "that sees, hears, and thinks;" his "all-rulout sphericUnity of Mind, incomprehensible, withbeginning,end, or change ; and the "Ens unum"
"

of

Parmenides,
the

whereinto

all

differences

dissolved.

Anaxagorean "Nous," or Mind, "ruler of Heraclitean Here all." negation of the manifold; flux ; Zenonic of universal dialectics, proving sense substantial there be could that no being in this the Western Here Cynic is perpetual evanescence. in the Eastern foreshadowed Gymnosophist.1 Here essential and x"J Trgoqpoprxot?) Philo's Logos (IvdiaQsws Seneca's Here "All, one manifest, embracing all. Aurelius's "One only, and deity."2 Here Marcus
,

Here

God,
and

one one

substance,
truth."3 Here

one

law,

one

common

reason,

of Plotinus ; "ecstasy" Persian Sufism, mystic Jelalleddinand Sadi ; vision of idealism, and Malebranche's Berkeley's
the

here here "all

in God."

Here, without

its scientific basis

sense

or

its intense cosmic

Goethe's practical vitality,

Soul. And here

of

universal

of Thought and Being, Hegel's identity of subject and Vedanta have must object. The Plotinus : it anticipates influenced Spinoza. The the skeptics, at once the posiSankhya foreshadows
1

On

this pointsee

Crete's Plato,ch. xxxviii.

Epistle*, 92.

Meditations, VIZ. 9.

372

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

tivists, the
An way,
holds Fichtean earlier denies fast
to

rationalists,
Kantian the the

the

quietists,of
as

later
too

times.
in its

criticism,
certitude of moral

elaborate

the

understanding,
An
be the

yet

rock

of

sanctions.
to

earlier

intuition
and

affirms the All

selfishness

false
obedien in

an

unreal,
as

pursues life."

liberty
these

of
are

spiritual
of
course

"the

blessed
to

forms

peculiar
Here of
or

Hindu is the

genius.
substance that taken
not

also
"

of

all

great

philosophies
of
seen

evil,
comes

holding
of world

it is the in be

condition

finiteness,
in

things
must

fragments,
conceived

part;

that if
we

the

apart

from

God,

would here and

know
are

it

as

it is. forms of

And

unmistakable and
as

spiritual courage
to

trust,

all-controlling aspirations
the the soul's universe

the

highest thought,

native and
which

place

to

absolute
no

good,
that is

as

rounding
can

leaving
foreshadow
as

out

life

or

be the

aspirations
divine, and

tian Chrisbest

ideals these shall

of

yield,

do
to

the
come,

of
that

also,

hints

of

purer

worship
are

yet

supplant
of Christian of

defects

which
;

constantly

istic character-

thought
the essential

and

especially that imperr

of
must
or

feet lack

sense

unity

all
ever

life, and
result

that from

of

intellectual claims

liberty which
of

all exclusive
over

personal
of
man.

historical

authority

the

religious nature

II.

SANKHYA.

SANKHYA.

sketch while Hindu called

of

Religious
of the

Philosophy
general
in
the

thus

far,
of is

illustrative has

features main what

thought,
the is

represented
or

Vedanta
on

Orthodox

school
as

of
as

belief.
genial con-

This

founded the it of
was

the

Vedas,
mind. of

well
we

most

with
seen

national

Yet

have

already
from of We

that

capable
and his

emancipating
the

itself

idolatry
man

scripture, through
a

affirming
own

intimacy
nature.

with
now

God
to

essential

have

examine

different

path

to ;
more

the
one

affirmation in which

of

spiritual being
elements of

and freedom of

sovereignty
are

these the

still

prominent,

S"nkhya
Little is known

system
of like

Kapila.
;

Kapila
the
names

whose

name,

synonym
Kapila
and

of Fire,
ers

hovers,

of other

foundand
an
the

of Hindu He

schools,
is held of

between

mythology
to

s*nkhya*

history.
incarnation of his

by
;

some

have of

been

Agni
More

by others,
be

Vishnu.

The
to

gin oriany

system

cannot

definitelyassigned
than its

special

date.

important
is the it to fact
a

any

such

cal historiand

determination

that natural

persistence
and

productivityshow growth
Like of the
all other

be
mind.

spontaneous

Aryan

systems

of

Oriental

philosophy,

it is

376

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

comprisedin

series of

aphorisms, or Sutras^ adapted

texts

and for retention in the memory, as And these aphorisms, though

for instruction.

already carefully
like Colebrooke, stillmuch

studied

and

expounded by

scholars

Wilson, Weber,
obscured

Muller, and Ballantyne,are

by an exceedingly compact and elliptical of and even of translating and style, by the difficulty comprehending modes of thought and speech peculiar
to

the Oriental The

mind.1 with
in

earnestness

which and

Oriental

studies

are

now

pursued, both
that
we

Europe

the East,

the justify

hope

shall
vast

soon

the

store

ample data for preciating appossess of philosophical and germs

in the
the

developments
or

contained

six great Hindu

tems, sysmost
some

darsanaS) of which
oldest.2

S"nkhya

is the
as as

and scientific, practical,

consequent,
the

and,

think, the
from

It is for these reasons,

as

well
to

as

its apparent

attitude

opposite pole
that I different

the

religiousphilosophy of
selected it from among

the these

Vedanta,

have for

schools

special presentment, accordingto my apprehensionof its meaning. know of the whole Nothing we body of Hindu philosophyis more impressivethan the unity of its aim. in Hindu Covering the whole field of specuy. jatjve thought, seeking to unfold the mystery of view, these schools of the universe from every point
1

The

purpose of the

of the

present
as can

work

is

substance from
at

SSnkhya

be derived of

the translation and

in

commentary

Calcutta

1862-65. Of
with
siv, to

gieat value

generalidea of the the results of these labors; and especially Dr. Ballantynein the Bibliotheca Indict^ printed also for the comprehension of these Sutras is the
from

satisfiedby presenting such

S"nkhya
been

K"rikbt

(seventy Memorial
commentaries,
sew,

translated

native

Sent"ttces,definitive of the system),which has and Sutra is other, by Professor Wilson.

which
the leaves

probablyfrom aphorisms are

2

and

refers to the string with

the containing

bound Vorles.

together.
p.
212; two

Weber,

the two

Sankhyas, the

Thomson's Bhag. GH", lntrod.% ch. iii. The the Nylya, and the Vais'eshika. Mimftnsfts,

dars*tuu

are

SANKHYA.

377 and the

yet penetratedby one reach mukti^ or moksha,

are

same

motive,
from

"

to

deliverance intellect
to
are

bonds. of the
on

They
moral
one

are

tributes

of the

demands
at once,

and
an

spiritual being. They

the

confession of the heavy conditions involuntary existence by the absence imposed on human of social science, and liberty, practicaland political and weakness forms of moral well as by manifold as of constitutional enslavement to desire, growing out the other, in climatic and disadvantages; and, on these reaction decisive bonds, assertingfull upon into a sphere of freedom, reality, to ascend capacity

hand,

and

true

vision. schools of
own are

All moral action of

common

these

sequence^ after its karma.

to
"

the

possessed by the sense inevitable fruitage of

of every

kind, embodied
On this

in their conception

of birth

proceeds the belief, also them all,in transmigration,or the "bonds and in the spiritual body^ which attends the
of its past life,and
at

soul,
the

as

the ultimation form it is

to to

determines
to

new

assume

death.

And

escape

that power
common

bondage
of

renewed
to

births, by transcending the them, systems.

is the
Negation
and

actions purpose

necessitate

was

grand

of all Hindu
"

Kapila'sfirst aphorism, The end of man complete cessation of the threefold pain," has a negative aspect, impressed on it by intense
. . .

affirm*.

consciousness

of the does

force

of

human

limita-tlon*

tions, which
of his

little justice to the

unfolding process of of good assurance positive

like
a
sun

and joy serenity emancipation, and to the beckons him onward

that

thought. Beyond all endeavors at rejection, beyond the ceaseless and radical "nay, nay," with which it met all definite

in the

heavens

of

378
forms of life or

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

its ideal satisfy of freedom, there was a definite faith, a clearly positive And and Kapila'snegation does unswerving aim. differ from the mysticalpromise of the not essentially ma Vedanta, which emphasizes the enjoyment of Brahaction that claimed
to
w
"

as

the end

of

man.

bracing is the all-emessence Emancipation of the spiritual the of the Hindu Word, whether inspiration emphasis be placed on the process or the fulfilment. Of all its forms of speculation, this moral aspiration, this ascent from pain to peace, from darkness to light, from and the the one bonds to liberty, as imperative This is one practicable thing,is the vital substance.
the
common

"life

more

than

meat"

of

Hindu form
we

faith. under have

This

purpose

is, in fact, the

which
to

the be

grand

instinct of

unity,which
race,

found
master

characteristic

of the

made

itself

of

their

philosophicalcapacities.

The
The

JVyciyaof
}'et^ aimed
soever

Gotaina
at
no

was

method
to

of

Logic ;
what-

other

less than
and

discover
to

systems.

could

be

known,

how

attain the its idea of

assurance

of

reality. Roer
w

characterizes
the

God of
an

as

coming

nearest

to

Christian

conception

this Spirit." However all objects of thought; and with be, "it pursues may such fulness and definiteness in its forms of cognition of every modern allow a place for the treatment to as deliverance science ; and this purely in order to the
" " w

Infinite and

Personal

of

man

from
search

evil."1

The

Vaiscshika

of Kanada
an

is

similar

for universal

certitude,through
many

haustive ex-

of categories in analysis
1

respects
Review

more G-, VI.

See

the careful and

219-242,

of Hindu analysis and VII. pp.

Systems by Miiller, in Zeitschr

;

d. D. Af.

pp. 1-34 ture in

287-313
I.
i-ia

Madhusadana's
;

Weber's

Jndischt

Studitn,

Duncker's

GeschUhie

Liiert*' of Hindu d. Alttrtkumt, II.

163-173.

SANKHYA.

379

complete than those of Aristotle ; and divinations of physical laws not without striking many and phenomena, such as an atomic system, the perception of four primary elements, and of a finer ether But this also was as vehicle of sound.1 a baptism of the whole field of human and resource to the faculty of spiritualemancipation. Kanada same purpose searchingand
"

opens

his Sutras of

with

the words
"
.

te

Let

us

unfold

the

(dharma) Duty is that which leads to wisdom and the highest end good."2 To the same the Vedanta, or speculative portion of the Mimdnsd, expounds the meaning of revelation and the unity of the human soul with the divine. The Toga of Palanjali describes the disciplines by which that union is to be achieved. the Karma Finally, Toga of the Bhathe substance of all systems in resumes gavadgitct and crowns them with a poetic philosophical synthesis, vision and a moral enthusiasm, that seem the triumphal ness by Thought. Such the earnestsong of deliverance of this old persistent study of the laws and processes
way
of mind.3

duty

"

of the Vais'eshika.Philos. in Zeitschr. d* D. M. G., XXI. XXII. through exaltation leads to emancipation" (Ballantyne). Banerjea (Dialogueson Hindu be only "class, (or caste) Philosophy]pronounces dharma to duty." But can any word, used as the genericexpression of obligation, of ought"and the synonym
2

Roer's

Transl.

Or, "which

"

this

all systems

and
same

relations, mean
word
we is

observances?

The

used

nothing else than by Buddhists, who

use

the

performance of
to

given

set

of

reject caste, But

more

denote

their moral

law.

It is used wherever

should
are
"

(p. 380) that

and
because

all the schools

ought. because they are atheistic,

a

the

word

Mr.
or

less

they

do

not

teach

Creator, separate
credulous the Vedic

from

the world

Banerjea thinks also (sic), pantheistic " ix ). And (Pref."

his true sage, the Christian Satyakama, is as he is refuting as the philosophers towards are

and mysteries Duty," m Mi. Banerjea's "can only receive sanction philosophy, from the will of a personal God." If this onlymeane that the principle of rightdoing implies intelligence the loot of being,and fountain of as law, it is of course admitted. But when, in illustrationof the real meaning, we told are that "all idea of duty is repudiated in the Vedanta, because the human soul and deity are there identical" (p.83), we begin to comprehend how veiy much this author's notions of a have unfitted him to apprehend mystical piety and the 'personalGod" unity of being
ones.
"

about

Bible miracles

with its manifestations.

"

The

subtleties of Hindu

dialectics turn

upon

formulas and

words, and

are

probably

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

"This
.

Of the sank-

hya"

philosophy," says Gaudapada, in his comthe Sankhya Karika, imwas mentary on parted to Kapila as a boat for crossingthe of ignorance in which the world ocean was
w "

immersed.'*
?f

Revelation,"
;

is ineffectual excessive

the says for it is defective in others. To know

K"rik"
some

itself,
respects
to

and

in

how

criminate dis-

cannot

be
J

from the One that principles perceptible and from the thinking soul, is perceived,

better."
The
to

Sankhya, therefore, is
define the of principles And
truth.

rationalistic.
a

It is

ful care-

true

dialectic for

tlie

"

grounds of proof are three : perception, inference, and right affirmation, it further which designatesas a form of Srnti^ or last is declared "revelation."2 This mentators by the comthe Vedas both Kapila and to mean ; but of importance. it last in order mention the Karika in opThe frequently Sankhya," says Roer,3 was position
discovery of
its
"

to

the

doctrine
so.

of the

Vedas,

and

sometimes

openly
did
so

declared

Although it referred to them, it with its own trines docthey accorded only when of disin case their authority and it rejected crepancy."
Hindu
a way^ was his mind with

after a Kapila1,
The
root

did

not

trouble
or

He positivist. seeking a first That

were

principle.
w

Cause

Source

of He

all. did

but how

regressus
carried to
a

in infinitum."

not

demand

Yet there is a 'Spartan, equalledelsewhere. degree of refinement never about the plain rude huts (to/or), where hosts of pupils, rather Stoic,simplicity or generation these mental have plied after generation, of the great gymnastics under countless masters which profoundlyimpresses the European philosopher. Not lest systems of philosophy, is the striking
and exhaust rule of these dialectics that every all that in
can

be

shallpresent the view of his opponent, one in its his owq said before refuting it and maintaining behalf,
to

E. B. Cowell
"

Proceedings of Bengal Society ", June, 1867. * " Intrad. K"rik"" V. S"nkhya K"rik"" II.

"vet""vatara.

SANKHYA.

381
what

to be here, things came what end they are here.

but He

they
root

are,

and

to

took the realities he

certain

felt

and

saw,

referred

them

to

principlesas

primary and substantial, and made these his startingshould teach the point for the discriminations which these primary substances truth, of being.1 And or "roots"9 he found to be two in number, and essentially distinct ; the one of which the material representing is the complex experience of actual consciousness and inviolable beholder, shaped ; and the other, its constant for which it all the ideal essence representing it becomes exists,and by virtue of whose higher presence
of value. This
latter substance he did
not
:

very how and

define, except by contrast clearly it possible to define the was

bliss of that
to teach

with

the other freedom but

ineffable

life of which ?

all

experience
the

serves

the transcendence

But

point of

moment

path of life was in knowing that such an ideal personality reallyis and abides ; that the world exists and experience is developed, for its sake ; and that be delivered of all the out one can perturbations
and the

and

errors

and

blind

subserviences its pure

which

he

finds

in his peace.

experience, into
as

freedom,

and light,

This,

I understand

it,is the substance Prakriti,

was or

of

Kapand

ila's distinction

between It

"nature,"

Purusha,

"

or

soul."

at

once

speculativeand
action, passion,

moral, it affirmed

that each

individual's

tion had its value in and through its relaperception, ideal personality and beyond it,for above to an whose it was and working, and whose purity purposes

freedom

were

constant

and
to

secure.

It has been
1

usual

translate

Prakriti
*

by

the

terms

Aphorisms of Kapila, I. 68.

I. 67. Ibid.,

382
w

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

nature

"

and
J

"

matter."
nature

But
or

it certainly does
matter, in the
senses

not

nify signow

either
Superiority
of m;nd
even

Praknti1 means given by us to those terms. ^ inal prjmary principle,a self-subsistent origMula in this sense essence (the root) ; and stratum Prakriti" is taken by Kapila to represent the subSoul, of all experience, except Purusha, or is the other, and the ideal, root-principle which for
mpniknti.
er

which

it exists.

Prakriti
that
"

"

is

not

crude, visible,or

which was principle totle," taught in Greece also by Pythagoras,Plato, and Arisin fact and which has no property of body."2 It is all-pervading, immutable, one, without cause or It enfolds and evolves2 end. without senses, being distinct from spirit. It contains and evolves sense as divisible matter," but first
w

mind
mere

also

and

this

not

in

materialistic
power,

sense,
"

as

outside

-product

of its creative

because
as

the is
no

of Kapila is that, principle great positive

there

production of somethingout of nothing,the effect in the cause, and like comes from alreacly pre-exists the act like only, just as of the sculptorcan only of the image that was produce the manifestation in the stone."3 Mind, therefore, already [ideally]
ff

-pre-exists

in

the
be

essence
"

of Prakriti^ which
matter
"

quently conse-

cannot

mere

as senses

distinct and
M

from

mind.

But

Prakriti the
must

evolves

both and

mind,

only through
which
thus

presence
not

again
evolved

be

Soul" of purpose confounded with mind, as

sense^

in

secondary,instrumental,and

entangledform.
1

From

pra,

before,and
p. 82.

kri, to make

(procreo), indicating pre-existent, productive

foice.
" *

Wilson's K"rikfa

VijnSna Bikhshu's commentary

on

the SJnkhya.

Aphorisms* I. 78, 120.

SANKHYA.

383

essential substratum, or equipoise, of of the three gunas goodness, The three [orqualities] foulness [or rather, appetence], and dark- q^"*-

Prakriti is also the

ness,"

"

elements
manner,

which
are,
as

in

mixed,

consorted,
involved which

and
in

confused all

bonds

(guna),
; but

moral experience, away, with

and

intellectual blind
"

must

pass
serene

all their

in gravitations, These gunas

the
tainly cer-

Soul." of and liberty light have been regarded as cannot related

to

merely physical,
and
the

bodily of mind. investment They correspond, probably, as nearly as we can express them, to physicaland moral lightening," entemperaments.1 Thus goodness is described as foulness as and urgent, or passionate," darkness as "heavy and enveloping."2 The guna of a "goodness" is, it would seem, temperamental, uninstinct for what is right and discerning good. The of "foulness" tion (or appetence) is that perturbaguna of the passions, that blind headiness of desire, that vehement things as if they grasp and clingupon blurs the sight, could not be spared, which and stains
sense,
" "

however

the organs

of

the
"

motive,
"

and
is the

enslaves

the

will.

The

guna

of

darkness and

gloom
state.

of downward

sensual
are

brutish
consort

said

to

with and
same

to a gravitation These productsof Prakriti each in other, as resulting,

different
from
one

degrees
and

different aspects and

directions,
are

the

action.3

And

these

in
the

and perpetual in Prakriti, as equipoise possibility, united in the Ganges.4 three streams are this first principle From or "primary root," this

un-

The

in like Gnostics,

manner,

recognizedthree kinds
both to
sense "

of men,

the pnetm"ttcal)

or

spiritual ; the
" "

attracted psychical,

and spirit ; and

the kylical, or material.

,

KArikA, XIII. Conmtnt. of GawfafMa.

Ibid

XII.

on

K"rtkA, XVI.

384 changing essence

The
seven

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

of all
their the

gent

*n

principles. jja cans

things mutable, discrete,merwhat corne causes Kap* again,"1 seven produced and productive
"

"

They principles."
and

are

called vileriti

ently, (from vf9 differare

"ri,

to

that they make), indicating

not

external
rather

products made
root

of

nothing,but
the Great

modifications

of the
are
or

itself.
one,

These

(i) "Mahal,"
relations and

called also Mind

;

buddhi,
in

understanding^ meaning

doubtless

its active

consequent

limitations

self-consciousness, or ego(2) "Ahankara," ism; whence, (3) five "subtile rudiments," which are the grounds of our of sound, touch, smell, cognition And these seven for form, and taste. potentiate powers
whence,
us
"

or,

as

Kapila says,
or

"

produce

"
"

the five organs

of

sensation, the five organs

elements,
rf

of action, and of matter,

to

lowest mind
as

form the
to
a

the five gross is added which sensitive

ele-

manas,"

or

percipientand

ment,that refers them

last
are

but ''products,

consciousness.2 single unproductive." And the the gates

or

These
outward

organs
the

of

sense

are

called

doors, while
their
means

higher internal
"

forces that make

these

of communication
and

sciousness, self-connamely, understanding,

"

rf

He

The

twenty-

sensibility are called the warders* who knows these twrenty-five principles," says Kapila, "is liberated,whatever order of [social]
life he of the fr"m may
seven

five-

have

entered."* flow

Now,
Further

that productive principles Mahat

,

Prakriti
"

is further defined

definitions,

faculties of
I.

virtue, knowledge, and

must

by its power:*
Nature,
in
a state or

Aristotle says (Metaph

from which

3),that "there
entities
are

be

certain permanent
remains

primary matter,
conservation
" *
"

other

produced)and which
"

of

K"rikA.

Also, Afihorisms,I. 61
on

; II. 17, 18.

KArikA,

XXXV.

Gaudapada

K"r., I.

SANKHYA.

385
fulfilment
"

virtue

of

being the subjugationof Ahankara is egoism, or nature."1 consciousness, considered as involving the pride (abhimana) that, for Hindu conscience, always vitiates the feelingof that says there the self-sufficiency individuality ; and but me."2 Both is no other supreme "understanding" and as imperfect: the one "egoism" are of course affected by mental incompetcmcy, error, and manifold
power
"

(or dharma) humanity, and

being

the

of the

duties

circumstance

the

othep
use

as

the

illusion

of "self-complacency.

And

their

is in

ideal, by pointing to
with themselves.

somewhat What
so

the spiritual subserving trast beyond, and in conKapila meant by the

to

"subtile
some

rudiments" finer

is not

easy

determine,

"

haps per-

elementary substance, from which the were supposed to emanate ; but, more grosser organs probably, the subjective, intelligent ground involved in sensation ; the perceptivity required for the act of this taken as impressions; and receiving outward themselves, tile subone generator of the specialsenses
"

form

for each
all

sense.

Concerning
usual with

this, we

must

observe

that,

as

is

Hindu

thinking, so

here,
the
seven
"

intelli;

piecedence

gence generates gross matter, not and if Prakriti, the root of these is called gent principles,
in
no
"

reverse

"^e^~
nutter.

intelli-

unconscious,
in
none

this is meant the

absolute

sense,

and

that invalidates however

scious, uncon-

precedence
a

of

; since, intelligence ; and

it is stillactive

active, moreover,
"

in

ing serv-

still; the purposes higherintelligence fulfilling of soul, spontaneously and by an innate property ; its instruments performing their functions by mutual ini "

GaudapAda on KAr.t XXIII. Comment on K"r Vdchespati's

25

XXIV.

Aph.% II.

16.

386

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

vitation,the soul's purpose

this alone
does the

being the
the
nature

motive."1 soul's desire."2

of soul

Prakriti act,
errors

to fulfil the

Among
constitute

about

which

bondage, that of confoundingitwith matter,3 of the or products of Prakriti, is pronounced any by all Sankhyan authorities to be the most radical. "Soul," says Kapila,"is something other than body ; is for the is combined, and so discerptible, since what that is indiscerptible." Soul is other sake of some
"

not

material, because

it is the

experiencer ;

and

because

of its

superintendenceover
:

nature."4

Further
Soul distinct
and
eign.
sever*

the

perceptive principleof intelligent

is capable
of
. .

power

(mahat) v

discriminating
"

\
and

between

1 uruslia

rraknti
as

"

and

in

so

doing, recognizes soul

and in
a

superior to

both

"nature"

in consequence itself,

of its being intelligence

itself. than For soul, higher sense be confounded with not according to Kapila, must mind of knowledge ; such ; G having a higher form as Soul- is the independent, undisturbed vision. pure, the spectator, bystander."7 Have here a not we seer,
"

hint
the

of intuition, in its distinction

in
contrast

from the

opinion; of
limits of
the

higher reason understanding?

I have
*

with

said

that

Kapila, after
he
^ A

Hindu

way,
not
.

was a

positivist. But
Positivrsm
m

certainly was
has

mate-

the Sank-

nah

st.

The
a

Sankhya meaning

plainlyin
and
ff

hyju

respects
what

transcendental

method

many faith.

But innate

is the

of that

and spontaneity

pendent Prakriti, that indeproperty" of unconscious it acts, even force by which in service of
"

"
*

K"rik",
Wilson's

XXXI. Comment.

Ibid

XLIT.

Aflk.,II. 36, 37.

142, 143.

onK"r-,
XIX.

XLV.

* "

" "

Karik"i, XXXVII

Aphorisms, I. 139, ph., I 129, 130.

Aph ,11

29

K"rik",

SANKHYA.

387
a

science ? positive Is it any thingelse than an instinctive presentimentof by natural law, and of the development of the world there? And is not the remanding of soul to the position of with those innate witness and seer," not interfering a development, an imperfect propertiesof spontaneous of natural law, and its of the invariability recognition terventio inindependence of all external volition or arbitrary find a better explanationthan ? I cannot this of his meaning, when, if fascinated as by the of nature, he refers the orderlyprocesses self-adequacy of experience to modifications of an active but unconscious of Prakriti principle.Yet the unconsciousness is, as we have justseen, only relative to itself as process, soul
"

Have

we

not

here

germ

of

ff

as

mode,

or

as

law.

It stands

in the

closest

tion relaits

to cause,

conscious is allowed

soul, which, ', or intelligence

to

if

not

be

the motive

from

which

it acts

and
hints

the

force which

that

soul, in
course

guiding the
seem

are "superintends" it.1 These the Sankhya, reallymeans spirit of nature, though Kapila does not

to

have

followed

them

out.

So

the

strictest

must positivist recognize in natural law that unity,beauty, order, mystery, which are in fact representative of whatever holds most intelligence worthy

modern

of itself. What
w

does How

Kapila
does

mean

here

desire"?

Prakriti

by "soul" and its pointto that for whose

does is the the actual Here

service it exists ? enforce

answer
"

In other words, how the ideal ?

"

faith in
to

compact

the

last

: questions

Since

must

selves] objects are for use of another [than themthe opposite of that which has the three qualities ; since be superintendence exist ; since there must ; since there must sensible
"

K"nkA,

XVII.

Aphorisms,

I. 14*-

388
be
one

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

to

enjoy;
every
'

and
one

since there is desires

is, since
Soul
is."

drawing to abstraction that release, therefore[know we that]

a
" "

What
what *"ul? is

then

is Soul ?

It is affirmed

to

be free from

all

or

which produce the imperfectionsof qualities ity experience, free, therefore, from their activin experience which pursuitof specialobjects,
"

produces dependence, bondage, loss, and grief. As steadfast, imperturbable, perfectly self-subsistent,it of imperfect conditions be related to the world must and a bystander only, not witness a a as participant
in these In defects.
other

words,

"

as

we

should

say,

and

as

the

Hindu, in his fashion, says here, I think, quiteclearly,

"

an

ideal

stands capability

fast in

us,

as errors

stance the real sub-

of ourselves, untouched of life,unabated

by

the

and

stains

by
as

with its discouragements,

serenity

beholding them,
to

it were,

in their real

outwardness

its own Yet

essence.

this ideal

essence,
w

like

the

Hellenic-Hebrew

soul not
bound. really

"Wisdom,"
a\\

makes though remaining in itself, It is constantly united with things new." individual
in

Prakriti
to

in the share

consciousness,
be

and

so

pears apin

its infirmities, to

bound

experience. But the appearance soul is not In all is illusory. The reallybound. this unsatisfactory this confused activity, doing, it is that are "the active, while the "stranger" qualities" founding [soul] but appears the agent.2 It is like our conall the fire and
water

fetters of

iron in from
near
a

heated
stream
;

bar,

or

sun

and of
;

in reflections
a
rose

like the color

"

glasswhen
*

is

it.

It is illusion
8 itself."
"

verbal

resides in the mind, not

K"rik"" XVII.

in the soul
"

The

soul

Ibid.,XX.

ph., I. 58.

SANKHYA.

389

Verily not any soul is bound, released, or transmigrates or ; .but nature (Prakriti) l is so, in relation to the varietyof beings." alone In other words, the bondage men feel is not essential this by faith in bondage ; 2 and thoroughly to know tion. and free,3is liberathe soul -as absolute, imperishable,
cannot

be

bound.

Plotinus, also, asserts

which
reach

the soul
cannot not it,

to be
;

an

essence

miseries

and

changes
of

touch the

that

these
; that

only to

the

shadow

substance

its bliss is in pure desires and united

with does
our
w

seeing,free of pursuits. How

or

the blindness the soul

comes

of

terial ma-

to be

nature,"
ask.

the

defects

of

experience,
Whence
the

Kapila
comes

accepts the fact. ideal vision, is not the first, nor

not

He

main

nor question,

soluble For
what

for the

any

time.

point of
w

moment.

And is for

at understanding end it is always with us, is the is that, pracKapila'sanswer tically,

scientific

union

the

sake

of liberation."

Till

and validity is appreciated, independence of this higherpersonality the illusion which is bondage and pain. there remains The lame and the blind are journeying, and agree to help each other : the blind carries the lame on his shoulders, and the journey is accomplished, since the
true
one
can

discrimination

is attained, till the

walk

and
"

the other show

the way.
move,

So
can

soul
see

"

conjoinedwith
and
"

nature," if it
cannot

cannot
can

nature,"
Thus The

if it

see,

advance
the the

under

guidance.
ends.4

liberation

is effected, and loves

to

ney jourtial essen-

Sankhya

describe

that resides good-will is; the real harmony of

it in the process, arduous as ideal and actual, the ly friend-

purpose
"

that

animates
; A

this necessary
" *

illusion and
Afih
I. 7.

K"rik", LXII.

ph., I. 160, 162.

I. 12, 15, 19-

K"rik""

XXI.

390

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

defect; the effort, as

deliver and bound
nature
man

it were,

of That

Prakriti
man

herself shall know

to

from
her

his

pain.
"

discern in

truth,
"

not

that

she

hold

him

ignorance,
and
to

is her

purport.

Unconscious
"

lives

loves, in his desire.

relieve

As
to

people
liberate
plishes accom-

engage
soul ;

in acts

desires, so

nature nature

generous,
the
w

wish

seeking no benefit, Soul." 1 of ungrateful

of each soul
as

Her
"

evolution
"

goes
for

on

for deliverance sake

it is is

done

unity of from the abysses of speculative plucked even spirit Nothing," says analysis,of essential distinction ! Gaudapada, "is, in my opinion, more gentle than does Prakriti : once of having been she aware seen, How herself again to the gaze of soul." 3 not expose of illusion, which delicate and genial is this sense
another's Here
"

for self." a

makes who

error

vanish she

from

the
not

eyes
seen

of !

truth,

as

one

knows

should
are

be

Similar And Is the the

ideas

found

in the

Gnostic both

systems.

fundamental

same.

of principle "Bondage is from about moral

the
nature

philosophies misconception."4
of soul. If this that in have
seen

It consists in
seems

errors

to

ignorethe

element,
are

we

the intellectual and

the moral

associated closely
"

of the Aryan race edge" knowlphilosophies ; that involves enteringinto the nature of what is with the ideal, through abandonment known, becoming one the old of all selfish and All
*f Moral i

sensual

interests.
to
a

Oriental
"

wisdom

assumes

greater maxim,

or

less
to

1 rela-

degree the
know
sees

truth of the Platonic

is

that

his

virtue vices

to

love it,and shun them.

* "

that whoso That

Ibid
,

really
evil

must
I. LX.

moral

LVI.
24.

"

LXI. Ibid.,

Apk., III.

SANKHYA,

391
is
to be
a

is from vision

and misconception,
of

cured

by

the

pure

truth, is
surrender
substance

at

least and of the of

purifythe conscience,
the
to

urge

principletending to it to the pursuit of

and
In the the the

real,
win

to

shadow

surface
of

the

virtue. lends
to

absence

that moral

which light

science

conscience, the

knowing must right have been relatively greater than that of distinctively intellectual motives at the present day. The Sankhya is philosophyrather than ethics ; and into the its aphorisms do not enter definitely soul v.Uue of the was specialdisciplines by which pure
effect of this absolute
faith in
" "

to

be

reached.

Yet

the very

substance

of its S5nkhya*
to

"discrimination"

is the

preference of higher

lower

to the transient ; of ideal principles ; of the eternal self-centred to to individuality ; of spirit personality of duty to desire. And of those the sum sense ; "defects of the understanding"which cause delay of liberation is distinctly defined to be ;"* acquiescence the self-complacency it to stop short of that that causes sacrifice by which known. truth is fully perfect Of the forms ternal. infour are of such "acquiescence,"
" " "

The

first relates

to

nature,

and

consists

in

of as merely recognizing principles going further; the second, to means,

ance on as

nature,
a
mere

without

dependmere

observance if liberation
to

; the

third, to timc"
come

ing, wait;

would

in
to

good
up

season

the

by chance. The other, or external, kinds of acquiescence, are forms of abstinence from objects, merely because of the trouble and anxietythey bring.2 The practical philosophyof the Sankhya, as far as
turn Gaudaplda
on

fourth,

luck* expecting it

L. A'.Jr.,

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

it

can

be

seen

in the

Aphorisms, in fact,reminds
and the

us

of

the

manly precepts

of the later Stoic

breadth

of the Eclectic
"

schools.
does wisdom

Not The

in

"

perturbedmind lotus is accordingto

a

spring."
in." instruction

the soil it grows even,

"

Success

is slow

; and

not

though

be heard, is

the end
"

Not Go

gained without reflection." by enjoyment is desire appeased."

not, of thine who
is without
one own

"

will,near

to

one

driven

by strong
must

desire."

"He
'*

hopes

is

happy."
to
l

Though
as

devote from

himself

many

he teachers,

take

the

essence,

the bee

flowers."

How
Limits of

far the sacrifice must

from ^fafe^

the
.
_

be carried may be learned followingdecisive aphorism of the

sJf-abnegalion.

"

Liberation teaches

obtained the
one

throughknowledge of only knowledge, that

"

the

ples princitwenty-five
I am,
nor

neither

is

aught mine, Such

nor

do

I exist."

is Wilson's

translation,which
make
more

doubtless

little
Teu

would periphrasis

to the intelligible

tonic mind. How If it were

are we

to

understand

such

statement

as

this?

language of sentiment,instead of being, it is, a positiveaphorism of philosophy, it might as in the mysticalpietyof every age. find its equivalents
the

That of

it should

here

mean

either nihilism, or the

"

desire
seen

is plainly annihilation," impossible. We

even

have

that

the Vedanta,

in

resolvingall
purpose
to

existence

into
and

illusion,except the life of the soul in the absolute eternal, taught

Can
we

no

such

of

self-destruction.
sense,

then the

imagine this
intense
nature

be, in any

with insists
not

realism is

only that
1

compatible of Kapila, who firmly and a principle positive

*

Aph." IV.

K"rik"t

LXIV,

SANKHYA.

393
one,

but entity,1 each of

that soul souls

is not is
a

but
or

many

and
real

that and

these

unit,

monad,

imperishable?2 The whole aim of the Sankhya is is the proper liberation "for the sake of this" which and nowise to be lost, nor merged, nor personality^ marred. Kapila indeed takes special pains to declare
that "the
commentators
mean

soul's aim
on

is not
verse

annihilation."3 above

And

the
to

the
one

quoted explain it
is "difference

that

the

true

wisdom from
and

from
of

egotism/' and "exemption pain;" f.e.9 from the errors

in

being
bonds

the

seat

standing of the under-

its consciousness
"

of
nor

expressions,
do I

'neither
we are

I am,
not

exist/

"

to

agency.4 "By these is aught mine, nor understand negation

contradiction
to

of soul.

This

would

be

direct

the

Sankhya categories.It is intended merely as negation of the soul's having any active participation, dividual ininterest, or property, in human pains and does not amount, human fore, therefeelings. The verse has supposed, to "le nihilisme Cousin absolu, as dernier fruit du skepticisme."5
It should
seem

that

the

term

"

human?
to

in Wilson's from
;

what as explanation, indicating

the the
essence

is

be dismissed

life in liberation,covers

too

large a ground

since

soul,
of

as our

Kapila conceives humanity, and

as

it,is properlythe very

all human

experienceis

for its sake.6

Yet, inasmuch
soul would
* *

thought knowledge of be attained only by becoming $"v\i it Disparagecan follow that the interests of the body,
S3-

in Hindu

Afik., I.79I VI.

A

ph.,

I. 144,

149-151.

"As

the elements

are

real

so

is the soul real."

Y"j"av.t

III. H9.
*

ph., I. 47. Wilson, p. i8x.

"

ChandrikA,

quoted by Wilson, p.

180.

"

Apk.,

II.

46.

394 and

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

before must properlythe body itself, pass away be can liberation,in the pure and perfect sense, achieved. Disparagement of man's physical and the weak relations is of course pointin this practical in all Oriental as philosophy. Kapila's insistence
on
?f

the

"isolation"
a

of

soul, and
the

its distinction
to

from

nature," involves
in
the

constant

endeavor

separate the
even

two

interest

of

former, which
his
"aim

his her

realistic view essential

counteract.

of "nature," and
with the

of perception of
that

sympathy
Thus

soul,"

cannot

while

he

affirms

liberation

is of

possible in
the

this life, and is careful

remains
to

without

the

dissolution

body, he

attained, soul
wheel potter's

this is explain that, when invested with body only as the

to

continues

whirl, after the

potter has

tion impetuspreviously given.1 The aspiraafter purely spiritual existence in the present life tions relahas produced similar disparagement of outward in Christianity Testament also, from the New in modern down to the renaissance-epoch Europe, and till the recent Its even growth of physical science. asceticism could only be counterbalanced by social interests and practical aims ; and these have but followed the "necessary discriminations" insisted up on by the Kapilas and other rationalists of old, with a of soul and sense. higher synthesis But, liberation not being accomplishedin this life, ^"^ was" according to the Sankhya, not Linga,or It accompanied the soul spiritual escaped at death. body' in its subtile form, the linga Sarira? still, or spiritual body," which consisted of all those principles
w

left it,by the

and

rudimental
A, LXVII

elements

which

flow from

Prak-

a Juiracteristic^ Ltnga.signifies or mark.

"arirais the body*

SANKHYA.

395

of the envelopinggross organs with the exception riti, and bodilyframe ; these, and only these, perishingat death. with all its component derstanding, unlinga, parts, egoism, and the subtile organs that serve the supis subject to transmigration, requires port vehicle or body, and ceases only with a,special The
"

them,

"

of
the

process soul.1 Here holds

of liberation, and

the

full realization

of

Kapila stops.
this life of realized from

He

does
to

not

tell
save

us

what

he

soul

be,

in its

Kapiia's
lirail-

difference
the

all present

experiencesthrough
our

from understanding, action. Not

all

self-conscious
the

feeling
to state

and
the
to

his to describe

end, but
to

distinctions that condition it. But the of

it,and
to

hint

the way
the

fulfilment

seems implication man's highest ideal

be, that with

the

comes

ineffable
nor ceive con-

which reality,
;

we

can

neither
that
we

understand
see,

but

to

which

all

and

know,

and

feel, and
is but

dream

ourselves

the doers
transient of
to
a

and

possessors
the

of, deaf,

the

imperfect and
blind very
servant

means;

dumb,

and

secret

which

its finiteness

helps,by
The

contrast,

reveal.

substance

is this.

There

is

reality
"

ing abidaffirma-

to eternally,

know

which

is life, and

be-

His

fore which of
w

all other and

tongues

vanish

away."
in

Paul says tioiu as intelligence, prophecies and knowledge," shall And the apostle's for the as reason is that when
must
"

evanescence

of these

we

know which done

in part, and is

prophesy
come

part, and

that

perfect is

that which would

is in part

probably ask why faith) hope, and love^ which

1

ila away," KapChristian the specially Paul to thought sure

a

be

The Bhagctv. GU"

as

says

that, " when

abandons spirit

body, itmigrates, takingwith

it

Us senses,

the wind wafts along with itselfthe perfume of the flowers.1'

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

proved a vain not also, as being in like wise imperfect thing,must is perfect is that which and partial, when pass away And shall we not hear Kapila and Socrates as come. Are ideals of pure knowledge well as Jesus and Paul? less adequate than ideals of faith and love, essentially if these disparage knowledge? Will the future not insist on the necessity in order of independent seeing, and to rightbelieving true helping, on the unity
abide when

knowledge

shall have

been

"

of

science

and

love?

of this interesting understanding system, review its leading characteristics, with us TheAphor.let isms. illustration from the aphorisms ascribed special to Kapila himself. The of Hindu Sankhya proves the capacity genius for a very different form of thought from that Differences w^^c^ ^iave been we an/sank-* tracingthrough the myshya.

For

fuller

tical unities of the Vedanta.

There

is

no

sive pas-

of mind, no dissolvingof distinctions receptivity in the infinite as the only real. the opposite. Precisely The word definite as Sankhya refers us to numbers entities: it means to distinguish, to weigh, to judge. "Learn of this
to

discriminate, and

be

free,"

was

the

precept

in Indian needed philosophy; and that it was thought has already become sufficiently plain. Both Vedanta and Sankhya aim at spiritual pation. emanciBut
the
one assumes

absolute

unity, and
;

seeks
other and

freedom
assumes

by solvingall
"

distinctions therein
between freedom in
"

the
*

essential distinction, as
"

soul

blind

natural

forces, and
which

seeks

the
them.

bondage

consists

solving by disconfounding

The

Vedanta

affirms all

to spirit

be

one absolutely

SANKHYA.

397

the real. when

of Sankhya recognizesthe diversity So he that while

sees

persons

as

the
to

Vedantist
be he
one

himself

bondage escapes with Brahma, the

himself

Sankhyan

is free when
all blind

knows confused

separate from
"To
one

and

really conceptions,all
as

crude, intractable

material know
that
"

in the natural
one was

order

of

perience. ex-

not

bound
ff

when

seemed So

to

be

so,

this," says
could

Kapila,
the in it was

is liberation."
in the soul vidual indi-

the Vedantist

interest of individual
was

being.
For
as

say, but him For

was

hardly
the

real

free, in

that

its substance

not

self, but
that it was

in God.

the other

free, in
dage bon-

itself substance,
not

individual, which
The

could affirms

really touch.
souls
to

Nyaya,

also,
even

individual

be

real, eternal, and

infinite.1 For ego bound For

while

the Vedantist,
was
were

that it

bound
alike

bondage was unreal, because the and the phenomenal world which
of

void

essential life.
was

the the

Sankhyan, bondage
world
that seemed
to

unreal, because
it
was

real, the
power. for maya The

granted true stood beyond its ego, also real, for ever Definite forms of existence were sion) may a (illuthe one : bondage itself, bondage alone, was

bind

for the other.

is synthethe Vedanta as tic. Sankhya is analytic, It reacts against the very idea of unity; and, so far as is possible, avoids it ; being,in fact, not a tem sysof theology at all,but a system of analytic philosophy in the interest of individual (speculative and Without sis, moral) freedom. denying an ulterior synthePurusha (the it affirms its two primary principles, soul)and Prakriti ("nature"),which again are divis1

Colebrooke's

Analysis, Essays, I. 268.

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

ible

since of souls there is is

a

riti there

primal

and

and of Prakmultiplicity, also a developed, phenomenal,

"

form.

Prakriti, "rootless (or primary) root," is not, let

Meaning
Prakriti. of

us

once

rnore

note,
;

material

nature

in

any

abso-

]ute

scnse

since, as developed through

in
a

contact

with which

"soul," it appears
the first member

series of evolutions, of

and the second apprehension, ment eleself-will,the egoistic or self-consciousness, Hindu to make as thought is wont ; out of which, mind precedentand body derivative, arc generatedthe and action.1 and gross body of sensation subtile organs To we explain the real meaning of the conception, have the further fact that Prakriti is also the original of three psychological latent potentiality or equipoise evolved in man qualities, through its union with mind,9 the ascendingquality(sattva, or goodness),allied and to essence tating light;the impulsive, ungoverned roward-tending or passion) ; and last, the downquality {rajas, of weight and darkness (tanias, quality Of this triplicity which of qualities, or irrationality). runs through the whole of Hindu thought,and which has the basis of psychological formed substantially in other races the mere also, Prakriti was conceptions potential ground, or indifference, generating them in definite forms, only through union with soul, itself unconscious ; energizing spontaneously, not by thought," yet reallyexistingas Prakriti, in these the phenomena of mind. qualities, From all which, we can perhaps divine the meaning of the word in this subtle system of analytics.Prakriti be dead matter is it independent mind. cannot ; nor It indicates simply,in my judgment, an effort to exis
"

"

"

Aph.% I. 71,

73;

II.

16, 18.

ph., III. 48-50.

SANKHYA.

399
and mind

press

that

of unconscious mysterious interweaving

active with

powers,
not

which
to

obscures vision

the

relation
10

of

body,

Hindu

only,but

all human

hitherto attained. insight Over against this, Kapila posits essential man far as possible as seekingto liftthe conception Meaning above
these
sources

of

of

error,

confusion, and
man

Puru*ha-

consequent bondage, with which

connected,
and
to

is

phenomenally
ideal
eignty. sover-

affirm

his

inalienable
and
;

"Soul
and valid
to

(purusha) is;"1
every
individual

it is substantial
not

in

soul

competent
and

merely
its and for

liberate of

itself from

this blind
in and
w

Prakriti itself

bondage
ever

illusions, but

of

vitally only

free, the ultimate

and

force Hence

for whose it is
seen

service

this exists
when

energizes."
serene

felt as
a

throned witness

behind
seer

the warfare
"

of life,

inviolate;
nor

and

in the

itself, neither agent

patient," though taking

by tingeof qualities

and merely, so as to appear both the one the other, justas glassreflects the color of the object it ; and moving the organs near by proximityonly," subtle authority through some lying behind contact, that ; as the loadstone and of a higher quality than the iron, or moves a king his army through orders and not by engaging in the fight.2 A grand conception, divination by pure intellect, or of the authority and of mind over circumstance of the impossibility and of final moral failure. This is to lay spiritual noble basis for psychology and a theology in the union of, personal being ; and for that inward dignities lifts it above with which imperishable principles of ideal It is the affirmation transiencyand loss. in a very high form. personality^
w ^

reflection

Afk.,

I. 106;

II. 29;

I.

96.

40O
Here
Not
pure

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

then

the

two

not principles; to

absolute

duality,

since Prakriti is said

generate for the sake

Oj- tfa sou/9 ancj thus soul alone is declared Yet the Sankhya makes and absolutely to be. really the two effort to reduce to one, nor even no systematic the unity of either with itself. It is too much to urge the proper in the endeavor absorbed to distinguish from personality temporary illusions, overmastering and special solicitudes,and too thoroughly passions., possessedby its glad vision of the soul as divine So as pure transcendence. repose, as free beholding, of its insight is freedom word, the substance ; its watch"the separateness (or detachment) of soul."1 mind Hindu the So profoundly was prepossessed
Rationalism
of the Sank-

dualism.

by J
the

the

synthetic tendency, J J
was

that

an

analytic J

process

but

natural

reaction, sundering

drawing forth their respective validities. Thus the Sankhya takes specialpains Vedantic to to prove, absorptionof the many inagainst the One, that there is a real iimltiplicity of souls? And it explainsthe Vedic texts which affirm the oneness of soul, as referring siveness simply to the comprehenof "genus."3 The is Sankhya is rationalistic,as the Vedanta It is sceptical, the other is believing. as pietistic.It is active criticism,as the other is unquestioning faith. It appeals to common and realistic persense ception the unbalanced against mysticism that merely absorbed all thingsinto one. It is an effort to escape from this into the true of spiritual sense being, by concentration and on inference,testimony, perception,
elements, and
the exclusion
"

hya*

of all
VI.

causes

of false notions.4
*
"

Aph , V. 65 ; I. 151. Ibid.,

i, 70.

I. Ibid.,

149-151.
100.

I. 87, 89 Ibid.,

SANKHYA.

401
form

The

Vedanta

in
cannot

its best he that who

highest truth
of the them

reached the wise

recognizesthat the by the study Liberties

may
"throw

Vedas,

and
one

by,

as

seeks
out

piety left paths

its schools. But for it the

open

of

grains the chaff." Its the bibliolatry that beset

faith.

ity of
The

radical a more Sankhya made protest ; from not of Treatment starts postulatesof reason, The worship of the letter,the author-oftheVeda cease. book, must a Kapila declares plainly,

Veda

is
;

not

eternal

it is not does
not

supernatural nor
transcend the
mon com-

superhuman
of There words is
no

its

meaning
who understand

intuition.

He
can

understands their

the secular
sense

ings mean-

in the Veda.

specialbible sense ; there is no authority their self-evidence of scripturesapart from and the fruit of their teaching. They do not proceed from a Person for since liberated one (Is'wara) ; supreme
could could
can

not

desire
have been

to

make
no

them,
such

and supreme
are

one

unliberated Man
or a

not

power,

Lord
breath
to

have

their author.
; a

They
in

there;
be
not

of self-existence
no

fact

other

-words^ traceable
can

specialmind.
it is true,
on

That the

is all that

said.1

ila, Kapthe

other them

hand,
w

did

dispute

Vedas.
of

But

he

called

self-evident

conveyers their

right knowledge, through

to

the

patentness of
his

power

instruct

2 rightly." on

In other

words, he rested
own

his respect for them

their

appeal to
his

reason,

and

judged
to

them

by

their tendencies.

What

he

found

contrary
to

his intuition and

such

and central
V
."

such idea

Their

judgment, he ascribed a motive, and quietlyset it aside.8 of unity,for instance, he disposes

'

4o-5". to

*/*-"

V.

"

Rtier, Introd

dvetttivatara Upa*.,
26

p.

36.

4"32
of thus:
'

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

"Such
sake of

texts

as,

all is soul

alone/
*

are

there
the
can

for the
to

the

to help undiscriminating,'

weak

meditation.'"1

In

view

of all

this, it

absolute hardly be supposed that Kapila allowed to the Vedas. Decidedly, criticism of the authority "holy text" has here begun. Its later development and Puranic feature of the Buddhist forms a striking systems, which, in the main, follow the Sankhya.3
"

Scriptural rites
chief ief end
'*

and

forms
3

are

but works

they

are

not

the

of man."
to

Ofrituaiism.

Pain

victims

must

bring pain to

the sacrificer of

them."

How

indeed, with
of the

his intense

conviction

of the freedom

soul, could Kapila believe that any outward

would and
its desire satisfy

conformities is its wisdom

of
"

To

know
he

itself says

its

rest.

Here

is what

it :

"

Soul

is other

than

body
and

not

because material,

physicalnature, Of spiritual
hberties.

because, while
of for it,
atoms

this is the
3

overseeing thingexpleasure
soul is

perienced,the
are

soul it is that
cause

experiences."
have

"Atoms
nor
"

not

the

neither

pain."b Light
does
7

not

pertain

to

the

and unintelligent,

the

essential

light."
as as error

"Mind,
and riti) It
is
"

product of undiscerning activity (Prakof parts, is perishable, made but not sou!."8
to

an

mistake

even

mind,
;

as

such, for soul.9

Only

soul

can

be liberated

be

in isolated,

which
not

and do reflected,
1

only that can but blind, changefulqualities are constitute itsessence/' lo Simply,
* " "
"

because

"
"

ph.,V. 63, 64. Afih.,I. 82. I. 139-142. Ibid.,

Ib,d
,

Wjlson's

Essays. 84.
1

Ibid

I.

I. Ibid., Ibid
,

13.

"

I. 145129,

I.

136 ; V. 70-73.
144.

"Ibid,!.

"

I. Ibid.,

SANKHYA.

403

as

we

have

seen,

form this for

of

expressingthat
claims for

pure

dependen in-

which

system

spiritual
freedom, a

substance,
"

or

rather

spiritual integrity.
:

The
a

soul is seer."

uncompanioned solitary,
!

it is constant

witness,
w

Liberation
;
nor

through works, through the worship of

is
not

which
the

are

sient tranwhathberation
"s-

All,
the

which
world
;

must
"2
"

be
nor

mingled with through the

shunned."8

fancies

about

desire of heaven, "It is

not

for that

desire
of

is to

be

the

excision

any

specialqualities ;
; not

not

nor possessions,

magic

powers

going
does

away
not

to

any

movable, world, since soul is im; not

and the rank of the

go

of

gods, which

witli conjunction is perishable ; not absorption

away

part into the whole ; not destruction of all ; not and better than the void, nor yet joy:"4 but more the difference which all these, to know separates the
"

of qualities, tendencies to or undiscerningmovement in the senses and goodness, passion, and darkness free spiritual the mind, from to thirst being, and so
w "

no

more

"a

work

not

of

moment,

but

of

that many

complete
How

concentration
6

and

devotion, which

has

obstacles."

finelyaffirmative Kapila'sappeal to pure bondage is not essential

ever,

through
reason

all this

negation is
Appeal
reason-

to

prove
;
7

that

to

to the

soul

that for

within
the

man,

whether

he knows

it or not, and

lifted

of subjection and to evil, witness possibility watching and waiting its hour, indefeasible and seer, inviolate,is the principle of purityand freedom 1 8
above
ff

To
i
" "

know
,

the
65
;

and that difference,

*

one

-was

not

bound

Apk

V.

1. 162

II. 39.

"
*

Afh.. III. 26, 27.

Ibid
,

Ibid.,Ill

52. Introd.
.
.

V.

74-83.
10;

Ibid.,II., Vijnana Bhilnhu's

II. 3Ibid.,
1

so

Svft"svatara,
"

III.

IV. 7-17.

"

AP*"

I- 7, "c.

Apk.,

I. iba.

404
when
w

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

one

seemed

to

be

so,"1
it

"

is

Kapila's idea
to

of

liberation ;" and

he

knew

was

not

be

reached of lower

without desires To
to

paying the pricein

on

all that surrender

which

he
on

insists. the

take

all this it because

so

of authority
most

pure

Reason
and

believe

it seemed stake

rational

coming, be"

and

to

the issues

of life upon
and

it,

is

surely an
respect.
For
All is for man's Ilfel one ideal

achievement

for

all ages

to religions

this

great work

of liberation, Prakriti is but

an

instrument. herself form

seven

She,
ways,

the but

really bound,
J

"

binds
in

becomes
"

liberated
"

only,"which
is thus

is

knowledge

of the
man.

truth of

things.2 All
is the seer,

for the ideal life of

are

"The

soul

the organs

its instruments."3

"Creation
to a
serves

is for the

soul's sake, from

be liberation slave ;"
"

Brahma
"

down Nature
as

post; tillthere
soul like
a

thereof."4
creates

born

for its sake, And

"

the cart

carries saffron for its master."5

"

sense"

itself becomes for mind

a

as

the

supersensuous" through this necessity It is explanationof its phenomena.

ff

mistake

to

suppose

that

sense

is identical with

that

in which

it is seated."6 all this inherent

That
Is the Sank,

sovereigntyis
soul, and
the
ee

ascribed

to

every J

individual
"

of multiplicity *

hyaathelstlc?

souls

insisted in

on,

has been
essence

thought to
above the
;

involve

unbelief of

unityof
;

plicity this multidivision into

individuals
and

and

hence

"Theistic"

"Atheistic"

Sankhya
the

of regarded as representative of the former. It is

1

Kapila being latter,and Patanjali

the
Apk.,

true

that

Kapila'sjealousy for
"

freedom
II. 29.
at.

Aph.^ I. 155. "Ibid.III.47.

Afih."III
Ibid, HI

73. 51,

"

'

VI

40.

Mbid,H.

SANKHYA.

405
him in
to

and

self-subsistence

of

carried spirit of its

essence,

the

thest furand But istic. athe-

possibleisolation individual being every the Sankhya cannot, even

On
the

each

from

finite conditions. be logic,

has

in his
as

called
"

contrary,

Bunsen

noticed,

God,

Unity, therefore the eternal when of minds is an assumption, or ej^ence perfected, postulate, running through the whole system, like that of the existence of lightin a treatise on colors ; and fairly Divine Order of the Universe," inferrible, as a of reason, from the "recognition knowledge, attributes of these individual as common righteousness, And the latest translator of the Bhagaminds." 1 in an elaborate review of Hindu vadgita, philosophy, Bunfrom a pointof view quitedifferent from asserts, not sen's, that the Sankhya only does not deny the existence hints at it in of a Supreme Being, but even of individual souls to a spiritual referringthe emanation The idea of a essence giftedwith volition."2 tinct of souls, real, endless, and multiplicity eternallydisfrom body, is not inconsistent with theism ; since follows the Sankhya in this belief, the Nyaya-, which also declares the Supreme Soul (Paramatma) to be of all things."3 "one, eternallywise, and the source regarded as
" " "

the undivided

It is curious
is

to

note

how

similar, in many
his
to

respects,

in description, Patanjali's of
"

theistic
that

an

Isivara?
"

or

Lord,

Yoga4 system, which Kapila

gives of "Soul?
fruits,or
his
own or

"untouched Were
not

by troubles, works,
both in

deserts." way, the

ideal spiritual

seeking,each in its independence of

not

limit
1 *

change?
Bhag. Git
to a,

Kapila

could

have

admitted

God

in History', I. 336.

Thomson's been able

Inirod., p. Iviii. Such definite reference

4

to

emanation

I have

not
8

find

Colebrooke's

in Kapila. Essays^ I. 268.

"Yoga"

means

conjunction(with deity).

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

an

Iswara, like that of

all actual

the souls

Yoga,
;

who

is in

one

sense

distinct from itself afforded Theistic

yet his conceptionof soul

ample
an

basis for the idea of infinite Mind.

scholiasts
of

his denial

Kapila'saphorisms affirm that Iswara is but hypothetical, lute. absonot

on

It would did
not

have

been and

more

correct

to

say

that

it

as

deity. In truth it was grating Kapila'sfunction to apply a disinteanalysisto the monarchical supernaturalistic^ well as to the blindly pantheistic conceptionsof his
"

deny

central

immanent

time. He

simply
a

shows
"

that there
that

is
*

no

evidence

of

an

JJivara, or Lord,
in such and whose
w

is, of

governor
soul

of nature,"
from
nature

sense

as

the
as

separation of
witness

its isolation action would

"

forbade;

one,

namely,
ff

some

for his
one

of ; the sway imperfection passion or desire; a certain needy working benefit or glory,like a worldly lord;"1 own

involve

whose

interference
of
;

should
"

be

necessary

to

the

retributions
in his view

conduct,
law

an

inadmissible

condition,

since works
for

produced
ever

by having their

their consequences in themselves. Christian The

ex

theologyalso
interested

has

its Iswara.
the

selfinterfering, machina" of the

Providence,

"deus
in all

is supernaturalist,

earlyor
faith.

late It
was

Kapila
name

seems an

whether in religions, there is an stages, wherever unreasoning this idea of a mechanical Deity that to have in the rejectedso positively
constant
course

found

of

inherent virtue in the

of

things; the adequacy of those laws of being which he And the like protest of rationalism sought to unfold. returns to-day,at the culmination of a Semitic faith
also, with
similar sanctions
1

and
3, 4l 6.

The justifications.

Afk., V.

SANKHVA.

407
create
"

selfishness
own

of

God

who

could

man

for his
laws

and glory,"

interfere

with capriciously

the
a

he

has

made,

renders

denial

of

such

Iswara

duty

still. All this is But

not not positivepiety,

heartfelt
not

theism.

neither

is it atheism.

It does

deny deity to
ab

spirit. It denies creation this, in order by spirit ; and

conditional, and
own

and
to
so

interference
exalt that and
the

extra^

it above
it may

all that is

to

isolate it of

affirm

its

highest
with

ideal

freedom
on as

self-subsistence.

And,
it

all its

emphasis
indeed

of souls, multiplicity
"

constantlydescribes
"

soul

such*
one

not

souls, but
after

soul,
all all
:

as

if it

were

but

in

essence,

one

of those

unconscious

confessions, by which
in in its

reasoning assumes
words, of God.

the

of primal unity ; necessity indeed

the
a

other
these

Love
But here

does

not

move

depths
to

of

logic.
we

intellect

also

has

work work. If
we

do, and

have

form legitimate

of this

Kapila

is

not

ethical distinctly he

and

theistic, it is,

repeat, because

system of is a criticism,not
;

but a teachinga religion, analytic philosophy; because the Sankhya

not
a

is

confession
not

of faith. its
own

If it is incomplete and

if

it does

fuse

elements is

reconcile

its

own

poles of thought, it

yet

protest

againstthe
which of

supernaturalism, do not sufficiently ity guard the dignityand serenin the form under which spirit, they conceive its
mysticism
and
to

one-sided

relation It
was

the

world. fact found easy

to

in

develop

out

of the

Sankhya those which religion

Its intellectual
at
once

elements of universal Fruitsofthe very s*nkhyait failed of positively affirming.

criticism

was

the and

condition
the
most

and

germ

of the

purest

theism

practical

408

RELIGIOUS

PHILOSOPHY.

humanity
worship
nor

in which

Oriental

history

of

lessons afford

in
to

love

and

Christendom

cannot

despise

to

ignore.
separation
theistic of soul from
the
sense was

Its clear into

the the

unfolded

Sankhya
in which

and the

Karma

Yoga

of

Bhagavadgita,
is

old of
once

Vedantic

ism pantheboth pendent inde-

inspired
and

with

the

thought
;
as

deity

as

providential
in all.

at

purely spiritual,

and

the Its

All

free
to

dealing
practical
the

with
reason,

bibliolatry
and its issued
;

and
trust not

tradition,
in the

its
quacy ade-

appeal

of

dialectic of the pure

faculty,
best Puranas

only

in

the

independence
this, in
of Had
the

but,

far

better

than

democracy
"

and of

boundless
"

hood brotherfor
all."
so

Buddhism,
those
to

gospel

mercy

contemplative
the heart
not to

philosophies
will
as

been would

alyzing parfirst for in its

and have

they

at

seem,
even a

they

could

afforded

groundwork
Oriental world

reaction and

this
to

great

impulse,
the

scale love. Our

instinctof

ardor,

emancipate

through

review

of

Hinduism that the the whole branch those

are

already justifies us
profound
field of the of intuition desire of and
race

in

af-

firming
traversed

Unity
belief,

Unity.

and scope which

that

in

this

one

Aryan

it found in

for its

revealing

great
elsewhere

typical
found

moulds
to

aspirations

grow.

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tbo "Kin Translated from Sutra. Kong King," or Diamond Vajra-chhedika", II. The Puraniitfi-hridaya Beal, Chaplain,K.N." SQtra, or, in Chinese.

"The i.e. "Mo-ho-p6-ye-po-lo-mih-to-8in-kiDg,"

Great

Paramita

Heart

Sutra."

Translated

57 and

59, Ludyate Hill, London, E.C.

from the Chinese by the Rev. S. Beal, Chaplain, R.N." III. On the Preservation of National Literature in the East. IV. On the Agricultural, Commercial, By Colonel F. J. Goldsmid." Financial,and Military Statistics of Coylon. Uy E. R. Power, Esq." V. Contributions to a

Knowledge of the Vedic Theogony and Mythology. By J. Muir, D.C.L., LL I)." Vt. A Tabular List of Original Woikb and Trariblations, Government of Ceylon at published by the late Dutch their Printing Press at Colombo. VII. Compiled by Mr. Mat. P. J. Ondaatje, of Colombo." Assyrian and Hebrew Chronology compared, with a view of showing the extent to which the Ilrbiew Chronology of Usshei the Absjnan be modified, in conformity with must Canon. By J. W. Bosanquet, Esq." VII 1. On of the Malay Language. the existing Dictionanob By I)i. II. N. van der Tuuk "IX. Phoenician. and Notes on some Bilingual Readings : Cuneilorm Tablets the British in Museum, containing Bilingual Legends* (Assyrian and Phoenician). By A. S."X. of Three Major-General Sir H. Raw hnson, K.C.B., DirectorR Translations Copper-plate of the Fourth Inscriptions Century A.I*., and Notices of the Chalukya and Gurjjara Dynasties Piolessor XI. Staff College, Sandhurst." Yama of a Future J. Dowsou, and the Doctrine By Life, accoiding to the Rig-Yajur-, and Atharva-Vedas. XII. By J. Muir, Esq., D.C.L., LL.D." On the Jjotusha Observation of the Colures, and the Date of the Place derivable from it. By William D. Whitney, Esq Yale Piofebsor of Sanskut in College, New Haven, U.S." Note on , the preceding Article. By Sir Edward R.A.S." PioXIII. Colebrooke, Bart., M.P., President Abstract gress of the Vedic Religion towards Conceptions of the Deity. By J. Muir, Esq., the Age and of the Woik of Aryabhata, Brief Notes D.C.L., LL D." XIV. on Authenticity Var ah ami Jura, Brahraagupta, Bhattotpala, and rary HonoDiiji, Bhaskaracharya. By Dr. Bhau Membei of the Malagasy Language. of a Grammar R.A.S." XV. Outlines By H. N. Van der Tuuk. On and Krananda. the Identity of Xandraines XVI. Thomas, Esq. By Edward
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522, sewed.

1866-7.

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"

By the Rev. S. Beal, Chaplain Royal Navy." VI. The initial coinage of Bengal. By Edward VII. Specimens ol an Assyrian Dictionary. By Edwin Thomas, F.-*q." Nonas, Esq." VIII. On the Relations of the Prw sts" to the other classes- of Indian Society in the Vedic age By J. Muir, X. An to Tianslate By the same." Esq." IX. On the Interpretation of the Veda attempt from the Chinese known Services ol the great compassionate Kwan as the Confessional a work and 1000 eyes Yin, possessing 1000 hands By the Rev. S. Beal, Chaplain Roval Navy. "XI. The By Professor Max Hymns of the Gaupayaiias and the Legend of King Asamati. Royal Asiatic Society." XII. Specimen Chapters of an Assyrian Muller, M.A., Honorary Member Grammar. Honorary Member By the Rev. E. Hmckj", 1). 1)., Royal Asiatic Society.

Vol. III.
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In Two
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a

With
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1868.

22s.

I. Contributions

towards

Glossaryof

Assyrian Language.

By H. F. Talbot.

III. A. Bastiau." The Alphabets. By Dr of poetry By the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley." IV. Catalogue of the Oriental the Library of King's College, Cambudge. in Manuscnptb By Edward Henry Palmer, B.A of the Royal Asiatic Society Membre Scholar of St. John's de la College,Cambndgr ; Member , V. Desciiption of the Amravati Kociete Asiatique de Pans." Tope in Guntur. By J. Fergusson, edition of the Kathasorit-sagara, Lambaka 1'iof. Brockluus' on IX. Esq., F R.S." VI. Remark* VII. The X\ HI. in the University of Leyden." soiuce By Dr. H. Kern, Professor of Sanskrit Widow." of Colebrooke'b On the Duties of a Faithful Iluulu By Fitzedward Essay Hall, Esq., the Supplement: Further detail of proofs that Colebrooke's Essay, "On M.A., D C.L. Oxon. indebted to the Vivadabhangarnava. Duties Hindu of a Faithful not edward Widow," was By Fitzof the First Book of the Rig Veda. Hall, Esq." VL11. The Sixth Hymn By Professor "IX. Hon. Sassanian M.R.A.S Max Inscriptions. By E. Thomas, Esq." X. AcMuller, M.A. KiDl. of an Euibabsy from Morocco count to Spam in 1690 and By the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley. XI. The llubadan, of Airagon. By the Hon. II. E. J. Stanley." XII. Poetry of Mohamed Years of Mohammadan Materials for the History of India foi the Six Hundred to rule,previous of the British Indian the Foundation Empire. XIII. By Major W. Nassau Lee", LL.D., Ph.D." of the Cochin Words the Hill people inhabiting the Forests A Few State. concerning By the Bhojpurf Dialect of S.-XIV. Staff Corps, M.R.A Notes on Captain G. E. Frvei, Madias Bchar. Hindi, spoken in Western By John Bcames, Esq., B.C.S., Magistrate of Chumparun.

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Mohamed of Nepal.
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Sources.

By Edward
Chinese

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Patha, a Pali Text, with a Translation and Notes. VII. Khuddaka late of By R. C. Childers, VIII. An Endeavour to elucidate Rashiduddin's the Ceylon Civil Service." Geographical Notices of India. explained by the Pahlavl of the By Col. H. Yulo, C.B.- IX. Saesanian Inscriptions of the Senbyfi Pagoda at Mengun, Account Parsis. near the By K. W. West, Esq." X. Some Burmese in a Memorandum by Capt. E. II. Sladan, Political Agent at Mandate; with Capital, XL The Brhat-Sanhita ; or, Complete the Subject by Col. Henry Remarks Yule, C.B. on Translated from Sanskrit into English by Dr. System of Natural Astrology of Varaha-Mmira. Law of Evidence, and its influence on the Administration H. Kern. -XII. The Mohammedan of
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from Translated Sanskrit into Vaiaha-nuhira, Knghbh of the Principalities Account of Tokhanstan, Thsang'b Identifications

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The of this work IB authenticated great antiquity by its forming of the Southern canon Buddhists, which was finallysettled at the last Council 246 u.c The storehouse of ancient m collection has lonp been known as a of of this kind fables,and at* the mo*t to which the whole almost ordinal attainable source from the P.mchatantra stories of the present literature, fables down to the nursery and 1'ilpay's he was born as part of the sacred Gotama.

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Dramas translated from the the Dramatic sj-stcni of the Hindus" Vikiam aond The Mrii'hcUakati, 01 the Toy C.ut VrviiM, or the Original Sanskrit" of the History of liiima Chantra, or continuation I tt.na Hi'io and the Nymph Tro.it No
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