SUGAR SERIES Vol. 1. Vol. 2. Vol. 3. Vol. 4. Vol. 5. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol.

Standard Fabrication Practices for Cane Sugar Mills (Delden) Manufacture and Refining of Raw Cane Sugar (Baikow) By-Products of the Cane Sugar Industry (Paturau) Unit Operations in Cane Sugar Production (Payne) Noel Deerr: Classic Papers of a Sugar Cane Technologist (Payne, Compiler) 6. The Energy Cane Alternative (Alexander) 7. Handbook of Cane Sugar Engineering (Hugot, 3rd edition) 8. Management Accounting for the Surgar Cane Industry (Fok Kam) 9. Chemistry and Processing of Sugarbeet and Sugarcane (Clarke and GodshalL Editors) 10. Modern Energy Economy in Beet Sugar Factories (Urbaniec)

sugar series, 10

modern energy economy in beet sugar factories

by

K. Urbaniec
Division of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer, Lund Institute of Technology, Lund, Sweden

Elsevier Amsterdam Oxford New York Tokyo 1989

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS B.V. Sara Burgerhartstraat 25 P.O. Box 2 1 1 , 1000 A E Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Distributors for the United States and Canada:

ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING C O M P A N Y INC. 655, Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10010, U.S.A.

ISBN 0-444-87294-9 (Vol. 10) ISBN 0-444-41897-0 (Series) Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1989 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V./ Physical Sciences & Engineering Division, P.O. Box 3 3 0 , 1000 A H Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Special regulations for readers in the U S A - This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), Salem, Massachusetts. Information can be obtained from the CCC about conditions under which photocopies of parts of this publication may be made in the U S A . All other copyright questions, including photocopying outside of the U S A , should be referred to the publisher. No responsibility is assumed by the Publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, Oi fi om any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Printed in The Netherlands

FOREWORD

It

h a s been v e r y demanding o f t i m e and e f f o r t t o w r i t e a book on t h e b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e s o many a s p e c t s o f how t h e energy

energy

economy o f beet s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , subject t h a t d e s e r v e to

this

be p r e s e n t e d . T r y i n g t o e x p l a i n

requirements I I

s h o u l d be a d a p t e d t o the p r i n c i p l e s

o f beet s u g a r

manufacture, technology. of view,

could not a v o i d d i s c u s s i n g c e r t a i n

p r o b l e m s o f modern beet s u g a r

hope t h e s u g a r t e c h n o l o g i s t s can u n d e r s t a n d t h a t f r o m t h e i r p o i n t d i s c u s s i o n may seem i n c o m p l e t e . It w o u l d be a p p r e c i a t e d if

this point

r e a d e r s would

o u t any o m i s s i o n s o r e r r o r s w h i c h have been o v e r l o o k e d . stimulation and d i r e c t

T h i s book c o u l d n o t have been w r i t t e n w i t h o u t t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f P r o f e s s o r J a n D o b r z y c k i and D r . W i t o l d thanks are e x p r e s s e d . C e r t a i n ideas o r i g i n a t e d P r o f e s s o r S t a n i s l a w Z a g r o d z k i d u r i n g the p e r i o d Grateful for appreciation

L e k a w s k i , t o whom s p e c i a l late

from d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h the 1979-1980. and

i s e x p r e s s e d to the f o l l o w i n g f i r m s information,

institutions or

their assistance in providing technical data:

illustrations

statistical

- Chemadex, C u k r o p o l and C u k r o p r o j e k t , - D D S , C o p e n h a g e n , Denmark; -

Warsaw,

Poland;

F e i t e n & Guilleaume E n e r g i e t e c h n i k , Nordenham, FRG; B a b b i n i , Fori i, Italy;

- Fratelli

- GEA W i e g a n d , E t t l i n g e n , F R G ; - H o l l y Sugar C o r p o r a t i o n , San F r a n c i s c o , USA; - Kraftwerk Union, Mlheim, FRG; Landwirtschaftliche T e c h n o l o g i e und Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , TU

I n s t i t u t fr

Braunschweig, FRG; I n s t y t u t P r z e m y s l u C u k r o w n i c z e g o , Warsaw, & Langen, Cologne, FRG; Tirlemontoise, Brussels, Belgium; Poland;

- Pfeifer

- Raffinerie

- S o c k e r b o l a g e t , Malm,

Sweden;

- S p r e c k e l s Sugar D i v i s i o n , Amstar C o r p o r a t i o n , San F r a n c i s c o , USA; - S t o r d B a r t z , B e r g e n , Norway. A l a r g e p a r t o f t h e p r e s e n t book was w r i t t e n d u r i n g my s t a y a t t h e o f L u n d , Sweden. I am g r a t e f u l to University

t o my f r i e n d P r o f e s s o r Gunnar T y l l e r e d , whase

i n v i t a t i o n made my v i s i t deserve special

Sweden p o s s i b l e . Gunnar F e l t b o r g and D r . J a n T j e b b e s t h e i r a s s i s t a n c e i n r e a c h i n g the relevant information the

thanks for

on t h e S w e d i s h s u g a r i n d u s t r y .

Thanks are a l s o e x p r e s s e d to the personnel o f

l i b r a r y o f S o c k e r b o l a g e t i n A r l v where I f o u n d a p e r f e c t e n v i r o n m e n t f o r my

VI

literature Finally,

studies. I would l i k e to thank those American, B e l g i a n , B r i t i s h , Italian, Bulgarian, Polish, -

Canadian, Czech, Danish, Soviet, through

F r e n c h , German, G r e e k , H u n g a r i a n ,

S w e d i s h and Y u g o s l a v c o l l e a g u e s who h e l p e d me - s o m e t i m e s u n k n o w i n g l y information, advice, and f r i e n d l y d i s c u s s i o n s .

VII

PREFACE

The 1 9 7 0 s and 1 9 8 0 s w i l l

c e r t a i n l y be remembered a s a p e r i o d o f industry's

important towards

d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e e n e r g y m a r k e t and c h a n g e s i n

attitude

e n e r g y economy. As e n t i r e n a t i o n s were a f f e c t e d by t h e e c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s o f violent fluctuations practical in fuel p r i c e s , much i n t e l l e c t u a l aim o f e f f o r t and numerous utilization.

a c t i o n s were u n d e r t a k e n w i t h t h e

improving energy

For example, the energy consumption i n Swedish i n d u s t r y between 1973 and 1 9 8 3 , w h i l e t h e t o t a l p r i c e s - remained n e a r l y also nearly constant. production

d e c r e a s e d by 20% fixed

volume - e x p r e s s e d i n industrial

I n F r a n c e , where t h e

o u t p u t was

c o n s t a n t i n t h e same p e r i o d , t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n i n i n d u s t r y was R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a n y , i n d u s t r i a l o u t p u t r o s e 8%

r e d u c e d by 12%. I n t h e F e d e r a l

between 1 9 7 3 and 1 9 8 4 , b u t t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n d e c r e a s e d by 18%. A l t h o u g h few n a t i o n s have been a s s u c c e s s f u l a s t h o s e named a b o v e , t h e t r e n d s a v i n g e n e r g y i s now common. I t throughout the world. the problems o f i d e n t i f y i n g the p o t e n t i a l for, and h a s a l s o become v i s i b l e in sugar towards

industries

The book i s d e v o t e d t o

t h e n d e s i g n i n g and i m p l e m e n t i n g , As t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r i e s to

e n e r g y - s a v i n g measures i n beet s u g a r d i f f e r considerably with and t h e level of

factories. respect

in various countries for

the economic c o n d i t i o n s

factory operation It

technological of

development,

the problem range i s v e r y b r o a d . auxiliary equipment,

may i n c l u d e

the e l i m i n a t i o n simple in

faulty or unreliable

o r the

introduction of

improvements i n v a p o u r d i s t r i b u t i o n where t h e need f o r

schemes, i n f a c t o r i e s

operated

countries urgent

e f f i c i e n t energy u t i l i z a t i o n has not h a n d , t h e r e a r e some o t h e r

r e a l l y been v e r y sugar

up t o now. On t h e o t h e r factories

c o u n t r i e s where

have l o n g s i n c e been v e r y h a r d p r e s s e d t o s a v e e n e r g y and where field. Further p r o g r e s s may are

c o n s i d e r a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t s h a v e been n o t e d i n t h i s still be p o s s i b l e t h e r e , but o n l y if

more a d v a n c e d e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s

solved. T a k i n g the Danish sugar industry a s an e x a m p l e , i t can be s e e n f r o m F i g . 1 1 9 5 0 s and 1 9 6 0 s . of

t h a t t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n was d e c r e a s i n g s t e a d i l y A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the

d u r i n g the

1 9 7 0 s t h e e n e r g y economy r e a c h e d a c e r t a i n s t a t e

m a t u r i t y ; s a v i n g s w h i c h c o u l d be a c h i e v e d i n a s i m p l e manner - r o u g h l y s p e a k i n g , by a v o i d i n g w a s t e o f e n e r g y - had a l r e a d y become a r e a l i t y . became g r a d u a l l y a q u e s t i o n o f how t o m o d i f y reductions the f a c t o r i e s Further in all progress

the a s p e c t s the sugar control

t h a t c o u l d be r e l a t e d t o manufacturing

o f t h e e n e r g y demand, i n c l u d i n g

p r o c e s s , b y - p r o c e s s e s and a u x i l i a r y

p r o c e s s e s , equipment,

VIII

2^ 5h
^0,

cn

^0.

3h C P
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980

X X
1985

F i g . 1 . A v e r a g e c o n s u m p t i o n o f normal f u e l ( h e a t i n g v a l u e 29300 k J / k g ) i n b e e t s u g a r manufactu'^e i n s e l e c t e d E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s , w i t h t h e i r 1984 s h a r e i n world p r o d u c t i o n o f beet s u g a r g i v e n i n b r a c k e t s .

s y s t e m s , m o n i t o r i n g methods and p r o c e d u r e s , and e v e n o t h e r In F i g . 1 , the s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on f u e l It

areas.

c o n s u m p t i o n i n S w e d i s h and F r e n c h not

s u g a r i n d u s t r i e s are a l s o shown.

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e d a t a a r e

meant t o be compared d i r e c t l y , a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s o f numerous d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s even some d i f f e r e n c e s

must be s e e n a s e x p r e s s i o n s are

between t h e i n d u s t r i e s c o n c e r n e d . I n d e e d , t h e r e the average energy from 6 w h i t e

i n t h e methods u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e

c o n s u m p t i o n : S w e d i s h d a t a a r e b a s e d on p r o d u c t i o n factories (one raw s u g a r f a c t o r y

statistics

sugar

h a s been e x c l u d e d ) ; D a n i s h d a t a r e p r e s e n t 5

DDS-owned f a c t o r i e s ,

f o u r o f them p r o d u c i n g w h i t e s u g a r o n l y and one w h i t e their In other

s u g a r and r a f f i n a d e ; F r e n c h d a t a have been a v e r a g e d f r o m 56 f a c t o r i e s , 1984 o u t p u t c o n s i s t i n g o f 80% w h i t e s u g a r , 15% s y r u p s and 5% raw s u g a r .

w o r d s , the d i f f e r e n c e s

stem p a r t l y f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t p r o d u c t s w i t h

different

s p e c i f i c e n e r g y demands a r e i n v o l v e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t

can be c o n c l u d e d f r o m

a c o m p a r i s o n o f t r e n d s t h a t b o t h i n Sweden and F r a n c e , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t s t o w a r d s situations similar to t h a t i n Denmark a r e f a r advanced.

Under s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i s one j u s t i f i e d i n w r i t i n g a book d e v o t e d s o l e l y t o t h e e n e r g y economy? T a k i n g t h e g l o b a l p e r s p e c t i v e , there i s no d o u b t that are

much work on e n e r g y p r o b l e m s i s needed i n t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y b e c a u s e t h e r e still c o u n t r i e s - m a j o r b e e t s u g a r p r o d u c e r s - where t h e s p e c i f i c e n e r g y

c o n s u m p t i o n i n s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r e i s much h i g h e r t h a n i n t h e c o u n t r i e s named a b o v e . A b o u t 60% o f t h e w o r l d ' s b e e t s u g a r comes f r o m f a c t o r i e s c o n s u m i n g , on sugar

a v e r a g e , 2 - 3 t i m e s more e n e r g y p e r u n i t mass o f b e e t s t h a n t h e D a n i s h factories. A selection of s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n i n b e e t

sugar

m a n u f a c t u r e i n s e v e r a l s u g a r - p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s can be s e e n i n T a b l e 1 . A g a i n ,

IX

TABLE 1 Average consumption o f nonnal f u e l ( h e a t i n g v a l u e 29300 k J / k g ) i n beet s u g a r manufacture - pulp d r y i n g excluded - i n s e l e c t e d c o u n t r i e s . Share i n world p r o d u c t i o n o f beet s u g a r 1984 (%) 23.03 8.24 6.89 4.92 2.22 0.62 Normal f u e l consumption ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b )

Country

Year

Beets (1000

worked tons)

USSR FRG USA Poland Czechoslovakia Greece

1980 1984 1980 1984 1984 1981

64300 20189 21320 15500 7540 2560

3.1^ 7.6a 7.4 8.5 4.6

estimated

t h e r e a d e r s h o u l d be c a u t i o n e d as w i t h t h e s e c o u n t r i e s

a g a i n s t d i r e c t comparisons of

the

indices

given, even

coming i n t o t h e p i c t u r e , one h a s t o be aware o f

more p r o f o u n d d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s L e t us j u s t m e n t i o n considerably: process frozen i n Greece ( i t it

t h a n t h o s e between F r a n c e , Sweden and Denmark. w h i c h a f f e c t t h e e n e r g y demand P o l i s h and some US f a c t o r i e s season, while this to of

climatic conditions, USSR,

i s not unusual f o r final

beets i n the

s t a g e o f the

i s unheard

i s a l s o e x t r e m e l y u n l i k e l y i n S w e d e n , Denmark and F r a n c e ) . On t h e countries l i s t e d had n e v e r been known f o r a very the economic however, general In that

o t h e r h a n d , some o f t h e

e f f e c t i v e e n e r g y u s a g e ; n e i t h e r had t h e y r e a l l y been a f f e c t e d by disturbances policies t h a t the i n the international f u e l market

because t h e i r n a t i o n a l It seems,

were d e s i g n e d t o c o u n t e r a c t

the worldwide t r e n d s . in these countries

p r e s e n t economic d e v e l o p m e n t s

f o l l o w the

p a t t e r n , thus s t i m u l a t i n g i n t e r e s t respect, How working the a n s w e r t o the q u e s t i o n

i n a r a t i o n a l i z e d e n e r g y economy. f o r m u l a t e d a b o v e seems t o t o make i t useful be

positive. people by

c o u l d the

book be s h a p e d i n o r d e r

to the

in various countries,

where t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r i e s

are c h a r a c t e r i z e d

different levels looking

of sophistication

o f the e n e r g y economy? I t

seems t h a t when

a t the e n e r g y s u b s y s t e m and i t s o f the

i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s u b s y s t e m s and and

w i t h the environment evaluate

f a c t o r y , an a t t e m p t c a n be made t o s y s t e m a t i z e

the most i m p o r t a n t e n e r g y - s a v i n g m e a s u r e s t h a t may come i n t o review can p r o v e h e l p f u l to

question. in set the

Such a s y s t e m a t i c sugar f a c t o r i e s ,

t h e m a n a g e r s and t e c h n o l o g i s t s

where a p r o b l e m may a r i s e o f c h o o s i n g t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e the f a c t o r y ' s unique needs. I t i s a l s o hoped t h a t

o f measures t h a t best f i t book can be u s e d i n factories, specialists As

university-level may be o f

c o u r s e s on t h e e n e r g y economy o f s u g a r design engineers as well as to

and t h a t i t engaged i n

i n t e r e s t to area.

research in t h i s

r e g a r d s the scope o f the book, i t

must be c o n c l u d e d t h a t when a t t e m p t i n g

t o c o v e r the e n t i r e p r o b l e m f i e l d ,

it

w o u l d be i n a p p r o p r i a t e

to

restrict Instead,

a t t e n t i o n to t h e t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e c o g n i z e d e n e r g y economy p r o b l e m s o n l y . it i s n e c e s s a r y t o a d o p t an i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a p p r o a c h aimed a t

demonstrating interactions

how t h e e n e r g y demand o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y can be a f f e c t e d by t h e between a number o f layout layout factors, namely:

and p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n and p a r a m e t e r s o f the s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f t h e e q u ip m e n t and c o n t r o l

processes;

p r o c e s s and b y - p r o c e s s e s ;

- characteristics

systems; procedures. 3 , some

- c o m p l e t e n e s s and a c c u r a c y o f t h e e n e r g y m o n i t o r i n g The book c o n s i s t s e s s e n t i a l l y theoretical of three p a r t s .

In Chapters 1 to for

b a c k g r o u n d i s g i v e n and e n g i n e e r i n g p r i n c i p l e s

creating are

e f f i c i e n t e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n s u b s y s t e m s i n s u g a r f a c t o r i e s r e v i e w e d . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , C h a p t e r 1 p r o v i d e s an i n t r o d u c t o r y

structuring Chapter 2 i s and

o f the p r o b l e m f i e l d and a r e v i e w o f t h e p e r t i n e n t l i t e r a t u r e . d e v o t e d t o mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s a s t o o l s for

a n a l y s i n g energy processes energy

s y s t e m s , and t o f u n d a m e n t a l s o f c o m p u t e r - a i d e d subsystems. methods f o r factories In the

a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n o f

Chapter 3 provides a review o f e s s e n t i a l t h e i r s o l v i n g , r e l a t e d to

e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s , and existing

i m p r o v i n g h e a t economy i n subsystems. indicated of other

o r d e s i g n i n g new, e f f i c i e n t t h e r m a l initial c h a p t e r s , the importance is

a r e a s t h a t do an

not s t r i c t l y belong to energy e n g i n e e r i n g but are c l e a r l y

r e l a t e d to

e f f i c i e n t e n e r g y economy. C o n s e q u e n t l y , i n t h e s e c o n d p a r t , i . e . , to 7, recent d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e s e a r e a s and t h e i r i m p o r t a n c e are d i s c u s s e d . to

Chapters 4 energy

c o n v e r s i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n i n s u g a r f a c t o r i e s devoted to e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t Control

Chapter 4 i s design. In

p r o c e s s e s , and C h a p t e r 5 t o equi pment

s y s t e m s and t h e i r r o l e i n s a v i n g e n e r g y a r e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 6 . monitoring energy-related aspects of

C h a p t e r 7 , methods and p r o c e d u r e s f o r factory operation the r e s p e c t i v e It are reviewed.

I n C h a p t e r s 6 and 7 , computer a p p l i c a t i o n s

in

areas are a l s o

discussed. to i l l u s t r a t e the p r e s e n t a t i o n with author's in the

has been t h e a u t h o r ' s

ambition

suitable

p r a c t i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d e x a m p l e s . T h e s e a r e b a s e d m o s t l y on t h e

e x p e r i e n c e f r o m 9 y e a r s w o r k i n g w i t h an e n g i n e e r i n g company s p e c i a l i z i n g design, erection additional and m o d e r n i z a t i o n of sugar f a c t o r i e s , as well f r o m an

5 y e a r s o f c o n s u l t i n g and r e s e a r c h f o r

the s u g a r i n d u s t r y . In the t h i r d p a r t o f

Short the book,

e x a m p l e s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r s 1 , 2 , 3 and 7 . i.e.. C h a p t e r s 8 and 9 , su m m a r ie s a r e g i v e n o f sugar f a c t o r i e s ,

r e a l - l i f e design analyses of by d i f f e r e n t levels of

energy subsystems of sophistication It

characterized

o f t h e e n e r g y economy. intended to g i v e any As it

s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h e p r e s e n t book i s n o t but r a t h e r to

prescriptions

s t i m u l a t e t h i n k i n g and i d e a - g e n e r a t i n g .

XI

d e f i n i t e l y c a n n o t r e p l a c e e n g i n e e r i n g h a n d b o o k s o r d e s i g n a i d s , an a t t e m p t h a s been made t o a v o i d t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f b a s i c t h e o r y thermodynamic d e f i n i t i o n s properties and t a b l e s o f p r o p e r t i e s and f u n d a m e n t a l d a t a , such as

o f w a t e r and s t e a m o r

o f s u g a r s o l u t i o n s ; t h e s e c a n be f o u n d e l s e w h e r e . F o r r e a d e r s who the

may need an i n t r o d u c t i o n to t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s , ample r e f e r e n c e s a r e g i v e n t o now-classical

l i t e r a t u r e , and m o s t l y t o A m e r i c a n , E n g l i s h and German s o u r c e s . approximations of thermodynamic In Appendix 3 , heat

T h e n , i n A p p e n d i c e s 1 and 2 , n u m e r i c a l properties of water,

s t e a m and s u g a r s o l u t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d . relationships

a s h o r t review o f useful transfer

and d a t a r e l a t i n g t o c e r t a i n

phenomena i s g i v e n . data, examples, c a l c u l a t i o n s , the book. F o r r e a d e r s

When p r e s e n t i n g p h y s i c o - c h e m i c a l and t e c h n i c a l etc.,

S I u n i t s o f measure have been u s e d t h r o u g h o u t

accustomed to o t h e r factors.

u n i t s . Appendix 4 p r o v i d e s a s e l e c t i o n o f c o n v e r s i o n

XII

L I S T OF SYMBOLS

a b C D F G h k q, Q

juice

draft

concentration fuel consumption, fuel heat demand

specific

steam f l o w surface area

mass f l o w enthalpy overall mass electrical pressure power demand, power heat heat of heating combustion value output effect, power heat t r a n s f e r coefficient

S t , V

steam r a t e temperature absolute temperature difference

At t e m p e r a t u r e specific time,

volume

duration

Most f r e q u e n t l y used s u b s c r i p t s or b c j s V w beets, cossettes

superscripts:

condensate juice pulp steam vapour water

Chapter 1

THE ENERGY SYSTEM AND I T S ROLE I N A SUGAR FACTORY

1.1

SUBSYSTEMS OF A SUGAR FACTORY The sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s , b y - p r o c e s s e s and a u x i l i a r y supplied with t h e e n e r g y needed t o the p r o c e s s e s must perform a l l the

be c o n t i n u o u s l y and r e l i a b l y unit by operations

i n v o l v e d . By t h e i r values of certain

very nature, input, output

processes are

characterized parameters; requirements, the

predetermined parameters

and i n t e r m e d i a t e to process

other

may be l i m i t e d b y c o n s t r a i n t s protection

related

factory

economy, e n v i r o n m e n t the

and o t h e r of

factors.

Consequently,

freedom o f c h o i c e o f distribution things

values of

parameters

the energy c o n v e r s i o n , restricted. a specific often, are T o make factory, difficult

and u t i l i z a t i o n

processes is under l o c a l

substantially conditions in

e v e n more c o m p l i c a t e d ,

some c o n s t r a i n t s to identify.

may be g i v e n o n l y

implicitly

and, quite

In such c i r c u m s t a n c e s , sugar f a c t o r y manufacturing, conversion, interactions it requires

an i n v e s t i g a t i o n

of

t h e e n e r g y economy o f interactions

specific

studying

various aspects o f

between s u g a r

b y - p r o c e s s e s and a u x i l i a r y and u t i l i z a t i o n

p r o c e s s e s on t h e one s i d e , and e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s on t h e o t h e r . As the the factory, in at great once,

distribution

are taking place i n it is

various sections necessary to

and c o m p o n e n t s o f

c o u l d be c o n c l u d e d t h a t However, i t

study the e n t i r e all the

factory details

detail. as

s e l d o m makes s e n s e t o approach would r e s u l t to

investigate in

a straightforward

a l a r g e volume o f What i s really

information needed for

w h i c h may be d i f f i c u l t grasping the s i t u a t i o n

h a n d l e and i n t e r p r e t . potential

and i d e n t i f y i n g

energy savings is

structured the

i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m w h i c h , d e p e n d i n g on s p e c i f i c factory The regions o f concept o f interest structured structure c a n be e x t r a c t e d .

needs, relevant

d a t a on

i n f o r m a t i o n on e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s must be s e e n of the sugar f a c t o r y in question. like This does

in not

connection with

the

n e c e s s a r i l y mean i n v e s t i g a t i n g process suited stations to o r equipment needs.

all

the physical the

components,

buildings, in a manner at scale,

units;

structure

may be d e f i n e d

specific levels of

In the

literature,

a v a r i e t y o f approaches

different

complexity

c a n be f o u n d .

A t one end o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y (ref. 1) a n d , more identified

t h e a p p r o a c h e m p l o y e d b y , among o t h e r s , Karren (ref. 2) c a n be p l a c e d . Here,

Schiebl

recently, by t h e input and

t h e e n e r g y usage i s

e n e r g y s t r e a m w h i c h c a n a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d as t h e process energy consumption; this means d i v i d i n g in Fig. 1.1.

sum o f p o w e r h o u s e l o s s e s factory closer to i n t o power house the middle (ref. 3), of

the

and p r o c e s s a r e a s , as i n d i c a t e d complexity

A bit

the

s c a l e comes t h e s t r u c t u r i n g

principle

u s e d b y B a l oh

that


losses I

I
fuel

1 1 1
1

electric steam. power

F i g , . . S u g a r f a c t o r y d i v i d e d i n t o p o w e r h o u s e 1 and p r o c e s s a r e a 2 . Mass and e n e r g y s t r e a m s c r o s s i n g t h e b o u n d a r y shown b y t h e d a s h e d l i n e a r e d e t e r m i n e d .

is,

dividing

the f a c t o r y

into

e i g h t main s e c t i o n s and i d e n t i f y i n g principle is

three in

different Fig. 1.2;

areas o f energy p r o c e s s e s . T h i s note t h a t

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y the factory

the streams o f e l e c t r i c a l

power s u p p l i e d t o

sections

are n o t c o n s i d e r e d . Moving to (ref. 4)

t h e o t h e r end o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y

scale, in

t h e a p p r o a c h u s e d by Z a g r o d z k i Fig. 1.3, it relies on t h e

c a n be p r e s e n t e d . As c a n be s e e n o f energy streams to and from

identification

individual factory,

equipment u n i t s ,

o r groups o f u n i t s .

Note t h a t o n l y a p a r t o f

the

and o n l y t h e r m a l

energy, are considered. a p p r o a c h e s c a n be f o u n d i n the literature, as

Examples o f e v e n more d e t a i l e d

iiue_gas__ : sludge .

i-T^
-{--^-i-T

F i g . 1.2. S u g a r f a c t o r y d i v i d e d i n t o : 1 - l i m e k i l n w i t h m i l k - o f - l i m e s t a t i o n , 2 - extraction station, 3 - juice purification station, 4 - evaporator, 5 s u g a r h o u s e , 6 - condensate t a n k s , 7 - p u l p d r y i n g s t a t i o n , 8 - power h o u s e . Mass and e n e r g y s t r e a m s c a n be i d e n t i f i e d a t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t b o u n d a r i e s : I e n t i r e f a c t o r y , I I - h e a t economy a r e a . I I I - p r o c e s s h e a t i n g a r e a .

5H

JP

EV
exhousij steam,

F i g . 1.3. Example o f s t r u c t u r i n g o f s u g a r f a c t o r y equipment i n v o l v e d i n t h e e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s . - e x t r a c t i o n s t a t i o n , J P - j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n s t a t i o n , SH s u g a r h o u s e , EV - e v a p o r a t o r , V - vacuum p a n s , " - Z - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 6 h e a t e r s , 7 - c o n d e n s e r . V a p o u r s t r e a m s c r o s s i r r t h e b o u n d a r y shown b y t h e d a s h e d l i n e and t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f J P , EV and SH c a n be i d e n t i f i e d .

illustrated principle equipment

in

Fig.

1.4

(ref.

5).

T a b l e 1.1

demonstrates

how t h i s

structuring media in

makes i t units

possible to

identify

the consumption o f heating factory, thus

o r groups o f

units

i n a model

providing a in the

convenient basis f o r sugar manufacturing Generally, parts

calculations process or in

o f the o v e r a l l its parts.

energy consumption

a s u g a r f a c t o r y may be a n a l y s e d as a w h o l e o r as a sum o f by e m p l o y i n g t h e n o t i o n of of

smaller an the

( w h i c h , i n t u r n , may be s u b d i v i d e d t o o ) system ( r e f s . 6,7). It

open thermodynamic physical The s t a t e

c a n be d e f i n e d as t h e p a r t

space which i s

c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n p r e s c r i b e d and i d e n t i f i a b l e s y s t e m c a n be d e f i n e d in terms of

boundaries. quantities

o f an o p e n t h e r m o d y n a m i c

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g mass and e n e r g y s t r e a m s c r o s s i n g i t s By s p l i t t i n g determining states to of

boundary (see Chapter 2 ) . is created of define is the free

the system i n t o subsystems, the p o s s i b i l i t y mass and e n e r g y s t r e a m s and t h e i r parameters

needed t o

the subsystems. I t

s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t

an i n v e s t i g a t o r t h e manner

define

t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e s y s t e m and i t s his specific n e e d s . T h i s makes it

subsystems i n

best

suited to

p o s s i b l e t o decompose simpler

complicated that also a better are

multivariable easier creates to

e n g i n e e r i n g problems

i n t o a number o f

problems

u n d e r s t a n d and s o l v e . of

A well

planned system decomposition this in turn

possibilities

information structuring,

giving

5
condenir sate

H(

SH

n:
6

JP

EV
TC,
exhpust steam

D4XI

F i g . 1.4. A n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f s t r u c t u r i n g o f s u g a r f a c t o r y e q u i p m e n t i n v o l v e d i n t h e e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s . J P - j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n s t a t i o n , SH - s u g a r h o u s e , A , B , C - vacuum pans A , and C , TC - t h e r m o c o m p r e s s o r s , EV - e v a p o r a t o r , 1-4 - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 5 - e x t r a c t o r , 6 - h e a t e r s , 7 - c o n d e n s e r , 8 - p u l p p r e s s e s , 9 - t h i c k j u i c e t a n k , 10 m e l t e r , 11 - s y r u p t a n k s , 12 - s u g a r d r y e r . N o t s h o w n : c o n d e n s a t e c o n n e c t i o n s . V a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e s t r e a m s c r o s s i n g t h e b o u n d a r y shown b y t h e d a s h e d l i n e and t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f J P , EV and SH a r e identified.

insight

i n t o e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s and p o t e n t i a l

energy savings. system i n which to

The i d e a o f t r e a t i n g a s u g a r f a c t o r y s u b s y s t e m s c a n be d e f i n e d shrug it off. is Actually, effective and s u b t l e it seems t o

as a t h e r m o d y n a m i c

be s o s i m p l e

and o b v i o u s t h a t

people tend energy

may be t r u e solving

t h a t a common-sense a p p r o a c h t o simple problems. When

analyses

enough i n

considering advantages

complicated of of

questions,

h o w e v e r , one s h o u l d r e c o g n i z e t h e founded thermodynamic contemporary

a disciplined, fact,

theoretically

well

a p p r o a c h . As a m a t t e r becomes so

when t h e e n e r g y economy i n

sugar f a c t o r i e s

advanced t h a t the waste o f e n e r g y i s s a v i n g measure returns, so t h e

largely eliminated, Following the

virtually law o f

no e n e r g y -

c a n be r e g a r d e d as s i m p l e . in

diminishing only,

investments

an a d v a n c e d e n e r g y economy c a n b r i n g decisions

l i m i t e d gains be

e c o n o m i c a n a l y s e s on w h i c h management

a r e based must

TABLE

1.1 the

Steam and v a p o u r s t r e a m s ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) b e t w e e n e q u i p m e n t u n i t s o r g r o u p s i n model f a c t o r y shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g . 1 . 4 . Dashed l i n e s s e p a r a t e d a t a r e l a t i n g t o J P , SH and E V . Sources Receivers Evaporator 1 Press water heater Extractor Raw j u i c e h e a t e r Pre-limed j u i c e heaters Heater a f t e r 1st carbonatation H e a t e r b e f o r e 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n Thin juice heaters 2.24 2 0.90 effects 3 0.92 Vacuum pan v a p o u r 2.85 2.62 2.50 2.43 1.65 0.15 0.20 0.45 0.58 0.18 12.80 3.40 1.31 E x h a u s t steam 10.00 0.90 12.24 24.57 8.37 6.23 L i v e steam 3.36 Condensate 4 1.97 Other sources

Thick j u i c e heater Melter I n d i r e c t l y heated tanks D i r e c t l y heated tanks Remelt h e a t e r Vacuum pans A C Sugar d r y e r Thermocompressors Condenser Evaporator total

0.50

4.00

reliable

i n d e e d . T h i s makes calculations

it

necessary to

ensure a high accuracy o f input data for economic

engineering analyses.

s o as t o the

provide reliable

F o r examples o f the

application

of a disciplined

thermodynamic 3, 8 and 9.

approach i n It

calculations

o f e n e r g y b a l a n c e s , see C h a p t e r s 2 , need f o r in defining and s u b s e q u e n t l y

s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t

the

decomposing as: an

a thermodynamic (i)

s y s t e m may a r i s e or planning

practical

situations of,

as d i f f e r e n t

Rationalizing, factory,

modernization

t h e e n e r g y economy o f o f the d e f i c i e n c i e s for and

existing

when a t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g system i s

limitations

o f an e x i s t i n g

n e e d e d as a f o u n d a t i o n are discussed in its

proposed 9.

improvements. (ii)

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c problems

C h a p t e r s 8 and

D e s i g n i n g a new f a c t o r y , the p r o p e r t i e s optimally,

including

energy subsystem. This

requires t h e aim of

analysing shaping i t (iii)

o f a system w h i c h does n o t y e t e x i s t w i t h Chapter 9. factory

as d i s c u s s e d i n

Monitoring

the energy processes during

o p e r a t i o n , when in routine for

periodic

energy consumption

checks o r attempted improvements locating new m e a s u r i n g

monitoring more detailed

p r o c e d u r e s may r e q u i r e

instruments

i n f o r m a t i o n on e n e r g y b a l a n c e s , o r p l a c i n g measurements on i m p o r t a n t 1.2 1.2.1 in order to obtain balance data.

some s e e m i n g l y

redundant cross-checks Chapter 7.

i n f o r m a t i o n needed f o r this

systematic in

Problems o f

kind are presented

THE THERMAL SYSTEM AND I T S COMPONENTS Definition the flexibility inherent in the notion o f a system s o as to

Taking advantage o f

b o u n d a r y , a thermodynamic incorporate all

s y s t e m c a n be d e f i n e d w i t h i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y units i n which thermal out. energy (heat) pipes

the equipment

conversion possibly, It

and u t i l i z a t i o n relevant

processes are c a r r i e d control circuits

Interconnecting

and,

automatic

c a n a l s o be t a k e n energy is the

into consideration. d i s r e g a r d e d e x c e p t as it are

can f u r t h e r a meaningful

be assumed t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l output in

the energy balance o f input

power h o u s e , o r t h a t units o r groups thermal It

is

also accounted f o r analysed. In the

as a b a l a n c e

when e q u i p m e n t

following, (an example

such a system w i l l is

be c a l l e d in

the

system should

of be

a sugar f a c t o r y noted t h a t if all

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y

Fig.

1.5).

the energy processes, including the

power g e n e r a t i o n be the

and used. sugar as "thermal

utilization,

are c o n s i d e r e d , then notion of

term "energy system" w i l l system i s not used i n

Oddly enough, the industry. scheme o f In the

a thermal

literature

devoted to (ref. 8),

energy problems, circuitry"

such terms 9), or

a sugar f a c t o r y " (ref. not 4)

"heat

(ref.

"heat

economy c i r c u i t " consideration notions treats for is

a r e u s e d , and most o f t e n , defined.

the o b j e c t do n o t

under unifying (ref. 10) cycle".

rigorously

Some a u t h o r s all.

use any

the o b j e c t

o f energy analyses at independently

F o r example, Hugot the

evaporation

and h e a t i n g

o f w h a t he c a l l s thermal this

"steam

F a i l u r e to

recognize the

importance

o f the e n t i r e

system to point,

the author (the

e n e r g y econoniy may l e a d t o recalls factory a sugar f a c t o r y is situated and f o r in

energy wastage. for

To i l l u s t r a t e

the

he v i s i t e d a country

a s t u d y on p o s s i b l e e n e r g y s a v i n g s its long-standing industrial by

known f o r

tradition, domestic

quite

efficient In the

energy u t i l i z a t i o n

stimulated

inadequate shining

fuel

resources).

p o w e r h o u s e , t h e r e w e r e c l e a n and somewhat o u t d a t e d , but well

insulation boilers, auxiliary available

c o v e r s and f r o n t

panels o f

maintained,

carefully equipment for

maintained

turbo-generators instruments.

and p e r f e c t l y Adequate data

functioning records were In the

and m e a s u r i n g

the evaluation building

o f energy balances o f

t h e power h o u s e . however,

neighbouring bodies

containing

the process equipment, too, b u t numerous On t h e

evaporator temperature

and vacuum pans w e r e s h i n i n g were e i t h e r missing

p r e s s u r e and ground lines

indicators

or out o f order.

floor, Data

malfunctioning

steam t r a p s

and l e a k i n g h o t - c o n d e n s a t e were incomplete In s h o r t ,

were f o u n d .

r e c o r d s on e n e r g y u t i l i z a t i o n equipment c o u l d be e s t i m a t e d .

and no h e a t b a l a n c e s o f the

process

t h e r e were s i g n s t h a t

factory

to ammonia water tank |

F i g . 1.5. E x a m p l e o f a scheme o f a t h e r m a l s y s t e m . I - p o w e r h o u s e , I I e v a p o r a t o r . I I I - b e e t h o u s e , I V - s u g a r h o u s e , V - c o n d e n s i n g and c o o l i n g e q u i p m e n t , 1-4 - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 5 - e x t r a c t o r , 6 - h e a t e r s , 7 - c o n d e n s e r , 8 - p u l p p r e s s e s , 9 - t h i c k j u i c e t a n k , 10 - m e l t e r , 11 - s y r u p t a n k s , 12 s u g a r d r y e r , 13 - c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s , 14 - i n t e r m e d i a t e c o n d e n s a t e t a n k , 15 main f e e d - w a t e r t a n k , 16 - b o i l e r , 17 - t u r b i n e .

managers t r e a t parts of

t h e p o w e r h o u s e and t h e p r o c e s s - h e a t i n g a r e a as i f

t h e y were

not

t h e same s y s t e m i n w h i c h i n t e r a c t i o n s the o v e r a l l energy consumption.

between e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s s a y , the factory. thermal or fuel consumption

determine per unit

Needless to this

mass o f b e e t s p r o c e s s e d was v e r y h i g h i n l a c k o f awareness o f the it

Now, e v e n i f system i s failure to

importance o f the e n t i r e

n o t as d r a s t i c , r e c o g n i z e , the

may e a s i l y become a c a u s e o f m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g , in

i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e s g o v e r n i n g t h e e n e r g y economy the t o t a l approach o f which the

a sugar f a c t o r y .

On t h e c o n t r a r y ,

thermal features

system concept i s o n l y a p a r t of

makes i t

e a s i e r to grasp the e s s e n t i a l

the energy problems a n a l y s e d . Tasks happens a l l to too often that the sugar t e c h n o l o g i s t s within assign a rather requiring low simply such

1.2.2 It

priority

h e a t c o n v e r s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n

a factory,

t h a t t h e h e a t s u p p l y c o v e r t h e p r o c e s s h e a t demand. L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t a requirement specified, thermal is ambiguous even i f all the process parameters are

exactly

as a d e f i n i t e

p r o c e s s h e a t demand c a n be s a t i s f i e d different energy inputs. terms

by v a r i o u s

systems r e q u i r i n g

A thermal

s y s t e m c a n be a n a l y s e d and e v a l u a t e d i n formulate system tasks

of certain I n each

notions

w h i c h c a n a l s o be u s e d t o unit in

precisely.

equipment should for

the process heating to

area o f the

system, a certain

h e a t s t r e a m q^

be t r a n s f e r r e d individual

some p r o c e s s medium. units o r groups o f

H e a t s t r e a m s c a n be u n i q u e l y d e f i n e d units, as a t f i x e d process

equipment

parameters, can

heat balances o f a l l be i d e n t i f i e d . Ql = q^. the t o t a l

process parts

c a n be s e t up and n e c e s s a r y h e a t i n p u t s define the t o t a l h e a t demand as

We a r e t h u s a b l e t o

(1.1) number o f e q u i p m e n t u n i t s of thermal place. o r groups i n v o l v e d . the sugar i n d u s t r y the underlying that the is

where i s It is

characteristic

systems used i n Not o n l y i s this

m u l t i p l e use o f h e a t takes multiple-effect a l s o used to

idea o f

e v a p o r a t o r , but the vapour withdrawn from the e v a p o r a t o r On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e in losses to the system. from the

heat o t h e r equipment. a part of to

environment a n n i h i l a t e the required (net) than)

the heat c i r c u l a t i n g the system, is

Therefore,

heat input the t o t a l

different

(and u s u a l l y

much s m a l l e r It input

h e a t demand. not identical In F i g . to the primary energy t h e h e a t s t r e a m s and net

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t Q2 i s to the factory

(see Section 1.2.4).

1.6,

h e a t demand a r e i l l u s t r a t e d in a thermal into

i n a Sankey diagram r e p r e s e n t i n g e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s the sugar manufacture is

s y s t e m . F o r t h e sake o f s i m p l i c i t y , five subprocesses (that is, there

divided

are f i v e

equipment g r o u p s ) .

kiln gas,water, cossettes k y pulp, heat loss evaporator losses vacuum pan vapour

carbonatatii gas. heat loss

heat loss

condensate to boiler

F i g . 1.6. H e a t s t r e a m s q . and n e t h e a t demand Qp i n a S a n k e y d i a g r a m representing the heat flows in a sugar f a c t o r y . 1 - extraction, 2 - juice purification, 3 - thin juice heating, 4 - evaporation, 5 - c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n .

From t h e p o i n t
= QT/Q2

o f v i e w o f e n e r g y economy, i t

is

desirable

that

the

ratio
(1.2)

is

as l a r g e as p o s s i b l e ; in order to

it

tells

how many t i m e s

on a v e r a g e t h e In the

heat

input

is

circulated called the

satisfy ratio is,

the t o t a l of the

h e a t demand.

following,

is

the e f f e c t i v e n e s s that

thermal

s y s t e m . The v a l u e o f

d e p e n d s on as w e l l the as

system l a y o u t ,

t h e number and t y p e s o f e q u i p m e n t routes. For a system o f thermal

units,

v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n effectiveness units ratio may v a r y ,

known l a y o u t , of

d e p e n d i n g on t h e

properties

equipment and for

and p a r a m e t e r s

characterizing as l a r g e 11,12).

the processes o f energy d i s t r i b u t i o n

utilization.

Values o f (refs. 8 and 9.

as b e t w e e n 4 and 5 h a v e been r e p o r t e d used t o increase

sugar f a c t o r i e s in Chapters 3,

The t e c h n i q u e s

are discussed and e n e r g y operation. its

However, d i f f e r e n t costs of

l a y o u t s , equipment investment,

processes For this

lead to

differentiated is

m a i n t e n a n c e and

reason, there

usually a practical

requirement

i m p o s e d on t h a t

10

v a l u e s h o u l d be as l a r g e as a l l o w e d b y t h e e c o n o m i c c o n s t r a i n t s according to which the noted t h a t with in results of factory operation

and It

criteria may be sugar

are evaluated. the

t h e e n e r g y c o s t s v a r y i n g b e t w e e n 3% and 17% o f t h e most e c o n o m i c v a l u e s o f economic c o n d i t i o n s

cost of

various countries,

may be w i d e l y

differentiated. tariffs

Also,

under t i m e - v a r y i n g

resulting

from e l e c t r i c i t y period, (ref.

w h i c h v a r y f r o m month of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s It

t o month d u r i n g ratio during

t h e autumn and w i n t e r

variations 13). the thermal thermal

p r o d u c t i o n may be j u s t i f i e d indices

s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t o t h e r for evaluation of (ref. formula

have a l s o been p r o p o s e d i n

literature system.

the energy processes taking place i n 12) employ t h e notion of efficiency

the of

German s o u r c e s

the

system d e f i n e d by t h e = 1 - Q2/Q1 = 1 1.2.3 Building

1/K

(1.3)

blocks shown i n Fig. 1.5 a r e component g r o u p s o r individual

The s y s t e m p a r t s components t h a t

customarily

receive separate treatment important, of

in energy analyses. does

Although these parts not contribute processes.

are c e r t a i n l y

such a "deep" decomposition features of energy defined

much t o

understanding is

the e s s e n t i a l at

A better

insight

g a i n e d by l o o k i n g principle,

the

subsystems

according to Fig. 1.5

another decomposition

indicated

by t h e dashed l i n e s Fig. 1.7(a).

in

and a d d i t i o n a l l y of this

illustrated

b y t h e scheme shown i n

The

function -

v e r s i o n o f the

thermal fuel,

s y s t e m c a n be s u m m a r i z e d as combined g e n e r a t i o n o f e x h a u s t ) and e l e c t r i c a l heat

follows: (carried takes

using primary

energy supplied in

away by s t e a m e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e place in the power h o u s e , in heating fraction

turbine

power

heat s u p p l i e d

steam t o

the evaporator s t a t i o n to

generates

vapours condensate; of

( o f which a small the total quantity

may be d i r e c t e d

t h e c o n d e n s e r ) and h o t

of water evaporated is into thick juice,

predetermined

by t h e n e c e s s i t y

transforming a part of

thin juice

the hot condensate i s

returned to transport

the

power h o u s e ; t h e the j u i c e

vapours

and vacuum

the

remaining

condensate are used t o in the

heat to

heaters,

pans and o t h e r p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t or a fraction o f heat supplied to

t h e b e e t h o u s e and s u g a r h o u s e , process is dissipated to the environment is

c a r r i e d away b y o u t f l o w i n g

p r o d u c t s o r w a s t e m e d i a , and t h e main p a r t vacuum p a n s , but d i r e c t e d to

c a r r i e d away by v a p o u r s g e n e r a t e d i n the

vacuum pan v a p o u r s a r e n o t u t i l i z e d energy is a b s o r b e d and r e m o v e d i n

the c o n d e n s e r , where (i.e., cooling to water the towers,

their

barometric

water

mixed w i t h environment cooling

condensed v a p o u r s ) ; t h i s

e n e r g y must be f i n a l l y

dissipated

i n a s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t n o t shown i n lake).

t h e scheme ( e . g . c o o l i n g

pond, r i v e r o r

11

t
3 < c : - o 4-> : : *f 3 C

to o

5
^

S- ^

3 + J ( <

o e s S - UD XI < to
to to "C

3 + J 4 to < <

>

< I

- C ( < C ( -

( < i-

to r LO t

Q. ' ^

o $- < S.

Q. < U ^ ( O) -M O 4J ^ - )

SZ Z3
to

+J <0 S-

o 5 > < < -o

Q.s^ >> C

<

s- o

4-> O

O to to I - to 13 < U O C T - ^ O CL E - J to O (U 0)

< > . -
3 1 U Q. C - I - 3

C7)4-> 4-> i C - r - 3 - 5 $- 4-> < S- ^ CL $ U ro < 5 > Q. 0)

i- > - . ^

^ . S >

C <0 ^ 00 0> Q . C i . - J-

^- ^ 3 I

13 V ) - Q . V ) JD > I

^ 5 S-

= ^.^i

S-

1^ >> . $^ . - < I> r O l >- - I - 4-> 3

12

The f o l l o w i n g multiple-effect and i n the

building

blocks

can t h u s

be named w i t h i n

the

s y s t e m : power h o u s e , in the beet house

(multi-stage)

evaporator,

p r o c e s s equipment

s u g a r h o u s e , and c o n d e n s e r ( a l s o r e p r e s e n t i n g In F i g . 1.7(a), the width o f the strips

associated

cooling indicate

equipment). appoximately

l i n k i n g the

blocks

the proportionate

energy streams

circulated. processes sugar plants.

The e s s e n t i a l

l a y o u t o f e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n by f a r t h e most commonly a p p l i e d point for a short it will in

e x p l a i n e d above i s L e t us u s e i t layouts.

contemporary of other the

as a s t a r t i n g

presentation

possible of

F o r the sake o f s i m p l i c i t y ,

be assumed t h a t is, the total

parameters demand

the sugar manufacturing remains constant.

process are f i x e d , t h a t

heat

Suppose t h a t pan v a p o u r s t o

instead of directing the condenser, a part in Fig. 1.7(b). for of this

the e n t i r e of it is

energy stream c a r r i e d

b y vacuum as

re-used in (i.e.

process heating, an additional

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y constraint parts to

A prerequisite is

be s a t i s f i e d ) temperature allow

the e x i s t e n c e o f

low-temperature

process

where the

vacuum pan v a p o u r s c o u l d be r e g a r d e d as heating. If practicable, this gives the inlet. is the

sufficiently possibility

high to of

efficient

s a v i n g e n e r g y b y r e d u c i n g t h e demand f o r

vapours from

e v a p o r a t o r a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , d e c r e a s i n g steam demand a t However, t h i s modified possibility satisfy c a n be r e a l i z e d o n l y the conditions that if the

the e v a p o r a t o r

the evaporation process total quantity of water

s o as t o

e v a p o r a t e d remains

unchanged. made t o a p p l y one o f the above l a y o u t s , is so small but

Now, s u p p o s e t h a t an a t t e m p t i s it the the turns out that t h e demand f o r

vapours from the e v a p o r a t o r if

that to

required quantity condenser is

o f w a t e r c a n be e v a p o r a t e d o n l y

a large

vapour flow that

a l l o w e d . T h i s must be i n t e r p r e t e d s h o u l d be a d d e d t o

as an i n d i c a t i o n Fig.

another

energy-saving block

t h e s y s t e m , as shown i n o f the for

1.7(c). it in

A vapour compressor r a i s i n g possible to

the pressure o f a part

v a p o u r s makes heating the

r e c y c l e t h e c o m p r e s s e d s t e a m and t o

use i t

purposes

the e v a p o r a t o r . inlet, resulting as t h e

T h e r e c y c l e d h e a t d e c r e a s e s t h e h e a t demand a t i n a h e a t s a v i n g as shown i n sugar manufacturing vapour w i t h d r a w a l , the scheme.

evaporator

As f a r

process is utilization

concerned, of

multi-stage

evaporation with

vacuum pan v a p o u r s , and also the of

v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n a r e t h e main main f u n c t i o n s the b u i l d i n g in the of the b u i l d i n g and t h e i r

e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n p r o c e s s e s and t h u s blocks of thermal

systems. Possible v a r i a n t s are p r e l i m i n a r i l y

blocks

various combinations this

presented to and

remaining

Sections of

C h a p t e r . Note t h a t any thermal mentioned

s y s t e m has

satisfy the

the process-imposed c o n s t r a i n t s between them, the d e t a i l s of

above. Other c o n s t r a i n t s points in the of

interactions

seen from d i f f e r e n t the b u i l d i n g blocks

view, are discussed Sections and

when p r e s e n t i n g

following

13

Chapters. An i m p o r t a n t factories of b y - p r o c e s s employed i n a m a j o r i t y It i s not unusual that o f contemporary it requires beet sugar

i s pulp drying. overall

35% o r e v e n more drying o f view o f energy where

the f a c t o r y ' s

( i . e . , f o r sugar manufacture energy.

and p u l p

considered j o i n t l y ) utilization fuel

demand f o r p r i m a r y drying plant,

From t h e p o i n t

a typical

consisting

o f a d r y e r and a f u r n a c e primitive.

i s burned i n o r d e r t o generate hot g a s e s , i s r a t h e r has r e c e n t l y

C o n s e q u e n t l y , much a t t e n t i o n e n e r g y usage i n p u l p d r y i n g . l a y o u t and p a r a m e t e r s In a sugar f a c t o r y a l s o i n t h e thermal early with

been d e v o t e d t o r a t i o n a l i z i n g

the

Possible energy saving modifications 1.2.8.

o f the process

are discussed in Section employing pulp d r y i n g ,

an e n e r g y - s a v i n g p o t e n t i a l factory

exists

coupling

between t h i s

p r o c e s s and o t h e r

a r e a s . An boilers

i d e a , developed several

d e c a d e s a g o , was t o m i x h o t f l u e thus reducing the fuel

gas from

a i r supplied to the furnace, plant. More r e c e n t l y , both

consumption

in the

drying process

the u t i l i z a t i o n

of dryer outlet

gas i n t h e from in

heating

i n sugar manufacture

and t h e u t i l i z a t i o n

o f waste heat

sugar manufacture Fig. 1.7(d).

i n t h e p u l p d r y i n g w e r e i n t r o d u c e d , as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y the constraints imposed on t h e thermal

Using these techniques,

system by t h e s u g a r manufacturing possibilities Section 1.2.4 1.2.9.

process are favourably modified,

c r e a t i n g new

o f energy s a v i n g s . The u n d e r l y i n g

concepts are discussed i n

Power house principle fuel o f t h e power houses i n contemporary s u g a r i n a b o i l e r which s u p p l i e s drives an e l e c t r i c a l live factories

The w o r k i n g consists

o f burning

steam t o a b a c k supplies turbine

pressure turbine. electrical exhaust

The t u r b i n e

generator which

power t o t h e f a c t o r y ;

simultaneously, station. resulting

t h e steam from t h e

is delivered to the evaporator constraints

T h e r e a r e two i m p o r t a n t power house equipment system: (i)

from t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f the entire

o f the thermal

and a f f e c t i n g

the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

The c o n v e r s i o n o f l i v e - s t e a m e n e r g y t a k i n g p l a c e ratio

i n the turbine

is and

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a d e f i n i t e exhaust-steam energy which characteristics

between e n e r g y c o n v e r t e d i n t o f o r heating. a different Only if

electricity

is available factory,

From t h e demand between t h e power problem is

o f the e n t i r e

proportion

demand and n e t h e a t demand may r e s u l t . effectively r e s o l v e d b y some s p e c i a l

the eventual

mismatch

measures

(see Section 1.5.3)

can t h e power system. in the

h o u s e be r e g a r d e d as a s u i t a b l e (ii) The c o n v e r s i o n o f p r i m a r y is associated with

energy source f o r a p a r t i c u l a r energy into

thermal

live-steam energy taking place

boiler

e n e r g y l o s s e s o f t h e o r d e r o f 10-20% o r e v e n m o r e .

14

The r e s u l t i n g

demand f o r

primary energy is the

equal

to

t h e sum o f

live-steam power

e n e r g y and b o i l e r

l o s s e s . Only i f

thermal

c o n n e c t i o n between t h e

h o u s e and p r o c e s s h e a t i n g resulting thus in

is modified the total

c a n t h e s e l o s s e s be p a r t l y r e c o v e r e d , energy l o s s from the thermal s y s t e m and

a reduction of

r e d u c i n g t h e demand f o r

primary energy. question in new o r e x i s t i n g the factories of

The problems

i n d i c a t e d may come i n t o local

operated under d i f f e r e n t different

conditions

and s u b j e c t t o

influence

economic f a c t o r s . it

As t h i s

defines

an a r r a y o f w i d e l y a steam b o i l e r

diversified

situations, turbine various 1.2.5

c a n h a r d l y be i m a g i n e d t h a t provide a universal and s o l u t i o n s is

and a b a c k - p r e s s u r e A discussion of

do r e a l l y situations

power house s o l u t i o n . Section

presented in

1.5.

Evaporator e v a p o r a t o r arrangement i s schematically that using the 1.5. multiple-effect, effects using

The d o m i n a t i n g parallel-flow are used,

principle

shown i n

Fig.

Three to s i x

four or five

b e i n g t h e commonest s o l u t i o n . as t h e r e are e f f e c t s in

The o r i g i n a l

idea of

t h e h e a t as many t i m e s principle) this

the evaporator for heating

(Rillieux purposes. While the vapour

has been m o d i f i e d

by v a p o u r w i t h d r a w a l in

results

in worse heat u t i l i z a t i o n out to

the evaporator i t s e l f ,

withdrawal utilization in

turns in

be d e c i s i v e i n e n s u r i n g a h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t sugar f a c t o r y . This problem i s

heat discussed

the e n t i r e

additionally 9.

Chapter 3,

and p r a c t i c a l block in

examples a r e g i v e n i n

C h a p t e r s 8 and

As a b u i l d i n g the

a thermal

s y s t e m , t h e e v a p o r a t o r s h o u l d be a d a p t e d predetermined is

to

process-imposed c o n s t r a i n t

a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , namely t h e

percentage o f water to with the j u i c e namely,

be e v a p o r a t e d . A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t in the heating chamber o f t h e

constraint first

concerned

temperature in order to

evaporator sucrose, this

effect,

p r e v e n t e x c e s s i v e thermal A number o f

decay o f

t e m p e r a t u r e must n o t e x c e e d 125-130C. a r r a n g e m e n t h a v e b e e n made w h i c h aim t o also (ref. satisfying the c o n s t r a i n t s ;

p r o p o s a l s on e v a p o r a t o r heat u t i l i z a t i o n while

ensure e f f i c i e n t

t h e s e p r o p o s a l s h a v e been r e v i e w e d e l s e w h e r e parallel 5, is flow of j u i c e and v a p o u r in

3). A quintuple-effect

evaporator, with

in effects Fig. 1.8.

1 t h r o u g h 4 and c o u n t e r - f l o w

in effect

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y

I n modern t h e r m a l a minimum, less

systems where the h e a t i n g demand f o r

needs have been r e d u c e d

to

the o v e r a l l

vapours withdrawn

f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r may be water last-effect direct to

t h a n t h e amount o f w a t e r t o difficult

be e v a p o r a t e d , t h u s making t h e to satisfy. An i n c r e a s e d f l o w o f

percentage c o n s t r a i n t

v a p o u r t o t h e c o n d e n s e r c a n h a r d l y be a c c e p t e d , as t h i s energy the loss requiring effect. a corresponding increase of situation

w o u l d be a

the heating

steam s u p p l y

first

However, t h i s

c a n be c h a n g e d i f

unconventional to

e v a p o r a t i o n stages heated w i t h

low-temperature

o r waste heat are attached

15

exhaust steam ' \ -

128C

thin juice

14.5%DS.90C thick juice 72%DS.94C _

F i g . 1 . 8 . Scheme o f a m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r f e a t u r i n g c o u n t e r - f l o w o f j u i c e and h e a t i n g v a p o u r i n t h e f i f t h e f f e c t . 1-5 - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 6 - j u i c e heaters.

the c l a s s i c a l principle

evaporator.

An i n t r o d u c t i o n

to possible solutions

b a s e d on t h i s multiin

i s g i v e n i n Section 1.2.6.

As an a l t e r n a t i v e ,

the c l a s s i c a l

stage evaporation Section 1.2.7.

c a n be c o m b i n e d w i t h

v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n , as o u t l i n e d

In each e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t ,

while

vapour i s generated at a c e r t a i n equal rate from the

rate, heating

c o n d e n s a t e must be d r a i n e d a t an a p p r o x i m a t e l y chamber. vapour, various The condensate i s f l a s h e d

(flash-evaporated), generating

additional Among

t h e e n e r g y o f w h i c h c a n be u t i l i z e d arrangements

i n the subsequent e f f e c t s .

o f the condensate subsystem, the cascade f l a s h i s t h e most e f f e c t i v e solution.

shown and while

schematically possibly

i n F i g . 1.5

First-effect

second-effect

condensate are t y p i c a l l y effects

u s e d as b o i l e r

feed-water,

the condensates from the remaining heating

c a n be u t i l i z e d

in the process

and f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s . V a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e u s a g e a r e

d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r s 3 , 8 and 9 . The i m p o r t a n c e a thermal well o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r t o t h e e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n requirements and c o n t r o l on t h e e v a p o r a t i o n systems. p r o c e s s , as in these in

system imposes s p e c i a l

as t h e a s s o c i a t e d e q u i p m e n t

New d e v e l o p m e n t s

areas are mainly 1.2.6 Utilization

d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r s 5 and 6. o f low-temperature o r waste heat required f o r sugar b o i l i n g , the and

As t h e vacuum pans a r e s u p p l i e d w i t h t h e h e a t the p r o c e s s media a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y unit

heated i n o r d e r to s t a b i l i z e streams o f low-temperature

temperatures become

needed f o r i m p o r t a n t available, still mainly

operations,

heat

i n vacuum pan v a p o u r s and s p e n t c a r b o n a t a t i o n where t h e l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e heat

gas. There are

many f a c t o r i e s

i s c o n s i d e r e d u s e l e s s , so gas i s

the vapours are d i r e c t e d discharged d i r e c t l y process

t o t h e c o n d e n s e r and t h e c a r b o n a t a t i o n However, i f parts the sugar

t o the atmosphere. in certain

manufacturing flows the

i s so a r r a n g e d t h a t

o f t h e w a t e r and j u i c e the temperature

temperature

i s low enough ( t h a t

i s , lower than

o f vacuum pan

16

vapours o r spent carbonatation utilized.

g a s ) , then the

low-temperature and, in

h e a t c a n be water

T y p i c a l " c o l d " media a r e raw j u i c e the e x t r a c t o r , and p r e - l i m e d utilizing

some i n s t a n c e s ,

supplied to

juice. heat is that the necessary

One o f t h e o b s t a c l e s t o e q u i p m e n t may be a b i t vapours, flow the s p e c i f i c This in

low-temperature In a j u i c e

troublesome.

h e a t e r h e a t e d b y vacuum pan it necessitates a high a n d , as

volume o f v a p o u r i s risk,

so l a r g e t h a t

velocity.

i n v o l v e s the

among o t h e r s , o f

tube v i b r a t i o n

the water content

vapour flowing

through the heater i n c r e a s e s , tube e r o s i o n . in a s u r f a c e heat e x c h a n g e r , a low surface is

When r e c o v e r i n g t h e c a r b o n a t a t i o n film coefficient o f heat t r a n s f e r a relatively

heat loss

b e t w e e n t h e gas and t h e h e a t i n g large heating

u n a v o i d a b l e , and t h u s

s u r f a c e a r e a may be r e q u i r e d . p o w e r - e x p e n s i v e pumping may a l s o

In the case o f c a r b o n a t a t i o n - g a s be n e c e s s a r y . Providing reliable recirculated in

recirculation,

and n o t t o o c o s t l y e q u i p m e n t

is

available,

the o f the reduce heat the

low-temperature

h e a t c a n r e p l a c e an e q u i v a l e n t p o r t i o n possible to

vapours withdrawn

f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r , t h u s making i t the e v a p o r a t o r i n l e t . C h a p t e r 3, The h e a t i n g

heating is

steam demand a t

b y vacuum pan v a p o u r s reduce the

additionally

discussed in in

and t h e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d t o

carbonatation

heat loss

C h a p t e r 4. heat l e a v i n g the f a c t o r y called "waste h e a t " . a r e so difficult use

C e r t a i n streams o f to utilize that

low-temperature

they are t r a d i t i o n a l l y the heat streams the

(Some a u t h o r s the

this

term f o r

all

that are f i n a l l y heat). It

discharged to

environment,

including

low-temperature

may i n c l u d e , among o t h e r condensate cooling is now

components, h e a t c a r r i e d by o u t l e t

gas from t h e p u l p d r y e r , e x c e s s to entering the

f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r and e v e n b a r o m e t r i c w a t e r p r i o r towers. It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t the u t i l i z a t i o n

o f waste heat

realizable,

although not always economically

feasible. in juice that and s y r u p under high this lowpulp drying

Both l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e e v a p o r a t i o n performed at vacuum. purpose,

and w a s t e h e a t c a n be u t i l i z e d a sufficiently

low t e m p e r a t u r e ,

is,

S p e c i a l v a p o u r - and g a s - h e a t e d e v a p o r a t o r s a r e b e i n g d e v e l o p e d f o r as d i s c u s s e d i n heat employ is C h a p t e r 5. thermal A l t e r n a t i v e methods o f utilization of and

temperature drying. is This

c o n n e c t i o n s between s u g a r manufacture if the

particularly

interesting 1.2.9.

s o - c a l l e d low-temperature

a p p l i e d , as o u t l i n e d Vapour compressors in

in Section

1.2.7

As i n d i c a t e d c a n be u s e d t o

S e c t i o n 1.2.3

above, vapour compression i s between t h e p o t e n t i a l on w a t e r q u a n t i t y the thermal to

a technique the

which vapour juice. to

resolve a conflict

reductions of

demand and t h e p r o c e s s c o n s t r a i n t By i n t r o d u c i n g evaporate the

be e v a p o r a t e d f r o m

vapour compression to

system, i t

becomes p o s s i b l e of the

r e q u i r e d w a t e r amount w h i l e

recirculating

the p o r t i o n

17

evaporation heat which exceeds the outside the evaporator. the vapour to

h e a t demand o f

v a p o u r - h e a t e d equipment

Most o f t e n , its

be c o m p r e s s e d i s the at

taken

f r o m th-e f i r s t the same

effect

and,

pressure r a i s e d , is

supplied to

heating

chamber o f

effect.

A thermal machine t r a n s f e r r i n g , temperature typical body t o

the expense o f work, body i s there

heat from a lowIn a heat effect.

a high-temperature

known as a h e a t pump. a r e numerous p o t e n t i a l in the the f i r s t highest

thermal

system i n a sugar f a c t o r y , o t h e r than heat is

pump a p p l i c a t i o n s Generally, level

recirculation initiated of live at

evaporator

the energy t r a n s p o r t

temperature/pressure continued at in the

corresponding to

the parameters

steam and t h e n

g r a d u a l l y decreasing temperatures parts of the thermal is

and p r e s s u r e s o f m e d i a c i r c u l a t e d

various is

s y s t e m . The l o w e s t l e v e l , a t which t h e e n e r g y t r a n s p o r t temperature of barometric w a t e r and the applied

terminated,

d e f i n e d by t h e

a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , t h e h e a t pump p r i n c i p l e b e t w e e n a n y two d i f f e r e n t electrical recirculate the thermal power o r live

c a n be

t e m p e r a t u r e / p r e s s u r e l e v e l s . By s u p p l y i n g e n e r g y ( a s steam) to t h e h e a t pump, i t thus becomes p o s s i b l e to

a certain system.

amount o f

heat,

c u t t i n g down t h e n e t h e a t demand o f

In r e a l i t y , system i s although requires 1.9

t h e number o f

feasible

h e a t pump a p p l i c a t i o n s

i n a thermal water, it

limited.

F o r example, the heat r e c o v e r y from the barometric

r e a l i z a b l e , c a n n o t be p e r f o r m e d b y v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n ; i n s t e a d , c o m p l e x and c o s t l y m a c h i n e r y , making t h e possible locations of solution uneconomic. recirculate

Figure heat in

shows f i v e

vapour compressors to evaporator. It

a thermal

system w i t h a q u a d r u p l e - e f f e c t

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d In g e n e r a l ,

out if in

that these locations energy savings are to a certain part of

a r e by no means e q u i v a l e n t t o be o b t a i n e d , t h e n t h e heat

each o t h e r .

recirculation

taking place

the thermal

s y s t e m must be c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h mass and e n e r g y

"

exhaust) steam

F i g . 1.9. P o s s i b l e l o c a t i o n s o f v a p o u r c o m p r e s s o r s r e l a t i v e t o e s s e n t i a l components o f a t h e r m a l s y s t e m w i t h a q u a d r u p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r s u p p l y i n g s e c o n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r t o v a c u u m - p a n h e a t i n g . 1-4 - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 5 - vacuum pans, 6 - condenser.

compressed steam vapour

vapour

Fig.

1.10.

Working

principle

of

a jet-type

compressor.

flows

in other

parts

of

the

system. the

For example,

if

vacuum pan v a p o u r the demand f o r

is from must

c o m p r e s s e d and r e - u s e d t o the e v a p o r a t o r is

heat

vacuum p a n s , t h e n to

vapour

r e d u c e d . As t h e amount o f w a t e r the d i s t r i b u t i o n of

be removed f r o m j u i c e from the evaporator

be h e l d c o n s t a n t , must be p r o p e r l y loss resulting

vapours withdrawn it

adjusted; otherwise, flow of

may be n e c e s s a r y t o vapour to the

increase the

energy

from the

last-effect

condenser,

perhaps

making t h e

idea o f

vapour compression

meaningless. compressors c a n be u s e d . (thermocompressors) The j e t - t y p e and

As r e g a r d s mechanical (Fig. 1.10)

the equipment,

both j e t - t y p e

compressors

(turbocompressors)

compressor turbo-

must be c o n t i n u o u s l y not c o n t r i b u t i n g pressures of

supplied with to e l e c t r i c i t y

l i v e steam, generation.

by-passing the D e p e n d i n g on

g e n e r a t o r and inlet the 1.2 the

the i.e.

and o u t l e t

the to

vapour compressed, the live-steam mass f l o w , as t h e

compression

ratio,

ratio of (the

v a p o u r mass f l o w

varies

as shown i n

Table

v a l u e s g i v e n s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d

highest

attainable,

while

actual

v a l u e s may a l s o d e p e n d on c o m p r e s s o r compressor (Fig. 1.11) is

quality). to which generally compressor either live steam energy

The m e c h a n i c a l must be s u p p l i e d

d r i v e n by a m o t o r , electric motors are

continuously. but

At p r e s e n t ,

r e g a r d e d as most e c o n o m i c , drives.

steam t u r b i n e s of

are also

u s e d as

As a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n factory's p o w e r demand, o r to

a mechanical

compressor flow of

increases the by-passing the

requires to

a certain the

turbo-generator all the

be s u p p l i e d

compressor to the

drive. factory's power

When c o n s i d e r i n g

possible situations possibility of

related

b a l a n c e and h e a t b a l a n c e and t h e TABLE 1.2

c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h an

external

Estimated a t t a i n a b l e values o f the compression r a t i o o f j e t compressors operated a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s i n t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m shown i n F i g . 1.9 a t l i v e - s t e a m p a r a m e t e r s 38 b a r and 450C. Location a b c d e - 1st e f f e c t - 2nd e f f e c t - vacuum pan - 3rd e f f e c t - vacuum pan vapour vapour vapour vapour vapour t o e x h a u s t steam t o e x h a u s t steam t o e x h a u s t steam t o 2nd e f f e c t v a p o u r t o 2nd e f f e c t v a p o u r Compression 2.4 1.1 0.3 1.5 0.7 ratio

19

F i g . 1.11. T y p i c a l s i n g l e - s t a g e c e n t r i f u g a l c o m p r e s s o r f o r f i r s t e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t v a p o u r . A t v o l u m e f l o w 50 000 m^/h v e l o c i t y 5000 r p m , t h e r o t o r d i a m e t e r i s a b o u t 0 . 9 m. power g r i d , it must be c o n c l u d e d t h a t there is

the compression and r o t a t i o n a l

of

no u n i v e r s a l l y to

optimal

vapour the energy

compression technique. economic saving, relations

D e p e n d i n g on t h e

constraints

be s a t i s f i e d

and

between the

necessary investments o r a combination of

and t h e a t t a i n a b l e

one t y p e o f e q u i p m e n t it is

b o t h may p r e v a i l . the electrically most

U n d e r West driven

European c o n d i t i o n s , mechanical Although the

generally

believed that first-effect

compressor r e c i r c u l a t i n g seems t o

vapour is recent

economic. (ref. 14),

this

be p r o v e d b y a number o f employ

investments

energy-efficient

Danish f a c t o r i e s vapour

turbine-driven combination

compressors with jet-type relying In on

recirculating compressors). jet-type

second-effect

(possibly in

T h e r e a r e a l s o numerous West E u r o p e a n s u g a r f a c t o r i e s results (refs. 15,16).

c o m p r e s s o r s and a t t a i n i n g e x c e l l e n t conditions ones

Eastern are

E u r o p e , where the economic usually It preferable

are d i f f e r e n t , (ref. 5).

jet-type

compressors

to mechanical

may be added t h a t j e t - t y p e

compressors have r e c e n t l y

been s e l e c t e d (refs. detail

for

vapour compression c i r c u i t s The a p p l i c a t i o n s Chapters 1.2.8 3, 8 and of 9.

i n G r e e k and C z e c h s u g a r f a c t o r i e s greater

17,18). in

vapour compressors are d i s c u s s e d i n

Pulp

dehydration dehydration process is (Fig. pulp to typically 1.12(a)). operated in parallel with the of

The p u l p

sugar manufacturing mechanical

process the

The d e h y d r a t i o n

usually of

consists of

pressing of

a dry-substance content

the o r d e r

20

()
I

(b)
;i

I
1

>-!

CL CL

2
PP

1
1

3
pw dpi

2
PP

3
dp|

pw

(c)
Ltlue_qs_J PP pw fuel dp 4

(d)
o ' tlue g a s

CL

II 1

2
PP

3
dp|

pw

dp

F i g . 1.12. P o s s i b l e schemes f o r t h e p u l p d e h y d r a t i o n p r o c e s s : ( a ) t h e r m a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t , ( b ) t h e r m a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t w i t h gas r e c i r c u l a t i o n , ( c ) p a r t l y h e a t e d w i t h b o i l e r f l u e g a s , ( d ) w i t h t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f b o i l e r f l u e g a s . pw - p r e s s w a t e r , pp - p r e s s e d p u l p , dp - d r i e d p u l p ; 1 - p r e s s e s , 2 - f u r n a c e , 3 - d r y e r . 20% DS and s u b s e q u e n t t h e r m a l demand i s processes requires in a b o u t 1000 to this d r y i n g t o a b o u t 90% DS. W h i l e t h e a v e r a g e e n e r g y contributions of the two

k J p e r kg w a t e r r e m o v e d , t h e are very d i f f e r e n t

figure

i n d e e d . The mechanical

pressing demand

40-80 k J e l e c t r i c a l drying is

e n e r g y p e r kg w a t e r r e m o v e d , w h i l e

the heat

thermal

a b o u t 3000 k J p e r kg w a t e r .

T h e d r y i n g and t h e

subsequent the

pelleting

o f the d r i e d pulp are also associated with kWh p e r 100 kg b e e t p r o c e s s e d . the sugar manufacture, d r y i n g o f the pulp i s from f u e l

a power e x p e n d i t u r e o f

o r d e r o f 0.6

When compared t o supplied to better is thermal

the u t i l i z a t i o n rather

o f primary it

energy

poor. A c t u a l l y ,

c a n n o t be which

in a process s t a r t i n g

combustion

in a high excess of a i r ,

equivalent to mixing cold a i r . There is

theoretically

possible high-temperature difference

combustion gases

with

also a large temperature

between t h e gases the

and t h e p u l p outlet

in the d r y e r .

F i n a l l y , the energy stream i s o n l y one p a s s t h r o u g h t h e

c a r r i e d away b y dryer.

gases a f t e r

performing

Substantial

energy savings are p o s s i b l e in pulp dehydration i f This c a n be a c h i e v e d b y

more w a t e r introducing

is

removed by p r e s s i n g and l e s s b y d r y i n g . minor process m o d i f i c a t i o n s C h a p t e r 4. As f a r and a p p l y i n g

i m p r o v e d p u l p p r e s s e s , as d i s c u s s e d drying is concerned, i t c a n be

in

as t h e c l a s s i c a l

thermal

concluded t h a t the p o s s i b i l i t i e s

o f c u t t i n g down t h e e n e r g y e x p e n d i t u r e p e r limited. The o n l y e f f e c t i v e

unit

mass o f e v a p o r a t e d w a t e r a r e r a t h e r technique is the recirculation

energy-saving either to the

o f gases from the d r y e r o u t l e t ,

21

dryer

inlet

o r to

the

furnace i n l e t

(Fig. 1.12(b)). (refs.

Savings o f

up t o

10-12% o f new

the primary field

energy input

c a n be a t t a i n e d

19,20). the

H o w e v e r , an e n t i r e l y p u l p d r y i n g becomes

of potential

e n e r g y s a v i n g s c a n be o p e n e d i f the sugar manufacture.

thermally 1.2.9

integrated with

Thermal c o u p l i n g

b e t w e e n p u l p d r y i n g and s u g a r

manufacture utilizing 1.12(c)

The e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f

p u l p d r y i n g c a n be c o n s i d e r a b l y i m p r o v e d b y flue g a s , as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y at up t o in

the waste heat from the b o i l e r and 1 . 1 2 ( d ) . h e a t demand. Parallel furnace, (ref. operation of

Figs. the

P o s s i b l e s a v i n g s c a n be e s t i m a t e d

12-15% o f

dryer's

a d r y e r h e a t e d by f l u e

gas and a d r y e r w i t h not to

its

own

although

r e a l i z a b l e , has s e r i o u s d r a w b a c k s and i s system, the b o i l e r the o u t l e t of flue

be recommended air

19).

I n an a l t e r n a t i v e

gas r e p l a c e s t h e

admixed w i t h the f l u e and t h u s inlet. prior It to

t h e c o m b u s t i o n gas i n is

the d r y i n g - p l a n t temperature,

f u r n a c e . As

gas t e m p e r a t u r e less fuel is will

h i g h e r than the a i r

l e s s c o m b u s t i o n gas at the dryer air it

be consumed f o r

a definite flue in

temperature gas w i t h

a l s o p o s s i b l e t o mix t h e b o i l e r the temperature

the combustion

the f u r n a c e , r a i s i n g reduce the fuel

the furnace i n l e t

and m a k i n g

possible to

demand. flue gas s e t s special requirements (ref. 20), on t h e the dryer

Generally, capacity. effective drum.

t h e use o f b o i l e r the

As shown i n

investigations is attained

o f drum d r y e r s

most dryer's kg

heat u t i l i z a t i o n

at a c e r t a i n

optimal

load o f the

Load d e v i a t i o n s increase.

from the optimal

v a l u e cause the heat consumption per

water to

The d i s p r o p o r t i o n manufacture

in energy u t i l i z a t i o n inspired

efficiency

of

p u l p d r y i n g and s u g a r intensifying end

has r e c e n t l y

rationalization

m e a s u r e s aimed a t

the e n e r g y usage i n of

factories

employing pulp d r y i n g . generation potential of

At the high-temperature

the pulp d r y i n g p r o c e s s , e l e c t r i c i t y is proposed to utilize the thermal

(preferably in a gas-turbine of the heat obtained through

set) fuel with

combustion.

The changed r e q u i r e m e n t s

power house o p e r a t i o n Section 1.5. a r e made t o

associated

gas-turbine applications low-temperature

are discussed in

At the heat in

end o f p u l p d r y i n g , a t t e m p t s heating

use w a s t e

the o u t l e t

gases from the d r y e r f o r

purposes i n

sugar

manufacture. dioxide, (possibly this

As t h e o u t l e t

gases c o n t a i n d u s t p a r t i c l e s connection with is

a c c o m p a n i e d by s u l p h u r Where g a s cleaning it

must be s e e n i n

gas c l e a n i n g .

including

desulphurization)

required f o r environmental

reasons,

may be a d v i s a b l e t o circuit.

complete the n e c e s s a r y equipment w i t h in juice

a heat-recovery o r e v a p o r a t i o n , as creates so additional important

T h e r e c o v e r e d h e a t c a n be u t i l i z e d in prototype plants

heating This

has been d e m o n s t r a t e d possibilities of

(refs.

21,22),

satisfying

the w a t e r removal manufacture.

c o n s t r a i n t which i s

to the energy balance o f sugar

22

Another group o f splitting levels

rationalization

measures o r i g i n a t e s parts

from the

idea

of

the pulp d r y i n g process i n t o 9,19,23).

performed at d i f f e r e n t process is

temperature

(refs. to for

While the high-temperature d r y i n g , the

essentially

identical potential reductions

conventional the

low-temperature

p r o c e s s c r e a t e s new and

utilization

o f waste heat

from s u g a r manufacture factory.

in overall

e n e r g y demand o f t h e

Waste h e a t c a n be r e c o v e r e d g a s and e v e n barometric dryer fuel to

f r o m vacuum pan v a p o u r s , c o n d e n s a t e , s p e n t c a r b o n a t a t i o n water, raising the temperature of air supplied to the

low-temperature

55-60C.

By r e m o v i n g a s u b s t a n t i a l the f i n a l is

part

o f the w a t e r from the p u l p , required dry

the

demand c a n be r e d u c e d i n content o f the d r i e d pulp this (ref. solution 24).

d r y i n g , where the

substance with

attained.

The economic p o t e n t i a l in

ssociated plants

has a l r e a d y b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d

industrial-scale

Very promising

concepts o f e n e r g y - s a v i n g thermal

c o u p l i n g between p u l p of steam but it

drying

and o t h e r s u g a r f a c t o r y dryers. only

s u b s y s t e m s a r e b a s e d on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s is n o t new t o

The i d e a o f steam d r y i n g it

the sugar i n d u s t r y ,

is

recently that live

has become p o s s i b l e t o

include the dryers -

whether -

supplied with into thermal

steam, o r w i t h

e x h a u s t steam o r v a p o u r f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r of multiple If used i n heat u t i l i z a t i o n which is or

systems u s i n g the p r i n c i p l e o f sugar manufacture. (refs. 25,26), to the

so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c low-temperature eliminate

combination with possible

mediumto

drying

steam d r y i n g makes i t pulp drying plant

primary

energy input

and t o

attain

considerable overall It

energy savings. that the thermal c o u p l i n g b e t w e e n p u l p d r y i n g and s u g a r of rather costly equipment.

must be a d m i t t e d

manufacture Therefore, factors,

generally requires the p r a c t i c a b l e the costs o f

the a p p l i c a t i o n

e n e r g y s a v i n g s a r e h i g h l y d e p e n d e n t on e c o n o m i c fuel of and p o w e r , and t h e c a p i t a l boiler flue gas, all c o s t . With the

like

exception o f the u t i l i z a t i o n

the techniques than standard

mentioned industrial

a b o v e s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as new d e v e l o p m e n t s r a t h e r practice 1.3 1.3.1 ( f o r a more d e t a i l e d

d i s c u s s i o n , see C h a p t e r 4 ) .

HEAT DEMAND Scope o f the problems people tend to think o f the of link b e t w e e n h e a t economy and s h o u l d be b u r n t in the the the

Sugar i n d u s t r y

sugar manufacturing boilers

p r o c e s s i n terms

how much f u e l

i n o r d e r t o make t h e p r o c e s s r u n . As f u e l

p r i c e s go u p , h o w e v e r , reduce the heat

q u e s t i o n o f how t h e p r o c e s s c a n be a l t e r e d becomes more and more In S e c t i o n 1.2, characteristics important.

in order to

demand

three quantities

were i n t r o d u c e d to e x p r e s s h e a t demand

the demand

o f t h e h e a t economy: t o t a l

net heat

23

and e f f e c t i v e n e s s

ratio

K. T h e t r a d i t i o n a l

approach suggests t h a t thermal

the

heat

economy c a n be i m p r o v e d b y e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e carefully o p e r a t e d and w e l l so t h a t maintained.

system i s w e l l

designed,

T h i s means t h a t a t

a g i v e n Q-j, a l a r g e small. heat

s h o u l d be a t t a i n e d

Q2 = Q-j/K w i l l

become s u f f i c i e n t l y

T h e p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d a p p r o a c h stems demand c a n a l s o be c u t down by r e d u c i n g demand) Q-j. T h i s less It requires adjusting the

from the o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t the net t h e sum o f heat streams (total

heat

p r o c e s s s o as t o make s u g a r

manufacture

energy-intensive. s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t s h o u l d be t r e a t e d in industrial practice, t h e measures taken to

increase

on an e q u a l

basis with

t h o s e aimed a t

r e d u c i n g Q-j. as thermal

In o t h e r words, e n e r g y - s a v i n g process adjustments system improvements In t h i s sum o f s e r v i n g t h e same p u r p o s e . study the influence

a r e as i m p o r t a n t

S e c t i o n , we s h a l l

of

process parameters

on

the

heat streams the

Q-j. T a k i n g i n t o

a c c o u n t t h a t t h e number o f

parameters quite can

characterizing l a r g e , we s h a l l

sugar manufacturing our treatment

p r o c e s s and t h e b y - p r o c e s s e s may be to t h e most important parameters

restrict

that us

a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d a d j u s t a b l e . mention some l i m i t a t i o n s much t r u t h and t h e in of

Before d i s c u s s i n g the d e t a i l s , approach. essentially

however, l e t

this

There is beet f i e l d s on t h e (i) the

the is

saying that sugar is only processing i t . at of least beets twofold: is

produced i n of beet

the

factory

The i n f l u e n c e

growing

factory's

h e a t demand i s

An i n c r e a s e d s u g a r c o n t e n t intake

equivalent

to

a relative

reduction the

of

o f w a t e r and n o n - s u g a r s t o is increased from 16 t o

the sugar manufacturing 19%, a h e a t s a v i n g

p r o c e s s . As

sugar content produced) (ii) of

( p e r 1 kg s u g a r

t h e o r d e r o f 6% c a n be o b t a i n e d . of non-sugars in beets, the that is, a higher juice and purity,

A reduced content affects

positively processes. saving

t h e mass b a l a n c e s o f purity amounts is to

purification to

crystallization resulting heat

As r a w - j u i c e

i n c r e a s e d from 88.5 about this 3%. interesting quickly of

90%, t h e

( p e r 1 kg b e e t )

Understandably enough, despite is impossible to adjust the

energy-saving potential, b y t a k i n g some

it

beet p r o p e r t i e s

technically-

o r i e n t e d measures. as b e i n g b e y o n d t h e

T h e r e f o r e , the problems scope o f the present

b e e t g r o w i n g must be c o n s i d e r e d

book. may v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y , d e p e n d i n g on the e n t i r e factory, other or not

The e n e r g y demands o f the t y p e and q u a l i t y of importance of

sugar manufacture the

s u g a r . When c o n s i d e r i n g t y p e and q u a l i t y of

factors

are the

the

b y - p r o d u c t s , whether employed, whether o r white sugar

not t h i c k - j u i c e syrups are s o l d ,

storage for etc. In the

subsequent processing i s

contemporary sugar i n d u s t r y , operation are dominant, will

manufacture

and t h e

classical pulp.

being often

accompanied by on white

the p r o d u c t i o n o f d r i e d

Our treatment

therefore

concentrate

24

sugar f a c t o r i e s ,

with

pulp d r y i n g taken

into

account. within the scope o f t h i s 1) half book,

R e t u r n i n g now t o let

the problems t h a t are w e l l

us q u o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g

a c c o u n t g i v e n by S c h i e b l the

(ref.

a century ago: are

"The heating satisfied: -

steam demand c a n be d e c r e a s e d i f

following

conditions

t h e steam demand f o r

auxiliary

p u r p o s e s and f o r

s u g a r wash i n

centrifugals

is

decreased, the f a c t o r y is operated at low j u i c e juice is draft, maintained.

a high concentration o f

thick

A t t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f d e v e l o p m e n t o f b e e t s u g a r t e c h n o l o g y , t h e r e a r e no o t h e r possibilities Things o f d e c r e a s i n g t h e heat demand." is

have changed c o n s i d e r a b l y s i n c e t h e s e words were p u b l i s h e d . T h e r e devoted to t h e methods o f r e d u c i n g t h e h e a t demand f o r be r e f e r r e d t o in the

a vast literature manufacture, following.

sugar

and t h e most i m p o r t a n t

sources w i l l

I n s t e a d o f naming a f e w s e l e c t e d e n e r g y - s a v i n g m e a s u r e s , as S c h i e b l d i d actually, many o t h e r a u t h o r s too), let us a d o p t a t o p - d o w n a p p r o a c h , possibilities first

(and,

taking a broader view o f the f i e l d o f e x i s t i n g define smaller c a n be u t i l i z e d conveniently areas o f special interest.

and t h e n t r y i n g heat it

to

The n o t i o n

o f t h e sum o f sugar f a c t o r y ,

streams

as a s t a r t i n g into three

point.

For a specific

c a n be

split

components

where Q ] Q operations

is

t h e sum o f h e a t s t r e a m s

that are necessary f o r heating,

carrying out

unit

t o w h i c h h e a t must be d e l i v e r e d , l i k e and d r y i n g ; Q-j^ i s the t o t a l

evaporation, balance heat

crystallization dissipation heat the The l a s t

h e a t stream needed t o the t o t a l

f r o m t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s , and Q-j^^ i s the f a c t o r y is buildings. even i f

h e a t stream needed t o

rooms i n quantity

deliberately,

untypically,

considered together system

with is is

t h e p r o c e s s h e a t demand. As f a r concerned, there is

as t h e e n e r g y s u p p l y v i a t h e t h e r m a l a separate treatment

no r e a s o n f o r factory

b e c a u s e room h e a t i n g

also necessary f o r

operation. definite p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s , c o m p o n e n t s Q-j^ and Q-j^ to the p r o c e s s , l i k e equipment. the q u a l i t y Consequently, heat this stream, kind are of it

L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t a t may d e p e n d on f a c t o r s thermal insulation that

are not s p e c i f i c of

o r the e f f i c i e n c y

room h e a t i n g

may be p o s s i b l e t o without introducing

c u t down Q-j^ and Q - , ^ , t h u s any changes t o

reducing the t o t a l

the p r o c e s s . Energy savings o f first.

the e a s i e s t to

a c h i e v e and w i l l

be d i s c u s s e d

T h e component Q-j^ c a n be c u t down by a v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i q u e s , t h a t grouped w i t h L e t us d e f i n e regard to the p r i n c i p l e s according to which the energy i s

c a n be saved.

three groups:

25

reductions reductions

of of

the water

intake

to

the

sugar manufacturing factory

process, to the sugar

the water t r a n s f e r

from o t h e r

sections

house, introduction This o f modified o r new e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t processes. c a n be sugar Chapter 4. taken

Section is

devoted to or within

t h e e n e r g y - s a v i n g measures t h a t framework of, the conventional

independently o f , manufacturing 1.3.2

the

process. Modified factory of the

o r new p r o c e s s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n

Heating o f

buildings factory buildings where a comfortable temperature is

In those parts needed f o r w o r k i n g a part of

people, heating

may be n e c e s s a r y d u r i n g factory the is

the operating the

and heat

the o f f - s e a s o n p e r i o d . a small fraction the

While the

in operation,

demand Q ^ ^ i s important to

o f the thermal

sum o f

heat streams

and t h u s very

not

very to the

the design o f the

s y s t e m , and c o n t r i b u t e s climatic

little

t h e n e t h e a t demand o f process entire energy

factory.

D e p e n d i n g on t h e in

conditions during total

and the

h e a t demand, h o w e v e r , t h e heating

heat consumption

room h e a t i n g the factory's

p e r i o d may be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

4-6% o f

annual

consumption. h e a t demand i n are not s p e c i f i c to room h e a t i n g to the installations requires will be

As c u t t i n g down t h e s o l v i n g problems that

sugar i n d u s t r y ,

no d e t a i l s in older

d i s c u s s e d h e r e . T h e main p o i n t s factories, are: of the thermal

be c o n s i d e r e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y

improvements reduction of

insulation

of heat

factory

buildings, system (by flow improving control

the heat of

l o s s e s from the hot-water

distribution

thermal methods, -

insulation etc.), of

the

pipes,

introducing

effective

introduction

automatic

room-temperature

control

to

prevent

local

overheating,

thus

e l i m i n a t i n g heat suitable

l o s s e s c a u s e d by e x c e s s i v e cover the that for

ventilation. heating of the

When s e l e c t i n g purposes, sugar (ref.

heat sources to

h e a t demand f o r

u s e can be made o f w a s t e - h e a t As shown i n 90% o f

supplies

are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

industry. 27),

a study carried out the h e a t demand f o r

a Swedish sugar during

factory operations Middleannual total

more t h a n

room h e a t i n g

can be c o v e r e d by s u p p l y i n g European c l i m a t i c heat consumption annual energy

h o t c o n d e n s a t e f r o m vacuum p a n s . U n d e r this corresponds to 1/4 of the of

conditions, for heating

factory's the

p u r p o s e s , o r an e q u i v a l e n t

1-1.5% o f

consumption. t h e w a s t e h e a t c a n be a c c u m u l a t e d during the off-season supplied to period. during

U s i n g more a d v a n c e d t e c h n i q u e s , operations and u t i l i z e d for heating

For example,

warm w a t e r c a n be s t o r e d u n d e r g r o u n d and l a t e r realizable consumption s a v i n g s h a v e been e s t i m a t e d for heating purposes, that at is,

a h e a t pump. T h e annual annual heat energy

60-70% o f t h e 2.4-4.2% o f

factory's the total

26

consumption. fuel

However, the economic p o t e n t i a l as c a p i t a l

of this

solution

depends h e a v i l y of

on

and p o w e r p r i c e s , as w e l l and r e l a t i v e l y

cost.

For example, a combination the profitability during is the of

cheap f u e l

costly

power c o u n t e r a c t s the

heat-

pump a p p l i c a t i o n s , period, fuel in

justifying

rather

utilization,

off-season burning

of a conventional a boiler. is

heating

system i n which heat to

g e n e r a t e d by a high boiler

F o r such a s o l u t i o n

be c o m p e t i t i v e ,

efficiency 1.3.3

required. from the process process to the environment are

Heat d i s s i p a t i o n

Heat l o s s e s from the caused b y :

sugar manufacturing

- mass and h e a t e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n t h e a t m o s p h e r e and f r e e temperature media i n open t a n k s , s i p h o n s and

surfaces of

high-

distributors, process equipment and

heat exchange between the a i r

and t h e

surfaces of

piping. In F i g . 1.13, at the estimated typical 28). ambient A similar heat d i s s i p a t i o n temperature, rate of is from the water surface of in an

open v e s s e l , temperature

shown as a f u n c t i o n

water at

(ref.

heat d i s s i p a t i o n

c a n be e x p e c t e d

20000

10 000 water agitated 5000

W ( 3ter

at rest

2000

1000

500

200 40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Water temperature (C) Fig. 1.13. Heat l o s s from the s u r f a c e o f w a t e r in an o p e n t a n k (after ref. 28).

27

free juice between a i r

surfaces i n the j u i c e

purification

station, while less

the

heat

transfer If no

and m a s s e c u i t e s u r f a c e s the

i n open v e s s e l s i s of heat

intensive. free

precautions are taken, of p r o c e s s media

combined e f f e c t

l o s s e s from the

surfaces

i n o p e n v e s s e l s and s i p h o n s may e a s i l y a t t a i n a heating-steam consumption o f the area o f free t h e o r d e r 1-3 contact

level It air

corresponding to is thus

k g / 1 0 0 kg b e e t .

a d v i s a b l e to minimize

between a t m o s p h e r i c units or

and h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e

m e d i a , by p r o p e r l y s h a p i n g t h e e q u i p m e n t equipment.

applying

s c r e e n s o r c o v e r s mounted on t h e

H e a t l o s s e s f r o m t h e s u r f a c e s o f p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and p i p i n g total s u r f a c e a r e a and t h e q u a l i t y in of thermal insulation.

d e p e n d on the

the

When s h a p i n g

e q u i p m e n t and p i p i n g the t r a n s p o r t

new o r m o d e r n i z e d f a c t o r i e s , media,

c a r e s h o u l d be t a k e n the o u t e r surface the number is

of area of

routes of high-temperature minimized.

so t h a t

o f the pipes i s

Heat l o s s e s w i l l

a l s o be r e d u c e d i f the t r a n s p o r t

b a r e v a l v e s and o t h e r p i p i n g Normally,

components a l o n g

routes

minimized. pipe. about typical

heat l o s s e s from a bare v a l v e are l a r g e r than from 1 m o f a heat-dissipating bare flange is

the

The p i p e - l e n g t h e q u i v a l e n t o f 0.5 m. In F i g . 1.14,

usually

the estimated is

heat d i s s i p a t i o n of

from bare p i p e s , a t of the

ambient

temperature,

shown as a f u n c t i o n (ref. 28).

the temperature

fluid

contained in It is

the pipes to

difficult

give quantitative

information

on t h e e n e r g y s a v i n g s w h i c h

4000

2000

Q.

1000

100

150

200

Fluid temperature (C) Fig. 1.14. Heat l o s s from t h e surface o f a bare pipe (after ref. 28).

28

c a n be a t t a i n e d initial loss

by i m p r o v i n g

the

thermal

insulation,

as t h i s

d e p e n d s on 1.15, a

the the

level

to which the

s a v i n g s must be c o m p a r e d . and i n s u l a t i o n

In F i g . at

relationship pipe diameter a trade-off environment. level (ref. (to 29).

between heat d i s s i p a t i o n is shown ( r e f . 28).

thickness

definite there to is the

Under g i v e n economic c o n d i t i o n s , and t h e

between t h e

cost of

insulation conditions,

cost o f energy l o s t

D e p e n d i n g on l o c a l

the economically j u s t i f i e d insulation improvements) of the

loss vary

be a c c o u n t e d f o r when c o n s i d e r i n g It c a n be e s t i m a t e d that the

may

"energy equivalent"

difference is of

b e t w e e n p o o r and s a t i s f a c t o r y t h e o r d e r o f 4-6% o f t h e

insulation the heat

o f p r o c e s s equipment streams.

and p i p i n g

sum o f 300

25

50

75

100

Insulation thickness (mm)

F i g . 1.15. insulation

Heat l o s s thickness

f r o m t h e s u r f a c e o f an i n s u l a t e d ( a f t e r r e f . 28). can a l s o be e f f e c t i v e l y

p i p e as a f u n c t i o n

of

The heat d i s s i p a t i o n temperature free level of the

r e d u c e d by d e c r e a s i n g The heat f l u x to an

the from

process or i t s

sections.

resulting environment difference

c o n v e c t i o n from a s u r f a c e at

absolute T^ is

temperature a function

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e = - T g , namely q^ = ^ ( ) ^ 2 5 where is

o f the

(^5) factors. in comparison w i t h the following surface

a c o n s t a n t d e p e n d i n g on g e o m e t r i c temperature difference i s

P r o v i d i n g the temperature approximate

=

small

T , the

radiation

heat f l u x

c a n be e x p r e s s e d by t h e

relationship (1.6) a c o n s t a n t d e p e n d i n g on s u r f a c e p r o p e r t i e s and g e o m e t r i c factors.

A^TV

where A ^ i s

29

It

follows

from the above formulae

that

if

the surface temperature

is reduction

decreased at a constant environment temperature T ^ , then the r e l a t i v e in overall heat f l u x + q^^ i s l a r g e r than the r e l a t i v e account that reduction in

temperature d i f f e r e n c e - T ^ . Taking i n t o applies to a total

the heat l o s s

reduction

o f 2-3% o f t h e sum o f t h e h e a t s t r e a m s , o n l y a really interesting. Obviously, of

substantial

temperature

reduction is

any t e m p e r a t u r e changes with i n the the process.

must be t r e a t e d c a u t i o u s l y b e c a u s e o f It

the r i s k

interfering

has b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d i n p r a c t i c e t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e station c a n be s u b s t a n t i a l l y

juice this

purification is

reduced. In s s p e c i f i c

factory, of

possible only to

t h e e x t e n t w h i c h c a n be a c c e p t e d f r o m t h e p o i n t No g e n e r a l p r e s c r i p t i o n s c a n be g i v e n h e r e , as changes a r e c o n s t r a i n e d by such l o c a l effect,

view o f

purification

results.

the as b e e t

p r a c t i c a b l e temperature quality and i t s

factors

variations, required purification

equipment

properties

and s o o n . U n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s possible temperature adjustments

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f Greek s u g a r h a v e been d i s c u s s e d i n t h e

factories, (ref. 30).

literature

The p u r i f i c a t i o n pre-liming, 1.16, for

method c o n s i d e r e d i s

a c l a s s i c a l one c o m p r i s i n g p r o g r e s s i v e In F i g . it takes

main l i m i n g ,

and d o u b l e - s t a g e c a r b o n a t a t i o n and f i l t r a t i o n . is shown as a f u n c t i o n o f the average time

the j u i c e to

temperature

the j u i c e

reach c o n s e c u t i v e process s e c t i o n s . At a g i v e n processing t i m e r e p r e s e n t s t h e v o l u m e o f p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and p i p i n g as

capability,

this

40 Time

60 (mini

100

F i g . 1.16. J u i c e t e m p e r a t u r e v s . t i m e i n j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n h o t main l i m i n g o n l y , - w i t h c o l d and h o t main l i m i n g . 1 p r e - l i m i n g , 3 - h e a t i n g o f p r e - l i m e d j u i c e , 4 - main l i m i n g , carbonatation, 6 - j u i c e heating before 1st f i l t r a t i o n , 7 j u i c e h e a t i n g b e f o r e 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n , 9 - 2nd f i l t r a t i o n , j u i c e ( a f t e r r e f . 30).

stations: A - with extraction, 2 5 - 1st 1st f i l t r a t i o n , 8 10 - h e a t i n g o f t h i n

30

well

a s , by a n o n l i n e a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ,

the area o f o u t e r surfaces o f as a f u n c t i o n the j u i c e o f time

equipment thus station. area is

and p i p i n g . demonstrates

The diagram v i s u a l i z i n g t e m p e r a t u r e the heat d i s s i p a t i o n this potential potential of

purification

As c a n be s e e n , under the

( a p p r o x i m a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e in case than in

surface

r e s p e c t i v e c u r v e ) i s much s m a l l e r the a p p l i c a t i o n with short a small

case A. T h i s a low

a result of temperature, factors are:

o f main l i m i n g p e r f o r m e d e s s e n t i a l l y a t section only. Other

high-temperature time o f the

contributing relatively in

retention

filtration It is

o p e r a t i o n s , and a realistic of that it

low temperature

o f the second c a r b o n a t a t i o n .

to expect t h a t i n case A.

case B, the h e a t consumption w i l l

be l e s s t h a n h a l f conditions,

Although that the the

t h e e x a c t f i g u r e w o u l d d e p e n d on l o c a l h e a t demand i n j u i c e purification will

c a n be e s t i m a t e d as l o w a l e v e l as

be r e d u c e d t o

e q u i v a l e n t o f a b o u t 5 kg h e a t i n g Another i n t e r e s t i n g purification station

steam p e r 100 kg

beet. reductions (ref. in the It juice has b e e n

s t u d y on p o s s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e

has been p u b l i s h e d by S o v i e t a u t h o r s sugar f a c t o r y is that

31).

shown i n a s p e c i f i c if pre-carbonatation Although the

the average temperature the CaO r a t e

c a n be d e c r e a s e d the

i n t r o d u c e d a t 60C w i t h o f the is first

a b o u t 45% o f

total.

temperature

carbonatation

remains

unchanged a t a l o w e r CaO of

85C, t h e h e a t l o s s o c c u r r i n g t h e r e rate (40% o f the t o t a l ,

substantially the o r i g i n a l

r e d u c e d due t o process).

a g a i n s t 80% i n is

The t e m p e r a t u r e

the second c a r b o n a t a t i o n in

d e c r e a s e d f r o m 95^C t o purification

75^C. The r e s u l t i n g process to the

reduction

the heat d i s s i p a t e d from the j u i c e at about 60%. reductions

environment

can be e s t i m a t e d Potential process 32)

temperature

in other sections of

the sugar

manufacturing (ref.

are l i m i t e d , that

but s t i l l

p o s s i b l e . A n o t h e r s t u d y by S o v i e t a u t h o r s factory, the b o i l i n g temperatures

indicates

in a specific

o f A , and C Although

massecuites

c a n be d e c r e a s e d by a b o u t 5 K, 10 and 15 K, r e s p e c t i v e l y . regime i s aimed a t

t h e new t e m p e r a t u r e thermal

c u t t i n g down t h e s u g a r l o s s e s c a u s e d b y from the sugar

decay o f s u c r o s e i n

vacuum p a n s , t h e h e a t d i s s i p a t i o n

h o u s e c a n a l s o be r e d u c e d . 1.3.4 Water i n t a k e to the process the sugar manufacturing process in beets or

Most o f t h e w a t e r s u p p l i e d t o o t h e r mass s t r e a m s ( F i g . 1.17)

must u l t i m a t e l y

be r e m o v e d , m a i n l y

as v a p o u r o r proportional there

as h o t c o n d e n s a t e . T h e a s s o c i a t e d h e a t e x p e n d i t u r e i s to is t h e amount o f w a t e r s u p p l i e d . no s e r i o u s i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h T h e most i m p o r t a n t the j u i c e of If the this amount i s

approximately

r e d u c e d , and p r o v i d i n g

p r o c e s s , t h e n e n e r g y s a v i n g s c a n be principle are:

obtained. -

m e a s u r e s b a s e d on t h i s

reduction of elimination

draft, to the j u i c e , particularly in the

unnecessary water additions station.

juice

purification

31

vapour vapour water cossettes pressed pulpl s u g a r to d r y e r molasses

..LX
sludge condensate

F i g . 1.17. Main s t r e a m s o f w a t e r and w a t e r - c o n t a i n i n g media e n t e r i n g o r l e a v i n g a sugar f a c t o r y . 1 - process a r e a , 2 - e x t r a c t i o n s t a t i o n , 3 - j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n s t a t i o n , 4 - e v a p o r a t o r , 5 - sugar house, 6 - condensate t a n k , 7 - condenser. It reduction is of the water to intake to the total sugar house. water i n t a k e by i n t r o d u c i n g new 4. cannot the the

also possible

reduce the

processes;

e n e r g y - s a v i n g measures o f draft, i.e. of the ratio of

this

kind are considered in flow to cossettes is

Chapter flow,

The j u i c e

raw-juice only,

be j u d g e d on t h e most sugar important loss in

basis

heat

expenditure the

as i t

certainly

one o f also

variables

governing

extraction

process, influencing d e p e n d s a l s o on b e e t in the

exhausted c o s s e t t e s .

The s u g a r l o s s

quality, and

cossettes q u a l i t y , those factors

and on pH and t e m p e r a t u r e the operating s o as t o

distributions period. It

extractor, be

may v a r y d u r i n g vary the j u i c e

may t h e r e f o r e at an

necessary to

draft

keep t h e

sugar loss

acceptably

low l e v e l , and t h i s requirement If the of draft

requirement

may e v e n t u a l l y

clash w i t h the

energy-based

minimization. l a r g e enough, then even a t the the local economic conditions loss sold

energy savings are reduction

may s t i m u l a t e d r a f t (particularly as f o d d e r ) . extractors if

cost of the

increased sugar

sugar retention situation 33).

increases

value o f exhausted cossettes troughand tower-type about 2%,

This (ref.

has been a n a l y s e d f o r in

Assuming a s u g a r c o n t e n t juice draft

pressed pulp o f for a

i.e.

a sugar loss extractor resulting for

a b o u t 0.6%, for

v a l u e s as l o w as 95.5% extractor at

trough-type

and 98.6%

a tower-type

h a v e been c o n s i d e r e d . T h e 5-10% of the factory's demand

e n e r g y s a v i n g s h a v e been e s t i m a t e d energy. the prices loss of fuels

primary Actually,

and s u g a r seem t o lower than the 5). the

stimulate

factory

operation juice mainly

at

an e x t r a c t i o n

substantially

above v a l u e , so t h e process. This

draft

s h o u l d be r e d u c e d b y m o d i f y i n g adjustments (see Chapter

extraction

depends

on e q u i p m e n t

32

The w a t e r of-lime filters. CaO r a t e

intake

to to

the j u i c e the j u i c e

purification

station

results

mainly

from in

milkthe the

additions A typical is

and c a r b o n a t a t i o n composition is

sludge sweetening-off

milk-of-lime

20% CaO and 80% w a t e r , The w a t e r intake in

and

o f t h e o r d e r o f 2 kg p e r 1 kg b e e t . by m a i n t a i n i n g

the

milk-of-

l i m e can be m i n i m i z e d but

a l o w CaO r a t e

and h i g h

CaO c o n c e n t r a t i o n , effect to of if be

u n d e r no c i r c u m s t a n c e s

can a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e j u i c e for this kind

purification

allowed. properly process slaking juice used).

Therefore, a prerequisite designed process equipment variables. is

o f energy saving is automatic control

apply key lime in the is

and e f f e c t i v e

U n n e c e s s a r y w a t e r can a l s o be l a r g e l y e l i m i n a t e d using j u i c e

performed

tapped from a p r o p e r l y s e l e c t e d p l a c e juice

purification

station

(typically,

s e p a r a t e d from s u b s i d e r s l u d g e

The s i t u a t i o n that with

with

the sludge s w e e t e n i n g - o f f

is

to is

some e x t e n t a trade-off

similar between the 2-4

to the

c o s s e t t e s e x h a u s t i o n , namely t h a t sugar loss used, water a final

there in

amount o f w a t e r s u p p l i e d and t h e filtration scheme and e q u i p m e n t this resulting in

s l u d g e . D e p e n d i n g on c a n be l i m i t e d t o o f the sludge

intake

kg

per

100 kg b e e t , 0.5-0.7%.

sugar content

below

Water i n t a k e dilution of

to

the

s u g a r h o u s e may be r e q u i r e d

for: are that their concentration

s y r u p s , when t h e p r o c e s s r e q u i r e m e n t s a definite value,

has t o sugar

be d e c r e a s e d t o melting,

s u g a r wash i n

centrifugals, control during sugar b o i l i n g in vacuum p a n s ,

- magma c o n c e n t r a t i o n viscosity control

during

C-massecuite

crystallization,

ion-exchange processes. Various components o f the water intake, and t h e i r of proportions, d e p e n d on the

crystallization

scheme a p p l i e d .

As t h e q u a l i t y it

thick juice

and t h e adjust

properties

o f non-sugars vary during components a c c o r d i n g l y . c a n be t a k e n to minimize the

operations,

may be n e c e s s a r y t o

these measures

For a given c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n the total of water intake.

scheme, s p e c i f i c

The need f o r requirements.

dilution

syrups usually filtration the is

results

from the

filtration at a dry value,

For example, remelt

typically

performed

substance content

b e l o w 68%, and i f

remelt

concentration

exceeds t h i s

t h e n w a t e r must be a d d e d . H o w e v e r , t h e d e s i g n e d as t o m i n i m i z e i n normal intake to operating

crystallization

schemes c a n be s o to syrups

o r even e l i m i n a t e It is

t h e need f o r w a t e r a d d i t i o n the

conditions.

also possible to eliminate instead.

water

the melting o p e r a t i o n , intake to the

using t h i n j u i c e

The w a t e r value,

vacuum pans c a n be r e d u c e d t o to

a negligibly

small

providing

o t h e r measures a r e t a k e n

secure e f f i c i e n t

supersaturation

33

control

during

the

sugar boling

p r o c e s s . T o some e x t e n t ,

this

d e p e n d s on boiling

the

crystallization seems t o 1.3.5

scheme, but

vacuum pan a u t o m a t i o n This problem is

(automatic

control) Section

be a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r . 6.

additionally

discussed in

and C h a p t e r

T h e amount o f w a t e r s u p p l i e d t o respect to crystallization quality

batch c e n t r i f u g a l s is, for

c a n be o p t i m i z e d of

with

needs, that (refs.

maximum y i e l d for

crystalline optimization centrifuging

sugar o f a d e f i n i t e is

34,35).

A prerequisite

the o f the of

t h a t t h e w a t e r wash o p e r a t i o n in which time, to rotational final

s h o u l d be t r e a t e d velocity

as a p a r t

cycle

and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n

s y r u p wash c a n in this manner the

also contribute

the

results. with

T h e w a t e r wash o p t i m i z e d respect to

c a n a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d as o p t i m a l

the energy consumption o f results cycle

sugar house. Experience p r o v e s , however, t h a t the o p t i m i z a t i o n very s e n s i t i v e to local conditions. in An e x a m p l e o f batch an o p t i m i z e d is

may be for Fig. 1.18. of

A massecuite c e n t r i f u g i n g Water i n t a k e bringing to

a specific

centrifugal

shown i n

C massecuite c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s t y p i c a l l y As t h e

serves the

purpose the

down m a s s e c u i t e v i s c o s i t y . it is of

v i s c o s i t y a l s o d e p e n d s on a viscosity reduction by

temperature, the

also p o s s i b l e to obtain the massecuite. This

increasing however,

temperature

a p p r o a c h has i t s

limitations,

as t o o h i g h a t e m p e r a t u r e Another v i s c o s i t y - c o n t r o l addition It use o f o f molasses to

may a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t

crystallization intake

efficiency. employs the

method w h i c h r e d u c e s t h e w a t e r massecuite. that a net water applies intake to

the

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t steam i n the

may a l s o

result as:

from

direct

sugar house. This

such o p e r a t i o n s

vacuum-pan

steaming, centrifugals, of syrups in storage tanks.

steam wash i n direct heating

1200 1000 800 600 400 200 green wash

o er

^ / ii \ : J I I! 1 114 41-3
I I I I . I I 1 I

\ ^ 180

^.5

60

120 Time ( s )

F i g . 1.18. O p t i m i z e d c e n t r i f u g i n g c y c l e f o r A m a s s e c u i t e . syrup wash, 3 - water wash, 4 - d i s c h a r g i n g , 5 - cleaning

1 - charging, 2 ( c o u r t e s y DOS).

34

There i s

no d o u b t t h a t

these operations

s h o u l d be a v o i d e d , o r t h e e q u i p m e n t the steam c o n s u m p t i o n . systems w h i c h can

and For also

instrumentation example, t h i s be i n s t a l l e d 1.3.5 It

s h o u l d make i t

p o s s i b l e to minimize modern a i r - t i g h t

c a n be done w i t h

steaming

i n o l d e r vacuum p a n s . concentration in and c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n t h a t the the water scheme the crystallization This

Thick juice

was m e n t i o n e d

S e c t i o n 1.3.1

h e a t demand o f intake to the

p r o c e s s c a n be d e c r e a s e d b y r e d u c i n g is

sugar house. field

a complex q u e s t i o n , o f w h i c h o n l y a p a r t

belongs to parts

the

problem

discussed in the maintaining optimizing Figure

p r e c e d i n g S e c t i o n . The remaining concentration, of the

are:

a high t h i c k - j u i c e the

scheme and p a r a m e t e r s

crystallization between t h e

process. of

1.19

shows t h e e s t i m a t e d the

relationship

h e a t demand the the the

a s u g a r house e m p l o y i n g concentration of

classical

three-boiling

s c h e m e , and intake in

thick juice. is, from

When r e d u c i n g t h e w a t e r 11.60 of to its 5.80

thick-juice heat demand to

s t r e a m b y 50%, t h a t

kg p e r 100 kg b e e t , value (assumed t o

c a n be d e c r e a s e d by n e a r l y 65% D S ) . T h i s is

1/3

initial

correspond potential

an i n d i c a t i o n

of a considerable energy-saving of the thick-juice

associated with its utilization

p o s s i b l e adjustments

concentration. c a n be

However,

d e p e n d s on w h e t h e r o r n o t c e r t a i n

constraints

met.

Water 11

in t h i c k j u i c e 10 9

( kg / 1 0 0 kg b ) 8 7

62

64

66

68

70

72

74

C o n c e n t r a t i o n of thick juice ( % DS)

F i g . 1.19. H e a t demand o f t h e t h r e e - b o i l i n g function of thick-juice concentration. The d i f f i c u l t i e s multiple-effect juice retention appear a l r e a d y i n

crystallization

p r o c e s s , as a

t h e e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s , as i n concentration have t o

specific prolonged dry

evaporator, time,

increased outlet final effects risk

may r e q u i r e

and t h e

be o p e r a t e d a t

increased

substance content.

This

induces the

o f e x c e s s i v e thermal

decay o f

sucrose

and c o l o u r b u i l d - u p ,

as w e l l

as d a n g e r o u s i n c r u s t a t i o n s

w h i c h may be

initiated

35

by c o n c e n t r a t i o n the concentration all if effects,

fluctuations of thick

i n the

last

effect.

When a t t e m p t i n g t o

increase levels in

juice,

e v a p o r a t o r d e s i g n and t e m p e r a t u r e

as w e l l

as t h e e v a p o r a t o r c o n t r o l for safer operation. operated at

s y s t e m , s h o u l d be r e v i e w e d a n d , it is not the

necessary, modified in the initial

Experience proves that

only final

effects

highest temperatures, with

but also in

effects,

where the s i t u a t i o n

may become c r i t i c a l

respect to

colour

build-up.

T h i s may n e c e s s i t a t e

replacing

t h e e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s c o n c e r n e d b y new

ones e n s u r i n g r e d u c e d j u i c e Another problem i s

retention

time. thick-juice f i l t r a t i o n at to concentrations

associated with

e x c e e d i n g 65-67% DS. C o n v e n t i o n a l f i l t e r s concentrations

are not suited

higher separators, also which

and s h o u l d p e r h a p s be r e p l a c e d by c e n t r i f u g a l i n numerous f a c t o r i e s . filters,

have p r o v e d t o work s a t i s f a c t o r i l y a possibility outlet

There is

o f applying conventional to the (ref. last 36).

not next to the

evaporator is

but p r i o r Fig.

evaporator e f f e c t ;

one p o s s i b l e a r r a n g e m e n t

shown i n

1.20

exhaust steam thin j u i c e U % D S . 125C [

3a

3b
] thick juice 75%DS.96%

rt
55^60% 110 C

D S ^

F i g . 1.20. J u i c e f i l t e r F b e t w e e n e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s i n t h e t h i r d a " f o u r - a n d - a - h a l f - e f f e c t " evaporator ( a f t e r r e f . 36). As r e g a r d s t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n this is o f the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme and juice

effect

of

parameters, and s y r u p s in

n e c e s s i t a t e d by i n c r e a s e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are created in the b o i l i n g

of thick

b e c a u s e new p r o b l e m s

p r o c e s s . White sugar b o i l i n g three stages solution (Fig. a 1.21):

a b a t c h - t y p e vacuum pan c a n be r o u g h l y d i v i d e d i n t o (1) Evaporation o f the initially is

drawn u n d e r s a t u r a t e d attained.

until

supersaturation is

o f a b o u t 1.15

A high concentration results in

of thick less heat

juice

favourable with

r e s p e c t t o e n e r g y e c o n o m y , as i t stage. formation, followed

consumed d u r i n g (2)

this

S e e d i n g and c r y s t a l loaded to its

by s l o w c r y s t a l

g r o w t h as t h e intensive magma of

vacuum

pan i s

maximum c h a r g e . uniform

In order to maintain

the

circulation structure,

required for

syrup supersaturation

and u n i f o r m

the e v a p o r a t i o n i s

continued with a risk

accompanying i n t a k e s the t h i c k juice

undersaturated s o l u t i o n s .

There is

that

concentration

may

36

Stages:

F i g . 1.21. S t a g e s o f t h e w h i t e - s u g a r b o i l i n g p r o c e s s : 1 - e v a p o r a t i o n , 2 s e e d i n g , c r y s t a l f o r m a t i o n and s l o w c r y s t a l g r o w t h , 3 - a c c e l e r a t e d c r y s t a l growth. turn to out to be j u s t too high f o r intakes meant t o bring t h e s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n down

the r e q u i r e d v a l u e . g r o w t h as t h e s t r i k e is thickened of until the desired thick

(3) Accelerated c r y s t a l crystal juice

c o n t e n t has been r e a c h e d . An e v e n t u a l

intake

high-concentration

c o u l d a g a i n be f a v o u r a b l e . w h i c h may o c c u r i n stage ( 2 ) , the introduction of

Because o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s high-concentration thick modification juice

and s y r u p s c a n n o t be r e g a r d e d as a m i n o r p r o c e s s . The s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n can o f this course

o f the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n but

be a d j u s t e d by t a k i n g i n w a t e r , p r o b l e m becomes l e s s c r i t i c a l easier to maintain safety uniform

would c o u n t e r a c t heat s a v i n g s . The vacuum pans a r e u s e d , making in the e n t i r e strike volume. automatic it

when s t i r r e d

supersaturation

Operational boiling

can be f u r t h e r

i m p r o v e d by e q u i p p i n g t h e pans w i t h seems t o be t o r e l y on c r y s t a l but rather

controls.

The b e s t s o l u t i o n

footing, as a new

w h i c h c a n h a r d l y be r e g a r d e d as a l i m i t e d m o d i f i c a t i o n process; If it is therefore discussed in out to C h a p t e r 4.

the f o o t i n g

process turns

be t o o a d v a n c e d w i t h

regard to two

the

sugar

house equipment a v a i l a b l e , concentrations thickening the

then the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n (ref. flow 37). to Its

scheme w i t h

juice of

can be a p p l i e d o f the j u i c e is

essential

idea c o n s i s t s

a part part

a c o n c e n t r a t i o n e x c e e d i n g 70% D S , w h i l e after filtration, intakes that is, the at first and

remaining

tapped immediately is

65-67% DS. H i g h - c o n c e n t r a t i o n j u i c e third stages o f the boiling

used f o r

during of It

process, while

the a v a i l a b i l i t y second s t a g e .

low-concentration s h o u l d be made heat-saving if

j u i c e makes i t clear that this of

e a s i e r to

perform the c r i t i c a l full

method does n o t a l l o w

utilization It

o f the

potential a half

the c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h i c k stream a f t e r

juice.

has been r e p o r t e d t h a t is thickened to

o f the t h i c k - j u i c e

filtration

74% DS and

the other h a l f

r e m a i n s a t 67% D S , t h e n t h e f a c t o r y ' s 38). If the e n t i r e

s t e a m demand c a n be r e d u c e d s t r e a m was thickened

b y a b o u t 2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b ( r e f .

thick-juice

37

to 3.2 1.4

74% D S , t h e n a c c o r d i n g

to

Fig.

1.18

a 15% r e d u c t i o n ,

that

is,

by

k g / 1 0 0 kg b , w o u l d be p o s s i b l e . POWER DEMAND Scope o f t h e problems h e a t and e l e c t r i c i t y , the l a r g e r the steam the flow

1.4.1

With combined g e n e r a t i o n o f extracted electrical from the turbine

e x h a u s t , t h e more p o w e r c a n be p r o d u c e d i n equipped with a properly

generator.

In a sugar f a c t o r y

dimensioned of

turbo-generator,

and w h e r e t h e

heat consumption exceeds the e q u i v a l e n t the e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r s h o u l d be ample. through

40-45 kg steam p e r 100 kg b e e t , The t r e n d turbine. towards fuel

savings implies

a r e d u c e d steam f l o w stimulate

the

A t t h e same t i m e , all the u n i t

economic f a c t o r s operations in

a tendency to this

mechanize in

and a u t o m a t e

the sugar i n d u s t r y , of

resulting

i n c r e a s e d p o w e r demand. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n needed f o r plants, environmental o r the protection, like

new e l e c t r i c i t y - c o n s u m i n g

equipment treatment also factories

sludge presses, waste-water v a p o u r c o m p r e s s o r s , may number o f sugar

etc.,

application

o f mechanical

i n c r e a s e t h e p o w e r demand. are reaching the p o i n t and s p e c i a l of

C o n s e q u e n t l y , an i n c r e a s i n g imbalance between the to

s t e a m demand and p o w e r d e m a n d , energy supply. on t h e its It thus

m e a s u r e s may be r e q u i r e d important to

secure a r e l i a b l e

becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y between t h e

have s u f f i c i e n t factory's ability

information to generate of

relation

p o w e r demand and t h e of

own p o w e r . in

From t h e p o i n t terms

view o f energy balances, a d e s c r i p t i o n figures is

the

p o w e r demand of powerof the

o f time-averaged and of

needed. F o r the dimensioning equipment and f o r reliable

generating operation variations 1.4.2

power-distributing electrical defined.

control

the e n t i r e

subsystem, the

instantaneous

demand and

its

s h o u l d a l s o be

Power n e t w o r k is p r o d u c e d as a l t e r n a t i n g direct-current historical current in a three-phase in use i n many the supply.

The e l e c t r i c i t y When compared t o factories, advantages mostly of:

the for

installations

still

reasons, alternating-current

systems o f f e r

easy transformation economic s o l u t i o n units,

from h i g h t o

low

voltage, and u t i l i z a t i o n in large and medium-

for

power t r a n s m i s s i o n

size -

low c o s t o f the

motors. fixed windings

The s y n c h r o n o u s t h r e e - p h a s e g e n e r a t o r s employ t h r e e groups o f i n which the a l t e r n a t i n g with direct current current is

i n d u c e d , and a r o t a t i n g w i n d i n g situated at t h e end o f

supplied the rotor current. up to

f r o m a dynamo ( e x c i t e r ) o f the generator i s

shaft.

The power o u t p u t

controlled

by t h e e x c i t e r the turbine

Smaller turbo-generators

are g e n e r a l l y o f geared t y p e :

runs a t

38

20 000 rpm a n d , t h r o u g h At higher output a generator. In o r d e r to minimize s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d voltage voltage takes the at

reduction the

g e a r s , d r i v e s a generator running runs at 3000 rpm w i t h d i r e c t

at

1500 to

rpm.

ratings,

turbine

drive

energy l o s s e s , e l e c t r i c i t y low c u r r e n t

generation

and

transmission Typical to the

and, correspondingly, high thousands v o l t s .

voltage.

l e v e l s employed a r e s e v e r a l level in o f motors and o t h e r

The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

power r e c e i v e r s

(i.e.

power-consuming d e v i c e s ) c l o s e range of

place

transformers

which are c o n v e n i e n t l y placed w i t h i n of the power network is, is

r e c e i v e r s . The h i g h - v o l t a g e p a r t from energy sources and t r a n s f o r m e r s .

s e p a r a t e d by from is

circuit-breakers the external typically

(that

generators or supply lines

grid)

The l o w - v o l t a g e w i n d i n g

of a transformer energy

c o n n e c t e d v i a a power c a b l e o r b a r t o taking place to local

a switchboard, further to large

distribution receivers. external

switchboards or d i r e c t l y arrangements the and t h e i r (ref.

individual the

P o s s i b l e power network

connections to 39).

power g r i d a r e d i s c u s s e d i n r e c e i v e r s connected to particular importance. in

literature

Among t h e motors are o f

the power n e t w o r k ,

asynchronous

electric

The c o n v e r s i o n o f e l e c t r i c a l is a c c o m p a n i e d by

into alternating the

mechanical

energy taking place of the a c t i v e

these motors

magnetization current

iron.

With the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c U S ) , the e l e c t r i c a l

frequency of

(50 Hz i n

E u r o p e , 60 Hz i n

energy is

consumed and As a result, work

recovered corresponding to magnetization in addition to the flow of electrical

and c o u n t e r - m a g n e t i z a t i o n .

power b e i n g c o n v e r t e d i n t o mechanical energy is oscillating between the are

(called effective

power N ^ ) , m a g n e t i z a t i o n This implies that

s o u r c e and t h e m o t o r s . carrying power,

the conductors o f power i s to

power c a b l e s called the

some a d d i t i o n a l

current;

the a d d i t i o n a l equal

reactive

N^. The a c t u a l

load o f the source is

the geometric

sum o f phenomenon

effective is

a p p a r e n t power N^. T h i s a u s u a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e s o - c a l l e d power f a c t o r

and r e a c t i v e p o w e r , a l s o c a l l e d

the

c o s = Ng/Ng^ where i s t h e phase l a g between t h e e f f e c t i v e p o w e r and t h e a p p a r e n t

(1.7) power. at

Generally, each i n s t a n t ,

each power r e c e i v e r i n a power network by a s p e c i f i c t h e most power f a c t o r . motors

c a n be c h a r a c t e r i z e d ,

For three-phase asynchronous motors, for sugar f a c t o r i e s , the power 1.22, is factor

w h i c h a r e by f a r is a function

important

o f m o t o r d e s i g n , p o w e r r a t i n g and l o a d f a c t o r . between t h e power f a c t o r ,

In F i g .

a typical shown f o r 28).

relationship

p o w e r r a t i n g and l o a d f a c t o r at 50 Hz (ref. in

enclosed-type, 4-pole the

motors

o f J a p a n e s e make w o r k i n g from the motor rating is

As can be s e e n , cos .

load deviation

decisive

reducing

The a v e r a g e d power f a c t o r s generator. In a f a c t o r y

of

the

receivers define

the power f a c t o r to

of

the it.

i n w h i c h no s p e c i a l

measures a r e t a k e n

improve

39

0.25

0.5 Load factor

0.75

1.0

F i g . 1.22. Power f a c t o r 50 Hz ( a f t e r r e f . 2 8 ) . cos i s effective turbine. to usually in the

of enclosed-type, 4-pole

induction

motors

operated

at

range 0.65-0.70. is

L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t t h e by the mechanical

maximum output of the

power o f t h e g e n e r a t o r The e l e c t r i c

determined of

dimensioning is, the

the generator must, output divided in

h o w e v e r , be by t h e the

adapted factor. may

the apparent

power, t h a t factory, the

turbine

power

I n an e x i s t i n g

reactive

power o s c i l l a t i n g level for

power network and

cause the apparent distributing sufficiently prevent this

power t o is

exceed the

which the generating output is

equipment large to

dimensioned, even i f System w i t h of

the t u r b i n e

supply the the

effective

power.

In o r d e r

to by

situation,

power f a c t o r

t h e g e n e r a t o r can be m o d i f i e d The c a p a c i t o r s the

generating either to

reactive

power i n

power c a p a c i t o r s . the

c a n be c o n n e c t e d local switchboards indicated loaded

t h e main s w i t c h b o a r d o f

power h o u s e , o r t o

where r e c e i v e r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r above,

a low power f a c t o r

a r e c o n n e c t e d . As ones

these r e c e i v e r s are asynchronous motors nominal outputs. case o f improperly

and p a r t i c u l a r l y

below t h e i r

Disregarding the

dimensioned motors,

it

can t h u s

be

c o n c l u d e d t h a t when a t t e m p t i n g t o m a x i m i z e t h e taken of: drives during most o f flow their

power f a c t o r ,

c a r e s h o u l d be

batch c e n t r i f u g a l drives of

working

cycle, during the

pumps and f a n s reduced flow.

employing

control

by t h r o t t l i n g

periods of

L e t us n o t e t h a t

the power f a c t o r s

o f the motors

m e n t i o n e d may v a r y as reactive of power

their

l o a d s a r e c h a n g e d , and i t in the c a p a c i t o r s motors

may be n e c e s s a r y t o However, i f

v a r y the

generated large it may

accordingly. for

the operation total

a group o f

can be c o n t r o l l e d

nearly constant

power c o n s u m p t i o n ,

40

a l s o become e a s i e r t o This principle 1.4.3). is

control in

the o v e r a l l

r e a c t i v e power o f t h e e n t i r e o f batch c e n t r i f u g a l

group. (see

applied

the group c o n t r o l

drives

Section 1.4.3

S h a p i n g t h e p o w e r demand p o w e r demand o f c o n t e m p o r a r y s u g a r f a c t o r i e s It is interesting to note the is usually of of the the

The s p e c i f i c o r d e r 2-4

kWh p e r 100 kg b e e t .

influence implies

economy o f s c a l e , namely a l a r g e r p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y p o w e r demand p e r u n i t represents mass o f beets processed. In F i g .

usually 1.23,

a lower line

the continuous

S o v i e t d a t a on t h e s o - c a l l e d b a s i c p o w e r demand ( e x c l u d i n g p o w e r o f w h i t e - s u g a r manufacture p e r day ( r e f . 40). power factories The in

consumed i n p u l p d r y i n g and w a s t e - w a t e r t r e a t m e n t ) factories discrete with processing capabilities points up t o

9000 t o n s

i n the diagram r e p r e s e n t s t a t i s t i c a l pulp d r y i n g , in

d a t a on o v e r a l l

consumption, during the

including

a f e w West E u r o p e a n w h i t e - s u g a r in p r o c e s s e s and equipment

1985

s e a s o n ; owing to d i f f e r e n c e s t h e economy o f

employed, the

influence of

scale is

not apparent from these

data.

3.2 3.0

o o
JZ

2.8 2.6 2.4

TD C

2.2 2.0 1.8 3 4 5 6 7

Processing capability (1000 t / d )

F i g . 1 . 2 3 . S p e c i f i c p o w e r demand as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y . T h e l i n e i n d i c a t e s S o v i e t d a t a on w h i t e - s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r e , and t h e p o i n t s s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on 5 West E u r o p e a n f a c t o r i e s . The c o n t r i b u t i o n s vary, drives od v a r i o u s f a c t o r y conditions. sections to the o v e r a l l p o w e r demand may

d e p e n d i n g on l o c a l

F o r e x a m p l e , t h e e n e r g y consumed b y pump between p i e c e s o f equipment approximate located along

d e p e n d s on h e i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s routes o f a l i q u i d .

the t r a n s p o r t a typical with

The f o l l o w i n g

indices

describe in factories

structure

o f t h e p o w e r demand o f w h i t e - s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r e of 4000-6000 t o n s per day:

processing capabilities

41

extraction

station

10-12%, and j u i c e transport 20-25%,

- juice -

purification

s u g a r h o u s e 14-20%, lime k i l n , milk-of-lime preparation and k i l n - g a s pumping 12-16%,

o t h e r p u r p o s e s 36-43%. At the present s t a t e o f development o f power networks and t h e i r equipment, energy

various economy. (i) (ii)

t e c h n i q u e s c a n be u s e d t o m o d i f y F o u r a p p r o a c h e s c a n be e m p l o y e d . of alternative

t h e p o w e r demand t o w a r d s b e t t e r

Introduction

p r o c e s s e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a l o w e r p o w e r demand. efficiency of power

Application of

new e q u i p m e n t c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a b e t t e r

utilization. (iii) Application of alternative control methods a t the local (equipm.ent) level,

preventing the particularly (iv)

losses o f energy d e l i v e r e d to e l e c t r i c a l l y load. methods a t

driven

equipment,

under v a r i a b l e of

Introduction

new c o n t r o l influence of

the subsystem o r system l e v e l , of p o w e r demand. to

making i t

possible to

the time v a r i a t i o n s alternative to

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s factory, factory

introducing

processes v a r y from f a c t o r y connection transport,

d e p e n d i n g on t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s

invest, usually in

with

e x t e n s i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , h y d r a u l i c b e e t u n l o a d i n g and that a b o u t 3 m^ w a t e r p e r 1 t beet r e c e i v e d i s

requiring intensive factories per

pumped, i s

more e n e r g y -

than d r y unloading

and t r a n s p o r t .

Power s a v i n g s r e p o r t e d from F r e n c h are o f t h e o r d e r o f 0.3 kWh

w h e r e t h e d r y method has been i m p l e m e n t e d (ref. 41). Different methods o f dirt

100 kg b e e t with

s e p a r a t i o n , h o w e v e r , may

differ

respect to too

t h e power c o n s u m p t i o n . a t t e n t i o n was p a i d t o t h e p o w e r demands o f various

In the p a s t , processes.

little is

Now t h i s

beginning to

c h a n g e , as has been i n d i c a t e d

b y some r e c e n t

publications is studied

i n which the 42,43).

i n f l u e n c e o f process parameters The e n e r g y i n t e n s i t y of

on t h e e n e r g y demand additionally

(refs.

new p r o c e s s e s i s

discussed in

Chapter 4. equipment, the o p e r a t i o n o f batch centrifugal F o r economic today the

As r e g a r d s t h e e l e c t r i c a l d r i v e s which are the cause o f reasons, a trend

l o a d peaks i s

particularly

important.

has been e s t a b l i s h e d t o w a r d s

l a r g e - c a p a c i t y machines, inertia of rotors in

r e a c h i n g 1000-1700 kg p e r c h a r g e . T h e moments o f l a r g e s t machines a r e o f rotors cycles to t y p i c a l

t h e o r d e r 1000-1400 kg m . velocities of

In o r d e r to

a c c e l e r a t e such working Every

rotational

1000-1500 rpm i n of

a b o u t 20

p e r h o u r , motors

r e a c h i n g a power l e v e l the c e n t r i f u g i n g

250-300 kW a r e r e q u i r e d .

acceleration section of

c y c l e causes a l a r g e temporary the possibility of returning

load, to

while every deceleration section allows the e l e c t r i c a l drive thus subsystem o f the f a c t o r y . in time-varying

power

The o p e r a t i o n o f and r e a c t i v e

batch-centrifugal loads. It is therefore

results

effective

42

essential individual of several

that during

the operation o f

a group o f

centrifugals,

the

cycles

of

machines a r e c o o r d i n a t e d units. of batch c e n t r i f u g a l s operation is load

in order to

avoid simultaneous

acceleration

The c o n t r o l

according at

to

this local

principle

constitutes or

an e x a m p l e o f e q u i p m e n t station) level. This

control

the

(equipment g r o u p , large

solution

particularly variations.

useful

for

power r e c e i v e r s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s u b s t a n t i a l In the potential machines

contemporary sugar i n d u s t r y , is

perhaps the

largest

power-saving On a v e r a g e , t h e s e in pumps flow

associated w i t h the d r i v e s o f a b o u t 60% o f the

pumps and f a n s . the e l e c t r i c a l

are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

e n e r g y consumed o f media, the

a sugar f a c t o r y .

Dimensioned f o r

largest

possible flows

and f a n s a r e c o n t r o l l e d

u s i n g methods w h i c h This is

induce energy l o s s e s , that in causing

is,

by-passing or t h r o t t l i n g . specific its

a decisive factor factory's

increased falls control in below

p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n when t h e level (Fig. 1.24).

processing capability systems, older which i s

nominal

W i t h modern d r i v i n g variable

methods

can be r e p l a c e d b y t h e

speed c o n t r o l

discussed

C h a p t e r 6.

T y p i c a l savings are o f methods.

the o r d e r o f

20-40% o f t h e e n e r g y consumed

when u s i n g t h e o r i g i n a l

o o " i 1.6 1.^

o o

i r '^

o-

1.0

50 Average

60

70

80

90

100

to n o m i n a l d a i l y c a p a b i l i t y ( % )

F i g . 1.24. R a t i o o f a c t u a l t o n o m i n a l s p e c i f i c the u t i l i z a t i o n o f processing c a p a b i l i t y . At the factory in l e v e l , a time-varying total

p o w e r demand as a f u n c t i o n

of

p o w e r demand may c a u s e Load p e a k s e x c e e d i n g without the

difficulties generating

securing a reliable of

power s u p p l y .

capability

the e l e c t r i c a l grid.

s u b s y s t e m c a n n o t be met

s u p p l y i n g power from t h e e x t e r n a l purchases, or i f no e l e c t r i c i t y

In o r d e r to avoid unnecessary energy from o u t s i d e the factory certain are available,

supplies

s u c h peaks must be e l i m i n a t e d receivers. for it normal This

by t e m p o r a r i l y

disconnecting total

power required

c a n be done w i t h o u t operation, maximum. that

reducing the is,

e n e r g y amount

factory

by c o n t r o l l i n g

t h e p o w e r demand o n l y when

approaches i t s

43

The p o w e r r e c e i v e r s t o damage t o treatment electric normal plants, factory air

be d i s c o n n e c t e d a r e s e l e c t e d s o as n o t operation. T y p i c a l l y , these are aerators systems o f s u g a r and p e l l e t

to of

cause any waste-water and

conditioning

silos,

room h e a t e r s . of t h e maximum p o w e r demand c a n be equipment is effective used. The

Experience proves t h a t control only if automated load-monitoring equipment

and l o a d - d i s c o n n e c t i n g

necessary e l e c t r o n i c application measuring capacity. is

c a n be r a t h e r the

i n e x p e n s i v e , as p r o v e d b y (refs. 45,46). it The system is

examples p r e s e n t e d i n instantaneous a predetermined

literature

the If

p o w e r demand and c o m p a r i n g critical difference

with the

generating quantities load

b e t w e e n t h e s e two

approached, then a group o f the system o p e r a t i o n of is

receivers is

disconnected.

In a broader for the

range,

usually semi-automatic, and i t may a l s o

allowing

intervention signalling an o p t i o n ,

human o p e r a t o r s ,

incorporate

trend

monitoring, etc. As of

of critical

situations, the

printing of

procotols

and r e p o r t s ,

the monitoring o f to

reactive

p o w e r and t h e a u t o m a t i c c a n a l s o be

control

t h e power c a p a c i t o r s 1.5 1.5.1 The

improve the

power f a c t o r

included.

I N T E R A C T I O N BETWEEN POWER GENERATION AND HEAT ECONOMY Energy p o l i c y task of considerations the primary

t h e p o w e r h o u s e c a n be u n d e r s t o o d as t r a n s f o r m i n g the heat factory input this is into the necessary net heat input

energy supplied to input P'. The n e t

Q2 and p o w e r of steam following. state at

often

e x p r e s s e d as t h e mass f l o w be c a l l e d s t e a m demand i n that is,

required to Assuming t h e tg can D'

carry i t ;

flow w i l l

the

s o - c a l l e d normal

steam p a r a m e t e r s , r^

dry saturation

= l O O ^ C and s p e c i f i c be d e f i n e d = Q2/r3 as

heat o f evaporation

= 2256.9 k J / k g , t h e

s t e a m demand

(1.8) to some e x t e n t normal It to fuel similar (heating to the use o f the w i d e l y in known

The a b o v e c o n v e n t i o n i s concept o f

t h e demand f o r primary

v a l u e 29 300 k J / k g ) in the

expressing the

t h e demand f o r

energy. applies

s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t a predicted

present book, If

t e r m "demand" u s u a l l y in an e x i s t i n g

or calculated will

quantity. be

measured

factory,

the corresponding q u a n t i t y

rather

called

"consumption". The most w i d e l y rely a p p l i e d method o f supplying the necessary energy inputs in a steam c y c l e in is to

on c o m b i n e d g e n e r a t i o n o f

h e a t and e l e c t r i c i t y

equipped 1.25 being

with a boiler (refs.

and a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e ,

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y for

Fig. method

38,46,47).

N e v e r t h e l e s s , the economic c o n d i t i o n s countries

this

workable different

v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y between d i f f e r e n t factory locations. perspective, there is

and e v e n b e t w e e n

Taking a global

no d o u b t t h a t

combined g e n e r a t i o n saves

44

steam \fuel /100%|

lossf 10%

' loss 1.1% heat ^ 76 % power 13.4%

fuel condensate

air 0.5%

F i g . 1.25. E n e r g y s y s t e m l a y o u t and S a n k e y d i a g r a m ( l i v e s t e a m 80 b a r and 520 C , b a c k - p r e s s u r e 3 b a r ) f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a b a c k - p r e s s u r e steam t u r b i n e . 1 - b o i l e r , 2 - turbine, 3 - process. primary e n e r g y and r e d u c e s a i r be o b t a i n e d , a thermal pollution. Where h e a t i n g is n e c e s s a r y , power can about h a l f as

additionally much f u e l

using t h i s power p l a n t

method, a t

the expense o f condensing

as i n

equipped with flue gas i s

turbo-generators. the

T h i s means a l s o t h a t h a l f atmosphere. After the bitter

as much b o i l e r

discharged to

lessons o f

the

1970s,

many c o u n t r i e s to their

now r e c o g n i z e and

the long-

industrial

p o w e r h o u s e s as b e i n g in this field.

important

energy p o l i c i e s

term p l a n n i n g

D e p e n d i n g on t h e e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n try to cope w i t h w o r l d market

and

available by prices, power of

energy r e s o u r c e s , governments influencing, power p r i c e , directly

developments the fuel

or indirectly cost.

( e . g . by t a x

regulations), thus

and c a p i t a l

The economic c o n d i t i o n s

created for

h o u s e o p e r a t i o n may v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y , as c a n be d e m o n s t r a t e d electricity USA. In the purchases i n two i m p o r t a n t situation is beet-sugar producing that

by t h e examples be

countries

USSR and

USA, a t y p i c a l

steam s a v i n g s s h o u l d n o t b a l a n c e , as full purchased

compromised t o electricity is

keep t h e e l e c t r i c i t y cheaper than Contrary to

and s t e a m i n

power g e n e r a t i o n w i t h o u t that, it may be j u s t i f i e d

utilization USSR t o

of

the

exhaust steam. electricity (refs.

in the

generate

with

some steam b l o w - o f f

e v e n u n d e r normal

operating

conditions

48,49). fuel prices stimulate countries, oil an i n t e r e s t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h has become of fuels to

Fluctuating visible in

fuel-importing

namely t h e d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n w h i c h was d o m i n a n t countries

eliminate

t h e d e p e n d e n c e on f u e l

before the o i l where the energy sugar

crises.

F r a n c e and Sweden c a n be named as e x a m p l e s o f industries reduced the percentage o f a b o u t 50%. fuel oil

in the t o t a l the

consumption natural other for fuel

f r o m more t h a n 95% t o gas

In both c o u n t r i e s , 1985.

percentage o f in

was c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d a b o u t like Denmark,

In the sugar i n d u s t r i e s coal

countries, oil was As

use o f b i t u m i n o u s

as t h e main s u b s t i t u t e

preferred. which are factors usually s h o u l d be

r e g a r d s t h e d e c i s i o n s on p o w e r h o u s e i n v e s t m e n t , large capital e x p e n d i t u r e s , the

associated with considered:

following

45

the p o s s i b i l i t y

of

p u r c h a s i n g power from t h e e x t e r n a l of selling power t o the grid,

grid, grid

reliability,

and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y fuel the price, ratio of cost, fuel

price

t o power p r i c e ,

capital if

applicable,

the p r i c e o f

power s o l d t o

the

grid. long, there of

As t h e p a y - b a c k p e r i o d s o f p o w e r h o u s e i n v e s t m e n t s may be r e l a t i v e l y is the risk of future fluctuations o f t h e above f a c t o r s there is

a f f e c t i n g t h e outcome in

i n v e s t m e n t d e c i s i o n s . As a r e s u l t , alternative the e x i s t i n g 1.5.2 technologies for steam cycles.

an i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t

h e a t and p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n t o

replace or

supplement

S o l u t i o n s b a s e d on c o n n e c t i o n t o is to

a power

grid use o f fuels and r e l y on solution cane 50). adopting four the if

A seemingly e x o t i c a l t e r n a t i v e external

avoid the

g r i d as t h e o n l y s o u r c e o f e n e r g y . T h i s available,

c a n be an o p t i m a l

cheap h y d r o e l e c t r i c power i s sugar f a c t o r y

as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y a B r a z i l i a n to g e n e r a t e steam (ref. in

using e l e c t r i c a l l y

heated b o i l e r s

The a v a i l a b i l i t y the e x t e r n a l

o f h y d r o e l e c t r i c power a l s o p l a y e d a d e c i s i v e r o l e in the Aarberg f a c t o r y in

grid alternative 51,52).

Switzerland nearly vapour

d e c a d e s ago ( r e f .

A s o p h i s t i c a t e d thermal in order to

system employing energy sell

c o m p r e s s i o n was a p p l i e d t h e r e in sugar manufacture, drying.

achieve e f f i c i e n t

utilization

and s p e c i a l

a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e made t o

pressed pulp

without

F o l l o w i n g the changes i n

S w i t z e r l a n d ' s energy balance, however, future power s u p p l i e s from

i n v e s t m e n t s w e r e made i n t h e e a r l y a dedicated generating unit.

1970s p r e p a r i n g

As h y d r o e l e c t r i c p o w e r i s

now c o v e r i n g a b o u t 60% o f has power

t h e c o u n t r y ' s e n e r g y d e m a n d s , a steam c y c l e w i t h a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e been p u t into operation the factory. advantages o f the combined g e n e r a t i o n o f solutions heat in Aarberg (ref. 53) to supply nearly half of the

consumed i n In s p i t e electricity,

o f the global local

and steam

e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s may j u s t i f y

consisting of

generation in If the g r i d

low-pressure boilers is

and p o w e r p u r c h a s e s f r o m t h e e x t e r n a l high, this solution is fully

grid.

reliability the ratio

sufficiently

flexible on this

with

regard to

b e t w e e n h e a t and p o w e r c o n s u m e d . is advisable to

When r e l y i n g to

alternative

today, however, i t

keep o p e n t h e o p t i o n

apply

combined g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e R e t u r n i n g now t o cycle, let

future. of power-generating units is just b a s e d on t h e steam

the a p p l i c a t i o n

us o b s e r v e t h a t

a back-pressure turbine ratio

a special

case o f to power

a steam t u r b i n e . demand P' A = D'/P' (kW)

I f we d e f i n e A as t h e

o f s t e a m demand D'

(kg/h)

(1.9) is u s u a l l y the best choice. F o r A<10,

then f o r A>10, a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e

46

a condensing/extraction turbine alternative. It assumes t h e

( F i g . 1.26)

s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as a s e r i o u s steam i n s t e a d o f e x h a u s t steam f l o w i n g t o is steam

use o f e x t r a c t i o n while the remaining

from a b a c k - p r e s s u r e u n i t , generates

the condenser c a n a l s o be grid.

some e x t r a p o w e r . A l t h o u g h t h i s the o f f - s e a s o n period i f attractive

solution

expensive, it

operated during This seems t o

p o w e r c a n be s o l d t o to industrial

the e x t e r n a l

be p a r t i c u l a r l y is only a part,

combines o f w h i c h

the the and

sugar f a c t o r y off-season Soviet

and w h e r e h e a t and p o w e r a r e n e e d e d d u r i n g solution c a n be f o u n d i n

period.

Examples o f t h i s as w e l l

the Bulgarian in

sugar i n d u s t r i e s ,

as i n

cane s u g a r f a c t o r i e s (refs. 54-56).

r e g i o n s where

power s u p p l i e s t o

the g r i d are r e q u i r e d

steam 1 L

1
fuel

til-

its

k'.

condensate

F i g . 1.26. E n e r g y s y s t e m l a y o u t f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a c o n d e n s i n g / e x t r a c t i o n turbine. 1 - b o i l e r , 2 - t u r b i n e , 3 - process, 4 - condenser. 1.5.3 Solutions b a s e d on a b a c k - p r e s s u r e equipped w i t h turbine own p o w e r h o u s e , a m i s m a t c h problem output steam

In a sugar f a c t o r y between t h e

p o w e r demand and p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n may o c c u r . T h e e l e c t r i c a l of

o f a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r c a n be e x p r e s s e d as a f u n c t i o n flow D = D/S where S i s t h e steam r a t e , the i.e. t h e steam c o n s u m p t i o n p e r u n i t

(1.10) power p r o d u c e d

(kg/kWh), of

turbo-generator. processing capability o f the factory

D i v i d i n g t h e above e q u a t i o n by t h e d a i l y R, we obtain

P/R = ( D / R ) / S A s s u m i n g a c o n s t a n t steam r a t e , Fig. p' 1.27. this is a linear relationship illustrated indices

(1.11) in

L e t us now e x p r e s s t h e f a c t o r y ' s

e n e r g y demand b y two

= P ' / R and d ' daily

= D ' / R r e p r e s e n t i n g p o w e r demand and steam d e m a n d , r e s p e c t i v e l y , Two d i f f e r e n t situations can be i m a g i n e d f o r S: a back-

per u n i t

capability.

pressure turbo-generator (i) P' < d'/S

c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y steam r a t e

T h i s means t h a t t h e s t e a m f l o w

covering the

factory's

h e a t demand

is

47

60

bar/500C/ 40 b a r 7 420 C

10

20

30

40

50

60

Steam d e m a n d

(kg/IOOkgb)

F i g . 1.27. Power g e n e r a t e d as a f u n c t i o n -pressure turbine. sufficiently likely (ii) P' to large to

of

the

steam f l o w

through a

back-

g e n e r a t e p o w e r n e e d e d (d-j with respect to

in

Fig.

1.27).

The f a c t o r y

is

be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t

power g e n e r a t i o n ,

> d'/S covering the Fig. factory's h e a t demand i s too with small to satisfy power the

T h e steam f l o w

p o w e r demand ( d ^ i n generation Case grid (i) is is

1 . 2 7 ) , and s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y or very d i f f i c u l t If live to

respect to

impossible

achieve. sales to the to by-passing described external

a favourable situation. of the

no e l e c t r i c i t y

are p o s s i b l e , then a p a r t

s t e a m s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d the it

a throttling-desuperheating the t u r b i n e . in the Case This is

station

and s u p p l i e d t o used s o l u t i o n ;

p r o c e s s , thus is extensively

t h e most w i d e l y 39). a critical

literature (ii)

(ref.

necessitates aimed a t

review o f the the

structure

of

the in

p o w e r demand, Section

and a c t i o n s 1.4.3. If

s a v i n g power u s i n g improvements

techniques mentioned then it

no m e a n i n g f u l

c a n be a t t a i n e d ,

becomes n e c e s s a r y possible solutions

to modify

the power house c o n c e p t assumed. T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l b a c k - p r e s s u r e steam c y c l e r e m a i n s purchases from the e x t e r n a l turbine exhaust to thus grid dominant: to cover the air

in which the electricity

deficit; supplied to through the the

u s i n g steam from t h e

heat combustion the

boilers turbine; -

or pulp-dryer furnace,

increasing

steam f l o w

installing Fig.

a new b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e this is interpreted

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l o w e r s t e a m the turbine

rate

(in

1.27,

as m o v i n g t o

characteristics

shown b y t h e d a s h e d installing

line), generating steam a t a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e and an 1.28(a)), and s u p p l y i n g steam

a new b o i l e r

additional

"topping"

back-pressure turbine

(Fig.

48

()

(b)

fuel steam

3
fuel

steam

H3
condensate

fuel condensate

F i g . 1.28. E n e r g y s y s t e m l a y o u t s f o r t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f c o n v e n t i o n a l b a c k - p r e s s u r e steam c y c l e s : ( a ) w i t h a t o p p i n g t u r b i n e , ( b ) w i t h a c o n d e n s i n g turbine. 1 - b o i l e r , 2 - t u r b i n e , 3 - process, 4 - condenser, 5 - topping t u r b i n e , 6 - condensing t u r b i n e . from the exhaust o f installing the "topping" turbine to the e x i s t i n g turbine; a part of the

an a d d i t i o n a l (Fig.

condensing t u r b i n e 1.28(b));

t o be s u p p l i e d w i t h

e x h a u s t steam f l o w in

cases where a thermal (e.g. a district turbine (ref.

c o n n e c t i o n between t h e heating 57). system) is

factory

and an e x t e r n a l

heat

receiver

possible, applying

a back-pressure/

/extraction

The complementing attractive, fuel price. providing This

power purchases from the e x t e r n a l the power p r i c e is widely grid, the is sufficiently

grid low i n

are

economically to the to the the

relation

solution

used nowadays; v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f including literature technical (ref. details

cooperation with power n e t w o r k , Interesting differentiated

the e x t e r n a l

related

are discussed in developments

39). power t a r i f f s are

c a n be s e e n i n

F r a n c e , where the

d e p e n d i n g on t h e

time o f y e a r , the p r i c e s December. T h i s electric

rising

i n O c t o b e r and in

November and r e a c h i n g a maximum i n the initial stage o f the

stimulates

power purchases is preferred the

season, while

self-sufficiency

later

on. T h e r e f o r e , time-dependent is

operation

o f the energy systems i n (ref. 13).

sugar

industry initial

p r o p o s e d s o t h a t t h e p o w e r demand c a n v a r y t h e s e a s o n p o w e r c a n be p u r c h a s e d t o making i t p o s s i b l e to minimize

During

the

weeks o f

operate advanced v a p o u r the steam demand and thus fuel

compression c i r c u i t s , a l s o the fuel

consumption.

L a t e r o n , no p o w e r w i l l increase.

be p u r c h a s e d , and t h e

consumption w i l l

be a l l o w e d t o

The second s o l u t i o n boiler and t u r b i n e It

from the above l i s t

c a n be a p p l i e d o n l y allow for

if

the

installed

capacities

a r e l a r g e enough t o steam-heated air

a steam

flow energy The thus

increase. of

requires

installing

preheaters to

i n which the air.

t h e c o n d e n s i n g e x h a u s t steam can be t r a n s f e r r e d range o v e r which a i r preheating

the combustion is

temperature

must be c o n t a i n e d

limited,

49

l i m i t i n g the a t t a i n a b l e boilers only,

steam-flow

i n c r e a s e . Where a i r

preheating

applies

to

the

t h e p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n can be i n c r e a s e d b y a b o u t 7-8%. the case o f preheating (ref.

An a n a l y s i s directed to

o f relevant energy balances, including

of air 58).

t h e p u l p - d r y e r f u r n a c e , c a n be f o u n d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e The t h i r d s o l u t i o n , i.e. a back-pressure turbine

w i t h an i m p r o v e d steam o f the live

rate, are

can o n l y be a p p l i e d p r o v i d i n g i n c r e a s e d , which a l s o r e q u i r e s a diagram i n d i c a t i n g produced to the steam p r e s s u r e turbines rate input

t h e p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e i n s t a l l i n g a new b o i l e r . and t h e ratio

steam

F i g u r e 1.29

shows energy of liveof steam

t h e steam r a t e ,

o f the e l e c t r i c a l

o f primary energy in fuel

d e l i v e r e d , as f u n c t i o n s

( t h e r e may be some s c a t t e r

i n the data because the q u a l i t y may v a r y ) . live-steam L e t us n o t e t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e and

s u p p l i e d by v a r i o u s m a n u f a c t u r e r s

can be r e d u c e d n o t o n l y b y i n c r e a s i n g the reheat c y c l e .

temperature live-

b u t a l s o by a p p l y i n g steam p a r a m e t e r s estimated

For a proposed u n i t

operated at

80 b a r and 5 0 0 ^ 0 , w i t h r e h e a t a t is 5.5 kg/kWh (ref. 59).

30 b a r and 4 5 0 ^ 0 , an

steam r a t e

The r e m a i n i n g relatively

c o n c e p t s named a t

t h e end o f t h e a b o v e l i s t ,

requiring factory

complex power house l a y o u t s , might problems. turbine It

be c o n s i d e r e d when s o l v i n g

extension or modernization conditions that a topping

has been p r o v e d u n d e r s p e c i f i c steam p a r a m e t e r s

economic

operated at

100 b a r and 540C, economically

h a v i n g t h e a d v a n t a g e o f l a r g e r p o w e r p r o d u c t i o n , may be a t e q u i v a l e n t t o an a d d i t i o n a l and 440C ( r e f . typical solution 60). back-pressure turbine

least

s u p p l i e d w i t h steam a t 40 b a r this is a the

As r e g a r d s an a d d i t i o n a l

condensing t u r b i n e , bagasse i s 61,62).

i n cane s u g a r f a c t o r i e s is sold to

in which a l l grid

b u r n e d , and

electricity

surplus

the e x t e r n a l

(refs.

15
SI

520 C 500

1 14

\ \
x\ V

D
L-

- 12

0;
>
c.t:

>%

X40C

\
' ^

o
>>

o o
LH

400 c / '360C

cnS 10 ^ C

LL
8

20

40 Pressure

60 (bar)

80

F i g . 1.29. Steam r a t e , and p e r c e n t a g e o f f u e l e n e r g y c o n v e r t e d t o as f u n c t i o n s o f l i v e steam p a r a m e t e r s a t b a c k - p r e s s u r e 3 b a r .

electricity,

50

It

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t

t h a t a new b o i l e r - t u r b i n e boiler-turbine

unit

operated at large

increased

steam p a r a m e t e r s , investments, avoid t h i s , alternative the rigid

o r an a d d i t i o n a l

unit,

require

including alternative solutions

c o s t l y foundations

and p e r h a p s b u i l d i n g s .

In o r d e r

to

p o w e r - g e n e r a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s may be c o n s i d e r e d . T h e c o s t s , and eliminate is

a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l o w e r i n v e s t m e n t between t h e steam f l o w steam cycle. solutions is to

relationship o f the

and t h e p o w e r g e n e r a t e d t h a t

characteristic 1.5.4

Combustion-engine based

A c o n c e p t w h i c h has r e c e i v e d much a t t e n t i o n generating s e t s , which are a v a i l a b l e

apply gas-turbine up t o

driven

t o d a y w i t h power r a t i n g s

100 MW. A t limits

the present s t a t e the choice o f

o f development o f g a s - t u r b i n e to liquid o r gaseous t y p e s .

technology, however, t h i s

fuels set to

A gas-turbine atmospheric the is fuel is air

includes

a compressor r a i s i n g b a r and d e l i v e r i n g it

the to

pressure of a combustion

the chamber w h e r e which

a b o u t 3-5

b u r n e d . Hot combustion gases s u b s e q u e n t l y expand i n mounted on t h e same s h a f t as t h e c o m p r e s s o r . T h e is

a turbine, rotational

typically

v e l o c i t y may be as h i g h as 10 000 r p m , s o t h e r e between t h e pressure in is typically

usually a reducing generator.

gearbox

t u r b i n e - c o m p r e s s o r s e t and t h e e l e c t r i c a l the turbine exhaust equals atmospheric

T h e gas temperature typical two g a s -

p r e s s u r e , and t h e s e t and a of

a b o u t 4 3 0 - 5 5 0 C . T h e scheme o f a g a s t u r b i n e Fig. 1.30. The w e i g h t s

Sankey d i a g r a m a r e shown i n turbine driven

and d i m e n s i o n s Fig.

continuous-duty generating

sets are given in

1.31.

fuel

heat 70.6%

-
Qir I exhaust gas compressor w o r k 38.3%

IV p o w e r ^ 275%

F i g . 1.30. W o r k i n g p r i n c i p l e o f a g a s - t u r b i n e s e t and a c o r r e s p o n d i n g S a n k e y diagram. 1 - compressor, 2 - combustion chamber, 3 - t u r b i n e . An e a r l y i d e a was t o c o n n e c t t h e gas t u r b i n e the turbine in Fig. to a low-pressure b o i l e r , in

which the energy o f gases l e a v i n g heating of

e x h a u s t c a n be u s e d t o 1.32(a) (ref. 63).

generate point at

s t e a m , as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y

From t h e

v i e w o f t h e e n e r g y economy, t h i s

solution

ensures the

largest

power o u t p u t low

a g i v e n h e a t demand. H o w e v e r , a b o i l e r initial temperature is so c o s t l y

heated by gases a t

a relatively m i g h t be

t h a t t h e economic r e s u l t

questionable.

51

()

(b)

-c
7m

1?
15m

F i g . 1.31. E x a m p l e s o f g a s - t u r b i n e d r i v e n g e n e r a t i n g s e t s , ( a ) r a t i n g 2.5 MW, w e i g h t 18 t , ( b ) 6 . 2 MW, 60 t . 1 - a i r i n l e t , 2 - gas o u t l e t , 3 - g e n e r a t o r .

(a)

I fuel I

(b)

I fuel I

0-

1
gas

gas

power 275%

heaf 41.6%

power 275%

heat 61.7%

power 20.0%

"heat 69.4%

F i g . 1 . 3 2 . E n e r g y s y s t e m l a y o u t s and o f gas t u r b i n e s , ( a ) i n c o n n e c t i o n t o c o n n e c t i o n t o a p u l p d r y e r , ( c ) as a b o i l e r , 3 - process, 4 - pulp d r y e r ,

t y p i c a l Sankey diagrams f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n a l o w - p r e s s u r e steam b o i l e r , ( b ) i n t o p p i n g u n i t . 1 - gas t u r b i n e , 2 - steam 5 - steam t u r b i n e .

52

A more a t t r a c t i v e exhaust d i r e c t l y A prototype to

solution

consists of

s u p p l y i n g the gases from the in Fig. at 1.32(b) kW i s (refs.

turbine 64-67). in to

pulp d r y i n g , with

as i l l u s t r a t e d

installation (ref. to

a gas t u r b i n e

rated

1200

operated

a French f a c t o r y 22% DS i s identical about 1.9 dried to

41).

Assuming t h a t t h e

total

amount o f

pulp is the

pressed

90% D S , and t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f t h e shown i n Fig. 1.30,

turbine

essentially rate of

that

p o w e r c a n be g e n e r a t e d a t

kWh p e r 100 kg

beet. attractive concept is b a s e d on the supplied in

T h e most a d v a n c e d and e c o n o m i c a l l y application to o f a topping gas-turbine its

from which the e x h a u s t gases are own f u r n a c e , fuel in

a steam b o i l e r 1.32(c).

equipped with

as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y furnace, the

Fig. of

By b u r n i n g

additional

the b o i l e r

temperature be made

t h e g a s e s c a n be r a i s e d , w h i c h a l l o w s a conventional boiler

the heat

transfer

surfaces to

as compact as i n

and t h u s

no more c o s t l y .

The g a s - t u r b i n e a conventional in is a that fullthe

s e t and t h e s t e a m - t u r b i n e steam c y c l e . scale

set together feature in the of

g e n e r a t e more p o w e r t h a n this solution, industry

An i n t e r e s t i n g application

demonstrated (ref. boiler 69),

industrial

chemical

topping

gas-turbine

c a n be c o n n e c t e d t o

a conventional

after

modestly

expensive b o i l e r

modifications. of the three variants cost. d e s c r i b e d d e p e n d s on economic large fuel

The economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n and e l e c t r i c i t y

p r i c e s , as w e l l

as c a p i t a l

In s p e c i a l

conditions, power topping

namely h i g h power p r i c e , demand d u r i n g Diesel

low D i e s e l - o i l

p r i c e and a r e l a t i v e l y might be p r a c t i c a l to

the o f f - s e a s o n p e r i o d , i t

consider a a pulp

engine connected to an a u x i l i a r y

a b a c k - p r e s s u r e steam c y c l e , furnace (refs. 70,71).

or to

dryer period,

equipped with

During the off-season only. the

t h e e n g i n e c a n be o p e r a t e d f o r Although r e l y i n g of Diesel on e x i s t i n g

t h e purpose o f power g e n e r a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , the in the feasibility of

application to be interest

e n g i n e and gas t u r b i n e in practice. It

sugar industry y e t after the

remains

demonstrated in

c a n be n o t e d t h a t in the

first no

wave o f

combustion-engine

based s o l u t i o n s

late

1970s,

large-scale

investments

were u n d e r t a k e n ,

and some s c e p t i c i s m b a s e d on e c o n o m i c the literature (ref. 72). heat

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s was e x p r e s s e d i n 1.5.5 Unconventional thermal

coupling

between the

p o w e r h o u s e and t h e

economy A conventional manufacturing source, approach to the link between t h e p o w e r h o u s e and t h e functioning sugar

p r o c e s s assumes t h a t t h e

power house i s

as an e n e r g y in the

and t h e p r o c e s s as an e n e r g y r e c e i v e r . An e n e r g y s t r e a m f l o w i n g namely t h e condensate returned from the e v a p o r a t o r t o

reverse d i r e c t i o n , boilers, processes feed is

the

seldom t r e a t e d rather

as a p a r t

o f e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and to secure proper q u a l i t y

utilization o f the boiler

but

as an a r r a n g e m e n t

water.

53

A considerable energy-saving potential recuperating returning it low-temperature for to of

is

associated with sections of

the

possibility and

of

heat from c e r t a i n sections.

the

process in

re-use in other

A difficulty

inherent

this the reason

approach i s absorption that

f i n d p r o c e s s media w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e s the recuperated heat p o s s i b l e . is (It is

l o w e n o u g h t o make precisely for this

low-temperature directed

pulp drying to

so i n t e r e s t i n g dryer is

as an e n e r g y - s a v i n g m e a s u r e , heated by waste heat which

because a i r

a low-temperature to the

would otherwise

be d i s s i p a t e d heat to

environment.) be r e t u r n e d furnaces. this to the power h o u s e , by possible to heating cut

The l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e combustion down t h e justified air supplied

can a l s o the boiler

By making i t solution

fuel if

consumption the fuel

in

the is

boilers,

c a n be

economically in the

saving

l a r g e enough t o equipment.

p a y back t h e

investment

heat-recuperating The d e t a i l s of

and a i r - h e a t i n g the thermal

coupling

between t h e in

p o w e r h o u s e and t h e has been

heat described gas

economy may v a r y . A s o l u t i o n in the literature (ref. 73).

implemented The heat is

a Belgian factory

r e c o v e r e d from spent c a r b o n a t a t i o n of circulating water is

in a direct-contact f r o m 50'^C t o to air 0.1 air

h e a t e r where the

temperature

raised pumped to

a b o u t 80C ( s e e a l s o S e c t i o n 4 . 2 . 2 ) . connected to the the boilers

Water i s

subsequently it

preheaters

(alternatively, Fuel

c a n be pumped the o r d e r solution. vacuum-pan of of

preheaters kg n o r m a l Air

connected to fuel

sugar d r y e r ) .

savings of for this

p e r 100 kg b e e t h a v e been r e p o r t e d c a n a l s o be s u p p l i e d w i t h h e a t in a special the condenser is (ref. about

preheaters

r e c o v e r e d from 74).

vapours condensing carrying water at

The temperature For this to

heatthe

condenser o u t l e t of this solution of

58-59C.

reason,

economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n

m i g h t be more d i f f i c u l t utilization of

establish. see

F o r a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h o t h e r methods Section 3.3.1.

vacuum-pan v a p o u r ,

REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 K. S c h i e b l , W ' r m e w i r t s c h a f t i n d e r Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , . S t e i n k o p f f V e r l a g , D r e s d e n / L e i p z i g , 1939. . K a r r e n , T h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e n e r g y s a v i n g i n t h e b e e t s u g a r i n d u s t r y . Sugar J . , 44(1) (1981) 8-13. T . B a l o h , W r m e w i r t s c h a f t , i n : F. S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , T e c h n o l o g i e des Z u c k e r s , S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1968, p p . 7 0 5 - 7 7 6 . S . Z a g r o d z k i , G o s p o d a r k a C i e p l n a C u k r o w n i , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1979. K. U r b a n i e c , S p r e z a n i e o p a r o w w g o s p o d a r c e c i e p l n e j c u k r o w n i , G a z . C u k r o w . , 9 0 ( 9 ) (1982) 134-136. T . D . E a s t o p and A . M c C o n k e y , A p p l i e d T h e r m o d y n a m i c s f o r E n g i n e e r i n g T e c h n o l o g i s t s , 3 r d e d n . , L o n g m a n , L o n d o n and New Y o r k , 1978. G . J . Van W y l e n and R . E . S o n n t a g , F u n d a m e n t a l s o f C l a s s i c a l T h e r m o d y n a m i c s , 3 r d e d n . , W i l e y , New Y o r k , 1985. T . B a l o h , W r m e a t l a s f r d i e Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1975. P. V a l e n t i n , E n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n s t u d i e s i n t h e b e e t s u g a r i n d u s t r y . Int. Sugar J . , 82(982) (1980) 303-309.

54

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16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

24 25 26

27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

. H u g o t , Handbook o f Cane S u g a r E n g i n e e r i n g , 3 r d e d n . , E l s e v i e r , A m s t e r d a m , 1986. P. V a l e n t i n , U b e r d i e B e e i n f l u s s u n g des P r i m r e n e r g i e v e r b r a u c h s i n d e r Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , . Z u c k e r i n d . , 2 6 ( 8 ) (1976) 525-534. P. Mosel ( e t a l . ) , O p t i m i e r u n g v o n E i n d i c k u n g s p r o z e s s e n i n d e r Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 4 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 9 7 9 ) 1101-1107. P. G i r a u d , R e d u i r e l e s c o u t s e n e r g e t i q u e s p a r 1 ' u t i l i s a t i o n de l'electricite, I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 1 0 2 ( 7 - 8 ) (1985) 707-710. .. Austmeyer, Brdenkompression i n der Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 8 ( 8 ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) 715-728. R. M i c h e l , P h . T e r n y n c k and P h . B o n n e n f a n t , R e a l i s a t i o n du p o s t e d ' e v a p o r a t i o n dans une u s i n e de 12 000 t / j de b e t t e r a v e s s t o c k a n t 60% du s i r o p p r o d u i t en c a m p a g n e , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 9 4 ( 7 - 8 ) ( 1 9 7 7 ) 7 0 1 - 7 0 5 . R e p e r t o i r e des S u c r e r i e s e t R a f f i n e r i e s b e i g e s , S u c r . B e i g e , ( 1 0 2 ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) 21-74. P. C h r i s t o d o u l o u , B e t r i e b s e r f a h r u n g e n m i t dem E i n s a t z e i n e r Wrmepumpe i n V e r d a m p f s t a t i o n e i n e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k , Z u c k e r i n d . , 109(7) (1984) 628-634. P. H o f f m a n , O p t i m a l i z a c e e n e r g e t i c k e h o h o s p o d a r s t v i c u k r o v a r u L o v o s i c e , L i s t y C u k r . , 102(7) (1986) 155-161. F . B a u n a c k , T r o c k n u n g , i n : F . S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , T e c h n o l o g i e des Z u c k e r s , S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1968, p p . 8 4 5 - 8 8 3 . T h . C r o n e w i t z , Wege z u r r a t i o n e l l e n E n e r g i e v e r w e n d u n g b e i d e r S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g i n d e r Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 105(2) (1980) 129-139. F . A m d i n g , A b w r m e n u t z u n g z u r S a f t a n w r m u n g im Zusammenhang m i t d e r S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g , Z u c k e r i n d . , 110(8) (1985) 675-679. P. V e r m e u l e n , S a f t e i n d a m p f u n g m i t t e l s T r o c k n u n g s a b g a s b e i d e s s e n R e i n i g u n g , Z u c k e r i n d . , 110(8) (1985) 681-685. K . E . A u s t m e y e r and W. P o e r s c h , N i e d e r t e m p e r a t u r t r o c k n u n g - G r u n d l a g e n und Betrachtungen z u r W i r t s c h a f t l i c h k e i t , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(9) (1983) 861-868, 1 0 8 ( 1 1 ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) 1033-1041, 1 0 9 ( 5 ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) 4 1 1 - 4 1 9 , 1 1 0 ( 1 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 2 8 - 3 4 . E . S c h r t e r , D i e N i e d e r t e m p e r a t u r t r o c k n u n g i n L e h r t e - F u n k t i o n s w e i s e und E r f a h r u n g e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 111(6) (1986) 545-548. K . E . A u s t m e y e r and U . B u n e r t , A b w r m e n u t z u n g im Zusammenhang m i t d e r S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g , Z u c k e r i n d . , 110(8) (1985) 659-670. M. Kunz and P. V a l e n t i n , S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g ohne P r i m r e n e r g i e e i n s a t z u n t e r a u s s c h l i e s s l i c h e r N u t z u n g d e r Abwrme- und E i n d a m p f p o t e n t i a l e d e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k , Z u c k e r i n d . , 111(8) (1986) 741-750. G. F e l t b o r g , t g r d e r f r a t t minska u p p v r m n i n g s k o s t n a d e r n a v i d e t t s o c k e r b r u k , S o c k e r b o l a g e t r e p o r t , 1985. G u i d e Book f o r F a c t o r y E n g i n e e r s on E n e r g y C o n s e r v a t i o n D i a g n o s i s , UNIDO Document I S . 4 4 9 , V i e n n a , 1984. J . S . Hogg ( e t a l . ) . T h e r o l e o f t h e r m o g r a p h i c s u r v e y i n g i n e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n . I n t . Sugar J . , 85(1011) (1983) 67-71. P. C h r i s t o d o u l o u , D i e O p t i m i e r u n g d e r E n e r g i e w i r t s c h a f t i n d e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k , . Z u c k e r i n d . , 27(7) (1977) 441-446, 27(8) (1977) 509-515. O . V . M o r o z , A . A . L i p e t s and D . M . K o r i l k e v i c h , P u t i u m e n s h e n i y a p o t e r t e p l a na s t a n t s i i d e f e k o s a t u r a t s i i , S a k h . P r o m . , ( 9 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 4 5 - 4 7 . Y u . D . Kot ( e t a l . ) , P r o i z v o d s t v e n n y e i s p y t a n i y a n i z k o t e m p e r a t u r n o g o r e z h i m a , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 2 ) (1985) 20-22. P . - V . S c h m i d t and E . M a n z k e , Zu F r a g e n d e r E n e r g i e w i r t s c h a f t b e i d e r T e i l e x t r a k t i o n , L e b e n s m i t t . - I n d . , 2 4 ( 1 ) (1977) 21-24, 2 4 ( 2 ) (1977) 77-80. T . P . Matvienko ( e t a l . ) , P r o b e l i v a n i e sakhara s primeneniem v t o r o g o o t t e k a utfelya I k r i s t a l l i z a t s i i , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 8 ) (1984) 31-34. P. M o s e l , H . - R . Kemter and T h . C r o n e w i t z , Z u r Anwendung e i n e r S i r u p d e c k e b e i p e r i o d i s c h a r b e i t e n d e n Z e n t r i f u g e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 111(3) (1986) 211-216. H. V o g e l e r . E i n Weg z u r hohen D i c k s a f t d i c h t e und d e r e n w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e N u t z u n g , Z u c k e r , 30(12) (1977) 676-683. H . - J . K r o m b a c h , M g l i c h k e i t e n z u r Senkung des H e i z d a m p f V e r b r a u c h e s im Z u c k e r h a u s , Z u c k e r i n d . , 106(9) (1981) 793-804. W. L e k a w s k i , M o d e r n i z a c j a G o s p o d a r k i C i e p l n e j C u k r o w n i , S T C , W a r s z a w a , 1986.

55

39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

50 51

52 53 54 55 56 57 58

59 60

61

62 63 64 65

W. v . P r o s k o w e t z , K r a f t z e n t r a l e , i n : F . S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , T e c h n o l o g i e d e s Z u c k e r s , S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1968, p p . 6 7 6 - 7 0 4 . B . P . E f a n o v and A . G . K u t k o v o y , N o r m i r o v a n i e r a s k h o d a e l e k t r i c h e s k o i energii V s a k h a r n o i p r o m y s h l e n n o s t i , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 2 ) (1986) 39-43. C . Longue E p e e , L e c t u r e p r e s e n t e d a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Exhibition SVEKLOVODSTVO, K i e v , May 1986. B. M a y r h o f e r and P. K n e d l i k , D i e R e i n i g u n g v o n Z u c k e r r b e n m i t t e l s L u f t s t r o m , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(2) (1983) 138-140, 111(2) (1986) 128-132. A . I . Khomenko, O t e p l o v o i e k o n o m i c h n o s t i s i s t e m d i f f u z i y a - d e f e k a t s i y a , Sakh. P r o m . , (11) (1983) 42-47. V . N . F i l o n e n k o and A . N . Z a g o r u y k o , N e r i t m i c h n o s t r a b o t y s v e k l o s a k h a r n o g o zavoda i u d e l n y e raskhody e n e r g o r e s u r s o v , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 6 ) (1986) 37-40. U . Zimmer and A . Dambach, S t r o m b e z u g s b e r w a c h u n g im Werk P l a t t l i n g d e r Sddeutschen Z u c k e r - A G , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(10) (1983) 940-942. R . A . H . C h i l v e r s , C o n t r o l o f maximum e n e r g y demand u s i n g a m i c r o p r o c e s s o r s y s t e m , P r o c . S A S T A , 58 ( 1 9 8 4 ) 1 1 1 - 1 1 5 . G . H . P i a t t , Steam t u r b i n e d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e b e e t s u g a r i n d u s t r y . Int. S u g a r J . , 82(982) (1980) 297-302. B . L . K a r r e n , E f f i c i e n c y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n t h e use o f p r o c e s s s t e a m . Sugar J . , 4 7 ( 2 ) (1984) 13-15. V . N . F i l o n e n k o , E f f e k t i v n o s t m e r o p r i y a t i i po s n i z h e n y u r a s k h o d a e n e r g o r e s u r s o v i s b a l a n s i r o v a n n o s t e n e r g o p o t r e b l e n i y a sakharnogo z a v o d a , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 7 ) (1986) 43-46. J . A . B e z e r r a , T h e u s e o f e l e c t r i c b o i l e r s i n s u g a r r e f i n e r i e s as an a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e o f s t e a m . S u g a r I n d . T e c h n o l . , 44 ( 1 9 8 5 ) 2 7 7 - 2 9 7 . H . R . B r u n n e r , W. Hoppe and G . v . L e n g y e l - K o n o p i , B e t r a c h t u n g e n z u r Entwicklung der energetischen Konzeption der Zuckerfabrik+Raffinerie Aarberg A G , Z u c k e r i n d . , 106(1) (1981) 42-47. H.R. B r u n n e r , Die Thermokompression i n d e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k + R a f f i n e r i e Aarberg AG, G e s c h i c h t e - E n t w i c k l u n g - A u s b l i c k , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(8) (1983) 729-736. H.R. Brunner ( e t a l . ) . Die Verdampfstation der Zuckerfabrik+Raffinerie A a r b e r g AG und d a s M u l t i - E n e r g i e - S c h e m a , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 0 ( 5 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 3 9 3 - 3 9 8 . W. L e i b i g , B a s i c e n e r g y and i t s u t i l i z a t i o n i n t h e c a n e s u g a r i n d u s t r y , Z u c k e r i n d . , 103(5) (1978) 412-416. G . D e r m a l , E n e r g y i n a c a n e s u g a r c o m p l e x : an o r i g i n a l t e c h n i c a l solution f o r i t s most e f f i c i e n t u s e . S u g a r J . , 4 4 ( 6 ) ( 1 9 8 1 ) 5 - 8 . T . T o r i s s o n , The p o t e n t i a l f o r g e n e r a t i o n o f p u b l i c e l e c t r i c i t y i n cane s u g a r f a c t o r i e s . S u g a r y A z c a r , 79(4) (1984) 21-31. L . B e r g f o r s , H. H u t t u n e n and J . V i l j a n e n , 20 J a h r e F e r n w r m e e r z e u g u n g i n d e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k T u r e n k i , Z u c k e r i n d . , 109(7) (1984) 634-637. . . A u s t m e y e r and U . B u n e r t , M g l i c h k e i t e n z u r V e r b e s s e r u n g d e r E n e r g i e w i r t s c h a f t b e i d e r Z u c k e r g e w i n n u n g , i n : P r o c . 1 7 t h C I T S , C o p e n h a g e n , 1983, p p . 333-369. . O t o r o w s k i , R a c j o n a l n e gospodarowanie p a r a k o t l o w , G a z . C u k r o w . , 9 3 ( 2 ) (1985) 204-206. V . S . M o k h o r t and V . N . C h i k i r i s o v , T e k h n i k o - e k o n o m i c h e s k o e s r a v n e n i e r e k o n s t r u k t s i i TEC sakharnykh z a v o d o v s u s t a n o v k o i n a d s t r o y k i v y s o k o g o d a v l e n i y a , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 7 ) (1983) 40-42. R. A n t o i n e , E l e c t r i c i t y e x p o r t f r o m c a n e s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , i n : F . O . L i c h t s G u i d e t o t h e S u g a r F a c t o r y M a c h i n e I n d u s t r y , F . O . L i c h t GmbH, R a t z e b u r g , 1984, p p . A 7 5 - A 8 8 . T . E n g b e r g , Steam and p o w e r g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y . I n t . S u g a r J . , 86(1031) (1984) 286-287. N. M a r i g n e t t i and G . M a n t o v a n i , B e t r a c h t u n g e n b e r den E i n s a t z d e r G a s t u r b i n e i n d e r Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r , 2 7 ( 9 ) (1974) 470-474. U. H a n t s c h , E i n s a t z von G a s t u r b i n e n i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n , Z . Z u c k e r i n d . , 25(1) (1975) 31-32. H. P o h l e r t , D i e V e r w e n d u n g v o n G a s t u r b i n e n i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n , Z u c k e r , 30(2) (1977) 75-76.

56

66 67

68 69 70 71 72 73 74

W . J . L e i b i g , U s e o f gas t u r b i n e s i n t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y . S u g a r J . , 4 0 ( 1 2 ) (1978) 13-15. M. B r u h n s , B e i t r a g z u r w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e n B e u r t e i l u n g e i n e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k mit B r d e n k o m p r e s s i o n und G a s t u r b i n e i n d e r S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g , Z u c k e r i n d . , 107(10) (1982) 945-957. H. L f f e l and D. T h i n i u s , G a s t u r b i n e n e i n s a t z im Rahmen d e r K r a f t - W r m e K o p p l u n g , BWK, 3 7 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 4 8 2 - 4 8 7 . H. L f f e l and M. S c h u l z , G a s t u r b i n e f r E n e r g i e v e r s o r g u n g s s y s t e m e i n e s I n d u s t r i e b e t r i e b e s , BWK, 3 6 ( 6 ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) 2 4 3 - 2 4 8 . H. H u b e r and H. L i c h a , E i n Weg z u r S o m m e r s t r o m e r z e u g u n g i n d e r Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 104(1) (1979) 25-29. H . - U . R e i c h e l , Gedanken z u r E n t w i c k l u n g des P r i m r e n e r g i e e i n s a t z e s - Dampf und S t r o m i n d e r Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 7 ( 1 0 ) ( 1 9 8 2 ) 9 3 6 - 9 3 9 . P. V a l e n t i n , D i s k u s s i o n s b e i t r a g z u "Wrmepumpen i n d e r Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e " , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(8) (1983) 746-748. A n o n y m o u s , R e c u p e r a t i o n t h e r m i q u e s u r b u e e s de s e c o n d e c a r b o n a t a t i o n a l a R a f f i n e r i e N o t r e - D a m e a O r e y e , S u c r . B e l g e , 103 ( 1 9 8 5 ) 5 - 1 1 . T e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m W i e g a n d K a r l s r u h e GmbH, E t t l i n g e n , 1986.

57

Chapter 2

ENERGY BALANCES

2.1

P R I N C I P L E S OF E S T A B L I S H I N G ENERGY BALANCES The e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y , or a part which of is it, c a n be a n a l y s e d on a statement

the basis o f the f i r s t o f the p r i n c i p l e

law o f thermodynamics,

essentially law o f

o f the c o n s e r v a t i o n o f e n e r g y . The f i r s t i n the form o f a mathematical is unambigously defined

thermodynamics provided the

can be r i g o r o u s l y s t a t e d object (refs.

equation,

under c o n s i d e r a t i o n 1,2).

as a t h e r m o d y n a m i c the identification

system of a the been the and

As a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d

i n S e c t i o n 1.1,

p r e s c r i b e d and i d e n t i f i a b l e boundary separates defined, the f i r s t

boundary i s

necessary f o r surroundings. states the

system d e f i n i t i o n ;

the system from i t s

Once t h e b o u n d a r y has that i n any p r o c e s s , in

law o f thermodynamics t h e s y s t e m must e q u a l

simply

energy d e l i v e r e d to

sum o f t h e e n e r g y s t o r e d formulation contained

it

t h e e n e r g y removed t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s . account o f the f a c t system o r , transferred

The mathematical

takes in the be

t h a t e n e r g y c a n be a t t r i b u t e d t o m a t t e r across i t s

possibly, flowing

b o u n d a r y , and t h a t e n e r g y c a n a l s o as h e a t and w o r k . across i t , If

t o and f r o m t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s that there is

t h e b o u n d a r y has is or

been so d e f i n e d

no mass t r a n s f e r

then the system

s a i d t o be c l o s e d . E n e r g y c a n e n t e r o r work. I n most p r o b l e m s the o b j e c t its discussed in this

l e a v e a c l o s e d s y s t e m o n l y as h e a t

book,

however, a t y p i c a l

situation

is

that is, the

under c o n s i d e r a t i o n be d e f i n e d

has t o be i n t e r p r e t e d s o as t o a l l o w sometimes

as an o p e n s y s t e m , t h a t t o and f r o m the

b o u n d a r y has t o

f o r mass t r a n s f e r a control

surroundings.

Such a b o u n d a r y i s

called

s u r f a c e and

system encompassed, a c o n t r o l A prerequisite t h e mass f l o w s problems, flows. If for

volume. t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f an o p e n s y s t e m i s In c e r t a i n that

determining

c r o s s i n g t h e system boundary a r e known. may i n i t i a l l y

engineering

however, i t this is

be n e c e s s a r y t o c a l c u l a t e

some unknown mass is

the c a s e ,

t h e n one has t o

u s e a mass b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n w h i c h

an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e
M3 = +

l a w o f mass

conservation (2.1)

where m a s s , and

is

t h e mass d e l i v e r e d t o is

the

system, is system.

the

increase o f the

system

t h e mass removed f r o m t h e holds for the f i n i t e

The above e q u a t i o n measurements

time p e r i o d during which In the

the problems flows 2.1).

to determine

M ^ , and and o u t f l o w

h a v e been p e r f o r m e d . usually result

c o n s i d e r e d h e r e , mass i n f l o w ^sl' ^s2-*' ^sp entering the

f r o m m u l t i p l e mass "'^siving i t (Fig.

s y s t e m and G ^ ^ ^ r 2 " * ' ^ r q

58

mass flows entering the system

BOUNDARY

niass Uows leaving the systenn

work
Fig. It %} 2.1. Mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f be c o n v e n i e n t t o + ^ ^ an o p e n t h e r m o d y n a m i c system. unit time (2.2) the system is time boundary.

may t h e r e f o r e ' the

e x p r e s s t h e mass b a l a n c e f o r + +..+G,q

Gsp = ^V^t

w h e r e M^ i s A typical

system mass, i . e .

t h e mass c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a steady-state

case o f

an o p e n s y s t e m i s

system which

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t i m e - i n v a r i a n t derivative ^si ^ h z Having determined to t h e main p r o b l e m . o f the

mass and c o n s t a n t zero, the

mass f l o w s .

As t h e

s y s t e m mass e q u a l s ^1 ^ ^ 2

balance equation

becomes (2.3)

^ - - ^ ^ q c r o s s i n g the s y s t e m b o u n d a r y , we c a n is

t h e mass f l o w s A general

return

form o f

the energy balance equation

E3 = + E ^ w h e r e E^ i s the energy d e l i v e r e d to the s y s t e m , i s the increase of the

(2.4)

s y s t e m ' s e n e r g y , and E^, i s U s i n g t h e mass f l o w s the s y s t e m shown i n Fig.

t h e e n e r g y removed f r o m t h e balance f o r

system. unit t i m e , we o b t a i n for

and e x p r e s s i n g t h e 2.1

where h ^ ^ . . , and o u t f l o w i n g w i t h i n the Q is state

^V^t

^ L + G^^h^T

G^^VZ per unit

^qVq

'

(2-5) inflowing

h^p and h ^ - j , . . , streams, E^ i s

h^^ are the e n t h a l p i e s

mass i n

the energy associated w i t h the matter the mechanical power (work the per u n i t system.

contained time) In and

system boundary, power the

L is

the thermal systems,

(heat per u n i t of

time) delivered to E^ i s zero, all

steady-

time d e r i v a t i v e

the q u a n t i t i e s

concerned

are constant, ^sl^sl It it is is ' %2\2

and t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n h p h , (2.5) L * ^ ^ ^ ^ and ( 2 . 6 ) -

becomes V r q " ^ is (^.6) positive if it if is

\ 2 \ 2 ' - ^ the s i g n o f

assumed i n e q n s . removed f r o m t h e

that

the work is

system, while

the

sign o f the

heat

positive

59

d e l i v e r e d to equations

the

s y s t e m . The r e s u l t s

of if

the this

calculations

in which

these

a r e used a r e c o r r e c t o n l y

sign convention is of

o b s e r v e d . One equations, the problems

s h o u l d a l s o be a w a r e o f c e r t a i n as w e l l as o f the conditions for

inherent their

limitations

the balance of

correct

u s e . The d e t a i l s

may v a r y , explained (i)

d e p e n d i n g on t h e p u r p o s e f o r w h i c h t h e e q u a t i o n s below. is in usually

a r e s e t u p , as

In the design a n a l y s e s , i t d e v i c e s , is working

assumed t h a t t h e e q u i p m e n t , the t e c h n i c a l unreliable the

including

auxiliary i.e.

accordance with

specifications, valves, leaking is Even the

that there

a r e no m a l f u n c t i o n i n g Another t y p i c a l

steam t r a p s , is that

packings, etc. constant

assumption

processing capability value is assumed). of

(most o f t e n ,

the nominal

o r maximum c a p a b i l i t y however, c o n s t i t u t e processes w i l l

these seemingly obvious assumptions, e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s a n a l y s e d . The r e a l f l u c t u a t i n g parameters, a s s u m e d , and t h e r e w i l l between system p a r t s circumstances, systematic complicate

an i d e a l i z a t i o n

certainly may d e v i a t e

be c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y from the value

the processing c a p a b i l i t y be some unknown f l o w s system to not of

the

p r o c e s s media

leaking such

and f r o m t h e it is

the to

s u r r o u n d i n g s . Under introduce it is any

although into

essential

significant to be in

errors the

the balance r e l a t i o n s h i p s , by i n t r o d u c i n g

also meaningless

balance equations increasing

factors

w h i c h can a c t u a l l y This of process the applies,

neglected without the f i r s t

the o v e r a l l

uncertainty

margin. the

place, to of

the energy streams

associated with work

heat the

crystallization equipment,

s u g a r and t h e m e c h a n i c a l

supplied to

as t h e i r

o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e may be c o m p a r a b l e w i t h surroundings. applications, a number o f

that of

unknown l o s s e s t o (ii)

the

In the process monitoring

different to

situations

s h o u l d be r e c o g n i z e d . When i n v e s t i g a t i n g the of calculation the errors

an e x i s t i n g

factory

be m o d e r n i z e d , characteristic tasks aimed at is

should not exceed the In the

uncertainty routine

margin

subsequent design c a l c u l a t i o n s . the f a c t o r y managers w i t h requirements

monitoring

providing utilized,

information

on how e f f i c i e n t l y

the energy factory of high units the

the s p e c i f i c

may v a r y d e p e n d i n g on t h e e x p e c t e d similar to that typical

performance.

U s u a l l y , the desired accuracy is H o w e v e r , t h e r e may be s p e c i a l

design problems. accuracy or entire (iii) is

cases i n which r a t h e r of

required, for have t o

e x a m p l e , when t h e g u a r a n t e e t e s t s be monitored. relating of to

equipment

stations

As a r u l e ,

the balance c a l c u l a t i o n s under the While t h i s

sugar f a c t o r i e s , conditions,

or

parts

o f them, eqns.

are performed and (2.6).

assumption

steady-state correct

using great

(2.3)

may be p e r f e c t l y the results

i n most c a s e s ,

care i s If

recommended i n

interpreting

o f experimental strictly of

investigations. steadyeqns. (2.2)

t h e measurements conditions,

h a v e been p e r f o r m e d w i t h o u t

maintaining and E^ i n

state

then n e g l e c t o f t i m e - d e r i v a t i v e s

60

and 2.2 2.2.1

(2.5),

r e s p e c t i v e l y , may become a s o u r c e o f CALCULATIONS

errors.

INPUT DATA FOR ENERGY BALANCE Nature o f the calculation input data

The to

principles

p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s S e c t i o n c a n be For a particular p o s s i b l e to in

applied

any thermodynamic system w i t h i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y . c a n be f o r m u l a t e d ,

system, determine For

a s e t o f balance equations the

making i t

v a l u e s o f as many unknown v a r i a b l e s as t h e r e a r e e q u a t i o n s set of input

the s e t .

e a c h e n e r g y b a l a n c e p r o b l e m , an a p p r o p r i a t e If some r e q u i r e m e n t s that is, if

d a t a must be a v a i l a b l e . of the balance specific

h a v e b e e n i m p o s e d on t h e s t r u c t u r i n g the system i s to be c o n s i d e r e d as t h e input

results,

sum o f

s u b s y s t e m s , b o t h t h e s e t o f e q u a t i o n s and t h e s e t o f p r e p a r e d i n a manner making i t implies, in turn, possible to satisfy

d a t a s h o u l d be This

these requirements.

the necessity not only to the c o n s t r a i n t s the

account f o r

the system s t r u c t u r e , of the sugar is,

but also to s a t i s f y manufacturing

that are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c input

process. F i n a l l y ,

d a t a s h o u l d be c o m p l e t e , t h a t

among t h e q u a n t i t i e s left

appearing in

t h e b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s , o n l y as many c a n be in the set. o f a thermodynamic and t y p i c a l system

unknown as t h e r e a r e e q u a t i o n s for

The g u i d e l i n e s and its

a d e s c r i p t i o n o f the s t r u c t u r e in

subsystems have been f o r m u l a t e d encountered in 1.2. thermal

S e c t i o n 1.1,

structural

elements

systems o f s u g a r f a c t o r i e s

h a v e been d i s c u s s e d

in Section

C l o s e l y associated with the

i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s y s t e m s t r u c t u r e properties of

is

the the

i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t h e r m o d y n a m i c equipment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . the enthalpies functions of

t h e p r o c e s s m e d i a and on the

In the equations

presented in

preceding S e c t i o n , as

t h e p r o c e s s media a p p e a r . T h e e n t h a l p i e s In

c a n be d e t e r m i n e d practical as a number o f

o f temperature, pressure o r other parameters. inverse functions

calculations,

may a l s o be n e e d e d , as w e l l to

other

thermodynamic f u n c t i o n s thermodynamic literature, and 2. functions

not n e c e s s a r i l y r e l a t e d

the notion

o f e n t h a l p y . The the

c a n be f o u n d i n d i a g r a m o r t a b u l a r approximations

form i n

and t h e i r

numerical

are discussed i n Appendices 1

As r e g a r d s t h e e q u i p m e n t d a t a , importance: heat loss coefficients,

two k i n d s

o f them a r e o f

particular

equations expressing the o v e r a l l this

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficients. be p r e s e n t e d in

A p o s s i b l e approach to the remaining and are

p a r t o f the energy-balance data w i l l C h a p t e r , The v a l u e s o f the h e a t characteristics

Sections o f

this

loss

coefficients equipment

the equations d e s c r i b i n g the heat t r a n s f e r d i s c u s s e d i n A p p e n d i x 3. As

o f the

r e g a r d s t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f d a t a on t h e s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g

process.

61

t h e use o f e q u a t i o n s flows

o f p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e s h o u l d be named f i r s t . represented in

T h e mass have to is

o f t h e p r o c e s s media the equations

the energy balance equations

satisfy that

o f t h e p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e . A p r a c t i c a l experimental,

consequence or a

the mass-balance i n v e s t i g a t i o n

theoretical,

combination approached. Setting

o f b o t h - must be c o m p l e t e d

b e f o r e the e n e r g y - b a l a n c e problem

is

up t h e e q u a t i o n s

of

t h e mass b a l a n c e o f itself. Usually, it

a sugar manufacturing requires identifying dry

process the matter,

c a n be a d i f f i c u l t process

problem i n

scheme and c a l c u l a t i n g if applicable -

the flows

o f mass c o m p o n e n t s : w a t e r , The c a l c u l a t i o n s diagrams for the

s u c r o s e , and -

sucrose c r y s t a l s .

c a n be sugar up-to-date

performed manually; solutions

p o s s i b l y , two- o r three-component simplify t h e manual work.

c a n be u s e d t o this

Examples o f in the

approach to (refs. 3-5).

type of calculation

method c a n be f o u n d

literature are

Increasingly often, the aid o f

however, the

p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e s T h e methods used i n

calculated with calculations

computer programs. on t h e linear

computerized (refs. 6-8) or

a r e based e i t h e r of a system o f

process simulation equations (ref.

approach 9).

on t h e s o l u t i o n 2.2.2 Example

The s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g a trough-type juice extractor,

process is

to

be c o n s i d e r e d f o r purification

a factory with

featuring subsequent

a classical

juice

station

decalcification

and a s t a n d a r d - l i q u o r - b a s e d , defining the o v e r a l l

three-boiling

crystallization are given in

scheme. T h e p a r a m e t e r s Table 2.1.

process c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s shown i n Fig. 2.2 and the

T h e scheme o f

t h e b e e t house i s

c o r r e s p o n d i n g mass b a l a n c e d a t a a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 . 2 . s u g a r house i s Table 2.3. point of shown i n Fig. 2.3 and t h e mass b a l a n c e d a t a

T h e scheme o f are presented

the in the

L e t us a n a l y s e t h e

p r o c e s s scheme and t h e mass b a l a n c e d a t a as i n p u t data for energy balance

from

view o f t h e i r

suitability

calculations. TABLE 2.1 process data for the Example. Value 18.0 110.0 0.28 1.52 0.22 56.0 62.0

Essential Name

Dimension
% %

Polarization of cossettes Juice draft CaO r a t e : pre-liming main l i m i n g 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n Thick j u i c e concentration Molasses p u r i t y

k g / 1 0 0 kg b
II II

% DS
%

62

feed water

cossettes HEATER

i_
EXTRACTOR y. L-wet raw juice pulp

o c !5

press water PRESSES pressed to drying sweet water to lime slaking pulp

4
HEATERS

PRE-LIMING

HEATERS

MAIN LIMING

1
CARBONATATION I

en
TD

HEATERS juice

-D ( ) (

THICKENERS I VACUUM FILTERS HEATER

sludge^

water CARBONATATION I I to heating and THICKENERS DECALCI FICATION thin juice evaporation.

thin juice to s u g a r h o u s e ^

SAFETY FILTERS juice

SULPHITATION

Fig.

2.2.

Scheme o f

the

b e e t house c o n s i d e r e d

in

the

Example.

63

TABLE

2.2 t h e Example Total flow Concentration ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) (% DS) 100.00 84.60 27.04 5.58 57.56 37.04 110.00 135.84 143.46 13.73 157.19 124.50 32.69 20.69 12.72 8.48 11.02 127.30 3.59 125.42 123.71 118.50 7.00 3.50 122.00 1.41 7.62 1.09 3.80 0.79 Purity (%) 86.90 19.00 92.00 0.90 18.16 17.88 17.99 12.00 17.47 16.28 20.00

Mass b a l a n c e o f t h e b e e t h o u s e i n No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 S t r e a m name

Cossettes Wet p u l p Pressed pulp Dried pulp Press water Feed w a t e r Raw j u i c e J u i c e t o main l i m i n g J u i c e to carbonatation I J u i c e f r o m vacuum f i l t e r s Juice to thickeners I J u i c e to carbonatation I I Subsider sludge I S u b s i d e r s l u d g e I t o vacuum f i l t e r s S w e e t e n i n g - o f f w a t e r t o vacuum filters Sludge S w e e t w a t e r f r o m vacuum f i l t e r s Juice to thickeners I I Subsider sludge I I to pre-liming Juice to safety f i l t e r s Juice to sulphitation Juice to d e c a l c i f i c a t i o n Sweetening-off water to decalcification Sweet w a t e r from d e c a l c i f i c a t i o n Thin j u i c e to evaporation Milk-of-lime to pre-liming " main l i m i n g " " carbonatation I I K i l n gas t o c a r b o n a t a t i o n I II II II II JJ

74.50 88.11

92.38 91.48

50.00 7.00 18.00 15.76 16.68

89.00 92.04 92.03 92.03

1.08 15.51

88.00 92.04

T h e scheme and t h e d a t a d e s c r i b i n g t h e b e e t h o u s e p r o v i d e a c o m p l e t e definition of all t h e mass s t r e a m s for t o w h i c h h e a t s h o u l d be d e l i v e r e d . and t h e material are It is

possible to determine, properties given, affecting

e a c h s t r e a m , t h e mass f l o w ( o r the the specific

the enthalpy implying that

heat).

No t e m p e r a t u r e s s h o u l d be the part of

however, t h i s

temperature the

requirements structure of

separately thermal

considered, possibly together with associated with the

the

system which i s

beet house. as no heating the time-

T h e scheme o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e seems t o

be i n c o m p l e t e ,

o p e r a t i o n s a r e s p e c i f i e d . T h e mass b a l a n c e d a t a d e f i n e c o m p l e t e l y a l l a v e r a g e d mass f l o w s operations o f media w i t h i n the s u g a r h o u s e . Once t h e heating of thick is heating

h a v e been s p e c i f i e d

(typically,

juice

delivered will

to be

t h e s u g a r h o u s e and s y r u p s s t o r e d i n possible to identify all

intermediate

tanks

required), it that are

t h e mass f l o w s

and m a t e r i a l

properties

64

thick juice

MELTER
Q. 13

VACUUM PANS

FILTER sz standard liquor

O

MIXERS

1 CENTRIFUGALS

VACUUM PANS A 1

sugar

^1
1 MIXERS A
>>

3
1 CENTRIFUGALS A green " syrup A " sugar A VACUUM

PANSC

I
MIXERS C

z r :
MAGMA MIXER CENTRIFUGALS C L- s u g a r C -I white sugar Fig. TABLE 2.3. 2.3 o f t h e s u g a r house i n t h e name Example. Concentration Total flow {% DS) ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) 33.61 39.88 29.09 2.79 5.80 3.82 2.65 14.80 13.35 6.25 1.26 6.27 7.92 3.62 7.44 4.66 56.00 62.62 92.50 82.50 82.50 82.50 75.50 99.10 92.80 83.80 79.50 98.10 93.50 97.10 89.60 83.50 Purity
{%)

- magmamolasses i n the Example.

Scheme o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e c o n s i d e r e d

Mass b a l a n c e No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Stream

Thick juice Standard l i q u o r A massecuite G r e e n s y r u p A t o vacuum pans C II II II II II g Wash s y r u p A A sugar massecuite Green s y r u p Wash s y r u p sugar C massecuite C sugar Magma Molasses magma

92.02 93.60 93.46 84.60 84.60 84.60 91.96 99.85 87.18 74.20 86.18 98.40 76.94 93.50 89.29 62.00

65

r e l e v a n t to the energy balance c a l c u l a t i o n s . can of 2.3 c o n v e n i e n t l y be s p e c i f i e d when d e f i n i n g the thermal system.

A g a i n , the temperature

requirements part

the s t r u c t u r e o f the associated

EXTERNAL ENERGY BALANCE OF A SUGAR FACTORY The e n e r g y demand i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y is u l t i m a t e l y determined by p r o c e s s , the thermal the

interactions

between the s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g

s y s t e m and t h e interest to

p o w e r h o u s e . When s o l v i n g c e r t a i n e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s , i t i n v e s t i g a t e key i n t e r a c t i o n p a r a m e t e r s and t o identify

may be o f

or evaluate analysing

essential their

p r o p e r t i e s o f the three f a c t o r y details. This

s u b s y s t e m s named, w i t h o u t

can be done by s e t t i n g up t h e s o - c a l l e d e x t e r n a l mass and e n e r g y Examples o f a p p l i c a t i o n of this a p p r o a c h c a n be f o u n d in

balance o f the f a c t o r y . the literature Let (refs.

10,11).

us c o n s i d e r an o p e n t h e r m o d y n a m i c s y s t e m c o m p r i s i n g t h e main p r o c e s s equipment from the e x t r a c t i o n s t a t i o n station, to the sugar house, lime kiln,

e q u i p m e n t and t h e r m a l

t h a t i s , e x c l u d i n g t h e b e e t w a s h i n g and s l i c i n g power h o u s e , b a r o m e t r i c

s u g a r ryer^

c o n d e n s e r and b a r o m e t r i c - w a t e r shown i n F i g . 2.4.

cooling c i r c u i t . It

A block most

diagram r e p r e s e n t i n g the system i s mass f l o w s

c a n be s e e n t h a t process

t o and f r o m t h e s y s t e m a r e r o u t i n e l y m e a s u r e d f o r

control flows fully.

p u r p o s e s o r can be d e d u c e d f r o m s u c h m e a s u r e m e n t s , so o n l y a f e w mass s h o u l d be a d d i t i o n a l l y determined in

o r d e r t o d e s c r i b e t h e mass b a l a n c e

Spent SYSTEM BOUNDARY I 4-

qas

from 1 s f / 2 n d carb. vapour vapour VQPOur EV

cosseHes ^

1 1 1

ES

JP

SH

I sugar

^ \ s i
steann

molasse^

F i g . 2 . 4 . B l o c k scheme i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e e x t e r n a l e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y . ES - e x t r a c t i o n s t a t i o n , J P - j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n s t a t i o n , EV e v a p o r a t o r , SH - s u g a r h o u s e . 1 - b e e t w a s h i n g and s l i c i n g e q u i p m e n t , 2 - l i m e k i l n and m i l k - o f - l i m e s t a t i o n , 3 - p o w e r h o u s e , 4 - s u g a r d r y i n g and p a c k a g i n g s t a t i o n , 5 - c o n d e n s e r and c o o l i n g c i r c u i t .

66

T h e number o f t e m p e r a t u r e identify the enthalpies of

( a n d , p o s s i b l y , p r e s s u r e ) measurements flowing o f the media is also small. a b o v e need n o t

required

to

The i n t e r n a l the e x t e r n a l quantities

complexities

system d e f i n e d

be known the

for

e n e r g y b a l a n c e , w h i c h c a n be d e s c r i b e d b y i n t r o d u c i n g the flowing media into in eqns. (2.5) or

characterizing

(2.6).

The n e t the

h e a t demand i s

r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e heat stream to s t u d y how t o the

t h e steam d e l i v e r e d from by a d j u s t i n g other

p o w e r h o u s e and we a r e f r e e streams. Of course, i t is

reduce i t

desirable that

sum o f o u t f l o w i n g

energy

streams outflowing system. enthalpies last

s h o u l d be as s m a l l mass f l o w s In the

as p o s s i b l e , w h i c h c a n be o b t a i n e d temperatures to

by l i m i t i n g t h e leaving the

and/or decreasing the place this It is to applies

o f t h e media

first

vapour streams, to minimize

because the

vapour

are highest.

thus e s s e n t i a l

the vapour flow the

from the

evaporator effect s h o u l d be u t i l i z e d Similar

t h e c o n d e n s e r , and t h e e n e r g y o f

vacuum pan v a p o u r s condenser. and

as much as p o s s i b l e b e f o r e t h e v a p o u r s e n t e r t h e apply to excess

recommendations gas.

condensate from the e v a p o r a t o r ,

spent carbonatation An i m p o r t a n t

c o n c l u s i o n c a n be d r a w n f r o m t h e e x t e r n a l (ammoniacal water)

energy balance, evaporator

namely is from

t h a t as l o n g as e x c e s s c o n d e n s a t e s u p p l i e d as f r e s h w a t e r t o the of last evaporator effect

from the

the e x t r a c t i o n is

station,

and t h e c o n d e n s e r l o s s h e a t demand i s If

held constant,

the net

independent are to

t h e amount o f w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d i n then the j u i c e draft

the e v a p o r a t o r .

the above c o n d i t i o n s

satisfied,

c a n be i n c r e a s e d o r c o n d e n s a t e c a n be a d d e d the n e t h e a t demand. On t h e o t h e r example t o

juice without intake

necessarily increasing

h a n d , any

o f e x t r a w a t e r from o u t s i d e

the

system, f o r

vacuum p a n s ,

inevitably

i n c r e a s e s t h e n e t h e a t demand. calculations of the energy streams, balance i s it s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d it is that

As r e g a r d s t h e if

a high accuracy o f three

the e x t e r n a l

r e q u i r e d , then

necessary to

account f o r analyses. (i)

entries

which are t r a d i t i o n a l l y

neglected in

engineering

Heat o f c a r b o n a t a t i o n of

reaction.

Assuming t h a t

it

is

generated at is 1.9%, to

the

rate an

of

70 k J p e r 1 mol

CaO and t h a t

the e f f e c t i v e this

CaO r a t e

we o b t a i n 1.1 kg

e n e r g y s t r e a m o f a b o u t 2 4 0 0 k J / 1 0 0 kg b , per (ii) 100 kg b. of

being e q u i v a l e n t

steam

Heat o f c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n

s u g a r . A t 75C, t h i s in

is

82 k J / k g .

Multiple

crystallization-dissolving

operations

t h e s u g a r h o u s e c a n be d i s r e g a r d e d , on

the assumption t h a t the heat generated equals the heat absorbed. However, the sugar stream l e a v i n g generated. 100 kg (iii) b. Mechanical work supplied to t h e p r o c e s s . Power consumed b y t h e motors t h e s u g a r house c o r r e s p o n d s t o sugar y i e l d , t h i s a definite amount o f heat per

At a t y p i c a l

corresponds to

a b o u t 0.5

kg s t e a m

67

driving and

t h e pumps, s t i r r e r s dissipated -

and o t h e r e q u i p m e n t to

is

c o n v e r t e d to mechanical rest to the

work

finally

a part

t h e p r o c e s s m e d i a , and t h e configuration

environment. dissipation, estimated at

Assuming a t y p i c a l

equipment

and a 50:50 e n e r g y

t h e s t r e a m o f m e c h a n i c a l w o r k a b s o r b e d b y t h e p r o c e s s m e d i a c a n be a b o u t 0.8 kg steam p e r 100 kg b.

TABLE

2.4

E x t e r n a l mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y c o n s i d e r e d as a t h e r m o d y n a m i c s y s t e m shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y i n F i g . 2 . 4 . No. Name Inflowing 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 streams 100.0 11.9 5.3 12 40 35 45 150 80 4.5 1.8 0.4 2.4 0.1 3.3 1.2 1.8 142.0 Mass f l o w Temperature Enthalpy Enthalpy stream ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) (OQ) (kJ/kg) ( M J / l O O kg b )

Cossettes Milk-of-lime K i l n gas Heat o f carbonatation reaction Wash w a t e r t o c e n t r i f u g a l s Wash steam ( 7 b a r ) t o centrifugals C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n heat Mechanical work t o p r o c e s s Steam ( 3 . 4 b a r ) t o e v a p o r a t o r and vacuum pan steaming Total 1-9 streams

1.4 1.2

15 165

63 2762

52.0
171.8

138

2730
_

157.5

Outflowing 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

P r e s s e d p u l p 14.35% DS Carbonatation sludge 50% DS Sweet w a t e r t o l i m e slaking Gas f r o m l s t / 2 n d carbonatation Vacuum f i l t e r v a p o u r Vapour from the l a s t evaporator effect Condensate to b o i l e r s Vacuum pan v a p o u r Sugar from c e n t r i f u g a l s Heating vapour to sugar dryer Molasses Cooling o f C massecuite Wash s t e a m d i s s i p a t e d f r o m centrifugals Steam d i s s i p a t e d f r o m vacuum pans Total 10-23 l e a k s and h e a t 10-24

34.3 8.5 6.7 6.3 0.6 8.4 60.2 20.3 14.2 0.9 5.0 1.0 0.5 166.9 4.9 171.8

40 60 65 82/92 65 90 114 62 70 125 50 165

160 150 267

5.5 1.3 1.8 7.3

2618 2660 478 2613 97 2713 115 2762 2730

1.6 22.3 28.8 53.0 1.4 2.4 0.6 0.6 2.8 1.4 130.8 26.7 157.5

138

24

Various losses Total

68

A q u e s t i o n may be p o s e d a b o u t t h e p u r p o s e o f a c c o u n t i n g f o r small incoming energy streams, w h i l e l o s s e s caused by t h e The answer i s it

these

relatively

simultaneously calculating

not-so-well to the

defined

l e a k s o f media and t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r it is o n l y when a l l evaluate the the

environment. are

that

incoming energy streams Of

known t h a t

becomes p o s s i b l e t o

losses r e a l i s t i c a l l y . in which to approximate a correct be t a k e n

course,

one c a n a l s o i m a g i n e e n g i n e e r i n g p r o b l e m s o f the energy balance are s u f f i c i e n t implying that very small

calculations solution, account. In

a r r i v e at

this

e n e r g y streams need n o t

into

Table 2.4,

an e x a m p l e i s

presented o f the external

energy balance with

the

heat o f the carbonatation mechanical losses steam. work taken into

r e a c t i o n , h e a t o f c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f s u g a r and a c c o u n t . As c a n be s e e n , the uncontrollable the energy

correspond to Had t h e s m a l l

a b o u t 19% o f incoming

the energy stream d e l i v e r e d i n been n e g l e c t e d , t h e

heating

streams

l o s s e s w o u l d have been underestimate. s y s t e m so as to

calculated at Let

a b o u t 15% o f t h e s t e a m e n e r g y , t h i s the d e f i n i t i o n a matter of

being a c l e a r

us o b s e r v e a l s o t h a t

the thermodynamic

exclude the sugar d r y e r is can

o f c o n v e n i e n c e . T h e h e a t demand o f t h e in sugar leaving the

dryer

be c a l c u l a t e d s e p a r a t e l y f r o m t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t Had t h e d r y e r been i n c l u d e d , i t entering

centrifugals. account f o r

w o u l d h a v e been n e c e s s a r y t o enthalpy

the streams o f a i r o f humidity more

and l e a v i n g t h e s y s t e m , a i r T h i s w o u l d make t h e

being a f u n c t i o n calculations It

and t e m p e r a t u r e .

balance

a little

laborious. the t o t a l h e a t demand and, consequently, from the the the

s h o u l d be f i n a l l y ratio

noted t h a t

the e f f e c t i v e n e s s external inflowing process. 2.4 2.4.1 It

o f the thermal is

s y s t e m c a n n o t be c a l c u l a t e d

energy balance. This and o u t f l o w i n g

illustrated

b y T a b l e 2.4 w h i c h c o n t a i n s in

e n e r g y streams

b u t n o t t h e ones c i r c u l a t i n g

MASS AND HEAT BALANCES OF HEAT RECEIVERS Introductory is often remarks i n v e s t i g a t e t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f a s u g a r the d e t a i l s corresponding to the individual system the

necessary to

factory

i n o r d e r to determine units.

equipment

Such a s i t u a t i o n

may a r i s e when d e s i g n i n g a new t h e r m a l

f o r g i v e n parameters o f

the sugar manufacturing sugar f a c t o r y .

p r o c e s s , o r when a n a l y s i n g

e n e r g y econorny o f an e x i s t i n g it is necessary to makes i t identify

In o r d e r to

a r r i v e at a s o l u t i o n , in Section 1.2.2; heat

all

t h e h e a t s t r e a m s q^. d e f i n e d calculate the t o t a l

this

also possible to

h e a t demand, t h e n e t s y s t e m . Examples o f the l i t e r a t u r e

demand and t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s formulation 12-14). Virtually all thermal of this

ratio

o f the thermal

k i n d o f p r o b l e m c a n be f o u n d i n

(refs.

s y s t e m s i n c o r p o r a t e s u c h e q u i p m e n t as j u i c e

heaters.

69

extractors,

heated intermediate

s t o r a g e tanks

and vacuum p a n s . G e n e r a l

formulae

used i n b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s following.

o f t h e equipment u n i t s

named a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e

The balances o f o t h e r equipment, manner. heaters

n o t c o n s i d e r e d h e r e , c a n be m o d e l l e d

in a similar 2.4.2 Juice

Juice heaters are c e r t a i n l y thermal s y s t e m s , as i t

among t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

components o f t h e heat

i s v i a the heaters that a large part o f the t o t a l

demand i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p r o c e s s . T h e b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n r a t h e r s i m p l e , b u t t h e problem o f c o o r d i n a t i n g p a r t s o f the thermal s y s t e m may be d i f f i c u l t to

f o r a heater i s o f other

i t with the calculations solve.

L e t us c o n s i d e r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e h e a t e x c h a n g e i n a h e a t e r c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a g i v e n h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a F and o v e r a l l supplied with heating vapour a t temperature heat t r a n s f e r coefficient final t h e mass and k,

t^, while

the required determining

temperature o f t h e f l u i d heated i s t ^ . The q u a n t i t i e s heat balances o f the heater are i n d i c a t e d that the calculation

in Fig. 2.5(a).

( I t s h o u l d be n o t e d heating

p r o c e d u r e t o be a p p l i e d

i n t h e c a s e o f an unknown

surface area i s given i n r e f . 14.)

(a)
G,ti
Gvitv

(b)
,

-h-i-H^

ttttt
Gc.tci,

t2

ili i I I i!
;

Miii liiii

Mill
heaters: (a) vapour-

F i g . 2 . 5 . P r i n c i p l e o f mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f j u i c e heated, ( b ) condensate-heated. If the f l u i d temperature at the heater i n l e t

i s t-j, then the r e s u l t i n g

final

t e m p e r a t u r e w i l l be t2 = ( t v - t i ) e x p ( - F k / ( ( l + n)GC)) and C i s t h e j u i c e specific heat. difference (2.7)

where i s t h e heat l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t

N e g l e c t i n g c o n d e n s a t e s u b c o o l i n g , t h e mean l o g a r i t h m i c can be c a l c u l a t e d as At = ( t ^ - t i ) / l n ( ( t ^ - t^)/(t^ - t2))

temperature

(2.8)

Taking the subcooling i n t o account, the approximate value o f the o u t l e t temperature o f the condensate i s ^c = + ^1 ^ ^ 2 ) / (2.9)

70

D e n o t i n g t h e e n t h a l p y o f d r y s a t u r a t e d steam a t enthalpy kJ/kg, is t h u s h^ = h " ( t ^ ) , is and a s s u m i n g a l l h^= 4 . 1 9 t^ .

temperature

by h " ( t ) ,

vapour

the e n t h a l p i e s

are expressed in

condensate enthalpy

The h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d q = (1 + n ) G C ( t 2 and t h e h e a t i n g Gv = q / ( h v - \ ) The f u r t h e r two f i n a l

from vapour t o j u i c e

in the heater

is (2.10)

t^)

v a p o u r demand (2.11) d e p e n d s now on t h e and r e s u l t i n g t2. relation between the is

course o f the c a l c u l a t i o n s the required t^

temperatures, of

Too low a t2

value

an i n d i c a t i o n the heating

insufficient

heat s u p p l y .

In order to ensure c o r r e c t

heating,

s u r f a c e a r e a s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d , o r a n o t h e r h e a t e r s h o u l d be case, it is necessary to input that the control final

p l a n n e d n e x t t o t h e one b e i n g e v a l u a t e d ; i n e i t h e r repeat the c a l c u l a t i o n data. If t^ turns according to eqns.

(2.7)-(2.11)

with

a new s e t o f

out to

be t o o h i g h , t h e n t h e c o n c l u s i o n c o u l d be d r a w n to the j u i c e . It is possible to leave

t o o much h e a t w i l l heating circuit juice

be t r a n s f e r r e d

s u r f a c e a r e a u n c h a n g e d , h o w e v e r , as i n will adjust

reality,

the temperature the required

t h e v a p o u r c o n s u m p t i o n s o as t o o b t a i n Consequently, the heat t r a n s f e r r e d

temperature

t^.

becomes (2.12)

q ^ = (1 + n ) G C ( t ^ and t h e resulting

t^) temperature - t2)) the condensate are difference is

logarithmic

At^ = ( t f

- t^)/ln((tf

- t^)/(t^

(2.13)

The r e s u l t i n g t^^ and h^f = 4.19 t^^ = (6t^

temperature + ti)/8

and e n t h a l p y o f

+ t^

(2.14)

(2.15) v a p o u r demand is (2.16) determine the e f f e c t i v e (i.e., minimum r e q u i r e d ) heating

and t h e h e a t i n g Gvf It = qf/(hv is

- h^f)

also possible to

s u r f a c e a r e a as = q^/(kAt^) (2.17) and

In the case o f condensate-heated h e a t e r s , the course o f the c a l c u l a t i o n s the subsequent decision-making mass f l o w G ^ and i n l e t p r o c e d u r e may be d i f f e r e n t . t^-j

T y p i c a l l y , condensate heating surface t^ of

temperature

a r e known, along w i t h

area F, o v e r a l l of the liquid

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficient

k and r e q u i r e d f i n a l

temperature

h e a t e d . The q u a n t i t i e s in

determining

t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s

the heater are i n d i c a t e d i s assumed.

Fig. 2.5(b).

Counter-current operation o f the

heater

71

The d i f f i c u l t y final temperatures

in initiating

the calculations

i s the u n c e r t a i n t y about the

o f both the l i q u i d

h e a t e d and t h e c o n d e n s a t e . I t c a n be temperature o f the liquid

r e s o l v e d b y making an i n i t i a l ( l a t e r o n , we w i l l

g u e s s t2^- on t h e o u t l e t

be a b l e t o c h e c k how g o o d t h e g u e s s i s ) . I t t h u s becomes the o u t l e t temperature o f the condensate (2.18) is thus (2^^)

possible to estimate \ 2 = ^cl -

^ ")^^(^2i

- ti))/(4.19 temperature d i f f e r e n c e " ^2i)/(^c2

The r e s u l t i n g At

mean l o g a r i t h m i c -

= ( ( t ^ T - t^^)

(t^2 - ^))/"'"((^1

- ^l))

and t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d c a n be e s t i m a t e d as q = kFAt It (2.20)

now becomes p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e an i m p r o v e d a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f t h e f i n a l heated (2.21) then

temperature o f the l i q u i d t2 If = t^ + q / ( ( l + n)GC)

| t 2 - t2^-| > t ^ , w h e r e t ^ i s t h e assumed t e m p e r a t u r e - e r r o r t o l e r a n c e ,

a new g u e s s on t h e v a l u e o f t2^- s h o u l d be made and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s repeated, starting found, from e q n . ( 2 . 1 8 ) .

s h o u l d be

Once an a c c e p t a b l e v a l u e o f t 2 has b e e n depends on t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t 2 and surface

the course o f the calculations temperature t ^ .

the required f i n a l

I f t2 i s too l o w , then the heating

a r e a s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d , o r a n o t h e r h e a t e r s h o u l d be p l a n n e d following to eqns. t h e one b e i n g e v a l u a t e d . I n e i t h e r c a s e , (2.18)-(2.21) must be r e p e a t e d w i t h

immediately according

the calculations

a new s e t o f i n p u t

d a t a . Too high

a t 2 v a l u e s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d as an i n d i c a t i o n flow o r too large a heating transferred is

o f too l a r g e a condensate value o f the heat

s u r f a c e a r e a . The r e a l i s t i c

q ^ = (1 + n ) G C ( t ^ - t ^ ) and t h e f i n a l ^c2 = ^ c l ^ c o n d e n s a t e t e m p e r a t u r e c a n be c a l c u l a t e d as ^c) temperature d i f f e r e n c e - tf)/(tc2 is

(2.22)

V(^-^^

(2.23)

The r e s u l t i n g Lt^

mean l o g a r i t h m i c

= ((t^^ - t^) -

(t^2 - t i ) ) / l n ( ( t c l

^l))

(2.24)

and t h e e f f e c t i v e = q^/(kAtf)

heating

s u r f a c e a r e a c a n be d e t e r m i n e d as (2.25) g i v e n above i s t h a t they are easy to

A convenient feature o f the formulae a r r a n g e i n a manner f a c i l i t a t i n g supplied with liquid

the calculations

f o r a group o f heaters temperature o f the surface

v a r i o u s heating media. T y p i c a l l y , a d e f i n i t e heater outlet

is required at the l a s t

and t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r

areas are g i v e n f o r a l l

t h e h e a t e r s . The c a l c u l a t i o n s

c a n be c o m p u t e r i z e d assumptions are

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f l o w d i a g r a m shown i n F i g . 2 . 6 . correct, then the temperatures o f the l i q u i d

I f the i n i t i a l

between h e a t e r s are d e t e r m i n e d and

72

"densateW heated L

assign evaporator effect

guess

t2,ec^n.(2.7) ecins.(2-ie)-

C2.21)

new t 2 i

At^.tcf^^r^vf'^f eans.(2.12)(2.17)

eons. ( 2 . 8 ) (2.11)

eans.(2.22)(2.25)

i
set next t^ ecj,ual to CANNOT BE ,ATTAIN ED STQP1 ^ 1=

+1

STOP 2

Fig.

2.6.

Flow diagram o f the c a l c u l a t i o n s

for

a group o f j u i c e

heaters.

73

STOP 1 i s of the

reached.

If

the c a l c u l a t i o n s

prove that

the

required

final

temperature is It of

liquid at

c a n n o t be a t t a i n e d , STOP 2 , this

t h e n a message i s that the input

output

and t h e a c t i o n

terminated

implying

d a t a must be m o d i f i e d . as a s p e c i a l t o most

s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d t h a t a s i n g l e a heater group, this arrangements 2.4.3 making i t the

h e a t e r c a n be c a l c u l a t e d

case

possible to sugar

apply the algorithm

heater

encountered in

industry.

Extractor feature of t h e mass and h e a t the balances o f into parts. parts the e x t r a c t o r corresponding is to

A characteristic that it

may be n e c e s s a r y t o process requirements

split

calculations

various

i m p o s e d on e x t r a c t o r to

The d e t a i l s

d e p e n d on a tower-

extractor

d e s i g n , and may v a r y f r o m f a c t o r y h a v e been d e s c r i b e d i n the the

factory.

Calculations of 13). In the

type e x t r a c t o r following,

literature

(ref.

a possible procedure o f (DOS) e x t r a c t o r determining is

approximate

balance c a l c u l a t i o n s

of

a trough-type

presented. indicated in the

The q u a n t i t i e s Fig. fact 2.7.

t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s a r e the equations into

The i d e a o f

splitting

two g r o u p s stems heating of the

from

that correct

extraction

d e p e n d s on e f f e c t i v e

incoming that the

cossettes

in extractor

zone A ; t h i s

c a n be r e f l e c t e d

by a r e q u i r e m e n t

temperatures high.

o f the j u i c e

and c o s s e t t e s b e t w e e n z o n e s A and be

sufficiently

cosseites

req,ulrecl temperatures: cossettes t juice t^j

fresh v\^oter Gw.tw

pulp

vapour

Fig.

2.7.

Principle

o f mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f the e x t r a c t o r 4.19(G^t^ is

a trough-type

extractor.

The t o t a l Q = (1

h e a t demand o f .

approximately G^C^t^) at (2.26) temperature cossettes.

+ .)(Gjhj

GpCptp -

- Gp^tpJ hj is

where m i s tj, Cp i s

the heat

loss c o e f f i c i e n t , heat o f p u l p ,

the enthalpy o f j u i c e the s p e c i f i c

the s p e c i f i c

and C^^ i s

heat o f

74
The e s t i m a t e d temperature as and e n t h a l p y o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e a t t h e o u t l e t o f zone A

can be c a l c u l a t e d tcA = ( " ^ A = 4.19

' C^jtj t,,

Stb)/(S-

'

' (Vj ^ *rb)/2)/8

(2.27) (2.28)

The r e s u l t i n g

h e a t demand o f z o n e A i s - G.(h^. - h.}) (2.29)

Qa = (1 + m ) ( G ^ ^ C j ^ ( t ^ ^ - t ^ ) and t h e h e a t i n g

v a p o u r demand i n z o n e A i s

S = V ( ^ A - ^ca)
The t e m p e r a t u r e estimated as and e n t h a l p y o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e a t the o u t l e t

(2.30)
o f zone are

tcB = ("^B ' ( V j ' V b ) / 2 - ( V

- GpwSw ' W^^%

' Sw '

(2-31) (2.32)

The h e a t demand o f z o n e i s Qb

thus

Qa v a p o u r demand i n z o n e i s

(2.33)

and t h e h e a t i n g

%=
2.4.4

v(^B ^b)
equipment by t h e h e a t

(2.34)

Sugar house

The e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s i n t h e s u g a r house a r e dominated i n t h e vacuum p a n s , t y p i c a l l y calculations, batch pans.

consumption

I n t h e mass and h e a t is

balance disregarded in the a

t h e d i s c r e t e n a t u r e o f vacuum pan h e a t i n g are performed f o r The q u a n t i t i e s pan r e p r e s e n t i n g the e n t i r e

usually

and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s respective strikes. fictive continuous

massecuite streams

determining

t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f in Fig. 2.8(a).

b a t c h pans a r e i n d i c a t e d

(Q)

a evaporated water Ge.te syrups:

(b) G,b,-t,
Gv>tv^
Ac

massecuite

F i g . 2.8. P r i n c i p l e o f mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f s u g a r h o u s e e q u i p m e n t : ( a ) vacuum p a n , ( b ) s y r u p t a n k .

(a)

75

From t h e p r o c e s s d a t a , t h e sum o f values o f determined G = G. ^a t^ = = ( G.C.t.)/(GC^) their as specific heats,

i n c o m i n g mass f l o w s o f s y r u p s and t h e a v e r a g e temperatures and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s c a n be

initial

(2.35) (2.36) (2.37) (2.38) the evaporated water (i.e., vacuum pan v a p o u r ) is (2.39) h e a t o f t h e m a s s e c u i t e C ^ , and t h e e n t h a l p y the t i m e - a v e r a g e d h e a t demand i s of

b^ = ( G . b . ) / G T h e mass f l o w o f = G(l - b^/b^) Having determined the s p e c i f i c

t h e v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r h^ = h " ( t g ) , q = (1 + u ) ( G ^ h g + ( G - G g ) C ^ t ^ where u i s Let the heat loss

e x p r e s s e d as (2.40)

- GC^t^)

coefficient. sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n is neglected loss

us o b s e r v e t h a t e v e n t h o u g h t h e h e a t o f the formula is can y i e l d

here,

c o r r e c t h e a t demand v a l u e s p r o v i d i n g t h e h e a t d e f i n e d . The estimated values o f the

coefficient and ^c h^ and % = = 4.19

appropriately

temperature

enthalpy o f the condensate are ^ ^ t^ v a p o u r demand is (2-43) associated with are the ^ V)/^ (2.41) (2.42)

the time-averaged heating = q / ( ^ - ^ )

A substantial tanks

s h a r e o f t h e h e a t demand o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e i s juice, run-off, remelt

in which t h i c k

a n d , p o s s i b l y , o t h e r media The quantities

temporarily determining with heating determining the

s t o r e d and h e a t e d t o d e f i n i t e

temperatures.

t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f an i n d i r e c t l y vapour at temperature the inlet and o u t l e t m is t^ are indicated of the in

heated tank Fig. 2.8(b). and h ^ ,

supplied After and a s s u m i n g as (2.44)

enthalpies known, t h e

s y r u p h-j

heat l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t h^)

h e a t demand c a n be c a l c u l a t e d

q = (1 + m ) G ( h 2 The t e m p e r a t u r e = (^S h^ and ^ = 4.19 ^ ^1 t^

and e n t h a l p y o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e c a n be e s t i m a t e d ^ ^2)/^

as (2-'^5) (2.46)

the heating = q / ( ^ h^)

v a p o u r demand

is (2.47)

76

2.5 2.5.

MASS AND HEAT BALANCES OF A M U L T I P L E - E F F E C T Introduction evaporator is

EVAPORATOR

The m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t takes place; i t

a process s t a t i o n block

in which j u i c e

thickening in

c a n a l s o be s e e n as a b u i l d i n g o f energy in

playing a decisive role the

the m u l t i p l e calculations and

utilization

the thermal

s y s t e m . The a c c u r a c y o f

o f evaporator balances determines the thermal literature, c a n be

the accuracy w i t h It

w h i c h t h e mass therefore of

heat flows w i t h i n i n the

s y s t e m c a n be c a l c u l a t e d .

should

be n o t e d t h a t

two t e n d e n c i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e methods identified. m o d e l s w h i c h e n a b l e one t o make

evaporator calculations (i)

R e l y i n g on s i m p l i f i e d manually,

mathematical

calculations

or with useful

the aid o f a pocket c a l c u l a t o r . there is

Although such that the design the

methods a r e c e r t a i n l y

i n many a p p l i c a t i o n s ,

the r i s k

u s e r may be u n a w a r e o f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e r r o r m a r g i n . calculation error, it may be i m p o s s i b l e t o

Because o f

u s e t h e s e methods

in certain

problems o r i n the o p t i m i z a t i o n (ii) Using d e t a i l e d mathematical

of evaporators. m o d e l s w h i c h may r e q u i r e t h e this kind calculations the to be

computerized. literature. publications numerical the an

A number o f m o d e l s o f

h a v e been d e s c r i b e d i n to

However, i t

may sometimes

be d i f f i c u l t

u s e them b e c a u s e t h e is g i v e n on the on

do n o t s p e c i f y model use.

a c c u r a c y and no i n f o r m a t i o n

p r o b l e m s o f model

I n t h e c a s e o f c a l c u l a t i o n methods guessed values o f

relying

iterative

improvements o f

initially

unknown v a r i a b l e s , of uncontrollable

i m p r o p e r l y chosen numerical errors.

p r o c e d u r e may c a r r y t h e

risk

numerical

Both approaches mentioned w i l l starting point is

be s t u d i e d

i n the f o l l o w i n g .

A convenient It c a n be in

the s o - c a l l e d g e n e r a l i z e d evaporator s t r u c t u r e . p o s s i b l e c o m p o n e n t s and t h e i r model

u n d e r s t o o d as a s e t o f a l l a multiple-effect structure specific

connections o f the

e v a p o r a t o r . Once a m a t h e m a t i c a l

generalized of a

has been f o r m u l a t e d , evaporator version.

one c a n e a s i l y g e n e r a t e a u n i q u e model

F i g u r e 2.9 current

shows s c h e m a t i c a l l y flow)

a repetitive

block o f the s t r u c t u r e an

of

a co-

(parallel

multiple-effect

evaporator comprising

arbitrary its

number o f e f f e c t s . surroundings -

The f o l l o w i n g

c o n n e c t i o n s between t h e b l o c k c a n be t a k e n into

and

(including for

neighbouring blocks) heating

account: from heat

vapour withdrawal

p u r p o s e s and c o n d e n s a t e r e t u r n

receivers, s u p p l y o f v a p o u r o b t a i n e d by c o n d e n s a t e f l a s h condensate withdrawal for heating evaporation, the receivers outside

o r o t h e r purposes (to

the e v a p o r a t o r ) , In condensate supply to the f o l l o w i n g , the condensate tank i n o f an N - e f f e c t the next evaporator evaporator w i l l effect.

the e f f e c t s

be numbered

77

extracted vapour I steam or heating vapour I ; t'

i-th effect

to condenser

juice

I G.^,bt

G'. t.' b.' i "-' -' i-1

I I
I

t'

condensate' flash vapouH^ condensatej returned I condensate extracted \ condensate! i-r Gi,t
1 1

EVAPORATOR BOUNDARY

F i g . 2 . 9 . Scheme o f t h e i - t h r e p e t i t i v e b l o c k symbols used i n t h e mathematical model. 1,2,..,N. Certain variables w i l l set of input

i n an N - e f f e c t

e v a p o r a t o r and

the

be i n d e x e d 0 a t

inlet

and N+1 a t

outlet. the

A typical following -

data f o r

evaporator calculations

comprises

parameters:

t h i n j u i c e mass f l o w G ^ , concentration of thin juice thin juice temperature t. be e v a p o r a t e d c a n be c a l c u l a t e d as (2.48) a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s calculations: steam s u p p l i e d t o the f i r s t effect and t h i c k j u i c e Bj^,

The

mass f l o w o f w a t e r t o

G = G(1 - b Q / B ^ ) The and following process parameters

must be s p e c i f i e d b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g t h e and p r e s s u r e o f t h e h e a t i n g

- temperature 4 S s Pp temperature

differences

At^

At2,..,

t^

between t h e h e a t i n g temperature

steam o r v a p o u r , differences

and

the vapour generated from j u i c e ;

alternatively,

between t h e h e a t i n g

steam o r v a p o u r , and t h e j u i c e ,

c a n be s p e c i f i e d . system, the

From t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s following -

o f o t h e r components o f t h e t h e r m a l

d a t a must a l s o be k n o w n : of vapours withdrawn from the individual effects for h e a t i ng

mass f l o w s

purposes G ^ , G ^ , . . , G ^ ;

78

G!|*,

mass f l o w s
G29..J G J J

and t e m p e r a t u r e s
and tp t2j..j

o f condensates returned to
tjj;

the condensate

tanks,

condensate w i t h d r a w a l / s u p p l y c o e f f i c i e n t s i-th effect, r^ = 0 means t h a t r^.

r^

i ^ 2 " * '^' condensate stream is withdrawn is

For the to

the e n t i r e

the surroundings, while the tank i n

= 1 means t h a t numbered

the e n t i r e (i+1).

condensate stream

supplied to

the e f f e c t

F o r known e v a p o r a t o r d e s i g n s and known c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s insulation specified: subcooling (relative to the s a t u r a t i o n temperature) of in the individual effects, the f o l l o w i n g

of

the

thermal

thermal

d a t a c a n be

the condensates

leaving

the c o n s e c u t i v e heating vapour temperature

chambers s ^

S 2 . . , Sj^; in the pipes linking neighbouring

d r o p s due t o

throttling

effects -

d p d 2 , . . , d^^; of the evaporator bodies e ^ e2,.., ej^ and c o n d e n s a t e

heat loss c o e f f i c i e n t s C p 0 2 . . > Cj^.

tanks

Having s p e c i f i e d a l l temperatures tV t l , It = t? - At. - d,. in

the

input

d a t a , one i s

able to determine numbered i

the vapour 2,.., N) as (2.49) (2.50)

the e n t i r e

evaporator

(for effects

= 1,

- t^

now becomes p o s s i b l e t o

c o n s t r u c t a mathematical in

description of

the

multi-

stage evaporation process, unknown mass f l o w s , individual

the form o f a system o f e q u a t i o n s and j u i c e concentrations thermodynamic

containing the be

temperatures

i n o r between functions

evaporator effects. formulate

The f o l l o w i n g

must

known i n o r d e r t o h'^(t,b), juice AT(t,b),

the energy balance

relationships: and c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and

e n t h a l p y as a f u n c t i o n point

o f temperature of

boiling

e l e v a t i o n as a f u n c t i o n

temperature

concentration, h"(t), h'(t), e n t h a l p y o f d r y s a t u r a t e d s t e a m as a f u n c t i o n e n t h a l p y o f s a t u r a t e d w a t e r as a f u n c t i o n model description of a single evaporator effect t h e h e a t l o s s e s and c o n d e n s a t e r e t u r n s is s e t equal to becomes much the of of temperature,

temperature.

2.5.2

Simplified

The mathematical e a s i e r to handle i f

a r e n e g l e c t e d and heating and c a n be

amount o f v a p o u r e v a p o r a t e d f r o m j u i c e v a p o u r o r steam condensed ( t h a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e j u i c e written down, f o r i = 1, is, the

t h e amount o f

i n f l u e n c e o f the temperature

enthalpy is

d i s r e g a r d e d ) . These assumptions * = 0 , and

2,..,

N, as e. = c^. = 0 ,

G^ = G ^ - G T + G^^., where G i s t h e mass f l o w o f condensate f l a s h vapour, to be c a l c u l a t e d

(2.51) from the

79

relationship = (G' + G^_^)(h^^ where the e n t h a l p i e s the heating - h ^ ) / ( h [ - h^) h^^, h 9 and h t a p p l y t o the subcooled condensate and t h e f l a s h vapour, (2.52) leaving

chamber, the condensate i n the t a n k , These e n t h a l p i e s are determined as

respectively. h^' = h'(t^

- s.)

(2.53) (2.54) (2.55) in the next e f f e c t is (2.56)

= h'(t^^^) hf = h"(t^^T)

The mass f l o w o f c o n d e n s a t e t o t h e t a n k G? = r . ( G ^ + G ^ . ^ - G f )

The mass b a l a n c e o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r can now be d e t e r m i n e d by s o l v i n g an e q u a t i o n with t h e mass f l o w o f t h e l a s t - e f f e c t Linking v a p o u r t o t h e c o n d e n s e r , G ^ ^ ^ , as numbered the

unknown v a r i a b l e . N, N - 1 , . . , i,

t h e mass b a l a n c e s o f t h e e f f e c t s in accordance with eqn.

formulated

( 2 . 5 1 ) , we o b t a i n

= ^ N - k

- i k )

^ entire

(2.57)

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , we can c o n c l u d e f r o m t h e mass b a l a n c e o f t h e evaporator G^^l = (G that ^E^i(Gy - G))/N (2.48).

(2.58)

where G i s d e f i n e d by e q n .

T h e m a s s - b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n can now be o b t a i n e d b y s u b s t i t u t i n g , i = , N - 1 , . . , 1, eqns. (2.53)-(2.56) into eqn. (2.11),

for g[ as

thus determining into

functions (2.58).

o f G ^ _ ^ ^ , and s u b s e q u e n t l y s u b s t i t u t i n g N, t h i s

these functions

eqn. It for of is

F o r a s p e c i f i c number o f e f f e c t s

can be done a n a l y t i c a l l y . numerical is solutions

also p o s s i b l e to devise a simple algorithm arbitrary N , as shown i n F i g . 2 . 1 0 ( a ) .

delivering

The a l g o r i t h m form

b a s e d on a c h a i n

substitutions " l l -<^)

g e n e r a t i n g an e q u a t i o n o f t h e

(2-59) improving approximate s o l u t i o n s to

T h i s e q u a t i o n can be s o l v e d by i t e r a t i v e l y s a t i s f y the IG^^I condition < g small number.

- f(G^^^)|

(2.60)

where g i s

a sufficiently simplify

In o r d e r t o

the flow diagram, the c a l c u l a t i o n (2.56) is n o t shown i n

o f the

condensate As this

mass f l o w a c c o r d i n g t o e q n .

Fig. 2.10(a).

80

()
eqn.(2A8)

(b)
eqn.(2A8)

for i = 1.2. . . . N eqns.{2.49).(2.58) {2.53)- (2.55) Gi = 0

for i=1.2, . . . N eqns.{2.49).(2.50) (2.53)-(255).(2.80)

initial guesses for G ^ , ^

for i=N,N-1,..,1 eqn.(2.57) eqn.(2.52) J -

G ^ ^ ^ from(2.58)

F i g . 2 . 1 0 . Flow diagram o f the a l g o r i t h m s o f e v a p o r a t o r c a l c u l a t i o n s : the s i m p l i f i e d model, (b) using the d e t a i l e d model. calculation is performed before checking c o n d i t i o n (2.60),

(a)

using

t h e mass b a l a n c e

of

t h e e v a p o r a t o r becomes u n a m b i g u o u s l y d e f i n e d . make i t i = 2,
=

Known v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e for

flows

possible to 3,..,
N-1, G?

calculate juice

flows

and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ,

as
(2.61)

Q J . ^ -

Consequently, boiling point the e f f e c t s numbered i = 1,

e l e v a t i o n s and e f f e c t i v e 2 , . . , are

temperature

differences

in

. = AT (tr, b . )

(2.63)

81

At.

= t^

(tV

+ .) and j u i c e concentrations k^. now make i t possible to

(2.64) estimate formulae

Known t e m p e r a t u r e s overall

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficients

i n each e f f e c t ,

using graphs o r

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the evaporator design a p p l i e d . s u r f a c e a r e a s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d F,. = G ^ ( h ? 2.5.3 It h f )/(k.At.) model as

Consequently, heat

transfer

(2.65)

Detailed

was o b s e r v e d a l o n g t i m e ago t h a t when s o l v i n g c e r t a i n inherent in the

the accuracy o f the

simplified 15). from

model

may

be i n s u f f i c i e n t systematic e r r o r changes losses in j u i c e to

e n g i n e e r i n g problems model

(ref.

The neglected heat

simplified

r e s u l t s mainly

e n t h a l p y between c o n s e c u t i v e e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s ,

neglected

t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s , and i n c o m p l e t e

d e s c r i p t i o n o f the condensate authors

flash.

More d e t a i l e d m a t h e m a t i c a l (refs. is 16-18).

m o d e l s h a v e been c o n s i d e r e d by v a r i o u s

A complete s e t o f equations d e s c r i b i n g a s i n g l e e v a p o r a t o r It is assumed t h a t the j u i c e concentration is

effect

presented below. that

known, which for each may

implies

some h i g h e r - o r d e r a l g o r i t h m step corresponding to (2.63) and ( 2 . 6 4 ) .

must s u p p l y c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

calculation

a single effect. The e n t h a l p y o f

T h e r e f o r e , t h e model is

include eqns. h^* = h J ( t ^ ' ,

the j u i c e

b.) is

(2.66)

T h e mass f l o w o f t h e v a p o u r o b t a i n e d G? = G- - G ( + G ^ ^ ^ T h e mass f l o w o f can be c a l c u l a t e d G^ = ( ( 1 + e.)/(h^ the as h f ))(G?(hy hl^) heating

(2.67) vapour required to evaporate this amount o f water

- GJ(hJ_^ (2.53)

hJ))

(2.68) vapour

where t h e e n t h a l p y h?^ i s generated i s = h"(t^) The t o t a l defined as

d e f i n e d by e q n .

and t h e e n t h a l p y h V of

(2.69) the tank is (2.70) c a n be c a l c u l a t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y + G;'t^)/Gf is (2.72) as (2.71)

mass f l o w o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e e n t e r i n g

G - ^ = G ^ _ . , + G^ + G C and i t s t f average temperature - s.)

= (G?(t^

+ G^.^t^.^

The c o n d e n s a t e e n t h a l p y a t h f = h ' ( t f )

the average temperature

82

The

mass f l o w = G f ( h f -

of

the

condensate f l a s h h^)(l + c.))

vapour

is (2.73)

h^)/((hi -

and G^ It GJ and bi As

t h e mass f l o w = G9^ is -

of

the

condensate withdrawn

to

the

surroundings

is (2.74)

G^ determine t h e mass f l o w of the j u i c e at the outlet

now p o s s i b l e t o G?

as (2.75)

= GJ.^ -

the j u i c e

concentration

at

the

outlet

as (2.76)

= b^-iG^-j/G^' in the simplified model, 2,.., the above e q u a t i o n s combined eqn. c a n be f o r m u l a t e d one e q u a t i o n chain of for the one

effects

numbered 1,

and t h e n

into

(with

unknown v a r i a b l e is the rather

G^^^^) a n a l o g o u s t o the equation

(2.59).

As t h e

substitutions Contrary to

complicated,

c a n o n l y be s o l v e d n u m e r i c a l l y . may n o t converge; i t is is

simplified to

model, d i r e c t

iterations methods.

therefore rewritten

necessary in the

use o t h e r

numerical

The e q u a t i o n

conveniently

form
( 2 ) . 7 7

'^l,-n^l^)-0
In Fig. 2.10(b), is the flow diagram o f the algorithm b a s e d on a p p l i c a t i o n iterative for of s e c a n t method to eqn. first as the find two shown. A p r e r e q u i s i t e approximations It of is for the a successful computation initial unknown v a r i a b l e which e r r o r s = 0 as

the is

of the

(2.77)

have o p p o s i t e s i g n s .

usually possible to from the initial it is

set G^^^

approximation, second. signs for

and G^^-j r e s u l t i n g the

chain of

substitutions check them also as for the

When c o m p u t e r i z i n g

algorithm,

recommended t o

error

both approximations process is

and, i f

necessary, to modify

one o f

before the to G^^^ i b. and

GJ
=

iterative

started.

Some i n i t i a l

approximations

have

be f o u n d f o r is

several other

v a r i a b l e s whose v a l u e s a r e n o t the iteration loop, it

known as l o n g

unknown. B e f o r e e n t e r i n g 3,.., N-1, the

c a n be assumed t h a t of the j u i c e are

= 2,

concentrations

and t h e mass f l o w s

= b._^

+ (B^ -

bQ)/N

(2.78)

GJ.^b..i/b. initial be guesses f o r t h e mass f l o w s of the flash vapours f o r i = 1, 2,..,

( 2 ). 7 9

The can Gf The

N-1

= 0.005 G^ iterations in the internal l o o p c a n be t e r m i n a t e d if, in

(2.80) two s u b s e q u e n t

83

iterations

numbered n-1

and n ,

the j u i c e

concentrations b^

at

the evaporator

outlet

do n o t d i f f e r

by more t h a n t h e assumed t o l e r a n c e

|bi") After

- b("-1)| completing

< the iteration loop c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s e c a n t method, a l l

(2.81) the and

mass f l o w s w i t h i n (2.65)

the m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t determine

e v a p o r a t o r a r e known. E q u a t i o n s the heat exchange areas i n the

(2.64)

c a n t h e n be u s e d t o bodies.

individual

evaporator 2.5.4

Example between the s i m p l i f i e d model and t h e d e t a i l e d model data f o r of a c a n be

The d i f f e r e n c e

demonstrated by a numerical

example. The i n p u t

quintuple-effect performed

e v a p o r a t o r a r e shown i n T a b l e 2 . 5 ,

and t h e r e s u l t s

the c a l c u l a t i o n s the

u s i n g b o t h m o d e l s a r e shown i n T a b l e 2 . 6 . p r o d u c e d by t h e d e t a i l e d model a negative vapour flow is physically 2.5 data for from the are f u l l y last

As c a n be s e e n , w h i l e a c c e p t a b l e , the to

results model yields

simplified

evaporator effect

the condenser, which

impossible.

TABLE

Main i n p u t

t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f a q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t (t/h)

(OC)

evaporator.

T h i n j u i c e mass f l o w Thin j u i c e temperature Thin j u i c e concentration Thick j u i c e concentration H e a t i n g steam t e m p e r a t u r e Effect No.

{% DS) (% DS)
(OC)

219.9 127.0 14.1 52.0 139.0 1 2 49.00 8.1 3 8.10 6.8 4 8.10 12.3 5 6.93 13.5

Mass f l o w o f v a p o u r w i t h d r a w n Temperature d i f f e r e n c e between h e a t i n g s t e a m / v a p o u r and v a p o u r g e n e r a t e d TABLE 2.6

(t/h) (K)

4.75 9.2

E x c e r p t s f r o m t h e c a l c u l a t e d mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f a e v a p o r a t o r ( a l l mass f l o w s i n t / h ) . Quantity Mass f l o w o f v a p o u r g e n e r a t e d Effect 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 No. Simplified model 67.60 64.01 16.09 9.11 3.10 1.16 1.08 1.13 2.08 2.26 -1.58

quintuple-effect

Detailed model 66.85 63.22 15.60 9.66 5.03 0.98 0.76 1.00 2.28 2.67 0.76

Mass f l o w o f c o n d e n s a t e vapour

flash

Mass f l o w o f condenser

vapour to

the

84

It

s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e

in

vapour flows the j u i c e

to

the

condenser r e s u l t s the model

from d i f f e r e n t inlet (the

approaches o f t h e models t o phenomenon i s

flash

phenomenon a t the s i m p l i f i e d

t o e a c h s t a g e . As t h i s influence o f temperature

disregarded in

and c o n c e n t r a t i o n on j u i c e

enthalpy

is

neglected), and

the t o t a l so i s 2.6 2.6.1

amount o f

vapours generated i n from the last

the evaporator i s

underestimated,

the vapour flow

effect.

MASS AND HEAT BALANCES OF A THERMAL SYSTEM Principles of utilization of the results of balance calculations heat

The a l g o r i t h m s receivers

used t o

calculate

the m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t

e v a p o r a t o r and t h e

c a n be c o m b i n e d i n t o thermal principle

one a l g o r i t h m

o f a d e t a i l e d mass and h e a t from the e x t e r n a l energy In it

balance o f the balance, order to this turn

s y s t e m . T o make a d i s t i n c t i o n is sometimes

called e v a p o r a t o r - r e c e i v e r approach. into a tool for engineering analyses, the balances of

t h e combined a l g o r i t h m e n o u g h t o make i t thermal

s h o u l d be g e n e r a l various for

possible to

calculate

hypothetical

systems. The a l g o r i t h m situations

s h o u l d a l s o make i t solving

easy

the user to

handle p r a c t i c a l

associated with

engineering of of of the

problems.

F o r e x a m p l e , when d e s i g n i n g a new t h e r m a l o f an e v a p o r a t o r m i g h t the individual prove that

system, the

results

calculation vapours thick to

t h e assumed d i s t r i b u t i o n with the

receivers is

incompatible for

required value input data, the

juice

concentration. Alternatively, indicate that the j u i c e

other sets of

results

might

temperatures

assumed i n

certain

places some

c a n n o t be r e a c h e d . I n b o t h c a s e s , t h e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e r e q u i r e s t h a t changes t o imagined: the input d a t a be i n t r o d u c e d , and two b a s i c t y p e s o f of t h e mass b a l a n c e , o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s input data of

c h a n g e s c a n be the s t r u c t u r e calculations of must

corrections

the thermal be r e p e a t e d .

s y s t e m . Once t h e

h a v e been c h a n g e d , t h e

A slightly

different

situation

a r i s e s when i n v e s t i g a t i n g

t h e mass and h e a t from

b a l a n c e s o f an e x i s t i n g input

system. U s u a l l y , the

b a l a n c e s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d

data which i n c l u d e o n l y a p a r t o f are then s e t a g a i n s t the interpret

the data o b t a i n e d from the

measurements.

The r e s u l t s i s made t o

remaining

m e a s u r e m e n t d a t a , and an a t t e m p t the cause o f

p o s s i b l e d i s c r e p a n c i e s . Once a h y p o t h e s i s f o r changes t o the input

t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s has b e e n f o r m u l a t e d , and t h e b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s are mentioned It in Chapter 3.)

data are of this

introduced procedure

are repeated.

(The a p p l i c a t i o n s

c a n be c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e s t h a t require repetitive calculations.

the analyses o f

energy connection use o f also a non-

balances often with

T h i s must be s e e n i n

the handling

o f c o n s i d e r a b l e v o l u m e s o f d a t a and t h e r e p e t i t i v e The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f is necessary to the the balance r e s u l t s show a l l the d e t a i l s identify is

thermodynamic trivial

functions.

problem, because i t

w h i c h may be the necessary

needed t o a n a l y s e t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f

b a l a n c e and t o

85

changes i n 2.6.2

the

input

data. calculations o f the engineering tasks use o f computers to discussed in data the

Computer-aided balance

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

features the

preceding Section j u s t i f y calculations

automate

handling, the of

and p r e s e n t a t i o n o f personal

results.

Contemporary computers, i n c l u d i n g suited to this kind

so-called professional application.

computers, are very well the

As r e g a r d s t h e d a t a h a n d l i n g ,

p r o b l e m s c a n c o n v e n i e n t l y be files. written The the in

s o l v e d u s i n g s t a n d a r d d a t a - b a s e programs t o The c a l c u l a t i o n in program, i n c l u d i n g programming the

c r e a t e and u p d a t e t h e d a t a functions, c a n be

thermodynamic

some h i g h - l e v e l

language, l i k e

Basic, Fortran or Pascal. possibly accepting

p r o g r a m s h o u l d r e a d most i n p u t remaining the f i l e s . available, only It

data from the f i l e s , results

d a t a f r o m t h e k e y b o a r d , and t h e It is also important to

s h o u l d p r e f e r a b l y be s t o r e d presentation and t o programs

have h i g h l y

flexible files

t o make i t of the

possible to

s e l e c t from the really

display or

print

the part

r e s u l t s which i s to

needed a t

a particular

moment. is

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t

computerize the

balance c a l c u l a t i o n s activities

p e r h a p s more a p r o b l e m o f o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a n o f content. here, T h e r e f o r e , no s p e c i f i c is never possible to requirements take of

the engineering

g u i d e l i n e s on p r o g r a m d e s i g n w i l l eliminate t h e need f o r for a careful It

be d i s c u s s e d analysis of

as i t

the p r a c t i c a l interest, with

and c o n d i t i o n s a look at

program u s e .

may be o f

some

however, to

t h e main f e a t u r e s and l a t e r

o f a program, developed used i n to hundreds design of

the p a r t i c i p a t i o n (ref. 19).

the present a u t h o r ,

applications

Most a p p l i c a t i o n

cases were r e l a t e d

problems,

b u t s e v e r a l d o z e n s o f mass a n d h e a t b a l a n c e s w e r e a l s o c a l c u l a t e d when investigating e n e r g y economy p r o b l e m s in existing the sugar factories. was diagram the It

T h e p r o g r a m was g r a d u a l l y d e s i g n e d and c o d e d f o r

improved d u r i n g

p e r i o d 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 8 0 , as i t A simplified flow

new v e r s i o n s o f m i c r o c o m p u t e r s . actions and d e c i s i o n s l e f t to

v i s u a l i z i n g the e s s e n t i a l essential blocks o f

t h e p r o g r a m u s e r and shown i n F i g . 2.11. an

routines

performed by t h e computer i s

c a n be s e e n t h a t important into role in

t h e d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n t h e u s e r and t h e c o m p u t e r p l a y s the functioning of the program. In a d d i t i o n , data it

has b e e n

taken

account that

a complete a p p l i c a t i o n

c y c l e comprising

input, presentation require and of

calculations, intermediate

p o s s i b l e data m o d i f i c a t i o n s and f i n a l r e s u l t s , and f i n a l

and r e - c a l c u l a t i o n s , p r o b l e m a n a l y s i s may

a considerable time. later restart,

Therefore, it at

has been made p o s s i b l e t o between t h e to

interrupt, routine

program a c t i o n

several points

b l o c k s . The in its

resulting successful

flexibility

o f program use t u r n e d o u t

be a c r u c i a l

factor

applications. has been p a i d t o t h e u s e r ' s c o n v e n i e n c e when u t i l i z i n g the the risk

Much a t t e n t i o n data input

routines,

as l a r g e d a t a v o l u m e s a r e a l w a y s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

86

key in update

calculations of heat receivers, printouts

:ey in data on thernnal syslenr) details

corrected At

F i g . 2 . 1 1 . S i m p l i f i e d f l o w d i a g r a m o f a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m c a l c u l a t i n g t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e r m a l s y s t e m s o f s u g a r f a c t o r i e s . T h e b o x e s marked * d e n o t e d i s k e t t e memory. of typing errors. Input data are l o g i c a l l y divided into segments r e l a t e d requirements ergonomically to and the

p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e , e q u i p m e n t p a r a m e t e r s , p r o c e s s h e a t i n g thermal system s t r u c t u r e . Within each segment, a s e r i e s o f

87

optimized

screen formats

p r o v i d e s g u i d a n c e f o r t h e u s e r and c r o s s - c h e c k s on d a t a as a l l o w i n g convenient introduction of all

correctness

and c o n s i s t e n c y , as w e l l

n e c e s s a r y c h a n g e s and c o r r e c t i o n s t o t h e d a t a a l r e a d y s t o r e d i n t h e c o m p u t e r memory. Concerning the outputs, options b o t h t o v i d e o s c r e e n and h a r d c o p y , a number o f

h a v e been i n t r o d u c e d t o e n a b l e t h e u s e r t o c h o o s e t h e v o l u m e and t h e information. Among o t h e r s , it i s p o s s i b l e t o choose from with the t e x t in four

form o f the o u t p u t

languages f o r o u t p u t English

descriptions.

A section of printout

i s shown i n F i g . 2 . 1 2 .

IFABL

EVAPORATOR

PARAMETERS

T A B L E

E F F E C T PAF;:AMETER D E S C R I P T I O N U N I T 1 ! 2 ! 3

NUMBER : 4 :

5
90.1

14

e 3 1 I. SI

S t e a M E

E e r a

2 . V a o u r 3 . J ;J. C E

t e in

& ur
t

t
e

C C C

136. 0 ! 1 2 8 . 8 1 2 1 . 5 1110 . 4 ! 9 9 . 8 I I I I I I I I
1 2 9 . 8 ! 1 2 2 . 5

I I

1111.4

I I

1 1 0 0 . 8 !

I I

I I

E e

A t

4 LHI E f U I 5 . E.' V 3 o

t iTi

A t .

d i f f

r e
E Nc

130 . 3 ! 1 2 3 . 2 113 . 9 ! 1 0 4 . 4 I C 5 . 7 ! %PB J 5 . 5 ! 7 . 3 ! 5 . 4 ! J J 4 . 3 4 !

94 .

4 . 4

a t

:I. o

E F f e C t

. t r y

S B E

q i.j

A i t I t

7 *\}aFOIJ f o r hea t i
r 8 . J U I C E Q u a n t i t y a f t e r

\:i

I
!

3 2 . 1 9 ! 2 0 . 3 5 ! 2 5 . 1 5 ! %PB % B S e Pd 7 . 0 2 ! %PB BX

1.81

!
3 . 9 4 !

!
1.46 1.82 .18 . 01

3 3 . 1 1 2 5 . 6 5 ! 2 4 . 6 1 !
e

!
4 . 2 3 !

2 . 3 6 ! 2 1 . 7 7 !

E F F E C T

82 . 8 3 ! 5 6 . 4 8 ! 3 1 . 3 2 ! 2 6 . 9 9 ! 2 5 19 . 7 6 ! 2 8 . 9 8 ! 5 2 . 2 5 ! 6 0 . 6 4 ! 6 5

9. J U i C e
1 0 . U A O IJ

COCEtr

SS

11.

A S F e

r e d

He

a
e

*aF t E r
a

ef f ect
t y

!
2 . 7 3 ! 2 . 1 8 !

!
1.53!

!
1.06! 2 5 2 8 !

!
071 0.7;; 947

MP A ATA

0 . 2 6 8 ! 0 . 2 1 4 ! 0 . 1 5 0 ! 0 . 1 0 4 ! 0 .

ti

KW

2 0 5 4 7 ! 1 6 0 6 6 ! 1 5 5 6 2 !

F i g . 2 . 1 2 . P a r t o f a p r i n t o u t f r o m a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m c a l c u l a t i n g t h e mass and heat balances o f thermal systems o f s u g a r f a c t o r i e s ( c o u r t e s y Chemadex). 2.7 2.7.1 EXERGY BALANCES Theoretical background the energy balance equations ( 2 . 5 ) and ( 2 . 6 ) , we h a v e i n

When i n t r o d u c i n g fact flow

accepted a convention according to which the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the energy i s b a s e d on t h e e n t h a l p y o f m a t t e r entering or leaving the thermodynamic in

system.

T h e same c o n v e n t i o n i s u s e d when r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e e n e r g y f l o w

88

a Sankey d i a g r a m . the at definition of

L e t us o b s e r v e , n o w e v e r , t h a t the enthalpy are changed ( f o r

if

the

reference

parameters

in

example, zero enthalpy of the energy flow

assumed is at is

20C i n s t e a d o f a t

O ^ C ) , then the

representation the

changed t o o , all.

even though the accentuate notion

essence o f the fact

e n e r g y b a l a n c e does n o t

change

In order to

that

the energy balance

representation terms

s o d e p e n d e n t on t h e "enthalpy balance"

of enthalpy, flow

some a u t h o r s (refs.

have adopted t h e 14,20). to

and " e n t h a l p y

diagram"

The e n t h a l p y - b a s e d e n e r g y b a l a n c e s a r e and p a r t i c u l a r l y decisions. the to the preparation to of

indispensable for

the design a n a l y s e s , selection including the system deliver

the data

equipment

T h e same a p p l i e s of the

the monitoring o f energy p r o c e s s e s , I n a n a l y s e s aimed a t of p o s s i b l e thermal

determination of

the energy consumption. energy-saving potential

identification improvements, only a part of

h o w e v e r , t h e e n t h a l p y - b a s e d b a l a n c e s c a n be e x p e c t e d t o the information required. The r e a s o n i s that in

real-life direct

systems, the e f f i c i e n c y heat losses to

of energy u t i l i z a t i o n but

c a n be r e d u c e d n o t o n l y b y l o s s e s known as amount the

the environment,

a l s o by i n d i r e c t if

thermal

degradation

o f energy. For example,

a certain

o f e n e r g y has one, is then

been t r a n s f e r r e d the range o f

from a high-temperature for is the

medium t o of

a low-temperature this of

possibilities effect

utilization when t h e to

amount o f e n e r g y an

narrowed. medium i s processes processes.

A similar

obtained

flow

energy-carrying the

t h r o t t l e d down f r o m a h i g h e r resulting in the thermal

a lower pressure. G e n e r a l l y , o f energy are c a l l e d

degradation

irreversible

While the conceptual losses use o f

direct

e n e r g y l o s s e s c a n be q u a n t i t a t i v e l y first law o f of

d e s c r i b e d on the

the

basis

p r o v i d e d by t h e

thermodynamics, the indirect

indirect requires

cannot. the

A quantitative

description

energy losses and is

notions

associated w i t h the of entropy.

second law o f

thermodynamics, system which any

particularly from i t s small

the notion

F o r a thermodynamic that for

isolated

s u r r o u n d i n g s , the of

second law s p e c i f i e s system, the

infinitesimally be

change o f s t a t e

the

change o f

entropy

( d e n o t e d S ) must

non-negative dS > 0 where the inequality sign applies In a f i n i t e increase (2.82) energy degradation caused by t h e in the process. it to irreversible, and t h e e q u a l i t y at state 1 and sign (2.81) to

reversible, at state 2 AS = 1 / dS 2,

processes. the entropy

process i n i t i a t e d

terminated

c a n be u n d e r s t o o d as a m e a s u r e o f t h e As t h e e n t r o p y is always a t t r i b u t e d t o

the matter contained will t h e n be c a l l e d

system,

c a n a l s o be e x p r e s s e d p e r 1 kg m a s s ;

it

specific

entropy.

8 9

and d e n o t e d

s. construct a unified theoretical approach t o both direct exergy

I n an a t t e m p t t o energy

l o s s e s and e n e r g y d e g r a d a t i o n , a new t h e r m o d y n a m i c the definition

function

called

has been i n t r o d u c e d w i t h
e = h hQ T Q (S S Q )

( 2 ) . 8 3

where s u b s c r i p t 0 denotes t h e s t a t e environment. and e n t r o p y , equilibrium; parameters T Q thus

of

thermodynamic

equilibrium

with

the enthalpy of

denotes the environment the parameters

temperature

and h g , S Q

the

r e s p e c t i v e l y , at

corresponding to

the state the

h and s d e n o t e e n t h a l p y

and e n t r o p y ,

r e s p e c t i v e l y , at

f o r which exergy i s

defined. as an indication (this the

An e x e r g y l o s s t a k i n g p l a c e i n a p r o c e s s c a n be i n t e r p r e t e d that, following direct energy l o s s e s o r thermal

degradation o f energy of both), the

resulting state

in enthalpy

c h a n g e , e n t r o p y change o r a combination thermodynamic equilibrium

o f t h e s y s t e m moves c l o s e r t o Obviously, this for the is

with

environment. possibilities Using the distribution

associated with of

a reduction

o f the

range

of

utilization

system e n e r g y .

notion

o f e x e r g y , the

p r o c e s s e s o f e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and representation of

c a n be d e s c r i b e d by e x e r g y b a l a n c e s . A g r a p h i c a l (that is, the exergy flow that diagram) is

the exergy balance diagram. It

known as t h e Grassmann very

c a n g e n e r a l l y be s t a t e d in

the e x e r g y - b a s e d approach i s solutions of

g r a p h i c and u s e f u l Examples o f problems

comparisons o f d i s s i m i l a r of

energy processes.

successful applications the

exergy analyses to (refs.

2 2 , 2 3 ).

sugar technology

c a n be f o u n d i n industrial

literature it

As r e g a r d s concepts determine

practice,

c a n be o b s e r v e d t h a t o n c e a f e w

solution

h a v e been s e l e c t e d f o r

an e n e r g y p r o c e s s , i t s e l e c t the equipment

becomes n e c e s s a r y t o and e s t i m a t e balances, of the costs.

the process parameters,

Of c o u r s e , c o s t estimates prepared in solutions is parallel limited, with

s h o u l d be b a s e d on t h e e n t h a l p y the exergy balances. rather is If the of

possibly

field the

possible then energy another

as i s

characteristic

sugar i n d u s t r y , for s o l v i n g most more t h a n

the enthalpy engineering

balance alone problems. After

effective

e n o u g h as a t o o l

all,

the exergy balance i s

nothing

convention f o r 2.7.2 Example

describing

the energy processes.

Compare e n t h a l p y - f l o w and u t i l i z a t i o n a drum-type from 2 0 % outlet, to in

and e x e r g y - f l o w r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s drying p r o c e s s . T h e amount o f kg b e e t , in

of energy conversion pulp delivered to

the pulp

dryer is 90%,

2 4 kg p e r 1 0 0

the dry substance content 900C at inlet

changes at

t h e gas t e m p e r a t u r e is

t h e drum i s

and l l O ^ C

and t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n fuel used oil,

2 9 00

k J p e r kg w a t e r 0.93,

removed. O t h e r heat loss

data

a r e as f o l l o w s :

furnace

efficiency

coefficient

90

of

t h e d r y e r drum 0 . 0 3 ,

environment

temperature in the

20 C . p r o c e s s c a n be combustion is shown divided

E n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n into three steps: fuel combustion,

pulp drying to the

air

admixing

g a s , and in in

drying. Fig. Fig.

The Sankey diagram

(enthalpy flow

representation)

2.13(a) 2.13(b).

and t h e Grassmann d i a g r a m

(exergy flow

representation)

(a) fuel 100%

(b) fuel 100%

loss ) . 7%

VI

loss

, . pressed pulp 0.4%

L.
e x h a u s t g a s 102.1% exhaust g a s 11.9%

dried pulp 0.1%

F i g . 2 . 1 3 . E n t h a l p y - f l o w ( a ) and e x e r g y - f l o w ( b ) r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f d r y i n g p r o c e s s . 1 - f u r n a c e , 2 - mixing chamber, 3 - d r y e r drum. The e n t h a l p y - f l o w a p p r o a c h seems t o by c u t t i n g suggest that significant flow in

the

pulp

energy savings the dryer

c o u l d o n l y be o b t a i n e d outlet, as t h e d i r e c t

down t h e e n t h a l p y small.

t h e gas a t

energy losses are

In the e x e r g y - f l o w r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a t t r i b u t e d to the last the furnace, the mixing

however, considerable exergy losses chamber and t h e d r y e r d r u m . in Starting

are from

process s t e p , initial

the exergy loss gas t e m p e r a t u r e . air

t h e d r y e r c o u l d be r e d u c e d b y i n the mixing is c h a m b e r , one could

decreasing the imagine

Then,

the e l i m i n a t i o n o f there.

admixing, which

the cause o f

the exergy loss steam-generating

occurring

I n s t e a d , gas c o o l i n g

by h e a t exchange w i t h a steam t o a

t u b e b u n d l e c o u l d be a p p l i e d , and b y d e l i v e r i n g electrical e n e r g y c o u l d be p r o d u c e d w i t h o u t Finally, in the f u r n a c e , the

turbo-generator, the is

any e x t r a e n e r g y s u p p l y from is

environment.

exergy loss

u n a v o i d a b l e , as i t

associated with the v e r y nature 2.8

o f the combustion

process.

A N A L Y S I S OF TRANSIENT ENERGY PROCESSES USING COMPUTER S I M U L A T I O N In engineering problems related to the automatic control and m o n i t o r i n g behaviour of the of

energy processes, i t thermal

may be n e c e s s a r y t o

s t u d y the dynamic conditions.

system under changing o p e r a t i n g

For example, i t

may be

91

necessary to control of

e v a l u a t e p o s s i b l e consequences o f the a p p l i c a t i o n s

of

various states

systems w i t h r e s p e c t to

the e n e r g y l o s s e s accompanying t r a n s i e n t k i n d c a n be a n a l y s e d w i t h t h e a i d of

the evaporator.

Problems o f t h i s methods.

computer s i m u l a t i o n The e s s e n c e o f

computer s i m u l a t i o n

is

illustrated

by t h e scheme i n unit, a process

Fig.

2.14.

For the system under i n v e s t i g a t i o n or a factory

(i.e.,

an e q u i p m e n t

station in

s e c t i o n ) , an a d e q u a t e m a t h e m a t i c a l model must be f o r m u l a t e d representing the key p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s

terms (i.e.,

of variables

and t h e e x p r e s s i o n s relationships program, steady-

equations, inequalities

and f u n c t i o n s )

representing the into

between t h e p a r a m e t e r s . one is able to

Having transformed of

t h e model

a computer the

c a r r y out calculations conditions.

the

behaviour of

system i n

state

and d y n a m i c

input data reflecting operating conditions

MATHEMATICAL MODEL COMPUTER PROGRAM

_L_

SYSTEM

1^ II 1 1 ' I engineering decisions regarding

simulation results predicting system behaviour

sysfenrTproperties.automatic controls, etc.

F i g . 2.14. P r i n c i p l e o f the i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t e c h n o l o g i c a l systems w i t h the a i d o f computer s i m u l a t i o n . Simulation simulation reflects decades.

of

o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r c a n be r e g a r d e d as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e e x a m p l e related to the e n e r g y economy. The p e r t i n e n t techniques during suited literature the to last

of

problems

the development o f computer s i m u l a t i o n

two

I n an e a r l y s t u d y , a l i n e a r i z e d e v a p o r a t o r model 24).

programming

on an a n a l o g c o m p u t e r was p r o p o s e d ( r e f . digital

Later on, a leaning

towards c a n be named s o l v e d by 25), (ref. the 27). The

c o m p u t e r s has been g e n e r a l l y a d o p t e d . S e v e r a l p u b l i c a t i o n s equations (ref.

where e v a p o r a t o r models a r e d e s c r i b e d u s i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l such numerical methods as t h e o r t h o g o n a l (ref. 26)

c o l l o c a t i o n method

c o r r e c t o r - p r e d i c t o r method m o d e l s assume t h e u s e o f language. To t h e

and R u n g e - K u t t a i n t e g r a t i o n in

special

computer programs, w r i t t e n

the

Fortran these

knowledge o f the p r e s e n t a u t h o r , applied.

h o w e v e r , none o f

p r o g r a m s has been w i d e l y An a l t e r n a t i v e widely circulated

approach to e v a p o r a t o r s i m u l a t i o n general-purpose simulation

assumes t h e a p p l i c a t i o n

of

programs.

Such p r o g r a m s e n a b l e one

92

to

solve typical states

differential

equations encountered in

the simulation for

of successful in This

transient

of various technological to

systems. A p r e r e q u i s i t e

application

o f a s p e c i f i c program i s the

formulate

t h e e v a p o r a t o r model

a manner c o m p a t i b l e w i t h

requirements in practice

a d o p t e d by t h e

program d e s i g n e r .

a p p r o a c h has been i m p l e m e n t e d (ref. 28). simulation

u s i n g a w i d e l y known IBM p r o g r a m

Examples o f effect

results

d e s c r i b i n g the dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f 2.15.

multiple-

evaporators are given in

Fig.

(a)

(b)

iJllUUlr

v a p o u r flow withdrawn from 3rd effect

vapour flow withdrawn from 2nd effect

I
3rd effect

jrd j u i c e temperatures

effect v a p o u r consumption 5th effect

1000

2000 Timis)

3000

4000

10

15

Time (min)

F i g . 2.15. Examples o f s i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s d e s c r i b i n g t h e dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r s , (a) j u i c e temperatures at v a r i a b l e vapour w i t h d r a w a l from the t h i r d e f f e c t , d i s c h a r g e - c o n t r o l l e d j u i c e l e v e l s ( a f t e r r e f . 2 6 ) , ( b ) consumption o f heating vapours a t v a r i a b l e vapour withdrawal from the second e f f e c t , f e e d - c o n t r o l l e d j u i c e l e v e l s ( a f t e r r e f . 2 8 ) . REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 T . D . E a s t o p and A . M c C o n k e y , A p p l i e d T h e r m o d y n a m i c s f o r E n g i n e e r i n g T e c h n o l o g i s t s , 3 r d e d n . , L o n g m a n , L o n d o n and New Y o r k , 1978. G . J . Van W y l e n and R . E . S o n n t a g , F u n d a m e n t a l s o f C l a s s i c a l T h e r m o d y n a m i c s , 3 r d e d n . , W i l e y , New Y o r k , 1985. J . C u e l , Le b i l a n t h e r m i q u e en s u c r e r i e , S u c r . F r . , 1 1 9 ( 2 1 ) ( 1 9 7 8 ) 4 2 4 - 4 3 4 , 119(22) (1978) 455-466. P.W. v a n d e r P o e l ( e t a l . ) , Z u c k e r h a u s s c h e m a t a , e i n B e i s p i e l v o n I n f o r m a tionsverbesserung mit H i l f e der e l e k t r o n i s c h e n D a t e n v e r a r b e i t u n g , Z u c k e r , 2 8 ( 3 ) ( 1 9 7 5 ) 122-131. T . B a l o h , Z u c k e r t e c h n o l o g i s c h e R e c h n u n g e n m i t dem D r e i k o m p o n e n t e n - D i a g r a m m , Z u c k e r i n d . , 107(6) (1982) 515-525. A . K u b a s i e w i c z , W. L e k a w s k i and K. U r b a n i e c , A u t o m a t e d d e s i g n c a l c u l a t i o n s o f b e e t s u g a r p l a n t s u s i n g m i c r o c o m p u t e r COMPUCORP 425 G , P r o c . 3 r d Symp. Use o f C o m p u t e r s i n C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g , G l i w i c e , 1974, p p . 2 1 3 - 2 1 7 . L.W. W e i s s , C o m p u t e r p r o g r a m t o a i d s u g a r e n d o p e r a t i o n s . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t 2 1 s t ASSBT M e e t i n g , San D i e g o , 1981. H . R . D e l a n e y , D. G o t t h a r d and J . B . N i c h o l s , U s e o f an e n e r g y model i n s u g a r r e f i n i n g . I n t . Sugar J . , 85(1014) (1983) 171-176. R . G . H o e k s t r a , A f l e x i b l e computer program f o r four-component m a t e r i a l balances i n s u g a r i n d u s t r y b o i l i n g h o u s e s . I n t . Sugar J . , 85(1016) (1983) 227-232, 85(1017) (1983) 262-265.

5 6

7 8. 9

93

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

23 24 25

26

27 28

P.M. S i l i n , V o p r o s y T e k h n o l o g i i Sakharnykh V e s h c h e s t v , P i s h c h e p r o m i z d a t , M o s k v a , 1950. W. L e k a w s k i and K. U r b a n i e c , M o d e r n i s i e r u n g d e r W ' r m e w i r t s c h a f t i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(4) (1983) 338-343. . U r b a n i e c and . K u b a s i e w i c z , M o d e l e m a t e m a t y c z n e d a p r o j e k t o w a n i a w i e l o d z i a l o w y c h i n s t a l a c j i w y p a r n y c h , I n z . C h e m . , 7 ( 1 ) (1977) 207-221. T . B a l o h , W r m e w i r t s c h a f t , i n : F . S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , T e c h n o l o g i e des Z u c k e r s , S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1968, p p . 7 0 5 - 7 7 6 . . B a l o h , Wrmeatlas f r d i e Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1975. A . L . W e b r e , E v a p o r a t i o n and h e a t i n g , i n : D. S p e n c e r and G . P . Meade ( E d s . ) , Cane S u g a r H a n d b o o k , W i l e y , New Y o r k , 1948, p p . 1 3 4 - 1 7 4 . . B a l o h , Wrmetechnische Berechnung d e r V e r d a m p f s t a t i o n , Zucker-Beihefte, 3 ( 2 ) (1956) 29-74. G . K i m e n o v , E n e r g e t i s c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g e n an e i n e r m e h r s t u f i g e n V e r d a m p f s t a t i o n a l s DampfUmformer, Z u c k e r , 2 5 ( 7 ) ( 1 9 7 2 ) 2 2 5 - 2 3 0 . V . U r b a n , M a t e m a t i c k y model c u k r o v a r n i c k e p r u t o k o v e o d p a r k y p r a c u j i c i s e s t o u p a j i c i v r s t v o u , L i s t y C u k r . , 8 9 ( 6 ) (1973) 114-118. G . B a t o r and K. U r b a n i e c , P r o j e k t i e r u n g v o n V e r d a m p f a n l a g e n i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n m i t H i l f e v o n C o m p u t e r n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 3 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 9 7 8 ) 1035-1042. T . B a l o h , E n e r g i e w i r t s c h a f t b e i E i n d a m p f u n g s - und T r o c k n u n g s p r o z e s s e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 105(1) (1980) 50-61. T . B a l o h , Methodik bei e x e r g e t i s c h e n Untersuchungen i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 106(1) (1981) 29-40. 0. A u e r s w a l d , E x e r g e t i s c h e A n a l y s e e i n e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k m i t Brdenkompression am B e i s p i e l d e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k A a r b e r g , S c h w e i z , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 6 ( 9 ) ( 1 9 8 1 ) 804-815. T . Baloh, Studie e i n e r Zuckerfabrik mit Brdenkompression, Z u c k e r i n d . , 109(4) (1984) 285-294. 0. W i k l u n d , T h e c a l c u l a t i o n and c o n t r o l o f m u l t i p l e e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r s . S o c k e r H a n d l . , 2 2 ( 1 ) ( 1 9 6 8 ) 1-22. . B o l m s t e d t and . J e r n q v i s t , S i m u l a t i o n o f t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e and d y n a m i c b e h a v i o u r o f m u l t i p l e e f f e c t e v a p o r a t i o n p l a n t s . Comp. A i d e d D e s . , 8 ( 3 ) (1976) 142-148, 9 ( 1 ) (1977) 29-40. . M k e l , M a t e m a t i s c h e s F o r m u l i e r e n und d i g i t a l e s S i m u l i e r e n e i n e r V e r d a m p f s t a t i o n i n d e r R b e n z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 106(11) (1981) 989-993. A . L e b e r t ( e t a l . ) , S i m u l a t i o n s u r o r d i n a t e u r d ' u n e v a p o r a t e u r de s u c r e r i e a m u l t i p l e e f f e t s , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 9 7 ( 7 - 8 ) (1980) 691-698. . U r b a n i e c and M. S z c z e n i o w s k i , N a c h b i l d u n g e i n e r m e h r s t u f i g e n V e r d a m p f s t a t i o n u n t e r V e r w e n d u n g des C S M P - S y s t e m s , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 5 ( 7 ) ( 1 9 8 0 ) 628-631.

94

Chapter 3

SELECTED PROBLEMS OF HEAT ECONOMY

3.1 3.1.1

A N A L Y S I S AND EVALUATION OF THE HEAT ECONOMY Methodological attempt of to hints h e a t economy o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y state of things, begins with initial that will level the

Any

improve the

acquisition effort

information

on t h e e x i s t i n g

and an

may be n e e d e d t o

e s t a b l i s h the

t y p e and amount o f investigation is to

information

be s u f f i c i e n t . of and

T h e aim o f an i n i t i a l

reach a c e r t a i n mass and h e a t

knowledge o f t h e s t r u c t u r e the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

o f the thermal

system, i t s

balances, an heat

o f the equipment. formulate

This

s h o u l d e n a b l e one t o

perform o f the

overall economy. Let

e v a l u a t i o n and t o

a d i a g n o s i s o f the d e f i c i e n c i e s

us o b s e r v e t h a t

if

t h e d i a g n o s i s can be made v e r y a c c u r a t e , t h e n p o s s i b l e improvements Therefore, it is and t h e way t h e y can be

it

may

become e a s i e r t o implemented

outline

in the f a c t o r y . at

always advisable to knowledge o f the

h a v e more

than sugar

minimum i n f o r m a t i o n manufacturing of

h a n d , and a d e t a i l e d

scheme o f t h e

p r o c e s s , the values of process parameters, systems i s particularly

and t h e useful.

characteristics

p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and c o n t r o l It can t h u s

be g e n e r a l l y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e more d e t a i l e d it is to p e r f o r m an a n a l y s i s o f t h e however, in investigating out existing details to

are the state

available of the heat

data,

the e a s i e r is

economy. T h e r e costly to

no p o i n t , but w i l l

w h i c h may be problems the and costly of analyses balance from for but of not thermal of

obtain This

eventually turn to

irrelevant

the

interest. details

applies,

in p a r t i c u l a r , to

t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s , unless time-consuming

o f w h i c h may be d i f f i c u l t

establish

measurements a r e p e r f o r m e d . knowledge o f the of thermodynamic

Experience proves that a s a t i s f a c t o r y

level

b a l a n c e d a t a can o f t e n

be o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h a p p r o x i m a t e a factory. Approximate

systems p r o p e r l y d e f i n e d w i t h i n

calculations routine

c a n be p e r f o r m e d on t h e b a s i s o f e s s e n t i a l records. If the a n a l y s i s i s intended to this

data e x t r a c t e d create a basis often,

factory

limited modifications always, systems, effective including

o f an e x i s t i n g

factory,

approach i s

enough. A d i s c u s s i o n o f practical examples, i s

limited-scale

modifications 8. is to

given in Chapter

A different the f a c t o r y

situation

a r i s e s when t h e u n d e r l y i n g case, in-depth

intention

modernize

e x t e n s i v e l y . In t h i s

s t u d i e s o f new s o l u t i o n s , both the e x i s t i n g state and

i n c l u d i n g mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the modernized f a c t o r y , A summary o f including are indispensable. requirements

information

associated with

typical

modernizations, a n a l y s e more

practical

examples, i s

g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 9.

The need t o

95

d a t a d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean, h o w e v e r , t h a t economy must be known i n f u l l turn out to be e f f e c t i v e detail.

the

initial

state balance cases. of

of the

heat

A g a i n , approximate modernization

calculations

enough i n seems t o

typical

A practical the

correlation

e x i s t between the

level

sophistication

of

h e a t economy and t h e amount o f w o r k n e e d e d t o and c o s t - e f f e c t i v e factories, improvements.

p r e p a r e a d e c i s i o n on t h e t h e managers of

most

suitable

When t a l k i n g t o

energy-efficient the s i t u a t i o n well as t h e

one can u s u a l l y c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e y h a v e a g r a s p aware o f t h e a r e a s where improvements q u e s t i o n . On t h e o t h e r

of

and a r e w e l l

a r e n e e d e d , as hand, in a not-

solutions factory,

t h a t may come i n t o it may be t h a t

so-efficient is

the manager's p e r c e p t i o n o f energy problems is a lot of uncertainty

incomplete,

no p r o b l e m h i e r a r c h y e x i s t s and t h e r e action. the the latter

about p o s s i b l e courses o f

F o r an e n e r g y s p e c i a l i s t , situation. economy i s is no c l e a r L e t us assume t h a t

case c o n s t i t u t e s point the of the

a really

challenging o f a heat there the and to

starting

investigation state,

the manager's d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n idea of the e x t e n t of the o f the problems to remedies,

with

existing

but t h a t

rationalization P r i o r to

m e a s u r e s n e e d e d and

priorities

be s o l v e d . it is

formulating a diagnosis information

proposing a set of the f o l l o w i n g (i)

necessary to

collect

related

questions: possibilities and l i m i t a t i o n s does the ? If resulting real from its of

C o n s i d e r i n g the e x i s t i n g

l a y o u t and t h e the thermal

characteristics

o f the equipment,

performance

s y s t e m match t h e

expected performance ? enabling the

not,

what are the

reasons

and how can t h e y be e l i m i n a t e d (ii) What a r e t h e total

decisive factors

thermal

systems to

satisfy the

the

actual

h e a t demand a t ratio

t h e n e t h e a t demand r e c o r d e d , and how can

effectiveness (iii)

be i n c r e a s e d ? limitations i m p o s e d on t h e e n e r g y economy b y t h e p r o c e s s and b y the factors existing

What a r e t h e

scheme and p a r a m e t e r s characteristics be a d j u s t e d t o (iv)

of the sugar manufacturing

o f p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and c o n t r o l reduce the total h e a t demand ?

s y s t e m s ? How can t h e s e

How e f f e c t i v e

are the energy monitoring

p r o c e d u r e s b a s e d on t h e to i m p r o v e them ? pieces of

existing

instrumentation, In p r a c t i c e , fall neatly it into

and w h a t a c t i o n s is not possible to four

can be t a k e n obtain

directly

information

that to

one o f t h e and s o r t

categories mentioned.

Very often, at some

one has

identify, related

interpret

symptoms w h i c h may p o i n t

information

t o more t h a n one c a t e g o r y . identifying the symptoms w h i c h

T h e r e a r e t h r e e main t e c h n i q u e s o f characterize the functioning in the

o f the thermal routine factory

system: r e c o r d s , to factory question the managers in

to analyse the data

and t h e t e c h n i c a l

p e r s o n n e l , and t o

i n s p e c t the

( p r e f e r a b l y when

96

operation), to s e t up and t o investigate the external mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f the

factory, to a n a l y s e t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m and its

components. I n more c o m p l i c a t e d procedure into cases, it may be u s e f u l to split the symptom-finding the

two p a r t s .

Initially,

b a s i c d a t a a r e c o l l e c t e d t o make

balance c a l c u l a t i o n s established, with the

posible.

Once t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s h a v e been diagnosis are compared

the f i g u r e s

o b t a i n e d and t h e p r e l i m i n a r y

reality. balance f i g u r e s , several a v a r i e t y of techniques input data can

As r e g a r d s t h e a n a l y s e s o f t h e be c o n s i d e r e d . I t allowing calculate importance the is popular to certain

define

sets of to

i n a manner to the energy

changes o f

important

factors

be s t u d i e d , and on

s e v e r a l mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s f r o m w h i c h i n f o r m a t i o n of these f a c t o r s

can be e x t r a c t e d . More a d v a n c e d m e t h o d s f o r

a n a l y s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 9. 3.1.2 Collecting essential to the information in the preceding S e c t i o n , and 2 t h a t it on

In a d d i t i o n follows

requirements mentioned

from the d i s c u s s i o n p r e s e n t e d in Chapters 1 structured.

information

t h e e n e r g y economy s h o u l d a l s o be w e l l the top-down approach, t h a t analysing the e s s e n t i a l investigating The f i r s t the is,

This

can be a c h i e v e d picture first,

using

presenting the o v e r a l l blocks o f the of thermal

then

building

s y s t e m , and

finally

characteristics

the equipment

units. o f t h e schemes and the

s t e p s h o u l d be d e v o t e d t o

identification

parameters o f the sugar manufacturing data taken from the e x i s t i n g normal factory

p r o c e s s and t h e e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s . A l l preferably relative to during the

d o c u m e n t s s h o u l d be v e r i f i e d ,

o p e r a t i o n when a n y c h a n g e s o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s can e a s i l y be o b s e r v e d . p r e s e n t them i n f o r m s and t h e When d o c u m e n t i n g

documented s t a t e is advisable to

the data a c q u i r e d , of the

it

facilitating

easy i d e n t i f i c a t i o n segments like of

information information.

structure

relations

between i m p o r t a n t schemes and t a b l e s i n most p r a c t i c a l forms enabling

Although the

conventional effective other

those used i n it

the

p r e s e n t book a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y prove useful to

applications, look at

may data it be

combine them w i t h angle. F i g u r e 3.1

one t o

the

from a d i f f e r e n t

shows an e x a m p l e o f a d i a g r a m w h i c h makes t h e p r o c e s s m e d i a t h a t must

p o s s i b l e t o match t h e a v a i l a b l e heated (ref. 1).

h e a t i n g media t o

Among t h e main f e a t u r e s operating parameters is of

of the utmost

thermal

system, the

stability

of

the

importance.

I n most f a c t o r i e s , operating the

parameter mostly

fluctuations

may o c c u r e v e n u n d e r p e r f e c t l y

normal due t o

conditions,

b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e v a p o u r demand f l u c t u a t i o n s

batchwise

operation

97 cossettes recirculated juice * . p r e s s water make-up water pre-limed J TD ~ o juice limed j u i c e clear juice thin juice j u i c e in 1 s t e f f e c t

vacuum pans A syrups vacuum pans room h e a t i n g

condenste v a p o u r from vacuum p a n s A

1st-effect v a p o u r 2nd-effect vapour 3 rd-effect vapour noncondensables

en c
o

recirculated juice press water

15

20

30

AO

50

60

70

80 { C )

90

100

110

120

130

Temperature ' i n the e x t r a c t i o n station

F i g . 3 . 1 . G r a p h i c a l compendium o f t h e r e c e i v e r s , and t h e h e a t i n g m e d i a . o f vacuum p a n s . A n y p a r a m e t e r state o f the thermal the

p r o c e s s media t o

be h e a t e d , o r

heat

change i n t r o d u c i n g risk of

a deviation

from a balanced

system c r e a t e s the causes o f the the

increased energy l o s s . increased vapour flow from the

Typically, last

immediate to

loss are

evaporator effect

condenser, or

reduced t h i c k - j u i c e rapid

concentration parameter

which r a i s e s the changes,

h e a t demand o f t h e

sugar house. At v e r y

t h e r e may be u n f a v o u r a b l e e m e r g e n c y d i s c h a r g e s o f the thermal system o r even d i r e c t l y to

high-temperature (examples: overflowing

media w i t h i n

the environment

o p e n i n g s a f e t y v a l v e s on a steam p i p e l i n e hot-juice It tanks, etc.).

o r on an e v a p o r a t o r b o d y ,

follows

from the above i n t r o d u c t i o n which are d i f f i c u l t to

that

abnormally

large

parameter of

fluctuations

dampen s h o u l d be t r e a t e d

as a symptom

dangerous d e f i c i e n c i e s o f the frequently too small as follows:

thermal

s y s t e m . The u n d e r l y i n g f a c t o r s

a r e most

a heating

surface area in

the

evaporator effect

from which vapour

is

s u p p l i e d t o vacuum p a n s , a faulty in control system in the the throttling-desuperheating of station, which is

decisive -

stabilizing

p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e

the exhaust steam, accumulation of the

a faulty

condensate drainage subsystem causing p e r i o d i c in the heating chambers o f e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s .

condensate

The e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n o f

a s u g a r f a c t o r y may be i n f l u e n c e d n o t o n l y b y

98

uncontrollable like

parameter

fluctuations

but

also

by r o u t i n e

parameter of the

adjustments, processing this that

those associated with G e n e r a l l y , the studying

a temporarily

introduced

reduction

capability.

responses o f a thermal of

system to

changes o f

kind are worth need t o with

as an i n d i c a t i o n other

p o s s i b l e system d e f i c i e n c i e s

be c o r r e c t e d . On t h e parameter

hand, even c o r r e c t l y f u n c t i o n i n g are a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d parameters. This by

systems

perfect

stabilization nominal

continued

deviations

from t h e i r the

operating

phenomenon s h o u l d be of the existence of a daily energy few in an

studied with

aim o f

identifying for the

possible

indications

energy-saving strategy processing capability consumption per u n i t factories, terms to

factory below i t s

operation. nominal

Most n o t a b l y , usually

falling mass o f

level

causes the

beets processed to

i n c r e a s e . There are r a t h e r aware o f t h e consequences,

h o w e v e r , where t h e managers a r e f u l l y fuel burned per u n i t mass o f

of additional

beets processed, of factor is the

a decision juice energy

reduce the

processing capability. both the

Another

important

draft,

which a f f e c t s

sugar loss

i n e x h a u s t e d c o s s e t t e s and t h e

demand o f t h e p r o c e s s . F i g u r e s 3.2 and 3 . 3 show t h e in results of studies o f the with fuel consumption under

changing operating capabilities. diagrams,

conditions

two s u g a r f a c t o r i e s

different to

processing the

Statistical

data from 9 seasons were taken

construct

and b r a c k e t s unusual of

d e n o t e s e a s o n s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by abnormal etc. to create correct point to

climatic

conditions,

beet p r o p e r t i e s , thermal

The a b i l i t y for It all is

the

system's piping is another

flow be

conditions

t h e e n e r g y - c a r r y i n g media flow conditions start-up

important

investigated. but also affect parameter

not o n l y the

during

normal

factory

operation,

those energy

i n d u c e d by f a c t o r y

or parameter

fluctuations,

t h a t may are

l o s s e s and e q u i p m e n t

safety.

T h e symptoms o f hydraulic to the

abnormalities shocks, etc. of

instabilities, three (i) factors

excessive pipe v i b r a t i o n s , are of critical importance

Generally, piping: normal

functioning

the

The d i m e n s i o n s

o f the

pipes determine

the

flow

velocities in turn, in

under both determine system

and abnormal

operating

conditions.

Flow v e l o c i t i e s ,

pressure

l o s s e s t h a t may e a s i l y become a c a u s e o f d i s t u r b a n c e s operation, with s u c h as p r e s s u r e l o s s e s i n in the the vapour pipes between t h e

thermal

l i n k i n g the

evaporator the

t h e vacuum p a n s , o r It is

pipelines keep t h e

vacuum pans and

condenser.

recommended t o

p r e s s u r e l o s s between t h e

evaporator

and t h e vacuum pans b e l o w 0.1 temperature the drop o f

bar, which corresponds to ( L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t

a condensationin both cases mentioned, Flow velocities the

l e s s t h a n 2 K.

pipe dimensions

s h o u l d be b a s e d on maximum v a p o u r f l o w s . ) different pipe dimensions

w h i c h can be recommended f o r literature (ii) (refs. 3,4,6). horizontal

are discussed in

The s l o p e s o f

sections of

the

pipelines

allow

gravitational

flow

99

4.3

A.2h

4.1

c n 4.0
O O 3.9

c n
^. 3.8 (71) o 3.7
-

c c o 3.6

( C O

3.5 D

3.4

3.3

3.2 94 96 98 100 102 104 {% )

A v e r a g e to n o m i n a l d a i l y c a p a c i t y Fig. with of 3.2. Fuel consumption v s . average d a i l y n o m i n a l c a p a c i t i e s o f 2100 t / d ( p o i n t s ) take

c a p a c i t y i n two s u g a r f a c t o r i e s and 5800 t / d ( c r o s s e s ) . condensate l i n e s s h o u l d be is at

the condensate to

p l a c e . T h e recommended s l o p e o f sections of possible to system.

l e a s t 2%. T h e h o r i z o n t a l too, i n o r d e r t o make i t of

steam and v a p o u r l i n e s drain the

inclined during

condensate forming there

the s t a r t - u p (iii)

the thermal

Condensate d r a i n a g e equipment a t t a c h e d t o This is a prerequisite for

steam and v a p o u r l i n e s of the thermal

is

essential.

a safe start-up checking the

system. and

An i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e p i p i n g the a v a i l a b i l i t y combined w i t h preferably factory of a u x i l i a r y

aimed a t equipment

d i m e n s i o n s and s l o p e s , can be and can of the

(see also Section 7 . 7 . 4 ) , the thermal the insulation insulation

a preliminary

inspection of

be e x t e n d e d t o While

i n c l u d e an i n s p e c t i o n o f it is relatively easy to

main

equipment.

get a general

qualitative

100

4.3

0,4.0 39 3.8 [

^-^

120

122 124 126 128 130 132 Average juice draft (% )

draft i n a 2100 t/d factory.

Fig.

3.3.

Fuel consumption v s . average j u i c e

picture losses

o f the s t a t e

o f thermal

insulation,

the magnitude is

o f heat

dissipation A very

r e m a i n s unknown u n l e s s a s p e c i a l

investigation for this

undertaken.

effective

t e c h n i q u e w h i c h can be u t i l i z e d the aid of

purpose i s

thermographic

surveying with principles, factories, Another safe b o i l e r

infra-red-sensitive the a p p l i c a t i o n literature of

cameras. The u n d e r l y i n g thermography 2). its ability to guarantee in British sugar

and e x a m p l e s o f

are presented in the important feature

(ref.

o f the thermal

system i s

operation without

unnecessary energy l o s s e s . Normally,

the are

condensates from the tanks s u p p l i e d as f e e d w a t e r t o certain entire

in the f i r s t the b o i l e r s .

and s e c o n d e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s If the q u a l i t y

o f the condensate in a operation, particular then tank of the

t a n k becomes u n a c c e p t a b l e w i t h amount o f t h e

regard to

safe b o i l e r

h o t c o n d e n s a t e must be removed f r o m t h i s s y s t e m . When r e p l a c i n g order to heat it

and f r o m t h e t h e r m a l normal fuel

by make-up w a t e r , to the

a b o u t 20 kg

must be b u r n e d i n

1 m^ w a t e r

required

temperature. There are s e v e r a l p o s s i b l e causes o f condensate: (a) T o o much o f t h e g a s e o u s p r o d u c t s o f thermal decay o f sucrose, or certain the degradation o f the q u a l i t y of

n o n s u g a r s p r e s e n t i n v a p o u r and d i s s o l v e d i n t h e endangers the q u a l i t y (b) Juice penetrating tubes. of the

condensate. This

phenomenon vapour. heaters

condensate o b t a i n e d from f i r s t - e f f e c t

the heating Normally,

chambers o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s o r the pressure difference between the

through

leaking

heating

chamber and t h e j u i c e into juice,

s p a c e i n an e v a p o r a t o r b o d y w o u l d p r e s s t h e of l e a k s may be t e m p o r a r i l y

condensate to

but the d i r e c t i o n

r e v e r s e d due

pressure

fluctuations.

101

(c)

First-effect

juice

carried

over

as foam o r s m a l l

droplets

to

the

heating too high

chamber o f t h e flow velocity

second e f f e c t . in

T h i s may be c a u s e d b y e x c e s s i v e f o a m i n g , the first effect and/or

t h e v a p o u r chamber o f It

inefficient can be

entrainment

separators.

s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t at too It

no s e p a r a t o r

c o n s i d e r e d as f u l l y 1-1.2 m/s

reliable

high vapour-flow v e l o c i t i e s may t h e r e f o r e conditions, happen t h a t but j u i c e

(exceeding a separator works at

in the vapour chamber). well u n d e r normal

perfectly abnormally system.

operating

carryover occurs in the

low v a p o u r p r e s s u r e s i n d u c e d by parameter

fluctuations

thermal

The r i s k

of juice

carryover is

always present

in

the

heating

chamber o f

the the

second e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t . first effect the

In thermal

systems employing

vapour compression, to

may a l s o be e n d a n g e r e d . S p e c i a l consequences o f

p r e c a u t i o n s m u s t be t a k e n in such systems

minimize 3.4.4).

condensate p o l l u t i o n

(see Section

A p a r t from the the condensate, i t preventing boiler

immediate

causes o f

the

presence of detect the

unwanted s u b s t a n c e s react

in

s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o

d a n g e r and t o

quickly,

damage. T o a l a r g e e x t e n t , to the

this

d e p e n d s on t h e

instrumentation as on the

and m o n i t o r i n g procedures of 3.1.3

procedures r e l a t i n g replacing the

condensate c o n t r o l ,

as w e l l

d i s c a r d e d c o n d e n s a t e b y make-up balances e n e r g y b a l a n c e and t h e determine certain

water.

Interpreting

external external

By a n a l y s i n g t h e together, it

p r o c e s s mass factors

balance

becomes p o s s i b l e t o in a factory.

causing excessive to any o f the four

energy consumption questions listed in

These f a c t o r s

may be r e l a t e d let

Section 3.1.1.

As an e x a m p l e , Table 2.4, in Table

us c o n s i d e r t h e the

external on

e n e r g y b a l a n c e shown i n C h a p t e r 2 , the p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e s u m m a r i z e d The c o n s u m p t i o n normal as (i) steam, it of heating

together with 3.1. very

design data

steam i s

certainly

l a r g e ; when c o n v e r t e d r e a s o n s can be

to

amounts t o

46.7

k g / 1 0 0 kg b .

T h e main

summarized

follows: The t h i c k - j u i c e the concentration o f 65% DS i s relatively to low; this is certainly total

one o f

process constraints this entry

w h i c h c o u l d be m o d i f i e d

decrease the of

h e a t demand. E v e n a t vapours 3.1, (Table 2.4,

concentration, 16) is too

h o w e v e r , t h e mass f l o w exceeding the

vacuum-pan (Table intake to

large,

design value

e n t r y 35)

by n e a r l y

13%. T h i s may be c a u s e d b y t o o t o o much wash w a t e r

large a water the

t h e vacuum p a n s a n d , p r o b a b l y , Excessive water constraint (ii) to be intakes to the

supplied to

centrifugals.

s u g a r h o u s e can a l s o be r e g a r d e d as a p r o c e s s

modified. in the first the pre-liming tank is maintained (Table 3.1, being by recycling This

The e l e v a t e d temperature of hot j u i c e

a large flow is

after

carbonatation raw j u i c e

entry 9). low-

a process constraint

preventing

from

h e a t e d by

102

TABLE

3.1 d e s c r i b e d by

Summary o f t h e d e s i g n d a t a on p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e o f t h e f a c t o r y t h e e x t e r n a l e n e r g y b a l a n c e shown i n T a b l e 2 . 4 . No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ^ 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 S t r e a m name C o s s e t t e s , p o l . 17.5% Wet p u l p Pressed pulp Press water Feed w a t e r ( c o n d e n s a t e ) Raw j u i c e , p u r i t y 88% J u i c e t o main l i m i n g Juice to carbonatation I J u i c e from c a r b o n a t a t i o n I r e c y c l e d t o pre-1iming Juice to decanter S u b s i d e r s l u d g e I t o vacuum f i l t e r s Subsider sludge I recycled to pre-liming Juice to safety f i l t e r s I Juice to carbonatation I I Juice to thickeners I I Subsider sludge I I recycled to pre-liming T h i n j u i c e to b u f f e r tank Water ( c o n d e n s a t e ) added f o r c o n t r o l purposes Thin j u i c e to evaporator Milk-of-lime to pre-liming M i l k - o f - l i m e t o main l i m i n g Milk-of-lime to carbonatation I I Thick juice Water ( c o n d e n s a t e ) t o r e m e l t Wash w a t e r t o c e n t r i f u g a l s C o n d e n s a t e f r o m steam wash Water ( c o n d e n s a t e ) added t o m a s s e c u i t e C Condensate from vacuum-pan steaming W a t e r ( c o n d e n s a t e ) i n t a k e t o vacuum p a n s Condensate from d i r e c t h e a t i n g o f s y r u p s Sugar A t o d r y i n g Molasses Vapours from s e l f - e v a p o r a t i o n o f s y r u p s W a t e r e v a p o r a t e d i n vacuum pans Total (kg/100 100.0 90.0 34.3 55.7 49.3 115.0 176.4 188.3 40.0 148.0 21.3 15.0 130.2 129.8 129.0 5.0 124.0 5.0 129.0 1.4 9.9 0.6 24.8 3.8 1.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 2.5 1.1 14.2 5.0 0.5 18.0 flow kg b )

Concentration (% DS)

14.35

14.3

65.0

99.1

temperature this

vapours from the

last

evaporator effect then

o r f r o m t h e vacuum p a n s . of

If

constraint

can be e l i m i n a t e d ,

improved u t i l i z a t i o n

low-temperature

v a p o u r s becomes p o s s i b l e . (iii) 2.4, with The vapour f l o w entry the 14) is very of from the large. last It is evaporator effect hard to to the this condenser can be (Table

believe that

compatible of

intention

the d e s i g n e r o f the thermal an i n s u f f i c i e n t

system or w i t h of the

the wishes last-effect be More

the operating vapour f o r interpreted likely

personnel. I f

utilization it

heating

p u r p o s e s had i n d e e d been p l a n n e d , system d e f i c i e n c y r e q u i r i n g reasons:

w o u l d have t o action.

as a t h e r m a l

immediate

are the f o l l o w i n g

103

vapour leaks through condensate drainage l i n e s

in

the evaporator a r e a ,

and from

p e r h a p s t o o much v a p o u r i s w i t h d r a w n a l o n g w i t h the preceding evaporator e f f e c t , inflow to the last effect, thin-juice flow, in together

the noncondensable gases

c a u s i n g an u n c o n t r o l l a b l e

vapour

fluctuations

in the

combination

with

too small

a volume to of

of

the t h i n - j u i c e the j u i c e

tank before the e v a p o r a t o r , thus f o r c i n g level high. that in the tank f a l l s too

condensate intakes concentration

as t h e j u i c e becomes t o o

low o r the

thick juice The f a c t o r s not working equipment. (iv) tanks

named a b o v e must be s e e n as i n d i c a t i o n s as o r i g i n a l l y planned because o f

the

thermal

system

is

deficiencies

of the

auxiliary

Poor c o n d i t i o n containing

o f the thermal

insulation, media,

direct

heat d i s s i p a t i o n

from

open

high-temperature

and u n c o n t r o l l a b l e the

leaks o f vapour or (Table 2.4, lead should

condensate cause r e l a t i v e l y entry 23). to the A fact-finding

large heat to

losses to in

environment

visit

the f a c t o r y

question would probably p r o c e s s equipment

conclusion that

both the thermal

s y s t e m and t h e

be i m p r o v e d i n t h a t 3.1.4 It 1-2 Interpreting is perfectly

respect. e v a p o r a t o r - r e c e i v e r balances normal that the real steam c o n s u m p t i o n o f an e v a p o r a t o r is

k g / 1 0 0 kg b g r e a t e r

than the

steam demand d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e This is a result of fluctuations

mass-balance of the the

and e n e r g y - b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s . operating parameters that

are disregarded in the larger

b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s b a s e d on

steady-state approach. A difference indicate that to the thermal study the

than t h a t

named a b o v e , h o w e v e r , may It is

s y s t e m d o e s n o t w o r k as d e s i g n e d and p l a n n e d . this situation using the on t h e

impossible

reasons f o r

external-balance

approach o n l y .

In order to

o b t a i n more i n f o r m a t i o n

energy p r o c e s s e s , the

mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r and v a p o u r r e c e i v e r s s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d and a n a l y s e d . L e t us c o n s i d e r an e x t e n s i o n o f Section. factory In F i g . 3.4, is the example p r e s e n t e d i n the preceding the same

t h e v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n the results o f m a s s - and

scheme o f

shown t o g e t h e r w i t h

heat-balance

calculations As i t

performed using the e v a p o r a t o r - r e c e i v e r approach. out, the in calculated steam demand i s 2.0 k g / 1 0 0 kg b l e s s t h a n c a l c u l a t e d mass f l o w the the of

turns

consumption last-effect

indicated

the e x t e r n a l the

balance, while 3.9 of

the

vapour d i r e c t e d to

condenser i s

k g / 1 0 0 kg b l e s s t h a n s t e a m and v a p o u r

e x t e r n a l - b a l a n c e v a l u e . T h i s may be an i n d i c a t i o n through the venting tight. steam t r a p s in the condensate drainage

leaks the fully

lines

and/or through

lines,

or through c e r t a i n indications of

v a l v e s w h i c h may be c l o s e d b u t a r e n o t leaks of steam o r h e a t i n g v a p o u r can be

(Additional

104

sugar house 1 . 1
00 O,

heater 3.1 extr.2.^ 39.4 127'C 8.8 115C 126*C

I

v a c u u m p o n s 19.9 heaters 9.1 heaters11.4 extr. 0.8 1.5 2.9 90C 100'C 18.0

c % 'S l 3 c
-

lorc
114'C

50.8

A9.0 137'"C

|115C h

|115C

in
0.0

86.7 to COndensate receivers

1-(^iorcH ^90 c tn!

condensate
CD CM*

JO.O

0j

returns
system p r e v i o u s l y

F i g . 3 . 4 . E x c e r p t s f r o m mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e t h e r m a l c o n s i d e r e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 3 ( f l o w s g i v e n i n k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) . o b t a i n e d by checking temperatures Usually, vapour leaking

and p r e s s u r e s i n t h e e v a p o r a t o r effect

effects.

to a s p e c i f i c

induces a tendency towards

temperature If

and p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s w h i c h a r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y r e d u c e d e v a p o r a t i o n . then it may be d i f f i c u l t outlet.) performed to maintain a high thick-

the leaks are s i g n i f i c a n t ,

juice

concentration at the evaporator

F i g u r e 3 . 5 shows t h e r e s u l t s for and (i) t h e same t h e r m a l vapour leaks:

o f mass- and h e a t - b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s

system under the f o l l o w i n g

a s s u m p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e steam

E x h a u s t steam l e a k i n g , effect

at the rate

o f 1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , t h r o u g h a steam t r a p pipe t o second e f f e c t vapour.

in

the f i r s t (ii) trap first (iii) trap (iv)

and a c o n d e n s a t e f l a s h at the rate

E x h a u s t steam l e a k i n g ,

o f 1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , t h r o u g h t h e same s t e a m o f the condensate tank effect. in the

a s a b o v e and a n o t h e r steam t r a p effect,

at the o u t l e t

t o the condensate tank i n the f o u r t h vapour l e a k i n g , at the rate

First-effect

o f 1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , t h r o u g h a steam

i n the second e f f e c t

to second-effect vapour. at the rate o f 5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , t h r o u g h a to third-effect

Second-effect vapour leaking,

faulty vapour.

condensate d r a i n a g e subsystem i n t h e vacuum-pan s t a t i o n ,

As can be s e e n , flow

t h e c a l c u l a t e d steam demand i s now 5 2 . 9 k g / 1 0 0 kg b a n d t h e mass v a p o u r t o t h e c o n d e n s e r i s 7.4 k g / 1 0 0 kg b ; b o t h values

o f the l a s t - e f f e c t

105

sugar house 1.1

Q O d

vacuum

pans

19.9-^5.0

Oil

heater 3 J extr. 2 . 6 A 0.2 4.3

1lA .5t

heaters 9.1 heaterslLA extr. 0 . 8

1.6 18.0

5 o
in 53.7

I I
51.9 CN

il27.5t 138 C

9 0 C

126.5 C

liase
CO

103C

Si
II
A

|- =
C S l|

CD

m.5c W 5th

1-0-19oc \w..sX.^9-\iWc
hiA.stHHi04'c

I I
10.0

8 5 . 3 to condensate receivers ~^

condensate

returns

F i g . 3 . 5 . E x c e r p t s f r o m mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m p r e v i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d i n S e c t i o n 3 . 1 . 3 , w i t h steam and v a p o u r l e a k s t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . are p r e t t y close to the real figures. in the condensate drainage from the subsystem of the

Steam and v a p o u r l e a k s constitute thermal tubes. just

occurring

one p o s s i b l e t y p e o f d e v i a t i o n is

correct operation leaking

system. Another type of d e v i a t i o n As t h e condensate i s

associated with the required

evaporator

pressed into j u i c e , to maintain,

thick-juice be d i f f i c u l t to

concentration identify.

may be i m p o s s i b l e

but the

reason w i l l

D e p e n d i n g on t h e methods o f b a l a n c e

calculations

applied,

t h e mass and indicate, (when

energy balances d e r i v e d from the v a l u e s o f the parameters for example, that there is a certain vapour flow entering

m e a s u r e d may the evaporator

using the evaporator-balance flow from the condenser to

algorithm last

presented i n Chapter 2, effect may be

a reversed vapour

the

evaporator

obtained). be evaporator of in

The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s

of evaporator-receiver the o v e r a l l

b a l a n c e s can c o n v e n i e n t l y coefficients in the

extended by d e t e r m i n i n g bodies, juice heaters,

heat t r a n s f e r

vacuum pans and o t h e r

equipment. the

( T h e methods

m o n i t o r i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y d a t a and c a l c u l a t i n g Chapter 7.) following Abnormally low heat t r a n s f e r in all

coefficients

are discussed the

intensities

may be c a u s e d b y

factors

encountered

t y p e s o f e v a p o r a t o r s and h e a t e x c h a n g e r s : surfaces; heating chamber, due t o inefficient

- scale build-up

a f f e c t i n g heating

- too high a condensate l e v e l condensate drainage;

in the

106

decreased vapour condensation temperature, gases;

due t o

the

presence

of

noncondensable -

decreased vapour condensation temperature

due t o

the

throttling

of

the

vapour

flow. In Robert-type e v a p o r a t o r s , the r e d u c e d when t o o coefficient temperature in at high j u i c e first overall heat t r a n s f e r coefficients are

l e v e l s are maintained. may a l s o low.

Too low a heat indicate that

transfer the juice

the

evaporator effect inlet is too

the evaporator tubular

In multiple-pass

heaters,

the

heat t r a n s f e r

intensity

may be Leaky seals to

d e c r e a s e d when t h e j u i c e - s i d e may c a u s e t h e j u i c e a reduction 3.2 3.2.1 of flow in

s e a l s between t h e passes to surface

passes are

leaking. is

certain heating

decrease, which area.

equivalent

the e f f e c t i v e

FUNDAMENTALS OF CORRECT OPERATION OF A THERMAL SYSTEM Condensate drainage the e s s e n t i a l requirements of p r o p e r steam o r v a p o u r h e a t i n g in is the overall flow the a

One o f reliable heating

condensate d r a i n a g e .

W h i l e no c o n d e n s a t e s h o u l d a c c u m u l a t e as t h i s w o u l d r e d u c e t h e

chambers o f t h e e q u i p m e n t , coefficient, neither

effective

heat t r a n s f e r through thermal

s h o u l d v a p o u r o r steam be a l l o w e d t o to short-circuiting the entire are the

condensate l i n e s ,

as t h i s w o u l d be e q u i v a l e n t c a n be s a t i s f i e d

system. These c o n d i t i o n s

providing

drainage

subsystem i s dimensions the of

p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d and m a i n t a i n e d . the components, the locations of

Important the

points

condensate-outlet venting, the type,

nozzles, dimensions to

positioning

of the o f the

c o n d e n s a t e p i p e s and t h e i r steam t r a p s

and p o s i t i o n i n g

and c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e existing literature,

condensate pipes there are

correctly selected receivers.

In the

relatively (refs.

f e w s o u r c e s i n w h i c h p r o p e r a t t e n t i o n has been p a i d t o 3,4). The d e t a i l s in the o f a c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n may v a r y , chamber.

these problems

d e p e n d i n g on t h e

pressure

level exhaust

associated heating

At higher pressures corresponding to vapour, the condensate u s u a l l y flows Further

steam and f i r s t gravity

or second-effect

out

by

and t h e e s c a p e o f v a p o u r i s type of steam t r a p

p r e v e n t e d b y a steam t r a p . selected.

details

may d e p e n d on t h e applied float nozzle in

Four t y p e s a r e most

widely

beet-sugar

factories:

type; type; columns; circuits acting as s t e a m 3,4) traps. and new d e v e l o p m e n t s h a v e r e c e n t l y been

Niessner level

control

Other designs are also reported (ref. 5).

known ( r e f s .

107

A float-type A float in the

steam t r a p

as shown i n

Fig. 3.6(a)

is

a very

popular

device. level

opens o r c l o s e s t h e trap. Providing regard to it the

d i s c h a r g e v a l v e , d e p e n d i n g on t h e maintained operating and i t s

condensate

is well actual

s i z e has been this

correctly

chosen w i t h a reliable out,

conditions,

device ensures s h o u l d be size, but pointed also

condensate d r a i n a g e even a t trap throughput between the

large flow

changes. I t

however, t h a t the

d e p e n d s n o t o n l y on i t s inlet and o u t l e t

on t h e

pressure difference of

nozzles. because o f wear i n the and

Malfunctions moving p a r t s .

float-type

steam t r a p s

arise mostly

A damaged v a l v e s e a t o r v a l v e head may c a u s e v a p o u r l e a k s , in valve lock-out, It should also during causing insufficient

a damaged l e v e r s y s t e m may r e s u l t

c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e o r steam l e a k s . normal steam-trap chamber operation is is

be remembered t h a t start-up, of

before of

attained

a factory

venting float-type It

the t r a p

necessary. Consequently, the a requirement the devices in for

applications a careful

steam t r a p s therefore equip the conditions of

are associated with install

maintenance.

is to

necessary to drainage are not

e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e p l a c e s and If

lines with satisfied,

shut-off then or

v a l v e s and b y - p a s s s e c t i o n s . may e a s i l y consumption.

these

l e a k y steam t r a p s i n c r e a s e d steam

become a c a u s e

reduced evaporator throughput

(a)

(b)

3J

2 \

F i g . 3 . 6 . Steam t r a p s : ( a ) f l o a t t y p e , ( b ) n o z z l e t y p e . 1 - i n l e t , 2 - o u t l e t , 3 - v e n t , 4 - v a l v e , 5 - f l o a t , 6 - diaphragms, 7 - throughput adjustment spindle. Another working type of steam t r a p consists of is the n o z z l e d e s i g n shown i n the Fig. 3.6(b). allowing in to Its for a

principle free

throttling

vapour flow while effect is

relatively

condensate f l o w .

The t h r o t t l i n g

obtained

a nozzle the are

equipped with operating

a system o f diaphragms w i t h This device is small

holes of areas adjusted and e a s y t o install, is

conditions.

and a s t h e r e

no c o n s t a n t l y m o v i n g p a r t s , the e f f i c i e n c y o f the

a high mechanical may v a r y w i t h

reliability variable

ensured. However, conditions.

steam t r a p

operating

108

and f o r

condensate flows well

below t h e i r

nominal

v a l u e , vapour leaks

are

unavoidable. In c e r t a i n for designs, i t is possible to the adjust the p o s i t i o n o f the diaphragms the

changed t h r o u g h p u t . level

Throttling

flow

t o o m u c h , h o w e v e r , may c a u s e rise

condensate traps

in the heating

chamber t o

e x c e s s i v e l y . N o z z l e - t y p e steam heated

are t h e r e f o r e

p r e f e r r e d where condensate d r a i n a g e from equipment like evaporators, is required. can be Fig.

w i t h an a l m o s t Vapour if leaks

c o n s t a n t steam f l o w , c a u s e d by r a p i d f l o w is

changes o f

short duration

eliminated 3.7(a). lowered, its the

the n o z z l e - t y p e t r a p the

p r e c e d e d by a w a t e r s e a l in the inlet

in a U-tube,

At reduced f l o w ,

condensate l e v e l

leg of the U-tube i s and t h u s r e d u c i n g

reducing the pressure d i f f e r e n c e throughput. This solution

across the

steam t r a p the

can be recommended f o r the

c o n n e c t i o n s between individual

condensate tanks effects. traps Similar

collecting

condensates from the

evaporator

a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e a l s o n e c e s s a r y when a p p l y i n g n o z z l e - t y p e steam b a t c h vacuum p a n s , w h e r e application case i s periodic

in the condensate d r a i n s attached to condensate f l o w 3.7(b). occur. This

changes o f the shown i n Fig.

schematically

(a)

(b)
i-th 1 in to effect (i*l)th vapour effect

I-

^1
l.J

'

vapour

"

L.J

F i g . 3 . 7 . Recommended a r r a n g e m e n t s o f c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n s f e a t u r i n g n o z z l e - t y p e steam t r a p s : ( a ) b e t w e e n t w o c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s , ( b ) b e t w e e n a vacuum pan and a c o n d e n s a t e m a n i f o l d . 1 - steam t r a p , 2 - n o n - r e t u r n v a l v e , 3 - vacuum p a n , 4 - condensate m a n i f o l d . A N i e s s n e r column i s enough space i s relative to a simple its and s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g installation. shown i n device requiring of the only that

available for

The p l a c i n g

column height

the heating

chamber i s

F i g . 3.8.

The e f f e c t i v e

s h o u l d be l a r g e e n o u g h t o if the pressure d i f f e r e n c e i n c r e a s e s due t o

guarantee t h a t the water seal between t h e heating

can work p r o p e r l y even column's vapour surfaces

chamber and t h e or to

chamber

parameter

fluctuations

fouled heating

in the evaporator s t a t i o n . compensate f o r enough t o

Component

s h o u l d be n o t

l e s s than 3 m to s h o u l d be small at

the pressure f l u c t u a t i o n s ,

and component

p r e v e n t the condensate from accumulating

in the heating

chamber

109

condensate

F i g . 3 . 8 . Scheme o f a c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e l i n e f e a t u r i n g 1 - evaporator, 2 - l e v e l gauge, 3 - t h r o t t l i n g v a l v e . a reduced pressure d i f f e r e n c e stated in the form o f across the column.

a Niessner

column.

These requirements

can be

inequalities

w h e r e the

max

and . a r e t h e maximum and minimum p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s , mi condensate in the central pipe, and g i s the acceleration

c of

is

density of

gravity. If the height is too small, the efficiency of the column c a n be i m p r o v e d b y This an causes the

installing

a t h r o t t l i n g valve at in the inlet

the to the

condensate i n l e t . rise, thus

condensate l e v e l safeguard against All the

pipe

creating

additional

vapour entering o f the

column. steam t r a p s transducer, c a n be a v o i d e d b y controller and applying

shortcomings circuit is

classical

a control valve. It

consisting

of a level

control line. in it Such

arranged to maintain highly reliable,

a stable water operate

seal

in the drainage

a device is

and e a s y t o

and m a i n t a i n .

When u s e d

a condensate drainage subsystem connected to can e l i m i n a t e completely. employing the steam o r v a p o u r l e a k s

a multiple-effect evaporator

evaporator, effects

between the

A quadruple-effect idea is

evaporator with in

a condensate drainage Fig. 3.9.

subsystem drainage

this

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y and t h e

The condensate between the

from the f i r s t

and s e c o n d e f f e c t s , are

condensate flow

condensate t a n k s ,

level-controlled.

110

to main condensate tank

c o n d e n s a t e r e t u r n e d from h e a t e r s and vacuum pans

F i g . 3.9. hydraulic

Scheme o f a c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e s e a l s and c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s . connected to

subsystem f e a t u r i n g

level-controlled

In a condensate d r a i n pressure, the it

a heating

chamber o p e r a t e d a t prevented without pipe to the of

low a of is or a

e s c a p e o f v a p o u r c a n be e f f e c t i v e l y is enough t o connect the drainage

using

steam t r a p ;

bottom p a r t condensate

c l o s e d condensate tank always maintained. s i p h o n , w i t h the

in which a c e r t a i n the drainage in the

minimum l e v e l pipe

the

Sometimes liquid

can be f o r m e d the

as a U - t u b e , as a

two

columns

legs of seal.

U-tube acting

pressure-balancing let the

d e v i c e and a h y d r a u l i c f r o m one v e s s e l vessels is to to

T h e s i p h o n can a l s o when a d e f i n i t e It is important of at least

be u s e d pressure to

to

condensate f l o w between the of the

another

difference the it the height

be m a i n t a i n e d .

choose making in

siphon with the

a sufficient

s a f e t y margin

50%,

possible to

neutralize leg of

pressure fluctuations In order vapour, the to to the

and t h e

condensate f l a s h of the liquid

low-pressure

the

U-tube. flash to

avoid the diameter velocity m/s. 3.9,

risk of the

column b e i n g

d e s t r o y e d by the large

low-pressure condensate

leg

s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t l y (assumed t o In the be f r e e

limit

flow

o f the

of vapour bubbles)

a b o u t 0.6

condensate drainage

s u b s y s t e m shown i n evaporator

Fig.

the

flow

of juice

condensates from the heaters

t h i r d and f o u r t h third-

effects

and f r o m t h e vapours the is

supplied with second-, As t h e

and f o u r t h - e f f e c t are

gravitational.

condensate tanks

level-controlled, using

drainage

pipes

c a n be c o n n e c t e d t o Special operation

the

condensate tanks problems

without

siphons. intermittent p a n s and the

condensate drainage o f the

are associated w i t h large distance

b a t c h vacuum p a n s , t h e

between t h e

in
evaporator heating steaming valve in the is being a contributing the factor. The r e a s o n subject boiling is to that large the pressure in the During

chambers o f and o t h e r

individual

pans i s the

fluctuations. vapour the

auxiliary

phases o f

cycle,

the

supply pressure heat

closed while

the v e n t i n g fall.

v a l v e remains the

open, t h i s

causing

heating

chamber t o a large As t h e

During

syrup-thickening in

p h a s e , when t h e pressure

demand i s in the

largest, line.

vapour flow vapour flow loss

results

a considerable during the

loss

supply the the

i s much s m a l l e r is also smaller.

crystal-growth

phase, if the all

corresponding

pressure

As a c o n s e q u e n c e , e v e n same e v a p o r a t o r effect, of

vacuum pans a r e s u p p l i e d w i t h v a p o u r f r o m t h e between the and t h e bar. respond to heating other chambers o f in the

pressure difference

two vacuum p a n s , one p h a s e , may

them i n t h e

syrup-thickening

crystal-growth

e a s i l y a t t a i n v a l u e s about If a condensate d r a i n

0.5

cannot adequately

pressure in the

fluctuations, heating chamber pressure malfunctions are are

t h e r e may be a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s during is the periods

condensate accumulation other

o f d e c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e . On t h e in the

h a n d , when t h e Drainage

raised,

a v a p o u r l e a k may o c c u r

condensate steam t r a p s , chamber)

line.

are p o s s i b l e installed too

even w i t h c o r r e c t l y working high (relative to the small of

when t h e or their

devices outlets

heating a

connected to

a manifold of

too

diameter. subsystem equipped is one heating with

L e t us a n a l y s e t h e float-type

operation

a condensate drainage Fig. the 3.10.

steam t r a p s , the

as shown i n in

The condensate m a n i f o l d effect next to leaving the the

connected to supplying the

condensate tank vapour.

evaporator the

heating

Even t h o u g h

condensate

i-th

effect

vapour

\ 7

t o ( i ^ 1 ) t h effect^ vapour

F i g . 3 . 1 0 . P r i n c i p l e o f c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e f r o m vacuum p a n s u s i n g steam t r a p s and a c o n d e n s a t e m a n i f o l d c o n n e c t e d t o a t a n k . chambers o f t h e vacuum p a n s may be s u b c o o l e d , t h a t lower than passed the evaporator that of trap the heating vapour, the it begins to is, its

float-type

temperature

may be has

boil

as s o o n as i t to the

and i s

exposed to

pressure corresponding average s p e c i f i c

next induces an

effect.

The r e s u l t i n g

increase of

volume

112

increased flow to the

velocity

and a l a r g e r

pressure loss

in

the manifold,

this

leading in

a reduced system throughput individual drains

and a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d s chambers.

condensate accumulation

and h e a t i n g

The s i t u a t i o n condensate that is, leg

d e s c r i b e d c a n be p r e v e n t e d b y i n c r e a s i n g line the connecting steam t r a p the at heating least 5-6

the

height

of

the trap, outlet

in the

chamber and t h e m below the

steam

by i n s t a l l i n g In

condensate be

nozzle. at

large-capacity

sugar f a c t o r i e s from the

where the

vacuum p a n s must it is advisable to

located

a relatively

long d i s t a n c e

evaporator, the

install

a separate Mutual

condensate tank c o l l e c t i n g between t h e connecting

condensate from the

vacuum p a n s . the to the

interference that is,

p a n s c a n be p r e v e n t e d b y e l i m i n a t i n g individual drainage lines directly

manifold, condensate

the

tank. drainage v e r s i o n s , a solution of a steam t r a p is b a s e d on t h e application to the o f a nonrelation

Among o t h e r return valve

instead level

particularly

sensitive

between the Reliable where the

difference

and t h e m a g n i t u d e

of pressure

fluctuations. shown i n Fig. 3.11, leaks

operation

can be a c h i e v e d u s i n g t h e principle in the is

configuration to

level-control

introduced

eliminate the the pans.

vapour

accompanying

p r e s s u r e peaks

heating

chambers o f

10-12m

F i g . 3 . 1 1 . Scheme o f c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e f r o m vacuum p a n s u s i n g v a l v e s and a l e v e l - c o n t r o l l e d c o n d e n s a t e t a n k . 3.2.2 Venting of noncondensables temperature invert in the evaporator

non-return

The e l e v a t e d j u i c e amides, dioxide bicarbonates, are produced.

causes thermal

decay and

of carbon flow of air

s u g a r and s u c r o s e . As a r e s u l t ,

ammonia

In a d d i t i o n ,

pressure drops associated w i t h j u i c e effects contribute to the liberation

between the dissolved in heating in

consecutive evaporator the j u i c e .

T h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e g a s e s (known as n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s ) factor to be k e p t under

v a p o u r s s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s an i m p o r t a n t

control. It is difficult to evaluate of the amount of noncondensables produced in at 0.015 the

evaporator.

T h e amount

ammonia was e s t i m a t e d

k g / 1 0 0 kg b b y C l a a s s e n

113

(ref.

7)

and 0 . 0 0 5 - 0 . 0 1 7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b b y D o b r z y c k i at

(ref.8).

The t o t a l

amount 9).

of

n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s was e s t i m a t e d An e s t i m a t e third-effect t h a t the quality

0 . 0 2 4 - 0 . 0 3 2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b b y G o r o k h ( r e f . of the concentration of

g i v e n by Koren ( r e f . 1 0 )

noncondensables It

in

vapour from a q u a d r u p l e - e f f e c t figures characterizing the

e v a p o r a t o r was 2 . 0 - 5 . 6 % . processing of beets o f

seems

actual

inferior higher. heating partial chamber

(following

prolonged storage pressure of build-up

or f r o s t

damage) may be e v e n in the

At a constant of an e v a p o r a t o r

total

the of

gas/vapour mixture

body, the

noncondensables causes the the condensation

pressure of vapour to d e c r e a s e s and t h e juice is

d e c r e a s e . As a r e s u l t , temperature

temperature vapour and of amount

effective

difference

between h e a t i n g temperature

r e d u c e d . L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t when a t y p i c a l r e d u c e d b y as l i t t l e is as 1 . 5 - 2 . 0 K, the

difference of the

10 i s of

resulting the

reduction impact heat of

heat t r a n s f e r r e d

15-20%. More d a t a temperature

illustrating

n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s on t h e presented It in Table 3.2.

difference

affecting

the

transfer

are

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d the

out t h a t there

are also other

disadvantageous the film coefficient of p u r e steam of

consequences o f heat t r a n s f e r place is of at

presence of

noncondensables. While

a heating order of air.

s u r f a c e where the

condensation does n o t

takes at a mixture

the

10 000 W / ( m ^ K ) , i t

e x c e e d 100 W / ( m ^ K ) is exposed to transfer

a surface

exposed to

C o n s e q u e n t l y , when t h e

surface of in

o f v a p o u r and n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s , t h e substantially of the root the

film coefficient

heat

may be reduction Generally, square

r e d u c e d . A t 0.5-1.0% noncondensables relative of heat to its

the m i x t u r e , is about

the

coefficient

pure-vapour value is

50-60%. to the

film coefficient of

transfer of

inversely proportional (ref. of 12).

t h e mass c o n c e n t r a t i o n

noncondensables

In order to vapour mixture

p r e v e n t an e x c e s s i v e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h o u l d be c o n t i n u o u s l y to the

noncondensables, the it is the popular in

gas/ to

vented. While

practice cascade

discharge the mixture venting authors.

condenser or d i r e c t l y effects

to

atmosphere,

between c o n s e c u t i v e e v a p o r a t o r The advantages o f of

h a s been recommended b y some dubious because o f the it

t h i s method a r e h i g h l y final

accumulation necessary to venting is

noncondensables in the

evaporator

effects,

t h i s making cascade system,

vent to

condenser anyway. Another heating-vapour is

consequence o f the thermal

that at in the

constant

demand i n

water

evaporation a part effect

evaporator

reduced because the

vapour vented in the

replaces evaporator

of the itself.

vapour which would otherwise

be g e n e r a t e d

actual

T h e most e f f e c t i v e

method t o

vent the

evaporator flow

bodies the

is

to

let

the

entire in

amount o f v a p o u r f r o m t h e the next e f f e c t . As a p a r t rest is

preceding of the

effect

through

heating

chamber the

n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s becomes d i s s o l v e d i n in the heating vapour to the j u i c e

condensate, the

supplied

heaters.

114

TABLE

3.2 in

R e d u c t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e due t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f a i r t h e c o n d e n s i n g v a p o u r , as a f u n c t i o n o f mass c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a i r , t o t a l p r e s s u r e and t h e o r e t i c a l t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e A t .

(bar) 0.3

(K) 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20

2.5 11.5 5.8 3.8 2.9 12.6 6.3 4.2 3.2 13.3 6.7 4.4 3.3 14.7 7.3 4.9 3.7 15.2 7.6 5.1 3.8 15.8 7.9 5.3 4.0 16.6 8.3 5.5 4.2 17.0 8.5 5.7 4.3 17.8 8.9 5.9 4.5

5 22.9 11.5 7.6 5.7 25.4 12.7 8.5 6.4 27.2 13.6 9.1 6.8 28.6 14.3 9.5 7.1 30.9 15.5 10.3 7.8 32.2 16.1 10.7 8.1 33.6 16.8 11.2 8.2 35.0 17.5 11.7 8.8 35.6 17.8 11.9 8.9

7.5 34.8 17.4 11.6 8.7 39.0 19.5 13.0 9.8 41.2 20.6 13.7 10.3 43.9 21.9 14.6 11.0 46.6 23.3 15.5 11.7 48.8 24.4 16.3 12.2 51.0 25.5 17.0 12.8 52.6 26.3 17.5 13.5 54.0 27.0 18.0 13.5

10 48.1 24.0 16.0 12.0 52.1 26.0 17.4 13.0 55.0 27.5 18.3 13.8 58.4 29.2 19.5 14.7 62.4 31.2 20.8 15.6 66.0 33.0 22.0 16.5 69.0 34.5 23.0 17.9 71.2 35.6 23.7 17.8 73.2 36.6 24.4 18.3

0.5

0.75

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

vacuum p a n s in the in

and o t h e r

r e c e i v e r s . An i n c r e a s e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n heat r e c e i v e r s causes l e s s temperature bodies. from the

of

noncondensables than than

heating

chambers o f

inconvenience there are larger

the e v a p o r a t o r ,

because the a c t u a l o f the evaporator

differences

those c h a r a c t e r i s t i c A venting

s y s t e m b a s e d on v a p o u r w i t h d r a w a l

heating

chambers

of

115

a quadruple-effect entire the

evaporator

is

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in the to

in

F i g . 3.12 effect

(ref.

6).

The of

amount o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s l i b e r a t e d second e f f e c t

first the

and a b o u t the

half

gases from the

are d i r e c t e d

heater

before

second the hot main of

carbonatation. heating liming. the of

Third-effect the

v a p o u r and n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s w i t h d r a w n effect vapour control are supplied to the heater the

from before

chamber o f

fourth

In order to minimize named, a u t o m a t i c temperature The s i g n a l

l o s s e s when v e n t i n g c a n be a p p l i e d the

heating the gas is

chambers

heaters

by u t i l i z i n g changes o f controller

phenomenon

condensation

changes accompanying

concentration. correction the venting

from the j u i c e - t e m p e r a t u r e valve in the

acting,

via in

elements, line. too

on a c o n t r o l

vapour supply l i n e the

and a n o t h e r in such and

The c o r r e c t i o n high a j u i c e At too

elements

are transforming the venting

signal

a way t h a t a t

temperature, low a j u i c e

valve closes f i r s t the vapour v a l v e

the vapour v a l v e second. first and t h e venting

temperature,

opens

valve

second.

Media h e a t e d : - thin juice b - clear juice c - limed juice

Pi
to the condenser

steam

iL
experience w i t h the above s o l u t i o n at too is satisfactory. Normally, induced of the loss. than may the by

F i g . 3 . 1 2 . Scheme o f a v e n t i n g s u b s y s t e m f e a t u r i n g a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l o f t h e d i s c h a r g e o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s f r o m t h e h e a t i n g chambers o f j u i c e h e a t e r s . Practical venting

v a l v e opens o n l y t e m p o r a r i l y , fluctuations. When t h e heating

low j u i c e

temperatures

juice-flow

venting is

v a l v e c l o s e s , the increased to

concentration enabling vapour

noncondensables i n the gases to However, to the

chamber

a level

become d i s s o l v e d i n the

the

c o n d e n s a t e and d r a i n e d w i t h o u t to the ammonia-water by the

c o n d e n s a t e s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d because the evaporator. the venting

tank r a t h e r

condensate tank, re-enter the

gases l i b e r a t e d

condensate f l a s h

otherwise

Another control

method f o r

o f noncondensables from the in the P o l i s h sugar

heating

chambers o f e v a p o r a t o r

b o d i e s has been t e s t e d

industry

116

(ref.

13).

The b u i l d - u p

o f noncondensables taking place in o f the heating

a heating

chamber in

can

be d e t e c t e d b y c o m p a r i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s inlet n o z z l e and t h a t transmitter controller condensing at the

vapour flowing

the

heating

s u r f a c e . The s i g n a l

from a an

special

measuring the temperature opening the v e n t i n g

difference

may be s u p p l i e d t o

automatic 3.2.3

valve.

S c a l e p r e v e n t i o n and r e m o v a l of the impurities present in t h i n j u i c e becomes l e s s impurities

A considerable quantity s o l u b l e as t h e

concentration of the j u i c e heating surfaces of heat,

r i s e s , and some o f t h e s e

may d e p o s i t on t h e scale.

the evaporator b o d i e s , forming a hard the scale decreases the heat transfer

Being a poor conductor o f across the heating

coefficients throughput temperature result. is

s u r f a c e s . Consequently, the the

evaporator if the

r e d u c e d and can be a d j u s t e d t o are i n c r e a s e d , w i t h

required value only

differences

i n c r e a s e d steam c o n s u m p t i o n as a

The d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s e f f e c t s

of scale formation scale thickness.

d e p e n d on t h e

thermal is (3.4)

c o n d u c t i v i t y o f d e p o s i t s and t h e k = l/(l/a^ where k i s + / + ^/^ + /^) the o v e r a l l

The g o v e r n i n g e q u a t i o n

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficient,

a-j and

are the

film

coefficients respectively, layer,

o f heat t r a n s f e r and

on t h e j u i c e

s i d e and t h e v a p o u r s i d e , tube wall and t h e of deposit the tube

are the t h i c k n e s s e s o f the are the thermal

r e s p e c t i v e l y , and and and d e p o s i t s ,

conductivities

material

respectively. range 0.08-2.00 W/(mK),

The thermal

c o n d u c t i v i t y o f d e p o s i t s may v a r y i n t h e chemical composition and s t r u c t u r e affect

d e p e n d i n g on t h e Therefore, seriously.

o f the deposited substance. the heat transfer

a v e r y t h i n s c a l e may be e n o u g h t o The l a r g e r the initial overall

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficient this effect, as

corresponding to a clean heating shown i n Fig. 3.13.

s u r f a c e , t h e more p r o n o u n c e d i s

The k i n d o f s c a l e d e p o s i t e d by t h e j u i c e on many f a c t o r s , the raw j u i c e . and p r i n c i p a l among them i s

during

e v a p o r a t i o n o b v i o u s l y depends of mineral salts as well in

the composition

The j u i c e

purification

method a l s o has a marked e f f e c t , techniques. o f s c a l e by u s i n g v a r i o u s universally efficient purification methods. is if

as t h e a p p l i c a t i o n It is

of juice

decalcification formation product is

possible to

prevent the

addition used with Danish low,

products, different sugar

a l t h o u g h no p a r t i c u l a r raw j u i c e

p r o p e r t i e s and d i f f e r e n t

In the

i n d u s t r y , where the c o n t e n t o f c a l c i u m s a l t s simply b a s e d on s o d a a d d i t i o n are o f f e r i n g

in beets to the

usually very

scale prevention is

second c a r b o n a t a t i o n .

A number o f m a n u f a c t u r e r s or

preparations

b a s e d on o r g a n o p h o s p h a t e s a reduction of scaling

p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s as s c a l e - p r e v e n t i n g a g e n t s , c l a i m i n g

117

1.0 0.8 0.6

SI

Initial heat transfer coefficient: 1 0 0 0 W/(m*K)

2000

.
0.2 0 0.2 0 0.6 OB 1.0

3000

W/(m^K) W/(m^K)

Scale

thickness

(mm)
as a f u n c t i o n of scale thickness

F i g . 3.13. O v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t a t s c a l e c o n d u c t i v i t y 0.97 W / ( m K ) . in the evaporator of as m e t h o d s in the of up t o 90%.

A discussion of

the

properties in

of

these

agents,

as w e l l

application

and e x p e r i e n c e s a r i s i n g 14,15). is b a s e d on t h e field

sugar

factories,

can be f o u n d Another mineral

literature

(refs.

scale-prevention technique dissolved in j u i c e molecules tend to in

activation or in

of molecules field. on

of

salts

an e l e c t r i c in

a magnetic than the

The a c t i v a t e d the

remain

suspension rather indicate that

depositing becomes mud. T h e

heat-exchange s u r f a c e s ,

and some r e p o r t s being a tube,

scale

more e a s i l y activating juice

r e m o v e d , sometimes device consists of

changed i n t o usually

microcrystal1ine in the pipe units last

placed

preceding of four give this

thinkind

heaters,

and f i e l d - g e n e r a t i n g in operation in

circuitry.

Thousands o f during the

h a v e been s e t As r e g a r d s t h e definite 3,16-19).

various it

industries this

decades. very (refs. reports of

sugar

industry,

seems t h a t

method does n o t on i t s the of

results,

and t h e r e cannot

h a v e been v a r y i n g be e x c l u d e d t h a t as t h e

reports some o f

efficiency

However, i t

unfavourable the

have r e s u l t e d

from m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s , is a surprisingly a recent

evaluation

efficiency

scale prevention

complex p r o b l e m . devoted to

The a s s o c i a t e d studies of scale

difficulties formation

h a v e been d i s c u s s e d i n during It proper raw j u i c e

article 20). that

evaporation

(ref. out

should f i n a l l y procedures f o r with water

be p o i n t e d evaporator

s c a l e p r e v e n t i o n must u n d e r abnormal evaporator arising

also

include like the of

operation in the

conditions, or the juice

start-up water too to

replacing in

juice

bodies,

addition flow

thin juice

emergency s i t u a t i o n s the water

where the

becomes

small.

In p r i n c i p l e ,

a d d e d s h o u l d be o f

condensate or very

feed-water short

quality. periods,

The use o f because o f

untreated the risk

w a t e r must of formation

be a v o i d e d e v e n d u r i n g of very troublesome

deposits. tubes for and several

Various other

p r o c e d u r e s have been a d v o c a t e d f o r heating surfaces.

cleaning

evaporator is to

incrusted

T h e commonest t h e n wash w i t h

practice water

boil with

hours with

caustic

soda s o l u t i o n ,

and b o i l

dilute

118

hydrochloric the risk of

acid.

The d e t a i l s

of

the

p r o c e d u r e must

be d e f i n e d

s o as t o to the

avoid heating

c o r r o s i v e damage t o

the

equipment,

and p a r t i c u l a r l y chemicals it

tubes.

In connection with t h i s and p a s s i v a t o r s )

requirement,

other

(inhibitors, easier boiling and t u b e to control the

activators cleaning

h a v e been d e v e l o p e d t o make chemicals

p r o c e s s . T h e t y p e and amount o f to factory, d e p e n d i n g on t h e problems the

and t h e

t i m e may v a r y material of in the

from f a c t o r y used.

scale properties

A good a c c o u n t o f t h e c l e a n i n g methods (refs. 21-24).

associated w i t h the industry) companies

implementation c a n be f o u n d are p r e s e n t l y basis of

chemical literature

(in

P o l i s h sugar

S p e c i a l i z e d chemical

offering scale

extended i n d i v i d u a l samples, scaled-tube

cleaning

and c o n s e r v a t i o n m e t h o d s , resin samples, etc.

on t h e

sections,

Where c h e m i c a l

cleaning

has n o t

proved e f f e c t i v e ,

mechanical

or

hydraulic of

t u b e c l e a n e r s c a n be u s e d . an e l e c t r i c rollers, each tube 3.3 3.3.1 motor is

Electrical shaft

d e s c a l e r s are w i d e l y terminating in

known, c o n s i s t i n g with serrated the tool for

and a f l e x i b l e driven at

a tool

which

a high speed. to

One o r two p a s s a g e s o f scale.

are u s u a l l y

sufficient

remove t h e

FUNDAMENTALS OF CORRECT U T I L I Z A T I O N OF CONDENSATES AND VAPOURS Condensates of to the the the energy of condensates takes Providing place the is to in the thermal subsystem flow p r o c e s s . As the tank, Section is

The u t i l i z a t i o n circuitry working attached

condensate tanks.

drainage act as

correctly, and t o

task

o f most c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s conditions the for the

stabilizers the

secure proper is

condensate-flash in

i n f l o w i n g condensate vapour, assumed t o

expanding to

pressure maintained is generated the

flash 2.5).

be d r y s a t u r a t e d the

steam,

(see also are

As a s e c o n d a r y e f f e c t ,

gases d i s s o l v e d in

condensate

1i berated. The f l a s h or streams. process should conveniently In a horizontal the upper p a r t tank, this be p e r f o r m e d in thin condensate layers the the

c a n be a c c o m p l i s h e d to a special

by s u p p l y i n g

condensate to liquid level,

and p r e f e r a b l y It

nozzle

p l a c e d above

as shown i n

Fig. 3.14(a).

s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d t h a t when level, vapour generation may

introducing initially boiling

the

condensate below the by t h e

liquid

be i n h i b i t e d

hydraulic

p r e s s u r e , and s u b s e q u e n t vibrations.

intensive

in a large

liquid

v o l u m e may i n d u c e t a n k a vertical

In F i g . 3 . 1 4 ( b ) , requirements is supplied of

a scheme f o r

tank designed to is

satisfy

the condensate liquid a nozzle automatic

efficient

condensate f l a s h

shown. H i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e p l a c e d above the is directed to

from below v i a a n o z z l e to supply of outlet

a sieve tray

level.

A possible

low-temperature The tank is

condensate usually

p l a c e d below the level-control

nozzle.

e q u i p p e d w i t h an

circuit.

119

()

(b)

jT nozzle
baffle

nozzle
sieve tray

h i

F i g . 3.14. Design p r i n c i p l e s o f condensate t a n k s : ( a ) h o r i z o n t a l t y p e , (b) v e r t i c a l t y p e ( c o u r t e s y Chemadex). 1 - expanding condensate, 2 - s u b c o o l e d condensate, 3 - outflowing condensate, 4 - f l a s h vapour. It s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e the evaporator available flash energy o f the c o n d e n s a t e may either or

be s u p p l i e d t o o t h e r media in

in the

vapour, or t r a n s f e r r e d However, i f a part of

to j u i c e

condensate-heated heaters. satisfied by t h e flash

the

heatingis In

v a p o u r demand i s constant, then

v a p o u r , and t h e

condenser l o s s in the 1.4

less water w i l l

be e v a p o r a t e d f r o m j u i c e in Fig. 3.15(a),

evaporator. kg f l a s h

the arrangement is obtained per

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y 100 kg b e e t , this

about

vapour and

reducing water This

evaporation

in the

first

second s t a g e s by a b o u t 2.8

k g / 1 0 0 kg b .

figure

c a n be c u t down b y

applying as

double-stage condensate e x p a n s i o n , which r e q u i r e s shown i n Fig. 3.15(b). In the f i r s t tank, the

u s i n g two c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s flashed to the

condensate i s

first-effect stage f l a s h

pressure, generating produces another 0.7

a b o u t 0.7

kg v a p o u r p e r

100 kg b e e t .

Secondwater

kg v a p o u r p e r 100 + 2-0.7 = 2.1

kg b e e t .

As a r e s u l t , i.e.,

evaporation w i l l than in the first

be r e d u c e d by 0.7 case.

k g / 1 0 0 kg b ,

25% l e s s

previous

The

stage o f the

condensate f l a s h

c h a i n p r e s e n t e d a b o v e c a n be heater, h e a t e d by in

replaced

by a h e a t e r vapour, water is

to which t h i n j u i c e supplied. This

from another

first-effect reduces

solution,

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y

Fig. 3.15(c), b.

evaporation

i n t h e e v a p o r a t o r b y o n l y 1.4 of replacing in

k g / 1 0 0 kg

Another cooling in

possibility a heater

condensate f l a s h connection with

i n a t a n k by condensate the last evaporator effect.

can be f o u n d the

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , equal to that in

last-effect

c o n d e n s a t e t a n k can be o p e r a t e d a t (instead of that in the vapour

a pressure

the

heating

chamber

chamber).

120

()

(b)

126C

116C 35 125C

126C 136"C

116C 125 C

35

" 136'C

I
^ 3 : ^ _ _ .
(c)

^.J^r^L-S3.3:6

126C 35

116'C 125-C

136C

34.3

F i g . 3 . 1 5 . Schemes o f u t i l i z a t i o n o f f i r s t - e f f e c t c o n d e n s a t e i n a q u a d r u p l e effect evaporator: (a) single-stage f l a s h , (b) double-stage f l a s h , (c) t h i n j u i c e h e a t i n g , f o l l o w e d b y s i n g l e - s t a g e f l a s h ( f l o w s i n k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) . T h i s makes it possible to stage a f t e r supply the the condensate to a heater installed vapour. If in as the

next heating

one h e a t e d b y t h e solution b. utilization of

last-effect

applied the

instead of a flash evaporator If the the

stage, this

increases water

evaporation

b y 1 . 8 - 2 . 5 k g / 1 0 0 kg principles of correct

condensates are observed, piping, fittings, controls

then and the

condensate subsystem c o n s i s t i n g instruments look similar

of tanks,

measuring essential the

in d i f f e r e n t

factories.

Alternatively,

c o m p o n e n t s can be c o m b i n e d i n t o While the compartments

a single of the

p i e c e o f equipment

known as the

compound t a n k . tanks

compound t a n k c o r r e s p o n d t o and f i t t i n g s

individual used.

o f the

conventional conditions,

solution, it

less piping

c a n be for

D e p e n d i n g on l o c a l

may a l s o be e a s i e r t o individual tanks.

f i n d a place

a single

compound t a n k r a t h e r

than m u l t i p l e

121

3.3.2

Vapours evaporator station in in the h e a t economy o f Its influence the the of the

The r o l e o f t h e m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t sugar f a c t o r i e s

has been d i s c u s s e d p r e l i m i n a r i l y the sugar manufacturing that is, using the

S e c t i o n 1.2.5.

on t h e n e t h e a t demand o f modified Rillieux

process is

b a s e d on in

principle,

heat r e p e t i t i v e l y

consecutive evaporator e f f e c t s , heat to

and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y d e l i v e r i n g each e f f e c t .

fractions the

the vapour r e c e i v e r s connected to i.e. the ratio of

As a r e s u l t ,

evaporation c o e f f i c i e n t , mass o f heating

t h e mass o f w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d t o effect, may r e a c h 2 . 3 - 2 . 8 in a

the

steam consumed i n and 3 . 2 - 3 . 5 the

the f i r s t

quadruple-effect

in a quintuple-effect,

e v a p o r a t o r . The l a r g e r ratio

the

evaporation c o e f f i c i e n t ,

l a r g e r c a n be t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the thermal Numerous t h e o r e t i c a l devoted to (refs. the optimal Their

system. studies h a v e been evaporators

a n a l y s e s and p r a c t i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d distribution

o f vapours from m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t two r u l e s , t o one:

25-33).

results

c a n be s u m m a r i z e d i n

be o b s e r v e d when

d e s i g n i n g a new t h e r m a l (i) Each h e a t i n g

s y s t e m o r m o d e r n i z i n g an e x i s t i n g

operation

s h o u l d be a c c o m p l i s h e d u s i n g v a p o u r a t

the

lowest

possible (ii)

temperature. from the last evaporator effect to the condenser should

Vapour f l o w zero.

approach

The t e m p e r a t u r e s

o f vapours from the e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s

are determined

by

t h e number o f e f f e c t s , areas in the individual

t h e d e s i g n o f e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s and t h e effects. Simultaneously, the

heating-surface sugar required each at

parameters o f the

manufacturing for

process determine operations.

t h e v a p o u r demand and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e is possible to a s s i g n , to

the heating

Consequently, i t

heating

operation,

a specific

evaporator effect

from which heating

vapour

a suitable

temperature

can be w i t h d r a w n . using vapours from d i f f e r e n t evaporator effects temperature in of the

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s a given heating

for

o p e r a t i o n a r e l i m i t e d by t h e

required final difference

medium h e a t e d , and b y t h e minimum t e m p e r a t u r e characteristic are the illustrated utilization o f the in heating apparatus. It

(temperature

pinch)

The r e l a t i o n s

between t h e

temperatures of

F i g . 3.16.

c a n t h u s be c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s a certain extent, this in on t h e heating c a n be b a s e d the

o f vapours depends, to A quantitative

equipment a v a i l a b l e .

analysis of

relationship unit

on t h e e q u a t i o n e x p r e s s i n g t h e v a p o u r and t h e medium h e a t e d as Q = kFAT where k i s and i s heated. the o v e r a l l

heat Q t r a n s f e r r e d

time between

(3.5) heat t r a n s f e r coefficient, F is the heating-surface v a p o u r and t h e area,

t h e mean t e m p e r a t u r e

difference

between h e a t i n g

medium

122

\_

vapour

<

pinch required final temperature

2
.

0 100 Heating surface area p a s s e d ( % )

F i g . 3.16. Temperature c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f j u i c e d i f f e r e n c e , T ^ - actual vapour temperature, T ^ temperature. F o r a g i v e n amount o f temperature product the difference heat t r a n s f e r r e d , it h e a t i n g . - mean t e m p e r a t u r e - lowest p o s s i b l e vapour

may be p o s s i b l e

to

reduce the only if

mean the at

( a n d t h e minimum t e m p e r a t u r e principle

difference) of

kF i s

i n c r e a s e d . Consequently, the temperature implies

selection

o f vapour by

lowest

possible

t h a t the which is

equipment equivalent

characterized to a large

a small

minimum t e m p e r a t u r e

difference,

kF,

s h o u l d be p r e f e r r e d . heat t r a n s f e r , heater is cost. or

However, l a r g e

kF can o n l y be o b t a i n e d a r e a s , or both -

using

high-intensity increased there

large

heating-surface prices

this

inducing

At given unit between t h e the

o f e n e r g y and h e a t - e x c h a n g i n g of the

equipment, and the

a trade-off

effectiveness

energy u t i l i z a t i o n for to the treat

investment temperature

cost of

heaters,

and an optimum e x i s t s it may be p o s s i b l e

minimum this phenomenon 9.4.3.) the K,

difference.

(Actually,

as a b a s i s o f e n e r g y - s y s t e m a n a l y s i s As r e g a r d s v a p o u r - h e a t e d j u i c e

and d e s i g n , as shown i n it is believed at

Section

heaters,

present that

e c o n o m i c v a l u e s o f t h e minimum t e m p e r a t u r e lower values corresponding should thus above t h e be a c c o m p l i s h e d to higher fuel

difference prices.

s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 5-10 heating operations than

Typical

using vapours at temperature.

temperatures Even s m a l l e r vapours

not higher temperature (see Section

5-10

required final

juice

differences 3.3.4). the

may be a d o p t e d when h e a t i n g The l a r g e s t component o f

with the

low-temperature heating-vapour

demand i s

associated with the

s u g a r b o i l i n g p r o c e s s . S u p p l y i n g t h e vacuum p a n s w i t h v a p o u r a t p o s s i b l e temperature the evaporator. of is decisive in optimizing the distribution look at

lowest from

of vapours heating

For t h i s sugar

reason, let

us t a k e a c l o s e r

the

requirements In the difference features of

boiling. notion of t h e minimum and o t h e r temperature special may be on of

case o f

b a t c h vacuum p a n s , t h e the

must be a d a p t e d t o the

discontinuous It is

nature

boiling process. in the

known t h a t t h e magma t e m p e r a t u r e the distribution (refs. being

unevenly d i s t r i b u t e d the

strike

volume,

dependent sake

pan d e s i g n a n d , p o s s i b l y ,

stirrer

efficiency

34-36).

For the

123

simplicity,

let

us assume t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e

conditions

i n t h e magma c a n be

a d e q u a t e l y d e s c r i b e d u s i n g t h e mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e . following increased, changes o f the b o i l i n g - p o i n t this in

A t c o n s t a n t vacuum, is

e l e v a t i o n as t h e magma c o n c e n t r a t i o n boiling c y c l e as shown heat transfer

temperature v a r i e s during the F i g . 3.17.

approximately coefficient at

F o r t h e same r e a s o n ,

the o v e r a l l

the heating

s u r f a c e v a r i e s as i n d i c a t e d

i n t h e same d i a g r a m . chamber may v a r y (as of

Simultaneously,

the condensation temperature

in the heating

discussed in Section 3.1.2),

becoming t e m p o r a r i l y effect.

lower than the temperature

vapour from the a s s o c i a t e d e v a p o r a t o r

o H 7 6

20

UO

60

80

100

Time after seeding ( m i n )

F i g . 3 . 1 7 . Mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e d u r i n g w h i t e - s u g a r b o i l i n g i n two d i f f e r e n t vacuum p a n s ( a f t e r r e f . 3 4 ) . The r a n g e o f c h o i c e s o f v a p o u r t e m p e r a t u r e v a l u e s f o r by t h e b o i l i n g time requirement which i s essential to pan h e a t i n g is limited

both t h e s u g a r house of

t h r o u g h p u t and p r o d u c t q u a l i t y .

A t a g i v e n h e a t i n g - s u r f a c e a r e a , t h e amount ensure that the s t r i k e can be

h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d s h o u l d be l a r g e e n o u g h t o completed w i t h i n per u n i t possible. In order to simplify the formulation the required b o i l i n g

time .

In a d d i t i o n ,

the heat

transferred

t i m e s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t l y

l a r g e t o make c o r r e c t s t r i k e

finishing

of the

requirements,

let

us assume t h a t This allows

changes o f t h e v a p o u r - c o n d e n s a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e us t o restrict our a t t e n t i o n to the f o l l o w i n g 3.18):

are n e g l i g i b l y small. parameters t h a t

approximately

describe the temperature -

cycle (Fig.

t i m e - a v e r a g e d mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e T ^ ; h i g h e s t mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e T ^ ; vapour temperature T ^ .

124

Time (min)
Fig. 3.18. Temperature c y c l e accompanying the cycle is accompanied by t h e sugar b o i l i n g heat t r a n s f e r process. cycle (Fig. in 3.19), 3.20:

The t e m p e r a t u r e

w h i c h can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g time-averaged overall lowest overall heat t r a n s f e r

parameters k^; a

illustrated

Fig.

coefficient k^;

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficient

h e a t demand p e r one s t r i k e Q^^. listed above, it is possible to relationships satisfy the derive a simple cycle. The

Using the parameters mathematical model

o f the

heat t r a n s f e r

in a boiling

vapour temperature

s h o u l d be c h o s e n t o

inequality (3.6)

w h i c h can be r e w r i t t e n

as (3.7) heat t r a n s f e r r e d reflect the per u n i t time by Q ^ , a n o t h e r of strike finishing as (3.8)

V(^V) '
inequality or

<

a D e n o t i n g t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e

< V\ -

can be c o n s t r u c t e d t o

conditions

(3.9)

F i g . 3.19. O v e r a l l h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t as a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e d u r i n g s u g a r b o i l i n g i n two d i f f e r e n t vacuum p a n s ( a f t e r r e f . 3 4 ) .

white-

125

Time
Fig. 3.20. Heat t r a n s f e r c y c l e accompanying the sugar b o i l i n g process. picture of by the (3.7)

The above f o r m u l a e thermal aspects of for

a r e meant t o

provide only a qualitative

selection

o f the vapour temperature.

As i n d i c a t e d

and ( 3 . 9 ) , of the

a specific

p r o d u c t and a g i v e n v a c u u m - p a n d e s i g n , t h e a certain boil threshold value.

temperature Most

heating

v a p o u r must be h i g h e r t h a n

c o n t e m p o r a r y pan d e s i g n s make i t temperature From t h e

possible to

white

sugar at

a vapour

107-120C, and l o w - g r a d e p r o d u c t s a t reasoning presented above, the selection final for part

102-110C. the by the lower by

c o n c l u s i o n c a n be d r a w n t h a t is

vapour temperature the conditions

vacuum-pan h e a t i n g o f the

v e r y much i n f l u e n c e d phase. A c t u a l l y , vapour at a

o f the

strike-thickening

utilization temperature heating phase i s at

o f vapours from the is supplied during

evaporator most o f t h e when t h e idea

c a n be i m p r o v e d i f boiling part cycle, o f the this

being f o l l o w e d

a higher temperature

final is

strike-thickening and t h e r e 37), of to highenergy have one

approached. Although t h i s its practical

certainly in of

realizable

been e x a m p l e s o f has t o

application consisting

b a t c h vacuum p a n s ( r e f . additional fluctuations from low-

reckon w i t h

side-effects

evaporator temperature loss).

parameters vapour

a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e moment o f fluctuations resulting,

switching

(the

unavoidably, be a t t a i n e d

i n an e x t r a

However, the

potential

g a i n s can e a s i l y

using of

continuous continuous pans

vacuum p a n s . A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e is presented in Returning t h a t the transfer Chapter the 5.

d e v e l o p m e n t and a p p l i c a t i o n s

now t o

b a t c h vacuum p a n s ,

it

c a n be s e e n i n be h i g h e r ,

Figs. and t h e

3.17

and

3.19 heat

h i g h e s t mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e coefficients act i s markedly lower,

tends to in the

overall

natural-circulation necessary to and t h e set

vacuum p a n s . the

Both f a c t o r s difference temperature

in the

same d i r e c t i o n ,

making i t

b e t w e e n t h e t i m e - a v e r a g e d magma t e m p e r a t u r e larger than in stirrer-equipped pans. It

vapour be c o n c l u d e d that

can t h u s

the s t i r r e r - e q u i p p e d vapour temperature, evaporator.

vacuum p a n s make i t thus

possible to

accept a lower

heatingthe

stimulating better

utilization

o f vapours from

126

Concluding the d i s c u s s i o n o f the r u l e possible temperature, evaporator let us o b s e r v e t h a t

of

heating with application

vapour at the leads to

lowest the

its

shifting

load towards

low-temperature is

effects.

As a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e

evaporation coefficient be r e d u c e d . I n t h e of this rule

i n c r e a s e d and t h e n e t h e a t demand o f t h e f a c t o r y may e x a m p l e s can be f o u n d o f successful 37,38). the applications

literature,

in modernization of evaporator stations formulated at the

(refs.

The second r u l e vapour flow to the

beginning of t h i s zero, is

S e c t i o n , to maintain

condenser c l o s e to hand, i t

means s i m p l y t h a t t h e v a p o u r must e v a p o r a t e as much w a t e r concentration. be in

n o t be w a s t e d . On t h e o t h e r t h e e v a p o r a t o r as n e e d e d t o In a sugar f a c t o r y

necessary to

a t t a i n a predetermined t h i c k - j u i c e

c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a l a r g e h e a t demand, s o much v a p o u r must heating purposes t h a t this constraint is

withdrawn from the e v a p o r a t o r f o r to s a t i s f y . If

easy

t h e h e a t demand has been d e c r e a s e d , h o w e v e r , t h e n t h e might be i n s u f f i c i e n t , and i n c r e a s e d v a p o u r f l o w to keep t h e t h i c k - j u i c e as i n d i c a t i n g to

total the

vapour withdrawal

c o n d e n s e r w o u l d be t h e o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y constant. modify Such a s i t u a t i o n

concentration the n e c e s s i t y c a n be to

s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d

the actual either

evaporator configuration. separately or in

Generally, three

solutions

considered, (1)

combination: larger heating surfaces

replacing

s e l e c t e d e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s by o t h e r s w i t h heat t r a n s f e r coefficients; effects;

and/or (2) (3)

higher overall

i n c r e a s i n g t h e number o f e v a p o r a t o r introducing The p r i n c i p l e a vapour compression of the f i r s t solution

circuit. c a n be s e e n i n e q n . to ( 3 . 5 ) , w h i c h has been

formulated

for

a heater

b u t a p p l i e s as w e l l heat to

an e v a p o r a t o r b o d y . F o r a vapour to j u i c e , an area

p r e d e t e r m i n e d amount o f increased overall make i t juice.

be t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m h e a t i n g coefficient

heat t r a n s f e r

and/or enlarged heating-surface difference in

possible to

r e d u c e t h e mean t e m p e r a t u r e of this principle is

b e t w e e n v a p o u r and F i g . 3.21, after w h i c h shows

An a p p l i c a t i o n

illustrated

vapour temperatures

in a q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t

e v a p o r a t o r b e f o r e and

modernization o f the 4 t h - e f f e c t temperature effect heating to difference

b o d y . F o l l o w i n g a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e mean effect, the temperatures utilize of the 4 t h these vapours and 5 t h - e f f e c t and for vapours 5th-

in the 4th

v a p o u r s a r e i n c r e a s e d , making i t purposes. I t

easier to

t h u s becomes p o s s i b l e t o

supply 4th-

certain

receivers that

h a v e p r e v i o u s l y been h e a t e d b y 3 r d - and

4th-effect

vapours,

r e s p e c t i v e l y . As a r e s u l t ,

t h e n e t h e a t demand may be r e d u c e d . is an o b v i o u s s o l u t i o n At in sugar

An i n c r e a s e d number o f e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s f a c t o r i e s where t r i p l e most e n e r g y e f f i c i e n t

or quadruple-stage evaporators are used. r e l y on q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t

present, This

factories

evaporators.

s h o u l d be s e e n as an e n t i r e by a unique d i s t r i b u t i o n of

family heating

of evaporator solutions,

each c h a r a c t e r i z e d

v a p o u r s . Vacuum p a n s may be h e a t e d b y 2 n d - ,

127

IAO 130

t 120
3

1 1 0
100 90 1 2 3 A E v a p o r a t o r effect 5 No.

F i g . 3.21. T e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r . Dashed l i n e s i n d i c a t e r e s u l t s o f the m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f f o u r t h - e f f e c t body ( c o u r t e s y Cukroprojekt). 3rd-, effect 4th-, o r even 5 t h - e f f e c t v a p o u r , o r two d i f f e r e n t that is, with v a p o u r s . The to last the Depending the

may w o r k as a c o n c e n t r a t o r ,

vapour withdrawal for heating

condenser o n l y ,

o r v a p o u r may a l s o be w i t h d r a w n evaporator bodies, level it

purposes.

on t h e d e s i g n o f t h e

may be n e c e s s a r y t o is sufficient in

increase

e x h a u s t - s t e a m p r e s s u r e above the evaporators. Up t o now, s e x t u p l e - e f e c t

which

quadruple-effect

e v a p o r a t o r s a r e seldom used i n

typical

white-sugar

factories. stations operation

E x a m p l e s a r e known o f f a c t o r i e s

where s e x t u p l e - s t a g e

evaporator the have

h a v e been c o n v e r t e d b a c k t o easier.

quintuple-effect of

o n e s , t o make

Successful applications

sextuple-effect

evaporators 39). in

been r e p o r t e d f r o m P l a t t l i n g ,

F R G , and B u c y - l e - L o n g , F r a n c e ( r e f . as t h i c k - j u i c e employed i n storage the is

However,

these are not o r d i n a r y f a c t o r i e s , Plattling, Long. The i n t r o d u c t i o n third possibility

applied

and v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n i s

thermal

system at

Bucy-le-

of a vapour-compression c i r c u i t

i s mentioned This

a b o v e as a is

to modify detail

an e v a p o r a t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n . in Section 3.4.

technique

discussed in 3.3.3

greater

The r o l e

o f vacuum s y s t e m s vacuum l e v e l defines the lowest temperature to which heat

The a t t a i n a b l e flows of the

can be d i r e c t e d w i t h i n last to evaporator effect

a thermal and t h e

system. For t h i s sugar b o i l i n g

reason, the

functioning very in

u n d e r vacuum a r e

important

the e f f e c t i v e n e s s

of energy conversion processes taking place s u b j e c t was i n i t i a t e d characteristic in of the

the thermal

s y s t e m . The d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s the

p r e c e d i n g S e c t i o n by a n a l y s i n g

relationships

vacuum-pan

128

heating.

The h i g h e r the lower

the vacuum, t h a t can be t h e

is,

the

lower

the

pressure in

the and thus

condenser, the heat lower

time-averaged

mean magma t e m p e r a t u r e this contributing to

can be t h e

heating-vapour

temperature,

improved

economy. last evaporator effect, the vacuum l e v e l This, in determines turn, the the the

As r e g a r d s t h e p r e s s u r e and t h u s temperature

the j u i c e - b o i l i n g for in

temperature.

defines

span a v a i l a b l e

the multi-stage first

evaporation

process

(between in the

exhaust-steam temperature and i n d i r e c t l y the individual defines the

the

s t a g e and j u i c e of heating

temperature

last), from

temperatures effects.

v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s

evaporator

I n t h e vacuum s y s t e m o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y , condensers. saturation and t h e The p r e s s u r e i n the condenser i s to the

vacuum i s equal to

produced in the sum o f

one o r the

more

watervapour, the

pressure corresponding

temperature

o f the

condensing

pressure of the

noncondensable gases. unit

However, a connection

between

c o n d e n s e r and an e q u i p m e n t pipes, fittings, The f l o w

o p e r a t e d u n d e r vacuum may i n c l u d e and, perhaps, connection is heating

nozzles, of with

entrainment

separators the

chambers

heaters.

of vapour through so the in available

inevitably i.e., of the

associated available

a pressure drop, is lower than in the in

pressure is (actually, in

higher, a part the

vacuum

that

the

condenser If,

this

p r e s s u r e d r o p may to

occur

condenser i t s e l f ) . the

addition,

noncondensables tend total

accumulate in the

condenser, then t h e i r increase, this in the

p r e s s u r e may c a u s e t h e the available

pressure further. higher

condenser to the

reducing

vacuum e v e n

As a r e s u l t ,

temperature

equipment

unit

may be i n c r e a s e d and a

heating-vapour Obviously,

temperature

may become n e c e s s a r y . increased temperatures heat economy. It of heating vapours would by

a tendency towards effect on t h e three

have a d e t r i m e n t a l

can be p r e v e n t e d , h o w e v e r , t h e vacuum s y s t e m : temperature of

paying proper a t t e n t i o n to (i) A vapour-condensation entering Effective the

factors

characterizing the inlet

temperature

close to

cooling

water (ii) (iii)

condenser; o f noncondensables from the p r e s s u r e d r o p s between t h e condenser; operated under

evacuation small

Sufficiently

equipment

vacuum and t h e Minimization the cooling

condenser. of the is temperature difference requirement between the to condensing vapour in and

water

an i m p o r t a n t

be a c c o u n t e d f o r

condenser designs and of can

design. be f o u n d quite

A d i s c u s s i o n of the in the literature

a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f v a r i o u s (refs. 3,40). Many f a c t o r i e s barometric rely

on s i m p l e ,

effective,

counter-current

shelf-type

c o n d e n s e r s . An o u t l i n e Fig. 3.22.

a design presently Another consists of

used i n Danish sugar f a c t o r i e s implemented recently

c a n be s e e n i n in the

condenser d e s i g n ,

S o v i e t sugar

industry, the

two v e s s e l s c o n n e c t e d i n

series

( F i g . 3.23).

Vapour e n t e r i n g

129

cooling water

^ - ^ ^

to vacuum pump

vapour

barometric water
F i g . 3.22. O u t l i n e o f a c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t s h e l f - t y p e (courtesy DOS). barometric condenser

F i g . 3 . 2 3 . Scheme o f a b a r o m e t r i c c o n d e n s e r f e a t u r i n g a c o - c u r r e n t v e s s e l ( a ) and a c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t v e s s e l ( b ) . 1 - v a p o u r i n l e t , 2 - c o o l i n g w a t e r i n l e t , 3 - w a t e r o u t l e t , 4 - vacuum l i n e .

130

first

vessel

is

subject

to

co-current

cooling

as w a t e r

flows

down t h e o f the

shelves. vessel. the It is upper also for

The f i r s t

portion

o f water

can be w i t h d r a w n

from the

upper p a r t

Providing this part o f the

water

does n o t mix w i t h

t h e main

cooling-water

stream,

first

v e s s e l c a n be t r e a t e d this part of the the

as an e n t r a i n m e n t

separator.

possible to

utilize

c o n d e n s e r as a d i r e c t - c o n t a c t extractor can be h e a t e d t h e r e . continues cooling

heater;

example, f r e s h water cooling of (using water this

supplied to

Co-current lower second part

f r o m t h e main being f o l l o w e d

cooling

circuit)

in the in the

the v e s s e l ,

by c o u n t e r - c u r r e n t

vessel.

In comparison to this

vacuum s y s t e m s e m p l o y i n g claimed to reduce the

simple

counter-current demand b y 25-30%

condensers, (ref. 41).

design is

cooling-water

The e v a c u a t i o n o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s from t h e pumps, u s u a l l y o f t h e w a t e r - r i n g design, it the location type.

condenser i s to

effected

using

vacuum

In addition

the general nozzle is

condenser important, gas is as

and d i m e n s i o n o f t h e

gas-withdrawal is

may o r may n o t e n s u r e t h a t is

the gas e v a c u a t i o n

sufficient temperature,

and t h e the

temperature

as l o w as p o s s i b l e . in

(The lower t h i s drive.)

smaller

the energy e x p e n d i t u r e

t h e vacuum pump

As r e g a r d s t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p s a l o n g and t h e c o n d e n s e r , some s p e c i f i c In the in

the vapour paths

between equipment

units of

p r o b l e m s may a r i s e case o f individual

d e p e n d i n g on t h e condensers, i t is

scheme

t h e vacuum i n s t a l l a t i o n . to choose channel

essential (for the If

dimensions

accordance with to

maximum v a p o u r - f l o w v a l u e s

example, vapour channels attached vapour flow a central expected during the

a vacuum pan s h o u l d be d i m e n s i o n e d f o r phase o f the boiling cycle).

syrup-thickening

condenser i s

employed, then a d e l i c a t e sections of t h e vacuum

problem a r i s e s o f piping. induce a tendency

flow

distribution

in parallel

Large diameters selecting too small

of nozzles, dimensions,

v a l v e s and p i p e s this resulting

towards

in

too

large

pressure drops. the formulae neglect the

Traditionally,

calculations

o f t h e vacuum p i p i n g velocities (ref. 3). inserted It

h a v e been b a s e d on

recommended v a l u e s o f f l o w expressing the of

into

incompressible-flow

pressure drop

can be p r o v e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t error of about

the vapour c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y pressure drop (ref.

may c a u s e a s y s t e m a t i c 42). An e x a m p l e o f

10% o f

calculated piping (ref. It

calculations in the

o f the

vacuum

using compressible-flow 43). s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t t h e presentation o f the

formulae

c a n be f o u n d

literature

a b o v e d i s c u s s i o n c a n n o t be c o n s i d e r e d as a relating is very to efficient to vacuum s y s t e m s . both the heat

complete

requirements

For example, s t a b i l i t y economy and t h e to

o f t h e vacuum l e v e l

important

reliability in the

o f vacuum-pan o p e r a t i o n .

The s t a b i l i t y

requirements

be a c c o u n t e d f o r 44).

condenser design are reviewed in the

literature

(ref.

131

3.3.4

Utilization

of

low-pressure vapours of low-temperature this h e a t and c e r t a i n problems

I n S e c t i o n 1.2, associated with discussed. importance.

utilization

the equipment a r e a , the

used f o r

purpose were

preliminarily of of particular last-effect

In t h i s This

utilization

o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i s the utilization

p r o b l e m has much i n evaporator. of heating with

common w i t h

vapour from the

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s temperature, systems i s example, in to

vacuum-pan v a p o u r s are known f r o m the

l i m i t e d by t h e i r thermal

low

55-65C. A p o p u l a r heat f r e s h water inlet part

solution

less efficient This

supplied to

extractor.

can be d o n e , in the

for

the

o f the

d o u b l e - v e s s e l condenser mentioned temperatures 45).

preceding Section; i t

has been r e p o r t e d t h a t w a t e r c a n be a t t a i n e d extractor (ref.

as h i g h as 1-2 efficient excess

below the vapour temperature thermal systems, however, the

In h i g h l y

should rather

be s u p p l i e d w i t h

condensate, preferred. A typical a suitable

and o t h e r methods o f

utilization

o f v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s s h o u l d be

energy-efficient It

solution

is

to

heat

raw j u i c e

in

a heater

of

design.

seems t h a t

horizontally-

or vertically-arranged of spiral

tubular also this

h e a t e r s a r e most f r e q u e n t l y known. Raw j u i c e

used, while the

applications

heaters are

c a n be h e a t e d t o utilize 4-5 is

50-55C r e q u i r e d f o r

hot p r e - l i m i n g , 100 kg b e e t . T h e 2 per 100 then

making i t heating

possible to

kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r p e r typically o f the in the

surface area r e q u i r e d If the

o r d e r 70-110 m pre-limer is

t/d pre-

processing c a p a b i l i t y . limed j u i c e

temperature

lower,

can be h e a t e d principle

instead. o f heating in to with the vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i s heater to aim a t as high

The l e a d i n g

a vapour-condensation temperature v a p o u r s from pans A a r e p r e f e r r e d s h o u l d a l s o be t a k e n mainly of air against the

as p o s s i b l e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , precautions

t h o s e f r o m and C p a n s . P r o p e r of noncondensable gases the thickening boiling

influence

consisting phase, air and

liberated

from j u i c e the

and s y r u p s d u r i n g intervals

entering air

t h e vacuum pans d u r i n g into

between the

cycles,

leaking

t h e vacuum s y s t e m . T h e v o l u m e o f volume. eliminated

noncondensables i s

usually

about

1 % o f the vapour

The i n f l u e n c e connected to

o f noncondensables i s

if

the

heater

is

properly a r e shown is the

t h e vacuum s y s t e m . In case ( a ) , the h e a t e r and t o

In F i g . 3.24, entire

two d i f f e r e n t

solutions

schematically. directed to accumulation the

vapour flow

f r o m t h e vacuum p a n s effectively preventing

the

condenser, t h i s

o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s . The h e a t e r o f vapour, which r e q u i r e s s o as n o t t o

d e s i g n must a relatively

be a d a p t e d t o large heater

a very diameter of up to

l a r g e volume f l o w

and s p a r s e l y p l a c e d t u b e s , 0.01-0.02 b a r . 40-50 m/s Two s u i t a b l e

exceed a vapour p r e s s u r e drop of

designs in which a v a p o u r - f l o w v e l o c i t y in Figs. 3.25

has been assumed a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y

(one v a p o u r -

132

()

(b)

- 0

F i g . 3.24. H e a t e r arrangements s u i t e d t o h e a t i n g w i t h vacuum-pan v a p o u r s : (a) heater supplied with the e n t i r e vapour f l o w , (b) heater s u p p l i e d with a o f the vapour f l o w . 1 - h e a t e r , 2 - foam c a t c h e r , 3 - c o n d e n s e r . s i d e p a s s and f o u r respectively). 47). juice-side p a s s e s ) and 3.26 ( t w o and t w e l v e p a s s e s , literature

part

O t h e r d e s i g n s h a v e a l s o been p r e s e n t e d i n t h e heater dimensions are v e r y large and i t can be

(ref. to

G e n e r a l l y , the

may be d i f f i c u l t installed. to the main

f i n d a place

i n an e x i s t i n g heater

f a c t o r y where such a u n i t is connected to

In case ( b ) , the vapour manifold. total flow, of this

a vapour l i n e heater is

parallel

The v a p o u r f l o w making i t

through the

typically of

25-30% o f the unit.

the As the

possible to

reduce the

dimensions

diameters the heater

t h e v a p o u r p i p e s can a l s o

be r e d u c e d , i t

becomes e a s i e r t o repair and

install

i n a manner f a c i l i t a t i n g Vapour from the heater

convenient access f o r outlet is directed to

maintenance.

t h e main v e s s e l to that In may It

of

a d o u b l e - v e s s e l main c o n d e n s e r (when a c o n d e n s i n g s y s t e m s i m i l a r presented in case, S e c t i o n 3.3.3 is applied), or to an i n d i v i d u a l

condenser.

this

t h e volume c o n c e n t r a t i o n decreasing the

o f noncondensables at

the vapour o u t l e t by a b o u t the 1-1.5 K.

a t t a i n 4-5%, therefore of

condensation temperature heater design to

is

recommended t o venting:

adapt the

following

requirements

efficient

8 nn

C 7 >

uice vapour
F i g . 3 . 2 5 . Scheme o f a t u b u l a r h e a t e r h e a t e d w i t h v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r , h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a 125 m2. 1 - t u b e s , 2 - i n t e r m e d i a t e t u b e sheets, 3 - condensateseparating b a f f l e , 4 - protective screens ( a f t e r r e f . 46).

133

()

baffle (b) external wall

holes

F i g . 3 . 2 6 . Scheme o f a t u b u l a r h e a t e r h e a t e d w i t h v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r , h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a 250 m^ ( c o u r t e s y C h e m a d e x ) . ( a ) g e n e r a l l a y o u t , ( b ) d e t a i l o f t h e b a f f l e , top view. vapour-flow tubes) to velocity heater in the free-flow (i.e. disregarding the the presence of be

heating 10-15 -

c r o s s - s e c t i o n area close to diffusion the of

vapour

inlet

should

m/s,

prevent the should enter

noncondensables; tubes in the of vicinity of the and vapour

cold juice to

heating flow

outlet,

stimulate

identical

directions

both vapour

noncondensables. The a b o v e comments w i t h vapours from the arrangement literature for and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s last evaporator heating apply also to the heaters a supplied

effect.

A discussion of

heater in the

raw-juice

using

fifth-effect

v a p o u r can be f o u n d

(ref.48). alternative methods In the in of utilization of low-temperature direct-contact equipment is vapours heaters simple and

A number o f have a l s o for

been p r o p o s e d . heating the are

S o v i e t sugar

industry, While

raw-juice

use ( F i g . 3 . 2 7 ) . its

this

easy to

implement,

advantages o f

application

are f a r

from o b v i o u s , increased it is

because the j u i c e evaporation necessary to implementation in the

becomes d i l u t e d evaporator. the

with

condensate, to the

thus

requiring

In order of

reduce the heating 50).

net

h e a t demand, to

adjust of

distribution

vapours p r i o r

the

a direct-contact utilization

heater

(ref.

A n o t h e r method o f

o f v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s e m p l o y s an

intermediate

134

View A

F i g . 3 . 2 7 . Scheme o f a d i r e c t - c o n t a c t j u i c e h e a t e r h e a t e d w i t h v a c u u m - p a n vapour. 1 - j u i c e i n l e t , 2 - j u i c e o u t l e t , 3 - vapour, 4 - noncondensables. water drying heater circuit for heat t r a n s p o r t to air preheaters pulp in the boilers etc.). or in the

stations ("hot

(sugar d r y e r ,

low-temperature

dryer,

A condenseris a shown

c o n d e n s e r " ) w h i c h has been d e s i g n e d f o r in F i g . 3.28. At least one m a n u f a c t u r e r

such a p p l i c a t i o n s is now o f f e r i n g pump, this and a

schematically circuit

complete

which c o n s i s t s

of a condenser-heater, water heating. raw-juice It is claimed

tank, that

spiral is more

heat exchanger f o r economic than

raw-juice

solution

a conventional

heater

s u p p l i e d w i t h vacuum-pan vacuum-pan or

vapour.

I n a number o f are u t i l i z e d implementation suitable factories of the in

F r e n c h and West German s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , evaporators for is thickening juice

vapours

special of

s y r u p . As availability noting that heating of in the

t h i s method it is

v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on t h e It

equipment,

d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 5. is applied, the total

is worth the

w h e r e t h i s method

area of

surfaces 1000 t/d

equipment

h e a t e d b y v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s may a t t a i n

380-400 m

per

processing 3.4 3.4.1

capability.

VAPOUR COMPRESSION Compression o f vapours from the to the application There is evaporator o f vapour compression techniques a vast literature devoted to the was problems in the

An i n t r o d u c t i o n presented of in

Section

1.2.7.

combining

vapour compression c i r c u i t s

w i t h v a r i o u s energy systems

135

to vacuum pump

1 ^
cooling water 3 0 " c

cooling ^ water 35 C

) vapour condensate water 39 C

F i g . 3.28. Wiegand). sugar Condenser tower for the

water 56 C
c o n d e n s a t i o n o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r (courtesy

industry

(refs.

2,3,51-59).

W o r t h recommending in the field

also

is

a brochure of

which

summarizes t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t mechanical Section,

of applications (ref.

vapour compressors in v a r i o u s process i n d u s t r i e s concentrate on t h e the two s o l u t i o n s

60).

In

this sugar and

we s h a l l

most f r e q u e n t l y

used i n first

factories, the

namely t h o s e e m p l o y i n g effects.

compression o f vapours from the

second e v a p o r a t o r It was i n d i c a t e d in

S e c t i o n 1.2.7 a thermal

that

before it

the

introduction

of

a vapour the the

compression c i r c u i t details of the

into

system,

may be n e c e s s a r y t o evaporator.

rearrange

distribution

o f vapours from the thermal

L e t us c o n s i d e r relatively

example o f a r a t h e r large to -

inefficient

s y s t e m c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a consisting the of: turbine b; 1.5

steam demand, namely 4 7 . 9 steam a t the

k g / 1 0 0 kg b ,

heating

parameters

corresponding to 46.4

exhaust,

supplied

t h e e v a p o r a t o r and t h e live steam t h r o t t l e d to

sugar d r y e r , 7 bar,

k g / 1 0 0 kg the

supplied to

centrifugals, extractor,

k g / 1 0 0 kg

b.

The f a c t o r y

c o n s i d e r e d employs a t r o u g h - t y p e the factory, a classical

supplied with station, a

fresh

water from o u t s i d e quadruple-effect

juice-purification is thickened

evaporator

in which the j u i c e

from

15.5% DS t o

136

65% D S , and a t h r e e - b o i l i n g the vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n us n o t e t h a t sufficiently stream TABLE is 3.3 the flow small, of

crystallization

scheme. The e s s e n t i a l

features

of Let

scheme and t h e v a p o u r f l o w s last-effect vapour to the

are given in Table 3.3.

c o n d e n s e r can be r e g a r d e d as is c h a n g e d , no v a p o u r circuit.

and u n l e s s t h e v a p o u r d i s t r i b u t i o n available for

directly

a possible vapour-compression

Steam and v a p o u r s t r e a m s ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) b e t w e e n s o u r c e s and r e c e i v e r s i n t h e r m a l s y s t e m c o n s u m i n g 4 7 . 9 kg steam p e r 100 kg b e e t . Sources Receivers Evaporator 1 Press-water heater Extractor Raw-juice heater H e a t e r s b e f o r e main l i m i n g Heater a f t e r 1st carbonatation H e a t e r b e f o r e 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n T h i n - j u i c e heaters T h i c k - j u i c e heater Melter I n d i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks D i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks Remelt h e a t e r Vacuum pans A C Vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g Centrifugals Sugar d r y e r Condenser Evaporator total 1 .95 0 .21 condensate 6 .80 3.22 2.86 3.38 0.15 0.20 0.45 0.58 0.20 12.80 3.40 1.31 1.50 effects Others

2.17

2.52

7 b a r steam 1.50 e x h a u s t steam 0.50 0.71 2.52 32.22 8. .96 0.71

It

can be c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e

d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 3.3 the utilization of

t h a t the

heat vapour

economy can be i m p r o v e d b y i n t r o d u c i n g and v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s . An a d d i t i o n a l the extractor with excess condensate,

fourth-effect by

improvement instead of

can be o b t a i n e d fresh water

supplying a lower any

supplied at

initial

temperature. of the

L e t us assume t h a t sugar manufacturing at 65% D S . of

these changes are

introduced without the

modifications concentration

p r o c e s s ; most n o t a b l y ,

thick-juice

remains

Following the other

utilization

t h e vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i n the demand f o r heating

raw-juice

heating the

and

heat-economy improvements, is reduced.

vapours from concentration a sufficiently

evaporator this

In order to

keep t h e

thick-juice withdrawing

constant, large taken

can be c o m p e n s a t e d f o r stream from the first

by a r t i f i c i a l l y

vapour

evaporator. effect.

L e t us assume t h a t

this

s t r e a m can be

from the

evaporator

137

The e s s e n t i a l the flows of

features

of

the

improved vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n

scheme,

including in

heating

vapours from the

e v a p o r a t o r and vacuum p a n s , a r e shown 10 k g / 1 0 0 kg b i s w i t h d r a w n the exhaust-steam

Table 3.4. the first

As can be s e e n , effect. in

a vapour stream o f

from

T h i s v a p o u r can be c o m p r e s s e d t o heating chamber o f the the first

pressure demand

and u t i l i z e d for

the

effect,

c u t t i n g down t h e

e x h a u s t steam s u p p l i e d t o 3.4

evaporator.

TABLE

Steam and v a p o u r s t r e a m s m o d i f i e d thermal system.

(kg/100

kg b )

b e t w e e n s o u r c e s and r e c e i v e r s i n

the

Sources Receivers Evaporator 1 Press-water heater Extractor Raw-juice heater H e a t e r s b e f o r e main l i m i n g Heater a f t e r 1st carbonatation H e a t e r b e f o r e 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n T h i n - j u i c e heaters T h i c k - j u i c e heater Melter I n d i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks D i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks Remelt h e a t e r Vacuum pans A C Vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g Centrifugals Sugar d r y e r Condenser T o be w i t h d r a w n Evaporator total to c o m p r e s s i o n o v e r two 1. ,97 0. .90 0.92 2.85 2.62 2..24 2,.50 2,.43 0,.20 0, .45 0,.58 0.18 12,.80 3 .40 1 .31 1 .50 7 b a r steam 1.50 e x h a u s t s t e a m 0.50 0,.09 10,.00 12,.24 (5 . 0 0 ) * 26 .07 8.37 5,.42 1.65 0.15 3. ,36 vacuum-pan v a p o u r condensate effects Others

applies

stages for the vapour compression c i r c u i t , distribution let

Before discussing possible s o l u t i o n s us assume t h e processes live following values of the

e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and

in the

factory: 450C; vapour temperature 3.13 126C (dry

steam p r e s s u r e 38 b a r and t e m p e r a t u r e

e x h a u s t steam t e m p e r a t u r e steam i n both

135C, f i r s t - e f f e c t is,

saturated

cases, that

pressures of

b a r and 2.39

bar,

respectively); power c o n s u m p t i o n steam r a t e of the in the f a c t o r y 3 kWh p e r 8 kg/kWh; steam, i.e. 17.36 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , delivered 100 kg beet;

turbo-generator % of the heating

on a v e r a g e , 37.4

138

from the t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g

station. heating-steam kWh p e r flow delivered via so t h e the factory

L e t us a l s o o b s e r v e t h a t 62.6% o f t h e turbine makes it

p o s s i b l e t o g e n e r a t e 3.63 an e l e c t r i c i t y

100 kg b e e t ,

i s able to

sell

s u r p l u s o f t h e o r d e r o f 20% o f

its

own power

consumption. 3.4.2 Mechanical vs. jet-type let compressors employing an compression consumption

To b e g i n w i t h ,

us c o n s i d e r a c o m p r e s s i o n c i r c u i t s i n g l e - s t a g e mechanical in

electrically-driven, process (per is

c o m p r e s s o r . The v a p o u r Specific power

shown i n t h e M o l l i e r d i a g r a m can be c a l c u l a t e d as

F i g . 3.29.

1 kg v a p o u r )

P3=(h,3-h^l)/{n,n^) w h e r e h^-j enthalpy and is i s the enthalpy in the isentropic of f i r s t - e f f e c t vapour, h^^ i s is the the final vapour

(3.10)

compression p r o c e s s , efficiency. and u s i n g the

compression

efficiency

the mechanical = 0.68,

Assuming

= 0.95

parameter to

values l i s t e d (Ed.),

in

the of

preceding Section

(enthalpy values according

U. G r i g u l l

Properties

W a t e r and Steam i n S l - U n i t s , 2nd e d n . , S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , York, 1 9 7 9 ) , we obtain = 76.9 k J / k g = 0.0214

Berlin-Heidelberg-New

Pg = (2764.1 - 2 7 1 4 . 4 ) / ( 0 . 6 8 - 0 . 9 5 )

kWh/kg

2800

1^2750
- c J

o JZ

2700 6.95 7.00 7.05 Entropy

Fig. 3.29. Compression o f f i r s t - e f f e c t

7.10 (k^iRgK))

715

vapour in a mechanical

compressor.

139

The e n t h a l p y o f t h e h ^ ^ = h^^ + ( h ^ ^ This corresponds to saturation condensate evaporator saturated

compressed vapour

is 2 7 1 4 . 4 ) / 0 . 6 8 = 2787.5 is, 28.2 above kJ/kg

h ^ ^ ) / n ^ = 2714.4 + (2764.1 a temperature of

163.2C, t h a t

the

temperature. injection effect. state at

T h e c o m p r e s s e d v a p o u r s h o u l d be d e s u p e r h e a t e d b y to the heating chamber o f t h e first the liquid the

and t h e n d i r e c t e d

Assuming t h e the

condensate enthalpy

corresponding to is,

exhaust-steam p r e s s u r e , t h a t

h^ = 567.7 k J / k g ,

mass o f c o n d e n s a t e n e e d e d t o calculated = (h^c " w h e r e h^ i s 3.13 After the as ^ ) enthalpy

d e s u p e r h e a t 1 kg c o m p r e s s e d v a p o u r c a n be

(2^^' o f e x h a u s t steam (assumed t o be d r y s a t u r a t e d steam at

bar p r e s s u r e ) . inserting t h e e n t h a l p y v a l u e s , we 2726.6)/(2726.6 o f the 567.7) obtain = 0.028 kg/kg we can s u m m a r i z e the

m^ = ( 2 7 8 7 . 5 Using the

results

above c a l c u l a t i o n s ,

consequences o f c o m p r e s s o r as (i) Heating

introducing

a vapour-compression c i r c u i t

b a s e d on a m e c h a n i c a l

follows. r e d u c e d by 1 0 ( 1 + 0.028) = 10.28 it k g / 1 0 0 kg b , cut less i.e. down than

steam demand i s the

b y a b o u t 21.5% o f the live

initial

steam demand. T h i s makes

possible to station to

steam f l o w initial

through the value.

throttling-desuperheating

41% o f (ii) 7% o f

its

Power demand i s the initial

i n c r e a s e d b y 1 0 - 0 . 0 2 1 4 = 0.214

kWh/100

kg b ,

i.e.

by

about

value. t h e power o u t p u t remains unaffected, this of implying the that

L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t there is

a change i n t h e

power b a l a n c e , the

namely a r e d u c t i o n grid. electric motor of

electricity

s u r p l u s w h i c h can be s o l d t o A different is is result is

external

o b t a i n e d when t h e

driving about

the

compressor which is

r e p l a c e d b y a steam t u r b i n e . typical of small

A s s u m i n g a steam r a t e 2.56

12 kg/kWh 100

single-stage turbines, c o m p r e s s o r , and t h e compressed v a p o u r .

kg l i v e

steam p e r

kg b e e t

needed t o

d r i v e the

expanded steam from t h e t u r b i n e In t h i s case, the a reduction live-steam of

exhaust

c a n be m i x e d w i t h heating-steam result

the

the

demand and a s i m u l t a n e o u s saving of

increase of initial

demand the worth an

in a net

a b o u t 21.5% o f t h e

s t e a m demand, w h i l e is therefore well to

power o u t p u t considering

and t h e

power demand r e m a i n

unchanged. I t

a turbine-driven one.

c o m p r e s s o r as an i n t e r e s t i n g

alternative

electrically-driven

Recent examples o f the been d i s c u s s e d i n known t o the

application

of e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n 61-64).

compressors have are is

literature

(refs.

T u r b i n e - d r i v e n compressors (where s e c o n d - e f f e c t vapour

be a p p l i e d

in Danish sugar f a c t o r i e s

140

compressed,

see S e c t i o n

3.4.3). using jet-type

T h e v a p o u r - c o m p r e s s i o n p r o c e s s c a n a l s o be p e r f o r m e d compressors. compression idealized is Typically, multiple circuit

compressors are i n s t a l l e d control

in a single

f o r reasons o f flow

( s e e S e c t i o n 3 . 4 . 4 ) . An live the steam

compression process i n a j e t - t y p e diagram

compressor s u p p l i e d w i t h In order to calculate

shown i n t h e M o l l i e r

i n F i g . 3.30.

steam the

demand, f i n a l

vapour e n t h a l p y ,

e t c . , the following

indices

characterizing

i d e a l i z e d p r o c e s s must compression r a t i o

be known: 1.2),

u (see Table

3A00

3300

CT3200

>;3100 o
C J

3000

2900

2800

2700

2600 6.95 7.00 7.05 710 7.15 Entropy ( k j / ( k g K))

Fig. 3.30. Compression o f f i r s t - e f f e c t vapour in a j e t - t y p e compressor.

141

efficiency efficiency

of the

live-steam nozzle (i.e.,

, compressed v a p o u r ) n o z z l e as (3.12) ^.

o f the mixed-steam

T h e l i v e - s t e a m demand can be d e t e r m i n e d = D/u where is the vapour flow. for b. the

Assuming u = 2.40, D^ = 1 0 / 2 . 4 0 = 4 . 1 7 The e n t h a l p y o f of ^ c first-effect = ^ " is the the

we o b t a i n k g / 1 0 0 kg live

compression c i r c u i t

under

consideration

steam, a f t e r

expansion in as

the

nozzle to

the

pressure

v a p o u r , can be c a l c u l a t e d " Ns^^l initial

(^-^^^ live-steam enthalpy, and h-j^ is the f i n a l steam enthalpy

w h e r e h-j in the

isentropic

expansion process. = 0.90, we obtain

Inserting

e n t h a l p y v a l u e s and a s s u m i n g n-j (3333.9 - 2 6 7 3 . 8 ) 0 . 9 0

h ^ ^ = 3333.9 -

= 2739.0

kJ/kg. first-effect v a p o u r c a n be

The e n t h a l p y b a l a n c e o f m i x i n g written Dl^le ' as ^ ^ ^ = C^l ^ \K

e x p a n d e d steam w i t h

(3.14) enthalpy. be c a l c u l a t e d as kJ/kg.

where h^ i s

the mixed-steam

T h e m i x e d - s t e a m e n t h a l p y can t h u s

h ^ = ( 4 . 1 7 - 2 7 3 9 . 8 + 1 0 - 2 7 1 4 . 4 ) / ( 4 . 1 7 + 10)

= 2721.9

From a s e p a r a t e e n t r o p y b a l a n c e , we c a n d e t e r m i n e s^ = 7.0852 k J / ( k g K ) , which corresponds to

t h e e n t r o p y o f m i x e d steam as superheated s t a t e . the The

a slightly

e n t h a l p y o f m i x e d steam a f t e r p r e s s u r e c a n be c a l c u l a t e d V = ^ ^ ( ^ s the final as

compression in

the nozzle to

exhaust-steam

(3.15) steam e n t h a l p y in the isentropic we compression process.

where h^^ i s Inserting

e n t h a l p y v a l u e s and a s s u m i n g

= 0.87,

obtain

h ^ ^ = 2721.9 + ( 2 7 7 2 . 0 - 2 7 2 1 . 9 ) / 0 . 8 7 = 2779.4 T h i s corresponds to saturation condensate from eqn. a temperature of

kJ/kg. is, 24.4 above the

159.4C, t h a t

temperature. injection, (3.11)

Assuming t h a t

mixed steam i s t h e mass o f

desuperheated using steam

we can c a l c u l a t e

c o n d e n s a t e p e r 1 kg

m^ = ( 2 7 7 9 . 4 - 2 7 2 6 . 6 ) / ( 2 7 2 6 . 6 The t o t a l is ^s thus ^ ^^1 ^v'^^ "^c' ^ flow

567.7)

= 0.024

kg/kg circuit

o f s a t u r a t e d steam s u p p l i e d b y t h e v a p o u r - c o m p r e s s i o n

^ ^^^^^ results of

^-^24) the

= 14.52

k g / 1 0 0 kg

b. compressors

We can now s u m m a r i z e t h e

introduction

of jet-type

142

to (i)

the vapour-compression c i r c u i t

as f o l l o w s . live-steam is

T h e h e a t i n g - s t e a m demand i s r e d u c e d b y 1 4 . 5 2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b b u t t h e i n c r e a s e d b y 4 . 1 7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . T h e r e s u l t i n g i.e., a b o u t 21.6% o f t h e i n i t i a l

demand i s 10.35 (ii)

n e t steam s a v i n g

k g / 1 0 0 kg b ,

steam demand. station can be

The l i v e - s t e a m f l o w

through the throttling-desuperheating initial

c u t down t o a b o u t

16% o f i t s

v a l u e ; h o w e v e r , an e v e n l a r g e r

live-steam

f l o w must be s u p p l i e d t o t h e c o m p r e s s o r s . (iii) T h e power o u t p u t and t h e p o w e r demand r e m a i n unaffected by vapour

compression. Recent examples o f t h e a p p l i c a t i o n the literature (refs. 65,66). of jet-type c o m p r e s s o r s c a n be f o u n d r e s u l t s may differ as e x p l a i n e d i n t h e in

However, p r a c t i c a l

substantially next Section.

from those i n d i c a t e d

i n t h e above c a l c u l a t i o n ,

3 . 4 . 3 S e l e c t i n g t h e most s u i t a b l e

compression

technique c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the energy solutions described in the

A comparison o f the v a l u e s o f e s s e n t i a l balances r e s u l t i n g from t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s

quantities

o f the three

p r e c e d i n g S e c t i o n i s shown i n T a b l e 3 . 5 . almost identical. The j e t - t y p e

As c a n be s e e n ,

t h e steam s a v i n g s a r e mechanical the It should

c o m p r e s s o r s and t h e t u r b i n e - d r i v e n

compressor o f f e r

t h e a d v a n t a g e o f an u n c h a n g e d p o w e r b a l a n c e , w h i l e

e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n mechanical

c o m p r e s s o r i n c r e a s e s t h e p o w e r demand. conclusion holds only i f t h e steam

be p o i n t e d o u t , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h i s relative to the o r i g i n a l thermal

saving

system w i t h o u t

v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n does n o t throttling-desuperheating c a n be o b t a i n e d under

exceed the l i v e - s t e a m f l o w station. different TABLE 3.5

originally

d i r e c t e d to the results

In order t o demonstrate conditions,

how d i f f e r e n t

a n o t h e r example i s p r e s e n t e d b e l o w .

Comparison o f energy balances r e s u l t i n g from t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y an i n i t i a l steam demand o f 4 7 . 9 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . Without vapour electrically- compression driven 47.90 100 3.000 100 3.630 100 0.630 100 37.62 78.5 3.214 107 3.630 100 0.416 66 Compressor turbinedriven 37.62 78.5 3.000 100 3.630 100 0.630 100 jettype 37.55 78.4 3.000 100 3.630 100 0.630 100

Quantity

Dimension

( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) (%) (kWh/100 (%) (kWh/100 (%) (kWh/100 (%) kg b ) kg b ) kg b )

143

L e t us assume t h a t consideration is 36.4

the

initial

h e a t i n g - s t e a m demand o f the remaining

the

factory

under

k g / 1 0 0 kg b and a l l

parameters

of the energy previously station

c o n v e r s i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n considered. is 7.36

processes are the through the

same as i n t h e f a c t o r y

T h e a v e r a g e steam f l o w i.e.

throttling-desuperheating If

k g / 1 0 0 kg b ,

19.4% o f t h e t o t a l

heating-steam flow.

we now to the

consider

the a p p l i c a t i o n s

of three vapour-compression c i r c u i t s resulting relative

analogous of the

those p r e v i o u s l y s p e c i f i e d , then the energy balance t u r n previous case. out to

modifications

be e n t i r e l y the

different

from those found i n exceed the station,

As t h e

reductions of

heating-steam flow

live-steam steam 3.6.

flow o r i g i n a l l y

supplied to

the t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g

the

flow through the t u r b i n e These e f f e c t s

and t h e p o w e r o u t p u t

d e c r e a s e as shown i n T a b l e compressors,

a r e most p r o n o u n c e d i n t h e to

case o f j e t - t y p e

causing the can the

the sugar f a c t o r y external grid.

become h e a v i l y d e p e n d e n t on e l e c t r i c i t y a mechanical c o m p r e s s o r , a small and a s m a l l

s u p p l i e s from power s u r p l u s in

When a p p l y i n g the

be e x p e c t e d i n

c a s e o f an e l e c t r i c drive.

drive,

power d e f i c i t

case o f a t u r b i n e TABLE 3.6

Comparison o f e n e r g y balances r e s u l t i n g from the a p p l i c a t i o n o f v a r i o u s v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an i n i t i a l steam demand o f 3 7 . 9 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . Compressor Without vapour turbineelectrically- compression driven driven 37.90 100 3.000 100 3.630 100 0.630 100 27.62 72.9 3.214 100 3.270 90 0.056 9 27.62 72.9 3.000 100 2.950 81 -0.050 -8

Quantity

Dimension

jettype 27.55 72.9 3.000 100 2.182 60 -0.818 -130

(kg/100 (%) (kWh/100 (%) (kWh/100 (%) (kWh/100 (%)

kg b ) kg b ) kg b ) kg b )

It

s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t T a b l e s 3.5 two p a r t i c u l a r

and 3 . 6

just

summarize t h e equipped

results

of

the analyses concerned with particular basis for to

sugar f a c t o r i e s

with sufficient is essential

compression c i r c u i t s . general the

T h e s e d a t a c a n n o t be c o n s i d e r e d as e n g i n e e r i n g problems compression equipment of practical interest. it on

c o n c l u s i o n s . In r e a l - l i f e influence of the type of factors

account f o r

the

investment the initial

c o s t s , as w e l l

as o t h e r

D e p e n d i n g on

steam-demand l e v e l , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s formulated can t h u s in

i m p o s e d on t h e factories.

compression of decision

circuit

can be d i f f e r e n t l y

different

The d e s i g n

a vapour compression c i r c u i t

be c o n s i d e r e d as a m u l t i - v a r i a b l e

144

problem, overall

i n which equipment economic results. let

t y p e and v a p o u r f l o w s

can be o p t i m i z e d

for

the

best

In t h i s

context,

us m e n t i o n

the

possibility

of

the

application practical unusual

of

vapour

compression over considerations concentration

two e v a p o r a t i o n

stages. There are such a s o l u t i o n . in the

important It is not

w h i c h can j u s t i f y of organic vapour of

that is

the so

gaseous substances is

first-effect to

vapour

h i g h t h a t when t h e heating, the the

c o m p r e s s e d and r e c i r c u l a t e d

first-effect If

quality o f the

first-effect

c o n d e n s a t e becomes a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d . satisfy the rquirements of

parameters then

c o n d e n s a t e do n o t is

feed-water

quality,

a problem

created with possible It is in therefore worth

a d v e r s e c o n s e q u e n c e s , as noting that is the concentration 3-4 times

discussed in of organic

Section 3.1.2.

gaseous substances that in for

second-effect vapour (ref.

vapour 65).

usually

smaller

than

first-effect a moment to

L e t us r e t u r n from the

Table 3.4,

i n w h i c h t h e mass f l o w s thermal system

of are is

vapours

evaporator If

and vacuum p a n s i n instead

the modified

presented. from the of

we assume t h a t to the

of f i r s t - e f f e c t

vapour, vapour the

withdrawn flow

second e f f e c t

compression c i r c u i t , from the value of is

then of

r e q u i r e d mass

t h a t v a p o u r can be c a l c u l a t e d The r e s u l t i n g equivalent total flow flow

constraint

constant in

thick-juice brackets; it the is

concentration. only half increases effects of in

shown i n T a b l e 3.4 vapour. first

the the

first-effect from both the

As a c o n s e q u e n c e ,

vapour flow the

and s e c o n d

evaporator one

are smaller stage. in the

than

increase resulting concentration

from vapour compression o v e r in the first effect is

evaporation lower than

The o u t l e t other

of juice

solution,

t h i s making i t coefficient to the in

possible the

to maintain a effect. It area

larger may in It the can

value o f the therefore first

overall

heat t r a n s f e r respect to

first

be e a s i e r , w i t h effect,

required

heating-surface

evaporator

implement is

vapour compression over applied in

two s t a g e s .

be added t h a t t h i s

solution to

generally

Danish sugar f a c t o r i e s

and

has a l s o been i n t r o d u c e d 3.4.4 Control

the Greek sugar r e l a t i n g to

industry. compression first or second risk evaporator of juice In

considerations the

vapour

When s u p p l y i n g effect to

compressed vapour from the heating, one has t o

first-effect

reckon w i t h the the it

carryover order

causing a temporary

sugar presence in

first-effect

condensate. to

t o manage e m e r g e n c y s i t u a t i o n s

effectively,

may be a d v i s a b l e in the

install

two e v a p o r a t o r effect. If the

b o d i e s and two c o r r e s p o n d i n g compressed-vapour stream body i s is

condensate tanks directed to the

first chamber the of of

heating

one b o d y , and t h e o t h e r condensate p o l l u t i o n example o f is

heated w i t h pure exhaust steam, only a part in of the

then

risk An

limited to

condensate stream. circuit

steam and v a p o u r c o n n e c t i o n s

a vapour compression

145

utilizing Another

this

idea

is

shown i n for

Fig.

3.31(a). juice droplets from being carried over to

possibility

preventing to withdraw

first-effect directly

condensate i s effect

the vapour stream to produced but

be c o m p r e s s e d , heating be

not

from the the

in which vapour i s T h i s makes i t the

from the

chamber o f

next effect. water

p o s s i b l e t o wash t h e v a p o u r t o chamber. According to of this

withdrawn with principle, the

condensing in

heating

Danish sugar f a c t o r i e s heating chamber o f the

employ t h e w i t h d r a w a l third effect,

second-effect in

vapour v i a the Fig. 3.31(b).

as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y

(b)

F i g . 3 . 3 1 . Schemes o f steam and v a p o u r c o n n e c t i o n s p r e v e n t i n g t h e p o l l u t i o n o f f i r s t - e f f e c t c o n d e n s a t e by j u i c e c a r r y o v e r i n t h e compressed v a p o u r : ( a ) c o m p r e s s i o n o v e r one e v a p o r a t i o n s t a g e , ( b ) c o m p r e s s i o n o v e r two e v a p o r a t i o n s t a g e s . 1-3 - e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s , 4 - c o m p r e s s o r , 5 - t u r b i n e , 6 - e x h a u s t steam, 7 - l i v e steam, 8 - heating vapour to the n e x t e f f e c t , 9 noncondensables. When i n t r o d u c i n g eliminate, station in or at vapour compression to to the reduce, the a thermal the system, it is desirable to

least

use o f

throttling-desuperheating circuits one of 7).

controlling

system t h r o u g h p u t . is to

As r e g a r d s c o m p r e s s i o n a question of

employing mechanical the f l o w - c o n t r o l The c o n t r o l thermal

compressors, t h i s applicable

simply

selecting

techniques

gas-pumping the

equipment

(see Chapter in of the the

technique

s e l e c t e d may a f f e c t loads.

energy losses occurring application

system under changing

There are examples o f (ref. 59), and t h e

most e f f i c i e n t control

variable-speed control

less efficient Fig.

by-pass

( w h i c h happens t o

be e m p l o y e d i n t h e

scheme shown i n

3.31(a)). are margins

The case o f j e t - t y p e essentially

compressors i s

different,

as t h e s e d e v i c e s and t h e

d e s i g n e d t o work a t If the flow

definite

vapour flows its nominal

control the

are v e r y narrow. efficiency vary the of

d e v i a t e s from off

v a l u e , then

a compressor f a l l s

rapidly.

I n o r d e r t o make i t

possible

to

compression-circuit

load without

s e r i o u s l y reducing

compression

146

efficiency, throughputs consists of series

it in

is

necessary to like

arrange j e t - t y p e the one shown i n

compressors of F i g . 3.32.

different solution

batteries,

A popular a

using four (ref.

compressors, t h e i r A control

throughputs

creating

geometric

1:2:4:8

65).

system takes greater than,

care of but

t u r n i n g on c o m p r e s s o r the of required the battery that

combinations

with total

throughputs

close to,

vapour-flow v a l u e s . Using t h i s at the variable

principle,

the average e f f i c i e n c y It

l o a d s may be r e d u c e d o n l y the is compressor b a t t e r y

insignificantly. becomes l e s s

may be a d d e d when a

shaping o f load

important

stable

evaporator circuits

e n s u r e d . I n two D a n i s h s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , batteries comprising four

vapour

compression jet-type and

are applied w i t h the the throughputs

and f i v e

compressors,

o f which create the

series

1:1.94:1.94:4.5

1:1.07:2.14:2.6:4.84,

respectively.

F i g . 3 . 3 2 . Scheme o f a b a t t e r y o f j e t - t y p e 2 - v a p o u r , 3 - compressed v a p o u r . 3.4.5 It Compression o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r s follows from the in preceding

compressors. 1 -

live

steam,

sections t h a t the thermal

application

of

a vapour introducing as

compression c i r c u i t substantial installing Because o f

an e x i s t i n g

s y s t e m may n e c e s s i t a t e

changes i n

the d i s t r i b u t i o n for

o f v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s , as w e l l the e x i s t i n g or f o r evaporator bodies.

p o s s i b l e replacements lack of space i n the

some o f

existing to

buildings,

economic r e a s o n s , choice of

t h i s may sometimes possible solutions,

be d i f f i c u l t the circuits

accept.

In o r d e r to widen the

c o m p r e s s i n g v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s h a v e been factories. d e c a d e s ago i n the Swiss

d e v e l o p e d and i m p l e m e n t e d Actually, this

i n a few European s u g a r

i d e a had a l r e a d y been a p p l i e d

four

147

factory to

at Aarberg, using e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n evaporation

mechanical (ref. 1.2

compressors The e n t i r e

connected stream of

both the

and v a c u u m - p a n s t a t i o n s

67).

vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i s recirculated to

c o m p r e s s e d f r o m 0.25 Multi-stage

bar to

b a r p r e s s u r e and this purpose; by is

pan h e a t i n g . the is

compressors a r e used f o r inter-stage

in order to minimize condensate injection

power c o n s u m p t i o n ,

vapour cooling

e m p l o y e d . As a r e s u l t ,

1 . 1 4 - 1 . 1 6 kg h e a t i n g

vapour

o b t a i n e d f r o m 1 kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r a t

a power consumption of the

o f 0 . 1 2 - 0 . 1 3 kWh p e r compressors

1 kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r . T h e power c o n s u m p t i o n installed in the evaporator area i s in S e c t i o n 1.5, energy p o l i c y

single-stage

0 . 0 1 3 - 0 . 0 1 8 kWh p e r

1 kg v a p o u r c o m p r e s s e d . was m o t i v a t e d cheap by

As m e n t i o n e d a very

however, the in which the

Aarberg s o l u t i o n availability of

special

hydroelectric

power p l a y e d a f u n d a m e n t a l energy system to system i n

role.

Therefore, it

can h a r d l y

be r e g a r d e d as a model version of the Aarberg in

be i m i t a t e d on a w i d e r

basis. A modified power i s

connection with a factory

in which the

generated both set

a s t e a m - c y c l e - b a s e d power h o u s e and i n a n a l y s e d by B a l o h In the (ref. 68).

a gas-turbine

generating

has been

solutions

w h i c h a r e now c o m e r c i a l l y and a r e f i n e r y ) , to a part

operated of

in

two F r e n c h

factories is note

(a white-sugar

factory

t h e vacuum-pan v a p o u r s (refs. 39,69). L e t us

c o m p r e s s e d and r e c i r c u l a t e d that while

vacuum-pan h e a t i n g

the Aarberg f a c t o r y are b u i l t

e m p l o y s b a t c h vacuum p a n s , t h e

French idea is it that to

installations

around continuous

vacuum p a n s . T h e u n d e r l y i n g evaporator, It t h u s making

r e d u c e t h e demand f o r possible to a reduction cut of

heating

vapours from the demand.

down t h e

heating-steam

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d e v a p o r a t o r has t o

out be

the withdrawal s o as t o of

o f vapours from the thick-juice

compensated f o r , reason, another

keep t h e

concentration

constant.

For

this of of

a rearrangement

the v a p o u r - d i s t r i b u t i o n in is the

scheme, o r t h e

application

vapour compression c i r c u i t it

evaporator area, or a combination to in rearrange the vapour

b o t h m e a s u r e s , may be n e e d e d . I f distribution only, then the

sufficient

necessary investments perform than

t h e e v a p o r a t o r a r e a may be vapour

l e s s e x t e n s i v e and e a s i e r t o compression techniques.

t h o s e n e c e s s i t a t e d by o t h e r

A disadvantage of solutions is their

employing If

the

c o m p r e s s i o n o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r s compressor is

l a r g e power c o n s u m p t i o n . then the

an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n at the

applied,

h e a t s a v i n g can be a t t a i n e d d e p e n d i n g on t h e

cost of a of the

power-consumption steam the power the

i n c r e a s e P^. consumption, output. boilers cooling

In a d d i t i o n , the

initial

level

h e a t s a v i n g may be a c c o m p a n i e d b y a d e c r e a s e P ^ o f demand i s reduced, less a i r in will

As t h e

live-steam

be consumed i n water to the

and l e s s w a s t e h e a t w i l l towers, fuel this resulting in

be t r a n s p o r t e d

barometric

a power-demand d e c r e a s e P ^ . The

relation P^ is

between t h e

s a v i n g and t h e

power b a l a n c e c h a n g e = P ^ + P ^ -

148

determined turbine

by t h e

parameters and b o i l e r

of

the

c o m p r e s s i o n p r o c e s s , as w e l l

as by

the

steam r a t e

efficiency. turbine is r e d u c e d by G ^ , t h e resulting

When t h e decrease of P, = G / S where S i s

steam f l o w the

through the is

power o u t p u t

(3.16) the steam r a t e o f the of the turbine. causes the fuel demand t o d e c r e a s e by (3.17) heating boiler value of efficiency. the fuel, is the steam-piping efficiency,

The r e d u c t i o n r = where and TABLE

h e a t demand b y

V(%Vb)
is is 3.7 the the

E n e r g y - b a l a n c e m o d i f i c a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n ( u s i n g m e c h a n i c a l c o m p r e s s o r s ) i n two s u g a r f a c t o r i e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d i f f e r e n t t u r b i n e steam r a t e s and b o i l e r e f f i c i e n c i e s . E n t r i e s 4-12 a r e g i v e n p e r 1 kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r c o m p r e s s e d . No. Name Dimension I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Steam r a t e , S Boiler efficiency, Steam-piping e f f i c i e n c y , R e d u c t i o n o f t h e steam ^ f l o w t h r o u g h the t u r b i n e , G^ Reduction of t h e p o w e r o u t p u t , P^ R e d u c t i o n o f t h e p o w e r demand, P^ C o m p r e s s o r power demand, P^ Change o f t h e p o w e r b a l a n c e , Pc ^ P r - Pd Heat saving i n the evaporator Heat s a v i n g i n the t u r b i n e O v e r a l l heat s a v i n g , N o r m a l - f u e l s a v i n g , B^ kg/kWh 8.0 0.90 0.98 1.2 0.150 0.020 0.179 0.309 2805 570 3375 0.131 Factory II 10.5 0.75 0.95 1.2 0.114 0.020 0.179 0.273 2805 502 3307 0.158

kg kWh kWh kWh kWh kJ kJ kJ kg

In Table 3.7, implementation equipped w i t h

the of

calculated the

e n e r g y - b a l a n c e changes r e s u l t i n g

from

the factories an the

c o m p r e s s i o n o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i n boilers and t u r b i n e s if

two s u g a r

different

are compared. O b v i o u s l y , the fuel

e c o n o m i c g a i n c a n be a t t a i n e d value of the electric

only

the value o f

saved exceeds

energy purchased from the

external

grid: (3.18)

B ^ c ^ > APCg w h e r e c ^ and c ^ a r e t h e It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d for the prices of fuel is and p o w e r , respectively. not a

out that t h i s

o n l y a necessary, but

sufficient, as

condition

economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n

o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n , investments costs to be t a k e n

a s e r i o u s economic e v a l u a t i o n account.

r e q u i r e s the

into

149

The above i n e q u a l i t y c^/Cg It > /^

can be t r a n s f o r m e d

to

the

following

form (3.19)

can now be o b s e r v e d t h a t are

factories

equipped with values of This the the

low-efficiency ratio /^,

boilers this

and

turbines t h a t the outdated

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s m a l l e r is easier to

implying an

inequality

satisfy.

d o e s n o t mean, h o w e v e r , t h a t vacuum-pan aimed at

power house c r e a t e s a b a s i s f o r it

economic g a i n s from the investments

vapour compression. A c t u a l l y , increasing

may happen t h a t will,

t h e power house e f f i c i e n c y implementing

economically,

be more e f f e c t i v e

than

those required f o r Instead of applied.

a vapour-compression

circuit. c o m p r e s s o r s can be to

an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n steam a t

compressor, j e t - t y p e

Using l i v e

38 b a r and 450C, 2 . 5 - 3 . 0 kg steam a r e n e e d e d to 1.2 bar. After injecting steam the is

c o m p r e s s 1 kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r f r o m 0.25 condensate to obtained per desuperheat the mixed steam, 1 kg v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r . of this

4.1-4.7

kg s a t u r a t e d

A vapour compression c i r c u i t circuit i n which vapour from the the literature

kind,

operated

in

parallel is

with

second e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t (ref. 58).

c o m p r e s s e d , has the flows of live

been p r o p o s e d i n steam s u p p l i e d t o

Considering j o i n t l y 5 . 5 - 7 . 0 kg l i v e

both compression c i r c u i t s ,

steam p e r

1 kg of

v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s h o u l d be s u p p l i e d t o j e t - t y p e the n e t h e a t demand i s equivalent to about 1.65

c o m p r e s s o r s . The r e d u c t i o n kg steam p e r 1 kg vacuum-pan

vapour compressed. Due t o a relatively of this large live-steam seems t o part of demand, t h e field of potential of supplied steam can

applications factories from the

technique

be l i m i t e d t o the

the modernization f l o w must be

in which a s u b s t a n t i a l throttling-desuperheating to the other

heating-steam Under

station.

such c o n d i t i o n , - l i v e the power o u t p u t of

be d i r e c t e d house. via

compressors w i t h o u t hand, i f using the live entire

affecting

the

power

On t h e

steam f l o w

has o r i g i n a l l y

been

supplied results

the t u r b i n e ,

then

steam i n of

a vapour-compression c i r c u i t 1 kg

in a reduction

o f t h e power o u t p u t seems t o

a b o u t 0 . 4 - 0 . 5 kWh p e r only if

vacuum-pan cheap power

vapour compressed. T h i s is available Another

be a c c e p t a b l e grid.

sufficiently

f r o m an e x t e r n a l

electric

disadvantage of j e t - t y p e conditions. is

compressors i s

their

limited

flexibility

under v a r i a b l e - l o a d the

When u s e d i n

connection with quick

b a t c h vacuum p a n s , changes o f heatinga of

compression c i r c u i t

expected to

compensate f o r

v a p o u r demand. T h i s mechanical jet-type if the

requirement

i s much e a s i e r t o

satisfy

when a p p l y i n g

compressor. There are b e t t e r factories

chances f o r

a competitive

position

compressors in

employing

c o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n s , the

especially

indices

g i v e n a b o v e c o u l d be i m p r o v e d b y i n c r e a s i n g be p o s s i b l e when r e p l a c i n g variable throat-area conventional design

compression

ratio.

T h i s might

single-nozzle devices

by t h e m u l t i p l e - n o z z l e ,

("stato-compressors")

150

according

to

a French patent. in

A discussion of circuit in the

the

application

of

multiple-nozzle

compressors continuous utilizing 0.3 bar t o

a vapour compression

recirculating (ref. the

vapour from a 70). For a device from 71).

vacuum pan can be f o u n d live 1.2 is steam a t bar, twice 24 b a r

literature

and 320C and r a i s i n g ratio in o f 0.70

vapour pressure (ref.

a compression

has been r e p o r t e d compressor.

This value REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

that attainable

a single-nozzle

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

B. Goublomme, Comment a b o r d e r l e p r o b l e m e de l a r e d u c t i o n d e s c o u t s e n e r g e t i q u e s dans l e s s u c r e r i e s , S u c r . B e i g e , 103 ( 1 9 8 5 ) 2 7 - 3 0 . J . S . Hogg ( e t a l . ) . T h e r o l e o f t h e r m o g r a p h i c s u r v e y i n g i n e n e r g y c o n s e r v a t i o n . I n t . Sugar J . , 85(1011) (1983) 67-71. E . H u g o t , Handbook o f Cane S u g a r E n g i n e e r i n g , 3 r d e d n . , E l s e v i e r , A m s t e r d a m , 1986. T . Baloh, Wrmewirtschaft, i n : F. S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , T e c h n o l o g i e des Z u c k e r s , S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1968, p p . 7 0 5 - 7 7 6 . I . Friedmann, Ein neuer, l e i s t u n g s f h i g e r Kondensatabi e i t e r in der Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e d e r DDR, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 0 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 1094-1095. W. L e k a w s k i , M o d e r n i z a c j a G o s p o d a r k i C i e p l n e j C u k r o w n i , S T C , W a r s z a w a , 1986. H. C l a a s s e n , D i e Z u c k e r f a b r i k a t i o n m i t b e s o n d e r e r B e r c k s i c h t i g u n g des B e t r i e b e s , 7 t h e d n . , M a g d e b u r g , 1943. J . D o b r z y c k i , C h e m i c z n e P o d s t a w y T e c h n o l o g i i C u k r u , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1984. V . N . G o r o k h and K . O . S h t a n g e e v , K o l i c h e s t v o g a z o v p o s t u p a y u s h c h i k h kondensatornuyu ustanovku sakharnogo z a v o d a , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 4 ) (1976) 64-65. R . V . K o r e n , 0 r a t s i o n a l n o i r a z r a b o t k e a p p a r a t o v i skhem k o n d e n s a t s i i t e k h n o l o g i c h e s k i k h p a r o v sakharnogo z a v o d a , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 6 ) (1981) 45-49. R. Wasmund, U b e r den E i n f l u s s d e r im H e i z d a m p f b e f i n d l i c h e n L u f t a u f d a s T e m p e r a t u r g e f l l e bei Wrmebertragungsprozessen, Z . Z u c k e r i n d . , 26(1) (1976) 13-18. H . S c h r d e r , D e r E i n f l u s s v o n I n e r t g a s e n a u f den Wrmebergang b e i d e r K o n d e n s a t i o n v o n D m p f e n , C h e m . - I n g . - T e c h n . , 38 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 1091-1094. S . Z a g r o d z k i and J . D o b r z y c k i , Removal o f i n c o n d e n s a b l e g a s e s f r o m c a l a n d r i a s . I n t . S u g a r J . , 71 ( 1 9 6 9 ) 2 3 5 - 2 3 7 . P. D e v i l l e r s ( e t a l . ) , L ' e n t a r t r a g e en e v a p o r a t i o n , p r e v e n t i o n e t l u t t e , S u c r . F r . , 9 4 ( 5 ) (1977) 217-226. H. G r u s z e c k a , Badania i ocena s r o d k a A n t i p r e x z a p o b i e g a j a c e g o z a r a s t a n i u p o w i e r z c h n i g r z e j n e j w y p a r k i , G a z . C u k r o w . , 93(2) (1985) 43-44. T . W . B a k e r , E v a p o r a t i o n and H e a t i n g , i n : G . T . Meade and J . C . Chen ( E d s . ) , Cane S u g a r H a n d b o o k , W i l e y , New Y o r k , 1977, p p . 1 8 5 - 2 3 5 . W. S t a n k i e w i c z , Wplyw z a r a s t a n i a p o w i e r z c h n i g r z e j n e j w y p a r k i na z a g e s z c z a n i e sokow, G a z . C u k r o w . , 78(10) (1970) 233-236. D. S p a n o v i c , A p p l i c a t i o n de I ' a p p a r e i l C E P I en v u e de l a p r o t e c t i o n d e s e v a p o r a t e u r s en s u c r e r i e , S u c r . B e i g e , 8 9 ( 8 ) ( 1 9 7 0 ) 4 0 3 - 4 0 6 . S . I . Nedzveskii ( e t a l . ) , Elektromagnitnaya obrabotka sakharnykh r a s t v o r o v , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 7 ) (1977) 50-53. G . R s n e r and G . P o l l a c h , B e l a g s b i l d u n g s s t u d i e n m i t H i l f e v o n L a b o r v e r dampfern, Z u c k e r i n d . , 111(2) (1986) 125-127. B. K u t e r m a n k i e w i c z , W y g o t o w y w a n i e w y p a r k i b e z z a t r z y m y w a n i a p r z e r o b u burakow, G a z . C u k r o w . , 7 8 ( 8 ) (1970) 188-190. S . L a w n i c k i , O c z y s z c z a n i e r u r e k w y p a r k i osadow w C u k r o w n i P r u s z c z p r z e z w y k w a s z a n i e , G a z . C u k r o w . , 78(11) (1970) 271-273. S . L a w n i c k i and E . Z a b i e r e k , Kwasowe o c z y s z c z a n i e p o w i e r z c h n i g r z e j n y c h aparatow w y p a r n y c h , G a z . C u k r o w . , 81(9) (1973) 229-230. H. D a b r o w s k i , Z a r a s t a n i e i metody wygotowywania p o w i e r z c h n i g r z e j n y c h w y p a r k i , G a z . C u k r o w . , 87(11) (1979) 245-249.

151

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

34 35 36

37 38 39

40 41

42 43 44 45 46 47 48

49 50 51 52

. S c h i e b l , W r m e w i r t s c h a f t in der Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , T . S t e i n k o p f f Verlag, Dresden/Leipzig, 1939. S . Z a g r o d z k i , Wplyw u k l a d u s t a c j i w y p a r n e j na g o s p o d a r k e c i e p l n a , G a z . C u k r o w . , 72(1) (1964) 1-7. S. Z a g r o d z k i , Porownanie z u z y c i a p a r y w n i e k t o r y c h ukladach wyparki wielod z i a l o w e j , G a z . C u k r o w . , 78(7) (1970) 157-163. S . Z a g r o d z k i , Wplyw u k l a d u s t a c j i w y p a r n e j na w i e l k o s c p o w i e r z c h n i o g r z e w a l n e j o r a z z u z y c i e p a r y i w e g l a , G a z . C u k r o w . , 78(8) (1970) 181-185. G . K i m e n o v , E n e r g e t i s c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g e n an e i n e r m e h r s t u f i g e n VerdampfS t a t i o n a l s Dampfumformer, Z u c k e r , 2 5 ( 7 ) (1972) 225-230. S . N i e s p o d z i n s k i , A . G a t y s and D. S z w e d o w i c z , Wplyw s t a c j i w y p a r n e j na o s z c z e d n o s c p a l i w a w c u k r o w n i , G a z . C u k r o w . , 90(10) (1982) 161-163. C . H . I v e r s o n , W i t h e r g o e s t t h o u , oh B T U ? , S u g a r . J . , 4 5 ( 1 1 ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) 1 7 - 2 2 . B. K a r r e n , T h e p o t e n t i a l f o r e n e r g y s a v i n g i n t h e b e e t s u g a r i n d u s t r y . L e c t u r e p r e p a r e d f o r t h e B e e t S u g a r I n s t i t u t e C o u r s e , 1980. B. K a r r e n , E x p e r i e n c e o f e n e r g y s a v i n g i n t h e C a n a d i a n s u g a r i n d u s t r y , in: P . O . L i c h t s G u i d e t o t h e S u g a r F a c t o r y M a c h i n e I n d u s t r y , F . O . L i c h t GmbH, R a t z e b u r g , 1984, p p . A 7 5 - A 8 8 . H . S c h i w e c k , M g l i c h k e i t e n z u r Senkung d e s E n e r g i e b e d a r f e s im Z u c k e r h a u s , Z u c k e r , 30(10) (1977) 525-535. I . S . G u l y i , A . G . S h c h e r b a t y u k and B . V . K u z m e n k o , t e p l o v o m u raschetu vakuum-apparatov, Sakh. P r o m . , ( 6 ) (1984) 52-53. K . E . A u s t m e y e r , A n a l y s i s o f s u g a r b o i l i n g and i t s t e c h n i c a l consequences. I n t . S u g a r J . , 88 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , P a r t I ( 1 0 4 5 ) 3 - 7 , P a r t I I ( 1 0 4 6 ) 2 3 - 2 9 , P a r t I I I (1047) 50-55. E . K r u p k a and J . S z a d k o w s k i , G o s p o d a r k a c i e p l n a w C u k r o w n i G o s l a w i c e , G a z . C u k r o w . , 89(1) (1981) 2-5. L . L . N e v i l l e , Energy r e c o v e r y from the e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n s . Sugar J . , 46(4) (1983) 5-8. D. B r o t , R e c o m p r e s s i o n m e c h a n i q u e de v a p e u r s de c u i t e e t e v a p o r a t i o n 6 e f f e t s a l a s u c r e r i e B u c y - l e - L o n g , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 102(7-8) (1985) 681-684. S . A . Z o z u l y a and A . I . Khomenko, 0 r a t s i o n a l n o i skheme vakuumk o n d e n s a t s i o n n o i u s t a n o v k i , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 7 ) (1984) 37-42. S . A . Z o z u l y a ( e t a l . ) , P r i m e n e n i e k o n d e n s a t o r o v t i p a A2-PKB s o s t a v e vakuum-kondensatsionnykh ustanovok sakharnykh z a v o d o v , Sakh. Prom., ( 7 ) (1986) 27-30. V . N . G o r o k h , B . F . Us and K . O . S h t a n g e e v , R a s c h e t d a v l e n i y a vakuumnoi sisteme sakharnogo z a v o d a , Sakh. P r o m . , (11) (1983) 47-48. V . N . G o r o k h , B . F . Us and K . O . S h t a n g e e v , R a s c h e t vakuumnoi s i s t e m y s a k h a r nogo z a v o d a s uchetom s z h i m a e m o s t i p a r a , S a k h . P r o m . , ( 6 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 4 0 - 4 4 . J . G . Z i e g l e r , B a r o m e t r i c c o n d e n s e r s - g o o d and b a d . S u g a r J . , 38 ( A p r i l 1976) 3 9 - 4 1 . S . A . Z o z u l y a and G . D . B o b r o v n i k , O p y t n a l a d k i i e k s p l u a t a t s i i kondensatorov t i p a A2-PKB, Sakh. P r o m . , ( 7 ) (1983) 37-39. Y u . S . Razladin ( e t a l . ) , I s p o l z o v a n i e u t f e l n o g o para d l y a nagreva d i f f u z i o n nogo s o k a , S a k h . P r o m . , ( 3 ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) 4 1 - 4 4 . V . N . Gorokh ( e t a l . ) , Podogrevatel d i f f u z i o n n o g o soka, obogrevaemyi u t f e l n y m parom, Sakh. P r o m . , ( 8 ) (1981) 36-39. Y u . S . Razladin ( e t a l . ) , Primenenie sektsionnogo podogrevatelya d l y a n a g r e v a n i y a s a k h a r n o g o s o k a v t o r i c h n y m parom 5 k o r p u s a v y p a r n o i ustanovki, Sakh. P r o m . , ( 6 ) (1986) 33-36. V . l . Dovgopol ( e t a l . ) , Nagrev d i f f u z i o n n o g o soka p a r o k o n t a k t n y k h p o d o g r e v a t e l y a k h , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 7 ) (1976) 45-48. V . N . Gorokh ( e t a l . ) , E f f e k t i v n o s t i s p o l z o v a n i y a u t f e l n o g o para d l y a nagreva d i f f u z i o n n o g o s o k a , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 6 ) (1983) 26-30. G. V e r n o i s , Die mechanische B r d e n v e r d i c h t u n g i n Zuckerfabriken, Z u c k e r e r z e u g u n g , (11) (1962) 286-289. S. Z a g r o d z k i , Porownanie u k l a d u w y p a r k i w i e l o d z i a l o w e j ukladem w y p a r k i t e r m o s p r e z a n i e m , G a z . C u k r o w . , 78(6) (1970) 136-138.

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71

S . M . Z a g r o d z k i J r . , E n e r g y s a v i n g s w i t h a f o u r - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r and t u r b o c o m p r e s s o r . Sugar J . , 4 2 ( 9 ) (1980) 9-13. A . F e n y e s , H s z i v a t t y u s b e p a r l a s a c u k o r g y a r b a n , C u k o r i p a r , 28(6) (1975) 222-227. H. L h r s , E i n s a t z d e r t e r m i s c h e n oder mechanischen B r d e n v e r d i c h t u n g i n d e r Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , V D I - B e r . , (383) (1980) 35-37. C . H . I v e r s o n , Mechanical vapor-recompression - f a l l i n g f i l m e v a p o r a t i o n . Sugar J . , 44(1) (1981) 15-20. . U r b a n i e c , S p r e z a n i e o p a r o w w g o s p o d a r c e c i e p l n e j c u k r o w n i , G a z . C u k r o w . , 9 0 ( 9 ) (1982) 134-136. K . E . Austmeyer, Brdenkompression in der Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(8) (1983) 715-728. J . B o z e c , E v o l u t i o n de l a consommation t h e r m i q u e dans i n d u s t r i e s u c r i e r e , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 100(7-8) (1983) 477-480. Mechanische Brdenkompression, V D I - G e s e l 1 s c h a f t E n e r g i e t e c h n i k , D s s e l d o r f , 1987. T . L u b i e n s k i , E r s t e S c h r i t t e i n d e r B r d e n k o m p r e s s i o n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 105(11) ( 1 9 8 0 ) 1087-1088. H. W e i d n e r , D i e Brdenkompression i n e i n e r R o h z u c k e r f a b r i k , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(8) (1983) 736-742. U . J a c o b s e n , Der e i n s t u f i g e R a d i a l k o m p r e s s o r , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(8) (1983) 742-746. M. B u r t i n and J . - C . G i o r g i , R e c o m p r e s s i o n de l a v a p e u r : l a s o l u t i o n o r i g i n a l e de l a s u c r e r i e de G u i g n i c o u r t , S u c r . F r . , 1 2 5 ( 8 2 ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) 117-121. P. C h r i s t o d o u l o u , B e t r i e b s e r f a h r u n g e n m i t dem E i n s a t z e i n e r Wrmepumpe i n der V e r d a m p f S t a t i o n e i n e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k , Z u c k e r i n d . , 109(7) (1984) 628-634. P.Hoffman, O p t i m a l i z a c e energetickeho h o s p o d a r s t v i cukrovaru L o v o s i c e , L i s t y C u k r . , 1 0 2 ( 7 ) ( 1 9 8 6 ) 155-161. H . R . B r u n n e r , D i e T h e r m o k o m p r e s s i o n i n der Z u c k e r f a b r i k + R a f f i n e r i e Aarberg AG, G e s c h i c h t e - E n t w i c k l u n g - A u s b l i c k , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(8) (1983) 729-736. T . Baloh, Studie e i n e r Zuckerfabrik mit Brdenkompression, Z u c k e r i n d . , 109(4) (1984) 285-294. J . - C . G i o r g i , La r e c o m p r e s s i o n de v a p e u r de c u i t e , i n : P r o c . 17th C I T S , C o p e n h a g e n , 1983, p p . 2 7 9 - 2 9 0 . J . C u e l , E c o n o m i e s d ' e n e r g i e en r a f f i n e r i e p a r u t i l i z a t i o n et/ou r e c o m p r e s s i o n de v a p e u r s i s s u e s d ' u n e c u i t e c o n t i n u e a s s o c i e e a de m a l a x e u r s - c r i s t a l 1 i s e u r s Continus sous v i d e p r o f o n d , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 103(7-8) (1986) 669-675. C . Longue E p e e , L e c t u r e p r e s e n t e d a t the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Exhibition SVEKLOVODSTVO, K i e v , May 1986.

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Chapter 4

ENERGY SAVINGS BY PROCESS M O D I F I C A T I O N S

4.1

INTRODUCTION In s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e s t a b l i s h i n g ways t o reducing the reduce the n e t h e a t demand, we individual o f the processes thermal one

s e p a r a t e d m e a s u r e s aimed a t from those f a c i l i t a t i n g

h e a t demand o f t h e

an i n c r e a s e o f t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s r a t i o

s y s t e m . When b e g i n n i n g a d i s c u s s i o n o f might

energy-saving process modifications, the former

perhaps e x p e c t t h a t o n l y measures b e l o n g i n g t o Actually,

g r o u p w o u l d be of

considered.

t h e p r o b l e m i s more i n v o l v e d as t h e r e the

are examples

processes that

h a v e been i n t r o d u c e d f o r

s o l e p u r p o s e o f making

thermal

s y s t e m i m p r o v e m e n t s p o s s i b l e . M o r e o v e r , a p r o c e s s may a f f e c t directly (owing to or a direct relationship the

t h e e n e r g y demand

b e t w e e n e n e r g y demand and p r o c e s s influence on t h e p a r a m e t e r s of other important

parameters) processes). issue. It is

indirectly

(owing to

F i n a l l y , t h e power demand o f a p r o c e s s may a l s o become an

sometimes d i f f i c u l t to

to

tell

whether a c e r t a i n

e n e r g y s a v i n g c a n be control of is

attributed systems.

a p r o c e s s improvement o r t o

developments i n equipment o r in which r e - t h i n k i n g role.

T h i s Chapter p r e s e n t s a r e v i e w o f problems plays a p a r t i c u l a r l y important

process requirements just

Of course, t h i s

a c o n v e n t i o n ; t h e n e x t two c h a p t e r s a r e d e v o t e d t o s y s t e m s come i n t o the it

complementary

problems

w h e r e e q u i p m e n t and c o n t r o l The p r e s e n t a u t h o r problem f i e l d however, value. noted, (refs. juice sugar that is

foreground. is not easy to cover It is a broad hoped, lasting be

aware o f t h e f a c t

that

i n w h i c h new d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e s t e a d i l y t a k i n g p l a c e . identification context, o f t h e main d i r e c t i o n s publications of effort

can have a

In t h i s

certain

or publication

series deserve to trends

as t h e y p r o v i d e d i n v a l u a b l e h e l p 1-3). In the f o l l o w i n g , the

in the is

studies of worldwide split into four parts:

subject

purification; crystallization;

unconventional processes; pulp It dehydration. might be a r g u e d t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f p r e s e n t i n g p r o c e s s e s as means too f a r ; It after all, the to is

r e d u c e e n e r g y demand i s

taking things

sugar i n d u s t r y

not a f i e l d of energy-saving c o n t e s t s . the p r i o r i t i e s Chapter that it 1. of different the

should therefore operation

be p o i n t e d o u t

that in

aspects of f a c t o r y

h a v e been d i s c u s s e d is way hoped into

Even i f

p r e s e n t C h a p t e r may be f o u n d p r o v o c a t i v e , i t useful ideas which w i l l eventually find their

can s t i m u l a t e

practice.

154

4.2 4.2.1

JUICE

PURIFICATION

I n f l u e n c e on t h e e n e r g y demand all over t h e w o r l d e m p l o y t h e method o f p u r i f i c a t i o n T h e aim o f juice produce changes methods juice the of of

Beet sugar f a c t o r i e s raw j u i c e

b a s e d on l i m e and c a r b o n d i o x i d e a d d i t i o n s . is to remove n o n s u g a r s as f a r high p u r i t y

purification clear

as p o s s i b l e ,

in order to

thin juice with

and s t a b i l i t y

preventing quality and d i f f e r e n t

d u r i n g e v a p o r a t i o n . Due t o harvesting, purification distribution juice transport,

v a r y i n g beet composition

s t o r a g e and e x t r a c t i o n , many v e r s i o n s o f with

the

method a r e i n u s e . T h e v e r s i o n s may d i f f e r of lime between i n d i v i d u a l temperatures

respect to

p r o c e s s s t a g e s , t h e amount o f characterizing

recycled various

or s l u d g e , the stages.

and r e s i d e n c e t i m e s

process

In a reference v e r s i o n of requirement

the c l a s s i c a l

juice

purification

method,

the

total

o f CaO amounts t o 80-95% o f t h e the pre-1imer, is added t o 5-7% t o t h e main

content of prior

nonsugars in to second

raw j u i c e .

10-12% g o e s t o and t h e

the j u i c e limer.

carbonatation a r e 55-65C and 94C in in

remainder

The t e m p e r a t u r e s

the p r e - l i m i n g , the

85C i n t h e main (ref. 4).

l i m i n g and f i r s t

carbonatation,

second c a r b o n a t a t i o n

T h e p a r a m e t e r s named a b o v e d e f i n e purification manufacture demand. process. Its influence

the

thermal total

characteristics e n e r g y demand i n contributing the

o f the sugar the

juice

on t h e

i s more c o m p l i c a t e d t h a n j u s t place, thin juice

directly

to

heat on sugar

In the f i r s t

quality

determines

requirements

the sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n house ( s e e S e c t i o n 4 . 3 ) . whether or or not vapours, it is

p r o c e s s , thus a f f e c t i n g Then, the temperature utilize

t h e e n e r g y demand i n t h e is heat decisive in

in pre-liming

p o s s i b l e to

low-temperature raw j u i c e of

(vacuum-pan this so

last-effect

vapour, condensate) in

heating.

Actually,

possibility

d e p e n d s a l s o on t h e t e m p e r a t u r e it

raw j u i c e

and o t h e r

factors,

one s h o u l d p e r h a p s i n v e s t i g a t e and j u i c e subsider purification (ref.

by a n a l y s i n g a subsystem c o m p r i s i n g For example, if large flows of

extraction or

5).

hot j u i c e

sludge are r e c y c l e d to then l e s s heating

the of

pre-1imer raw j u i c e

from f i r s t is

or second be where heat.

carbonatation, compensated f o r

n e e d e d . T h i s must stages of j u i c e of

b y more h e a t d e l i v e r e d t o are too high to allow the

other

heating,

the temperatures It

utilization

low-temperature

s h o u l d a l s o be o b s e r v e d t h a t in j u i c e pumping.

l a r g e r e c y c l e s may r e q u i r e

c o n s i d e r a b l e power

consumption

Concerning d i r e c t a qualitative

energy losses associated with

juice

purification, c h a n g e s has under

discussion of their

r e d u c t i o n by p r o c e s s t e m p e r a t u r e

been g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 3 . certain factory,

T h e main p a r t of

o f t h e s e l o s s e s , amounting the net h e a t demand o f

c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o as much as 1/10 occurs in the c a r b o n a t a t i o n s .

the

In the f o l l o w i n g ,

the e n e r g y - s a v i n g

155

potential 4.2.2

associated with

the carbonatation

process i s discussed.

Heat balance o f

carbonatation the carbonatation CO^, is deto

A typical process

arrangement o f t h e equipment a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

i s shown i n F i g . 4 . 1 . Gas f r o m t h e l i m e k i l n ,

containing

d u s t e d , w a s h e d and d e l i v e r e d t o a w a t e r - r i n g 1 . 6 - 1 . 8 b a r and a t a t e m p e r a t u r e

compressor.

I t s pressure raised

a b o u t 35C, t h e g a s f l o w s t o t w o s e p a r a t e , tanks, where i t liming, i s brought into contact with:

atmospheric-pressure carbonatation in f i r s t carbonatation - juice - juice

after after

main

d e l i v e r e d a t about delivered at

85C, about

i n second c a r b o n a t a t i o n

first

filtration,

94C. In both c a r b o n a t a t i o n tanks, mass and h e a t e x c h a n g e t a k e s p l a c e b e t w e e n t h e g a s . As t h e g a s f l o w s from the bubbler t o the j u i c e temperature

juice

and t h e c a r b o n a t a t i o n i t s pressure f a l l s finally

surface,

t o a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e and t h e temperature.

increases,

approaching the j u i c e

T h e g a s a l s o becomes

saturated with above t h e i n l e t

vapour evaporated from j u i c e .

I t s enthalpy raised considerably this

v a l u e , t h e spent gas i s d i s c h a r g e d t o t h e atmosphere,

c a u s i n g an e n e r g y l o s s . I water LIME KILN I

DE-DUSTER

WASHER

5^ limed juice_ CARBONATATION I CARBONATATION I I

COMPRESSOR clear juice_

F i g . 4 . 1 . Scheme o f t h e e q u i p m e n t a r r a n g e m e n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h process. The l o s s c a n be s t u d i e d u s i n g e q n . ( 2 . 6 ) .

the

carbonatation

F o r t h e thermodynamic is

system

comprising ^ji^ji

a s i n g l e t a n k shown i n F i g . 4 . 2 , t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e = Vj2^ V V ' E and c a r b o n a t a t i o n

^ ^ ^ ^ ^

( ' ^ ' gas ( u n d e r s t o o d o f t h e same

w h e r e G j ^ and G^-j a r e t h e mass f l o w s as d r y g a s ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a t i n l e t ; media a t o u t l e t ; hg^ and

of juice

G^^ a n d G ^ ^ a r e t h e mass f l o w s of juice at inlet

h^^ and h ^ ^ a r e t h e e n t h a l p i e s of carbonatation

and o u t l e t ; inlet

and h ^ ^ a r e t h e e n t h a l p i e s outlet;

g a s ( p e r 1 kg d r y g a s ) a t and i s the heat

Qp i s t h e h e a t o f c a r b o n a t a t i o n

reaction,

d i s s i p a t e d t o the environment by r a d i a t i v e Qp a n d are expressed per unit time).

and c o n v e c t i v e heat exchange ( b o t h

The b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n c a n be r e w r i t t e n

to r e f l e c t

the fact

that

the energy

lost

156

Gas

Gg2

Gas

Ggi

Juice out Gj2 '^\2

J u i c e in

Gji.hji

F i g . 4.2. symbols,

C a r b o n a t a t i o n t a n k as a thermodynamic see t e x t . s p e n t gas and by h e a t juice = ^i^'ji -

system.

For explanation

of

the

by d i s c h a r g i n g

exchange w i t h

the

environment

has

actually

been r e m o v e d f r o m t h e

Vg2
The \ or as

- ^gl^l

j2^2 ^ \
as

(4.2)

heat %2\2

l o s s can t h u s

be e x p r e s s e d e i t h e r

- ^^ "
- Gj2hj2 ^ Q R the heat o f it is reaction c a n n o t be n e g l e c t e d 70 k J / k m o l is (ref. 6) in us o b s e r v e t h a t If

(4.3)

QL = Gj^h-T Now, let

(4.4) energy the

balances.

we assume t h a t

generated at

and t h a t

amount o f CaO i n v o l v e d i n at the value 1.1

both carbonatations kg b , this being

2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , to

t h e n we

arrive

= 2500 k J / 1 0 0 b.

equivalent

a steam

amount

about The heat

k g / 1 0 0 kg

a b o v e e x p r e s s i o n s e n a b l e us t o carbonatations.

evaluate

the magnitude

of

the the

combined process

l o s s from the in the

In the

reference version of

mentioned 3.4

preceding kiln

Section, at first

40% C O ^ c o n t e n t ,

one n e e d s kg/lOO

approximately kg b i n the second

k g / l O O kg b o f

gas i n

carbonatation

and 0 . 7

carbonatation. loss

Even a t

t h e most a d v a n t a g e o u s p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s , be l o w e r than 5000 k J / 1 0 0 kg b , or

combined equivalent

c a n n o t be e x p e c t e d t o

a steam

157

o f about 2.2

k g / 1 0 0 kg b .

G e n e r a l l y , assuming t h a t

as much g a s i s

delivered

to

t h e p r o c e s s as n e e d e d t o d e p e n d s on t h e f o l l o w i n g CaO r a t e ; temperature; in incoming

n e u t r a l i z e t h e a c t i v e CaO i n t h e j u i c e , factors:

the energy loss

- juice At

CO^ c o n t e n t CO2

kiln

gas;

utilization. CO2 c o n t e n t , s a y 30% and a t l i m i t e d CO2 u t i l i z a t i o n , kJ/100 kg b , the combined

low i n i t i a l

carbonatation

h e a t l o s s can r e a c h 10 000-12 000

o r a steam characterized carbonatation net

e q u i v a l e n t o f 4 . 4 - 5 . 3 k g / 1 0 0 kg b .

I n modern b e e t s u g a r f a c t o r i e s the

b y steam demand o f t h e o r d e r o f 30 kg s t e a m p e r 100 kg b e e t , h e a t l o s s t h u s becomes one o f t h e h e a t demand. A number o f s o l u t i o n s loss h a v e been p r o p o s e d t o reduce the Witte largest identifiable

components o f t h e

carbonatation

heat 6)

b y c u t t i n g down g a s f l o w and o u t l e t

enthalpy.

and S c h i w e c k ( r e f . first

d e s c r i b e a s y s t e m b a s e d on r e c y c l i n g s p e n t g a s f r o m s e c o n d t o carbonatation. 10%; t h e up t o 1/5 The f l o w of k i l n gas t o first carbonatation at 0.5

c a n be r e d u c e d b y k g / 1 0 0 kg b , results that of is,

resulting

steam s a v i n g has been e s t i m a t e d

o f the carbonatation

l o s s . T h e same r e f e r e n c e r e p o r t s

experiments with a r a w - j u i c e estimate o f the a t t a i n a b l e

h e a t e r heated by s p e n t c a r b o n a t a t i o n given; the

g a s . No

energy saving is

s a v i n g w o u l d p r o b a b l y be the

d e t e r m i n e d b y an e c o n o m i c t r a d e - o f f heater cost.

b e t w e e n t h e v a l u e o f e n e r g y s a v e d and

Another s o l u t i o n team ( r e f . 7).

b a s e d on a s i m i l a r

a p p r o a c h has b e e n r e p o r t e d b y a B e l g i a n is brought into is direct then used to

Spent gas from second c a r b o n a t a t i o n the

contact with water; preheat a i r

r e c u p e r a t e d heat absorbed by t h e w a t e r the boilers or to t h e sugar d r y e r . The

delivered to

implementation 1 kg

in a sugar f a c t o r y

resulted

i n an e s t i m a t e d results

energy saving o f the order o f

steam p e r 100 kg b e e t . f a c t o r i e s where w a t e r special

Similar is

h a v e been r e p o r t e d f r o m F r e n c h s u g a r in a 8).

heated by s p e n t gases from both c a r b o n a t a t i o n s g a s pumping is

c o n d e n s e r , t o w h i c h an e x h a u s t f a n f o r the essence o f the solutions

connected ( r e f . presented in

In F i g . 4.3,

r e v i e w e d above i s as h e a t

a s i m p l i f i e d S a n k e y d i a g r a m . T h e y c a n be c l a s s i f i e d techniques not affecting 4.2.3 Modifications of the p r i n c i p l e o f the

recuperation

carbonatation process.

carbonatation

C a r b o n a t a t i o n h e a t l o s s c a n a l s o be r e d u c e d b y c h a n g i n g p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s i n a way f a c i l i t a t i n g a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e (4.3). well More s p e c i f i c a l l y , it is possible to Mg2hg2 " '^gl'^gl i n c r e a s e , as Two

reduce the gas e n t h a l p y

as t o

improve CO^ u t i l i z a t i o n ,

t h u s c u t t i n g down t h e g a s f l o w .

158

heat transferred from j u i c e to g a s

hIA 1
2 o ? c ) a> a,

\ carbonatation loss

s%

<

energy of kiln gas

/
of

1 energy recycled to the process systems reducing the c a r b o n a t a t i o n heat loss

Fig. 4.3. Energy-flow p r i n c i p l e by r e c u p e r a t i o n . t e c h n i q u e s c a n be u s e d f o r heating this

purpose ( r e f .

9): to carbonatation;

and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n at

o f the

k i l n gas p r i o r

carbonatation The p r i n c i p l e

increased pressure.

on w h i c h b o t h methods a r e b a s e d c a n be e x p l a i n e d i n a g r a p h gas e n t h a l p y ( p e r 1 kg o f d r y g a s ) as a f u n c t i o n of the

showing c a r b o n a t a t i o n temperature relationship temperature,

and p r e s s u r e ( F i g . 4 . 4 ) . between e n t h a l p y p e r and t h e relationship

The g r a p h has been c o n s t r u c t e d u s i n g content total an

1 kg d r y g a s and m o i s t u r e between m o i s t u r e content,

p r e s s u r e and

1 Pressure ( b a r ) Fig. 4.4. Enthalpy of carbonatation

g a s v s . p r e s s u r e and

temperature.

159

partial

pressure of

steam (4.5) content in k g / k g d r y g a s , m^ i s the molar weight pressure of of

X = (mg/mg)Pg/(p - Pg) where X i s the moisture the

s t e a m , m^ i s

a v e r a g e m o l a r w e i g h t o f g a s , p^ i s the t o t a l pressure. the enthalpy

the p a r t i a l

s t e a m , and i s In the gas i n t h e heated to

g r a p h , e x a m p l e s a r e shown o f conventional 70C w i t h

increase of

carbonatation preliminarily pressure case

p r o c e s s ( c a s e A ) and o f

g a s w h i c h has been at 1.3 bar o u t l e t

accompanying h u m i d i f i c a t i o n , increase in into case A i s 1830

(case B ) . The e n t h a l p y 960

k J / k g d r y g a s , and i n involve a

kJ/kg dry gas. Taking o f the gas f l o w

account t h a t better

case would a l s o the

reduction

due t o

CO^ u t i l i z a t i o n , that in the at

combined h e a t

loss

can i n t h i s The f i r s t from o t h e r

e x e m p l a r y c a s e be a b o u t 50% o f idea i s gas h e a t i n g

conventional the

process. heat hot in

and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n

expense o f waste in

s e c t i o n s of the

sugar manufacture. from the

Waste h e a t c a n be a v a i l a b l e station

condensate e x t r a c t e d d i r e c t l y the

evaporation

( a t 95-100C) o r Mass and

c o n d e n s a t e w h i c h has a l r e a d y p a s s e d j u i c e in the

heaters

(about 75C).

heat exchange t a k i n g p l a c e humidified juice

carbonatation then results

tank between the in

heated, the

k i l n g a s and t h e j u i c e juice

l e s s e v a p o r a t i o n from the the

and s m a l l e r

temperature o f the heat

drop.

C o n s e q u e n t l y , even though identical to those i.e. in at

temperature conventional 0.8

and h u m i d i t y p r o c e s s , the 100

s p e n t gas a r e loss is

reduced by about

1/3,

least order

kg steam p e r

kg b e e t .

An i m p r o v e m e n t

o f CO^ u t i l i z a t i o n

o f the

10-15% can a l s o modification, Fig. 4.5(a).

be e x p e c t e d . working

T h i s method c a n be c l a s s i f i e d principle is

as a p r o c e s s in

and i t s

shown i n a S a n k e y d i a g r a m

As r e g a r d s t h e

configuration

o f the

equipment,

this

method r e q u i r e s a d d i n g

to

(B)
5
o I/) CD ^ cr <

COMPRESSOR

additional i pumping power

F i g . 4.5. E n e r g y - f l o w p r i n c i p l e s o f the modified c a r b o n a t a t i o n s : (a) w i t h h e a t i n g and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n , (b) at increased pressure. 1 - energy of k i l n 2 - heat t r a n s f e r r e d from j u i c e to g a s , 3 - e n e r g y o f spent g a s .

gas gas,

160

the of

carbonatation packing. There,

tank a scrubber f i l l e d w i t h gas f l o w i n g in

Raschig r i n g s is

o r some o t h e r

type

an u p w a r d d i r e c t i o n surface.

h e a t e d and

humidified

b y c o n d e n s a t e d i s p e r s e d on t h e T h e s e c o n d method conventional implies

packing

that

t h e p r o c e s s c a n n o t be p e r f o r m e d tank; instead,

in

atmospheric-pressure carbonatation

a pressure vessel

s h o u l d be a p p l i e d thermodynamic saturated

and t h e g a s pump s h o u l d be o p e r a t e d a t increased pressure is constant content that (it per

i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e . The the partial pressure of

consequence o f

steam i n t h e

s p e n t gas remains final moisture

d e p e n d s on

juice reduced. juice

temperature This results

o n l y ) , so t h e

1 kg d r y g a s i s

in reduced f i n a l

e n t h a l p y p e r 1 kg d r y g a s . C o n s e q u e n t l y ,

e v a p o r a t i o n and j u i c e the j u i c e

temperature

d r o p c a u s e d b y mass and h e a t e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n than in the at atmospheric-pressure process. increased pressure is surface in the i.e. the tanks. p r e s s u r e h a v e been combined some initial illustrated about least is

and t h e g a s a r e s m a l l e r principle of

The w o r k i n g in 1.7 1.2 Fig. 4.5(b). bar,

carbonatation

A t a gas p r e s s u r e above the j u i c e

tank at gas

the o v e r a l l

h e a t l o s s c a n be r e d u c e d b y n e a r l y 1 / 2 , kg b e e t . This effect it of enters c a n be m a g n i f i e d the carbonatation if

kg steam p e r 100

p r e h e a t e d and h u m i d i f i e d Advantageous thermal verified effect results of in

before effects

increased carbonatation (ref.10).

laboratory-scale

experiments

Concerning the

i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e and g a s h e a t i n g that it may be r e a l i s t i c of 1.2, to i.e. in to

and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n ,

indicate

e x p e c t an i m p r o v e m e n t carbonatation,

i n CO^

utilization

by a f a c t o r

first

f r o m a b o u t 70% t o heat l o s s by 2/3,

84%. T h i s w o u l d c o n t r i b u t e i.e. at least 1.6

a reduction 100 kg

o f the

carbonatation

kg steam p e r effects

beet. verified, the as

Although the thermal application it potential of

c a n be r e g a r d e d as e x p e r i m e n t a l l y at increased pressure is to the

carbonatation

not obvious, from fuel

d e p e n d s on e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s . one h a s t o

In p a r a l l e l cost

gain resulting

savings, -

c o n s i d e r on t h e

side: tanks;

increased investment

c o s t s o f g a s c o m p r e s s o r s and c a r b o n a t a t i o n i n gas c o m p r e s s o r s . is

i n c r e a s e d power consumption the overall

Consequently, length, 4.3 4.3.1 fuel

economic r e s u l t

v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on s e a s o n (ref. 11).

price,

power c o s t and c a p i t a l

cost

SUGAR C R Y S T A L L I Z A T I O N Scope o f t h e problems s u g a r house u s u a l l y c o r r e s p o n d s t o total 50-70% o f t h e factory. In net

T h e e n e r g y demand o f t h e

h e a t demand and 14-20% o f t h e a factory

p o w e r demand o f a w h i t e - s u g a r l e v e l s o f equipment layout quality

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d e f i n i t e the exact f i g u r e s process.

and p r o c e s s o f the sugar mainly

automation,

d e p e n d on t h e that

and p a r a m e t e r s

crystallization

( L e t us r e c a l l

i n t h e p r e s e n t b o o k , we a r e

161

interested

in three-boiling

crystallization.) o f the f a c t o r y ' s h e a t demand is p r o c e s s so

Taking into concerned,

account that a large part

a problem might

be p o s e d o f a r r a n g i n g

the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n

as t o m i n i m i z e formulations because t h e r e

t h e h e a t demand o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e . O n l y s i m p l i f i e d and o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e solutions

problem however, sugar output

c a n be a t t e m p t e d

sought,

i s a multitude o f process constraints Actually, one m i g h t even note

associated with the

and s u g a r q u a l i t y . process house.

that

crystallization the sugar process

i s v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on t h e q u a l i t y T h i s would imply the e n t i r e that in order to

of juices

entering

arrange the c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n

optimally,

factory

s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d . N e e d l e s s t o s a y , s u c h an if o n e had t o c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e e n e r g y

a p p r o a c h w o u l d n o t be v e r y p r a c t i c a l economy.

L e t us o b s e r v e t h a t t h e p r o b l e m becomes e v e n more c o m p l e x possible modifications modifications presentation, o f the equipment, control mainly

i f we a l l o w as

for

vacuum p a n s , a s w e l l

o f the automatic

systems.

F o r t h e sake o f s i m p l i c i t y

of It

these questions are considered s e p a r a t e l y that

i n C h a p t e r s 5 and 6. the sugar intricate

s h o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s be a d m i t t e d crystallization process implies technology.

s a v i n g energy by r a t i o n a l i z i n g t h e most

the necessity o f touching

problems o f sugar Three important

energy-saving concepts are discussed in the present scheme;

Section:

the Danish c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n cooling crystal crystallization; footing techniques.

4.3.2

Danish c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n

scheme scheme i s t o e n s u r e A product, and t o that treat

The e s s e n t i a l the q u a l i t y the mixture

idea o f the Danish c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n i s h i g h enough t o mix i t

o f product as w h i t e

with

sugar. This

r e d u c e s t h e combined m a s s e c u i t e o f the t o t a l

circulation in sugar

considerably, boiling.

bringing

about a r e d u c t i o n

heat expenditure

As a f i r s t

approximation,

t h e h e a t s a v i n g c a n be e s t i m a t e d theoretically

as t h e h e a t

r e q u i r e d t o e v a p o r a t e t h e amount o f w a t e r s u g a r , p l u s t h e amount o f wash w a t e r

needed t o d i s s o l v e this s u g a r as thick of

n e e d e d when c e n t r i f u g i n g three-boiling

A s u g a r . When compared t o a c o n v e n t i o n a l juice

scheme i n w h i c h

a t 72% DS i s u s e d t o d i s s o l v e s u g a r , t h e s t e a m s a v i n g sugar output,

i s o f the order o f Danish

9-13% o f t h e w h i t e factories dissolving - about

or - using values c h a r a c t e r i s t i c I f the conventional

1 . 2 - 1 . 7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b .

scheme e m p l o y s

sugar i n water, o r about

t h e n t h e s a v i n g amounts t o 12-14% o f t h e w h i t e

sugar o u t p u t ,

1 . 6 - 1 . 9 kg steam p e r 100 kg b e e t . i n DOS s u g a r f a c t o r i e s a n d t h e scheme o f s u g a r quality

T h e s u g a r h o u s e scheme a p p l i e d flow through crystallization

s t a g e s a r e shown i n F i g . 4 . 6 . T h e main

162

Fig. 4 . 6 . Sugar house (a) and flow of sugar ( b ) according to the Danish crystallization scheme. VPB, VPC - vacuum pans and C; CB, CC - centrifugals and C (courtesy DDS).

163

requirement

concerned with the

sugar i s to

its

low c o l o u r .

It

is

known t h a t

in

number o f c o u n t r i e s , this requirement for

attempts

implement

t h e D a n i s h scheme f a i l e d This is

because as to the

c o u l d n o t be s a t i s f i e d operation

reliably.

understandable, intended mainly (ref.12). special of

conditions

a reliable -

o f the

D a n i s h scheme as f o l l o w s exhibiting

prevent colour build-up (i) In the j u i c e

h a v e been s p e c i f i e d

purification,

colouring matter r e q u i r e s the the

affinity

to

s u g a r s h o u l d be e l i m i n a t e d .

This

polymerization

phenolic as destroying time should

compounds s o t h a t t h e y can be r e m o v e d w i t h invert sugar. In p r a c t i c a l an a l k a l i n i t y liming). terms, level

s l u d g e , as w e l l long j u i c e

an a d e q u a t e l y

retention

be e n s u r e d a t

e x c e e d i n g 0 . 4 - 0 . 5 g C a O / l O O ml

(which

c o r r e s p o n d s t o main (ii)

F i r s t f i l t r a t i o n must be e f f e c t i v e b e l o w 20 ppm. of thin juice

enough t o

keep t h e

sludge content

in

the f i l t r a t e (iii) (iv) (v)

Sulphitation In the

s h o u l d e n s u r e a pH v a l u e o f a b o u t 8 . 7 lower than matter 8.5-9.0. s h o u l d be

at

20C.

s u g a r h o u s e , pH v a l u e s s h o u l d be k e p t

No u n n e c e s s a r y r e c y c l e s o f n o n s u g a r s and c o l o u r i n g in the sugar house. quality s h o u l d be e n s u r e d i n boiling is

tolerated (vi) (vii)

High c r y s t a l

of C sugar.

High-precision centrifuging

of massecuites conditions very well

required. met the In

Practical only if the of

experience proves that s u g a r house o p e r a t i o n is

( i v ) - ( v i i ) c a n be r e l i a b l y s t a b i l i z e d with before respect to

quality simple

boiling it

and t h e

temperatures

of massecuites

centrifuging. scheme is

terms,

c a n be c o n c l u d e d t h a t in well

the Danish c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n automated, carefully

practicable skilfully to

only

equipped, highly

maintained

and seems to

operated sugar f a c t o r i e s , The q u a l i t y the

and a s u f f i c i e n t l y

high beet q u a l i t y

be a p r e r e q u i s i t e .

requirements station,

s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d t o that is, with into the

apply

beets at

the entrance to during

slicing

consequences o f Among the

beet d e t e r i o r a t i o n quality parameters

transport

and s t o r a g e t a k e n

account. be o f

concerned, the it is kept

amino-N c o n t e n t

seems t o

considerable practical to obtain

importance. experience

I n Denmark,

b e l o w 100 mg p e r

100 g s u g a r as it difficult

has shown t h a t high p u r i t y

higher

a m i n o - N c o n t e n t s make (ref. 13).

a sufficiently 4.3.3 Cooling

of thick juice

crystallization crystallization is not a new i d e a , as i t is generally applied in the While the in

The c o o l i n g C massecuite

crystallization of

and i t

has a l s o in

been p r a c t i s e d the

crystallization evaporating

high-purity

massecuites

cane s u g a r i n d u s t r y . for the

crystallization control, of the

employs the cooling

evaporation of water relies

supersaturation the solubility

crystallization

on a r e d u c t i o n This

of

sucrose in water with

decreasing temperature.

phenomenon

164

is

illustrated

in a diagram

in

F i g . 4.7

(after

ref.

14).

It

has been

estimated it

that for

high-purity

massecuites, crystal

a temperature yield

d e c r e a s e o f 2 makes 15).

possible to

increase the

by 1 % (ref.

4.0

3.5 -
D O
L.

3.

2.5k CO
2.0L-^

AO

50

60

70

80

Temperature (**C) Fig. ref. 4.7. S o l u b i l i t y 14). of sucrose in water as a f u n c t i o n o f temperature (after

The m a s s e c u i t e crystal 1izer. evaporating

can be c o o l e d i n an a t m o s p h e r i c - p r e s s u r e configuration making i t

water-cooled combine into ref. one 16). The it

An e q u i p m e n t

possible to

crystallization stage is

and " p u r e - c o o l i n g " shown i n

crystallization F i g . 4.8 (after

crystallization massecuite is 4-5 directed h for is to

schematically

d i s c h a r g e d f r o m vacuum p a n s t o cooling

conventional

mixers,

from which time up to

c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s w h e r e an a d e q u a t e r e t e n t i o n massecuite - must be e n s u r e d .

A , and 6-7

h for

As t h e m a s s e c u i t e

is

VACUUM PANS

massecuite i MIXERS cooling water syrup COOLING CRYSTALLIZERS

vapour to the condenser

CONCENTRATOR syrup to the next^ crystallization stage

CENTRIFUGALS syrup sugar

HEATER

F i g . 4 . 8 . Scheme o f a c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n s t a g e e m p l o y i n g c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n and " p u r e - c o o l i n g " c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n .

evaporating

165

c o o l e d down f r o m t h e content the

initial

temperature

of

70C t o

about 40-50C, final

the

crystal on

c a n be s u b s t a n i t a l l y o f the

increased, its syrup. in

attainable

v a l u e depending

DS c o n t e n t

recirculated

F o r a c r y s t a l 1 i z e r d e s i g n known as the sugar i n d u s t r y is in FRG, the of

a cooling-crystallization attainable final relative

tower t e s t e d

increase o f the

crystal

content in

shown a s a f u n c t i o n However, the

massecuite temperature for improvement to

and s y r u p DS c o n t e n t yield the

F i g . 4.9. in this

potential to

of crystal

indicated

diagram t u r n s

out

be d i f f i c u l t

a c h i e v e owing t o

problems

of maintaining a cooling

sufficiently

intensive

heat t r a n s f e r

between the m a s s e c u i t e

and t h e

surfaces.

0.50 c

0.A0

0-30

-L 0.20 o <^ 0.10 -L 50

70

60

40

30

F i n d massecuite temperature {C)

F i g . 4.9. Relative increase of the c r y s t a l c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n tower v s . f i n a l massecuite r e c i r c u l a t e d syrup ( a f t e r r e f . 17). A n o t h e r method o f vacuum c r y s t a l 1 i z e r as l o w as a b o u t 0.09 vessel 1 h. flow cooling

content in the c o o l i n g t e m p e r a t u r e and DS c o n t e n t

of

crystallization, is

invented

in

France,

employs a a pressure cylindrical is about The

in which massecuite bar.

boiling is

as i t

expands to

The c r y s t a l 1 i z e r stirrer,

formed as a h o r i z o n t a l required retention in

equipped w i t h a ribbon

and t h e is

time

A p o s s i b l e equipment of recirculated

configuration

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y about h a l f o f the

F i g . 4.10. syrup flow.

s y r u p (80-82% DS) i s relative

total

Practical (i.e., 1.30). As t h e yield the

values o f the crystal

crystal-yield is

increase are about

0.25-0.30 of 1.25-

content

o f the massecuite

i n c r e a s e d by a f a c t o r

cooling

crystallization

makes

it

possible to

increase the

crystal it c a n be

in a c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n reduce the

stage without

additional

heat e x p e n d i t u r e , The a t t a i n a b l e

used t o on t h e

h e a t demand o f t h e

sugar house. layout of the

s a v i n g s depend scheme. of

c o o l i n g method a p p l i e d and t h e three-boiling comparisons,

crystallization

Taking a conventional 75% DS as a b a s i s f o r

scheme w i t h t h i c k - j u i c e it

concentration

c a n be c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e

same w h i t e - s u g a r

166

80C

CONTINUOUS VACUUM PAN massecuite

O.IAbar 68-70C

VACUUM CRYSTALLIZER1 to the next crystallization stage

0.09 bar 55-60C

VACUUM CRYSTALLIZER 2 BO-eS^'C CENTRIFUGALS syrup sugar HEATER

F i g . 4 . 1 0 . Scheme o f a c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n s t a g e e m p l o y i n g e v a p o r a t i n g c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n and c o o l i n g c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n u n d e r vacuum ( a f t e r r e f . output can be o b t a i n e d u s i n g t w o - b o i l i n g o f the white schemes f e a t u r i n g sugar. In the

18).

combined e v a p o r a t i o n "pure-cooling" the theoretical is in

and c o o l i n g - c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n crystallization,

case o f

assuming a c r y s t a l - y i e l d

increase about 0.32,

h e a t demand ( c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e r e d u c e d b y 48%. If

required evaporation)

o f t h e s u g a r house

vacuum c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n

i s e m p l o y e d and t h e c r y s t a l the resulting

yield

white-sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n theoretical

i n c r e a s e s by 0.33,

reduction of

the

h e a t demand i s n e a r l y 53% ( r e f . of cooling

16). has y e t t o be mainly to

The e n e r g y - s a v i n g p o t e n t i a l investigated. by t h e

crystallization

Up t o now, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h i s interest in improving

a r e a has been s t i m u l a t e d The u n d e r l y i n g

industry's

sugar q u a l i t y .

idea i s of the

take advantage o f both the n e g l i g i b l e cooling crystallization,

colour

increase characteristic

and t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e amount o f s y r u p s a c c o m p a n y i n g factor makes i t possible to in reduce syrup

the c r y s t a l - y i e l d recirculation build-up. created,

i n c r e a s e . The l a t t e r crystallization

in the

scheme, t h i s to

resulting the

reduced c o l o u r growth are

In a d d i t i o n , this making i t

new p o s s i b i l i t i e s possible to

control final

crystal

control

crystal

s i z e and

granulometric process consider far

distribution. aiming to

H o w e v e r , when a t t e m p t i n g t o

design a c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n

r e d u c e t h e h e a t demand o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e , one w o u l d h a v e t o c o n s t r a i n t s w h i c h h a v e n o t been f u l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d so

crystal-quality (ref. 4.3.4 19).

Crystal footing

techniques f o o t i n g o p e r a t i o n was i n t r o d u c e d w i t h t h e quality and e s p e c i a l l y t o make t h e idea i s to essential

The c o n c e p t o f c r y s t a l aim o f improving crystal

granulometric the initial

distribution

more u n i f o r m .

The u n d e r l y i n g

rationalize

167

phase o f

the it

sugar b o i l i n g in

p r o c e s s as d i s c u s s e d i n

Section 1.3.5. initial

Instead

of

performing and c r y s t a l

every strike is

i n e v e r y vacuum p a n , t h e in

syrup

thickening

formation is

concentrated

a specialized unit.

T h e s e e d magma boiling can be

obtained there started

subsequently delivered to from the crystal growth

vacuum p a n s w h e r e t h e

directly

phase. into crystallization and t h e schemes in in

A crystal

footing

technique

c a n be i n t r o d u c e d kind of

a v a r i e t y o f w a y s , d e p e n d i n g on t h e question. strike of

footing the

unit

scheme

A s i m p l e method c o n s i s t s o f p r e p a r i n g

s e e d magma e v e r y s e c o n d of its volume, pumping in a half

i n a s e l e c t e d b a t c h vacuum pan t o another

about 2/3

t h e magma t o

pan and s u b s e q u e n t l y b o i l i n g it

sugar in

b o t h pans average

parallel.

Practical

experience proves that Fewer s y r u p - t h i c k e n i n g station's

may r e d u c e t h e

boiling vacuum-

t i m e b y a b o u t 20%. pan s t a t i o n

phases performed

in the

entire

reduce the

h e a t demand b y a f e w the

percent. of syrups to

A n o t h e r method c o n s i s t s o f and c r y s t a l l i n e

preparing

s e e d magma as a m i x t u r e mixer. When d e l i v e r i n g from the of

and C s u g a r s i n boiling

a special

t h e magma growth average 20). green

vacuum p a n s A , t h e phase. boiling

o f A s u g a r can be s t a r t e d the possibility

crystal the

E x p e r i m e n t s have d e m o n s t r a t e d

reducing

t i m e b y a b o u t 25% and c u t t i n g down t h e in

h e a t demand b y 5% ( r e f . late 1970s i s t o mix

A method w h i c h r e c e i v e d much a t t e n t i o n s y r u p A and n o n - a f f i n e d B. It C sugar to bring

the

s e e d magma s u b s e q u e n t l y u s e d i n vacuum p a n s any s i g n i f i c a n t this e n e r g y s a v i n g s . The heat procedure is part o f the applied to mixed

has been p r o v e d n o t t o

demand can be e f f e c t i v e l y a part with o f the

reduced, however, i f in

C - s u g a r stream o n l y and,

addition,

sugar i s Such a

wash s y r u p A t o

s e e d magma u s e d i n vacuum p a n s A ( F i g . 4 . 1 1 ) . shows an e n e r g y - s a v i n g p o t e n t i a l (refs. quality 21,22). c a n be a t t a i n e d of

"double-footing" to

technique

the order o f

up

3 kg steam p e r 100 The b e s t c o n t r o l of

kg b e e t crystal

when a p p l y i n g

a special used at

footing

unit

i n which both c o o l i n g -

and e v a p o r a t i n g - c r y s t a l 1 i z a t i o n , produce the

different

stages o f the working configuration

c y c l e , a r e employed t o a combination

s e e d magma.

The equipment crystallizer 4.12 (refs.

can be e i t h e r

of a separate shown i n making it the for Fig.

and a vacuum p a n , o r a s i n g l e 23,24). control If completed w i t h

piece schematically conditioning

thick-juice

possible to

thick-juice footing

parameters technique at

accurately at

the entrance to tool

sugar house, the mastering

crystal

provides a very effective concentrations. the sugar house

sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n for its

high t h i c k - j u i c e application suitable is

A prerequisite equipped with automatic and 6.

successful

that

is

stirred

vacuum p a n s o f

d e s i g n and w i t h

effective in Chapters 5 the in

boiling

controls;

these questions of the

are discussed mainly crystal footing

In c o n c l u s i o n , the

importance in

techniques to but

e n e r g y economy d o e s n o t

lie

some d i r e c t

energy-saving effects

rather

168

thin juice

thick juice

remelt

s e e d magma FOOTING UNIT

ULLI
STAGE A

MELTER

i
C seed magma FOOTING UNIT C C remelt MELTER C

STAGE " sugarSTAGE C

W<hrixi-^
C sugar

white sugar Fig. 4,11. Simplified "double f o o t i n g " . its potential

molasses white-sugar crystallization using

scheme o f t h r e e - b o i l i n g

to utilize

effectively

the influence

o f increased

thick-juice 1.3.5).

concentration

on t h e h e a t demand i n t h e s u g a r h o u s e ( s e e S e c t i o n

(a) cooling water

slurry

HXl-

condenser

thick juice remelt syrup

-CXl
ISOLUTION * * TANK

MIXER

steam

r t > < l ' ^ " 5 < ^

CONDITIONED I R E M E L T * TANK to vacuum pans ^ to vacuum pans 5 m MIXER

y supersaturation about 1.05

* y 7/.-75V0DS

F i g . 4 . 1 2 . F o o t i n g u n i t s employing both e v a p o r a t i n g - and c o o l i n g - c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n t o p r o d u c e s e e d magma: ( a ) w i t h a vacuum p a n a n d a w a t e r - c o o l e d s t i r r e d v e s s e l ( a f t e r r e f . 2 3 ) , ( b ) w i t h a s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d vacuum p a n / c r y s t a l 1 i z e r a n d vacuum-controlled cooling (after r e f . 24).

169

4.4 4.4.1

UNCONVENTIONAL ENERGY-SAVING PROCESSES I N SUGAR MANUFACTURE Underlying concepts process employing thickening extraction, juice and purification finally, with

The

sugar manufacturing

l i m e and c a r b o n d i o x i d e , crystallization, is

juice

by e v a p o r a t i o n

apparently

associated with a certain

minimum e n e r g y configuration energy about 25). that

e x p e n d i t u r e w h i c h c a n n o t be f u r t h e r of 2.3 the thermal s y s t e m , an e s t i m a t e fuel per 100 kg b e e t

r e d u c e d . A s s u m i n g an o p t i m a l o f t h e minimum i n p u t has been g i v e n of primary

kg normal

in Danish sources ( r e f . experience proves c a n o n l y be in turn

Even though t h i s extremely at the

v a l u e can s t i l l demand i n

be d i s c u s s e d , p r a c t i c a l

low heat

conventional

sugar manufacture these

attained

expense o f equipment system. i n the of to It

inconvenient and c o n t r o l seems t h a t

process modifications, s y s t e m s , as w e l l there is

requiring of the

modified thermal inherent

as i n c r e a s e d c o m p l e x i t y

no o t h e r way i n w h i c h t h e p r o c e s s c a n be

constraints satisfied. in sugar and

conventional alternative

sugar manufacturing

A number manufacture utilization demand

p r o c e s s e s m i g h t p o s s i b l y be e m p l o y e d constraints

remove o r c h a n g e t h e

i m p o s e d on e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n new p o s s i b i l i t i e s for energy

techniques.

T h i s m i g h t open e n t i r e l y

reductions. the this initial phase o f sugar manufacturing other than consists in fact of juice

To b e g i n w i t h , juice separation;

c a n be done b y m e t h o d s at least

extraction. l i m e and C O ^ .

Next,

purification Evaporation

can be p e r f o r m e d , is not the

partly, to

without

o n l y method s u i t e d

juice

thickening;

similarly, methods of

evaporating-crystal1ization separation without For the of crystalline

c a n be a i d e d o r e v e n r e p l a c e d b y o t h e r C o n s e q u e n t l y , one c a n i m a g i n e tanks, evaporators

sugar.

a sugar

factory

extractors, time b e i n g , analyse

limers,

carbonatation

and vacuum p a n s . so no a t t e m p t however, will then short

such a v i s i o n it as a w h o l e . out

b o r d e r s on s c i e n c e f i c t i o n , If to one l o o k s at the

be made t o the

components, In the

application

prospects turn

be more r e a l i s t i c . given.

following,

reviews of 4.4.2 Juice

t h e most p r o m i s i n g separation to

concepts are

As an a l t e r n a t i v e brei

extraction,

juice

separation

from rasped or s l i c e d the 19th century and

beet

c a n be c o n s i d e r e d . T h i s method was w i d e l y recovery of

used i n

u l t i m a t e l y abandoned because t h e complete. It is now b e i n g is

s u c r o s e was n o t

sufficiently modifications. washing of

studied, to apply

however, w i t h

some s u b s t a n t i a l

One p o s s i b l e v e r s i o n beet brei are given (ref. in 26).

low-temperature, of the

counter-current essential

The p r i n c i p l e and t h e is to

p r o c e s s and i t s time o f the

parameters at

F i g . 4.13(a)

retention

brei

c a n be e s t i m a t e d so that

10 m i n u t e s .

The key problem

destroy cell

membranes

effectively

s u g a r can be w a s h e d o u t a t

low t e m p e r a t u r e .

T h i s may r e q u i r e

double-stage

170

()
disintegrated beet tissue 23VoDS acid

filtration aid

preservative press juice

water

^^ASH-" -STAGE U

--WASH-' .^STAGE2.

"-WASH--' .^STAGE 3 . brei3

PRESS

r a w juice 16.4% D S *

p r e s s e d brei 3 5 % DS

(b)

powdered lime 0.6

w a t e r 12.5

powdered lime

1
disintegrated beet tissue 100 ^ TANK 80C PRESS 1 35 bar

PRESS 2 70 bar

raw juice

p r e s s e d brei A O V o D S

F i g . 4 . 1 3 . Schemes o f j u i c e s e p a r a t i o n f r o m b e e t b r e i : ( a ) t r i p l e - s t a g e c o u n t e r c u r r e n t w a s h i n g and p r e s s i n g o f b r e i , ( b ) d o u b l e - s t a g e p r e s s i n g . Mass f l o w s g i v e n i n k g / 1 0 0 kg b . * / i n c l u d i n g 2% f i b r e s u b s t a n c e . disintegration or o f the beet t i s s u e : first in a disk m i l l , then in a homogenizer the easily in

a beater m i l l .

S u c r o s e r e c o v e r y can be e s t i m a t e d of cell membranes.

as 0.97

m u l t i p l i e d by o f 0.95 can

efficiency

of disintegration resulting thus

An e f f i c i e n c y At

be o b t a i n e d , beets, The -

in sucrose r e c o v e r y about 0.92. can be are: obtained.

16% s u g a r

13.8% s u g a r i n

raw j u i c e

advantages o f the process of separated juice;

high p u r i t y no h e a t

expenditure; as a n i m a l the feed. h i g h p o w e r demand o f the prototype

high value of concentrated brei is

The most s e r i o u s d i s a d v a n t a g e disintegration installation. extraction 1200 t/d. equipment: 0.44

relatively

kWh/100 kg b has been r e p o r t e d f r o m a against

N e v e r t h e l e s s , economic c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s at small

conventional up to

has a l r e a d y been c l a i m e d

processing capabilities

Another s o l u t i o n temperature retention offers dry (ref.

employs d o u b l e - s t a g e p r e s s i n g o f The p r o c e s s i s schematically at

beet brei shown i n

at

elevated the

27).

Fig. 4.13(b);

time o f the b r e i

c a n be e s t i m a t e d

20 m i n u t e s .

Double-stage

pressing of raw

t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f v e r y h i g h s u c r o s e r e c o v e r y and v e r y h i g h c o n t e n t A t 16% s u g a r i n As t h i s beets, 15.5% s u g a r i n on

substance in the pressed b r e i . seems t o be a r e a l i s t i c

juice

figure.

p r o c e s s has been t e s t e d

171

a laboratory given of 4.4.3 its

scale only, technical

further

research is

needed b e f o r e

any e v a l u a t i o n

c a n be

and e c o n o m i c and

feasibility.

Juice purification is

thickening aimed a t from r e m o v i n g n o n s u g a r s , and sugar s o l u t i o n s . processes ( r e f s . technique is also in and These 28-30)

Juice purification juice thickening

a process e s s e n t i a l l y

one aimed a t

removing excess water

functions

can be p e r f o r m e d e m p l o y i n g membrane f i l t r a t i o n and h y p e r f i 1 t r a t i o n ; of the latter

known as u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n called

r e v e r s e o s m o s i s . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Ultrafiltration while concentrates

both processes are given substance c o l l o i d s low-molecular

Table 4.1.

high-molecular concentrates limit

suspended p a r t i c l e s , and s e p a r a t e s t h e a molecular TABLE 4.1 of

hyperfi 1tration The a p p r o x i m a t e

substances is

solvent.

between t h e

two p r o c e s s e s

weight of

500-1000.

Main f e a t u r e s

ultrafiltration

and h y p e r f i 1 t r a t i o n p r o c e s s e s . Ultrafiltration Hyperfi 1tration 1-10 water, ethanol, lactic acid

10-200 Minimum s i z e o f p a r t i c l e s s e p a r a t e d ( m i c r o n s ) water, ethanol, Examples o f s u b s t a n c e s n o t s e p a r a t e d lactic acid. sugars, s a l t s . lower organic compounds Pressure range ( b a r ) A p p l i c a t i o n s outside sugar industry 1-10 separation proteins of

20-100 water desalination

T h e membranes, materials

usually

100-400 m i c r o n s

thick,

are manufactured

from

polymeric between The size

c a s t on a p o l y e s t e r o r p o l y p r o p y l e n e s u p p o r t . and h y p e r f i 1 t r a t i o n membranes is l i m i t e d by i t s strength. lies in

The d i f f e r e n c e structures.

ultrafiltration of t h e membrane

their

T h e membranes a r e m o u n t e d spiral-wound,

in

modules

providing

also necessary flow

channels; tubular, The modules automatic

plate-and-frame and a

and h o l l o w - f i b r e equipped with

designs are used. tanks,

c a n be c o n n e c t e d t o g e t h e r controls, in etc., to create

pumps, v a l v e s ,

membrane f i l t r a t i o n

s y s t e m as shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y unit c a n be i n c o r p o r a t e d in

F i g . 4.14

(ref.

30). as juice 30). juice

An u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n purification

sugar manufacture F i g . 4.15 of

equipment, of

according to

a scheme shown i n

(ref. thin not

While the p u r i t y leaving

ultrafiltered purification rise to

juice

c a n be as h i g h as t h a t invert sugar i s

conventional this

stations,

however

eliminated, treatment necessary.

giving

excessive colour formation. 100 kg b e e t ,

Therefore,

further

with

0.05

kg l i m e p e r

o r b y i o n e x c h a n g e , may be

The a d v a n t a g e s o f

ultrafiltration

are

l i m e s a v i n g and e l i m i n a t i o n

of

172

sugar solution

permeate

water concentrate

Fig.

4.14.

Scheme o f a membrane f i l t r a t i o n

system ( a f t e r

ref.

30).

water

raw juice

] SCREENING ^ P R E - T R E A T M E N T

ULTRAFILTRATION 80C permeate

thin juice

SULPHITATION

CLARIFICATION OR FILTRATION sludge

LIMING

concentrate

Fig. ref.

4.15. 30).

Juice

purification

scheme i n c l u d i n g

an u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n

unit

(after

carbonatation investment trials

heat

losses. I f lime k i l n the

achieved during

a factory

extension, this b a s e d on

can make

in the

unnecessary. Cost estimates literature (ref. 31).

pilot-scale

c a n be f o u n d i n

A hyperfiltration

unit

c a n be u s e d t o

remove w a t e r f r o m j u i c e ,

thus

reducing are

t h e e v a p o r a t o r l o a d . Two p o s s i b l e l o c a t i o n s shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y of hyperfi 1tration juice in F i g . 4.16 (ref. 32).

in a sugar manufacturing At the present state of

line

development of steam saving

membranes, 30-35% DS seems t o concentrations. This k g / 1 0 0 kg b . kWh/100 tests

be t h e

upper l i m i t

practicable of

corresponds to

an a t t a i n a b l e pumping,

t h e o r d e r o f 2.7

Power c o n s u m p t i o n i n j u i c e Cost estimates

however, the

may be as h i g h as 0.8

kg b .

o b t a i n e d by e x t r a p o l a t i n g (ref. 31). is of

f i g u r e s from p i l o t - s c a l e The p r o b l e m w i t h

are given in the

literature

t h e membrane f i l t r a t i o n small, this

systems p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e investment costs

that

module s i z e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y large-capacity fuel cost is units. it

increasing the

T h e c o s t o f membranes i s may be j u s t i f i e d to

also high. Nevertheless, i f

the

high,

c o n s i d e r e n e r g y - s a v i n g membrane to extensions o f the conventional to

filtration equipment.

s y s t e m s as s e r i o u s a l t e r n a t i v e s

F u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t s i n membrane t e c h n o l o g y c a n be e x p e c t e d

173

improve the apply to

c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s o f such s o l u t i o n s ; ( r e v e r s e osmosis)

in

the

first

place, this

seems

to

hyperfi 1tration

units.

cossettes

EXTRACTION

row juice

HYPERFILTRATION VERSION 1 permeate

concentrate

LIMING

CARBONATATION

pulp 1 permeate thick juice 1 EVAPORATION " concentrate HYPERFILTRATION VERSION 2 sludge

FILTRATION SULPHITATION

F i g . 4.16. P o s s i b l e l o c a t i o n s o f h y p e r f i 1 t r a t i o n manufacturing process ( a f t e r r e f . 32). 4.4.4 Sugar crystallization for a radical results line.

units

i n a scheme o f

a sugar

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s

change i n s u g a r c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n c a n be o b t a i n e d in

methods sections

d e p e n d v e r y much on t h e of

that If

the preceding purity

the sugar manufacturing

h i g h enough t h i c k - j u i c e crystallization

c o u l d be for

assumed, t h e n t h e c o m p l i c a t e d m u l t i - s t a g e example, by s p r a y d r y i n g . Implications

c o u l d be r e p l a c e d , as the

on t h e e n e r g y s i d e , as w e l l

consequences f o r Staying within juice

investment the

c o s t s , w o u l d be e n o r m o u s . o f development seems t o of be the if

frames d e f i n e d by t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e multi-stage

s e p a r a t i o n and p u r i f i c a t i o n , solution.

crystallization

only feasible

C o n s i d e r a b l e e n e r g y s a v i n g s c a n be o b t a i n e d , is for

however,

the evaporating c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n method. A d o p t i n g the idea used,

r e p l a c e d b y some l e s s e n e r g y - i n t e n s i v e example, in certain European p a t e n t s of freeze requires a refrigerant brings

concerned w i t h molasses d e s u g a r i z a t i o n , the a p p l i c a t i o n crystallization refrigerant has been p r o p o s e d ( r e f s . be a d d e d t o the 33,34). Its

principle

substance to

sucrose s o l u t i o n . crystallizes. and t h e

As t h e

absorbs heat from the

solution,

the water solution

Eventually, this of

about the s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n o f the In the next s t e p , water. sugar i s

formation

sugar c r y s t a l s .

separated from

ice c r y s t a l s that

are subsequently and

washed w i t h centrifuged.

Sugar c r y s t a l s a r e washed w i t h

syrup, drained, filtered

T h i s method i s clarify its

s o new t o

the

sugar i n d u s t r y t h a t On t h e

a lot

o f work

is

needed t o the in

application

potential.

energy s i d e , the circuit

choice of

refrigerant determining

and t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e the attainable savings.

refrigeration

seem t o

be d e c i s i v e

174

4.5 4.5.1 It

PULP DEHYDRATION Lines of is development of historical developments in the sugar i n d u s t r y that

characteristic

e n e r g y usage i n the s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g than t h a t in d r y i n g the p u l p .

p r o c e s s has been t r e a t e d more s e r i o u s l y 1970s, it was

Following the energy c r i s e s of the sugar manufacture pulp-drying

realized that while and s t e a d i l y

the energy systems o f relatively

are r a t h e r

elaborate

improving,

primitive

s y s t e m s can be in a s u g a r factory.

responsible for This stimulated

as much as 1/3

of the primary-energy input

much r e s e a r c h and numerous p r a c t i c a l results. In c e r t a i n

actions which

gradually in

began t o

give practical

countries,

the energy savings F i g . 4.17. The

p u l p d r y i n g h a v e been q u i t e

spectacular,

as can be s e e n i n

p r o g r e s s was a c h i e v e d o w i n g t o and c o n t r o l systems.

combined developments i n p r o c e s s e s , equipment opinion, however, r e - t h i n k i n g role. of

In the present a u t h o r ' s played a p a r t i c u l a r l y

process requirements

important

1978

1980

1982

1984

F i g . 4 . 1 7 . S t a t i s t i c a l d a t a on e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n i n p u l p d r y i n g i n FRG and S w e d e n , 1977-1985. T h e v a l u e s g i v e n f o r b o t h c o u n t r i e s a r e n o t d i r e c t l y comparable because o f the d i f f e r e n c e s i n molasses dosage. It how t o s h o u l d n o t be f o r g o t t e n utilize it. that the e s s e n t i a l problem w i t h the wet pulp pressing, and that is

T h e most w i d e l y a c c e p t e d s o l u t i o n the pulp so t h a t it

consists of

d r y i n g and p e l l e t i n g s o l d as a n i m a l

c a n be e a s i l y s t o r e d , t r a n s p o r t e d

feed a d d i t i v e .

T h e r e a r e numerous o t h e r p r o p o s a l s , h o w e v e r , local

a l s o d e s e r v e s e r i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n . D e p e n d i n g on e c o n o m i c and v a r i o u s (e.g., vary. An i n t e r e s t i n g to utilize it with possibility t h e aim o f is to avoid t r e a t i n g the the f a c t o r y ' s environmental) conditions in a p a r t i c u l a r factory, the

b e s t c h o i c e may

p u l p as a b y - p r o d u c t and energy balance. This can

improving

be done b y c o n v e r t i n g t h e p r e s s e d p u l p t o process. confirmed It has been d e m o n s t r a t e d plant, that in

b i o g a s i n an a n a e r o b i c

fermentation partly can

l a b o r a t o r y - s c a l e e x p e r i m e n t s , and

in a p i l o t

90% o f t h e o r g a n i c m a t t e r

present in pulp

175

be c o n v e r t e d t o m e t h a n e , (ref. 2,35).

the

rest

being a waste w h i c h needs t o

be d i s p o s e d o f to

Biogas generated from the e n t i r e Alternatively, a part of the

amount o f p u l p c a n be s u p p l i e d methane, dry

the b o i l e r s . which i s remaining yet to

p u l p may be c o n v e r t e d t o

s u b s e q u e n t l y b u r n e d i n a d r y e r f u r n a c e , making i t part. The economic p o t e n t i a l in a f u l l - s c a l e is to of

possible to

the has

biogas p r o d u c t i o n from the pulp application. as

be d e m o n s t r a t e d

industrial

A solution widely practised If transport It

sell

the pressed pulp d i r e c t l y , customers, the

fodder.

and s t o r a g e a r e p r o v i d e d b y t h e

advantages are however, serving a savings that

great.

c a n be s e e n f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f numerous c o u n t r i e s , costs o f the e n t i r e distribution and s t o r a g e s y s t e m -

the o v e r a l l

p r o d u c t w h i c h c o n t a i n s a b o u t 80% w a t e r obtained in the factory.

- may be h i g h e r t h a n t h e v a l u e o f s o l u t i o n may be d i f f i c u l t say, i t to

Therefore, this

substantiate term

in w e l l - b a l a n c e d economies. Needless to

also requires

long-

marketing. consists of storing the pressed pulp in the factory area. pulp

Another p o s s i b i l i t y This

r e q u i r e s the a p p l i c a t i o n aimed a t pulp lactic

of a suitable acid formation after

preservation procedure ensuring (refs. 37,37). is, The s i m p l e s t

fermentation is to

method

e n s i l e the is

immediately if

pressing, that is

a t 45-50C. A c o r r e c t a daily rate of

fermentation

attained

the e n s i l e d pulp

cooled at

0 . 5 - 1 . 0 K. No c h e m i c a l been shown t o ensiled,

a d d i t i v e s are r e q u i r e d , but the a d d i t i o n acid formation. Alternatively, i n a 85:15

o f m o l a s s e s has c a n be beet

increase l a c t i c

cooled pulp mixture with known. to

p o s s i b l y w i t h chemical Successful industrial

preservatives or applications of

fragments.

pulp e n s i l a g e are

R e t u r n i n g now t o Sections 1.2.8

the pulp d e h y d r a t i o n method, where the importance

r e f e r e n c e c a n be made

and 1 . 2 . 9

of energy-saving process the influence of the f i n a l DS is

modifications c o n t e n t on t h e

was s t r e s s e d . I n F i g . 4 . 1 8 ( a ) , specific

e n e r g y demand i n m e c h a n i c a l mass o f w a t e r it

and t h e r m a l

dehydration

s h o w n . T h e e n e r g y demand p e r u n i t is very low a t l o w DS c o n t e n t , but

removed by mechanical a t DS c o n t e n t s

pressing above is point by that

increases rapidly its

a certain relatively

limit.

Concerning thermal

drying,

s p e c i f i c e n e r g y demand The i n t e r s e c t i o n determined It turns

constant over

a w i d e r a n g e o f DS c o n t e n t s . ranges o f rather the both methods,

between t h e a p p l i c a t i o n overall with economic r e s u l t s

however, i s

than by e n e r g y i s s u e s o n l y . investment

out

i n c r e a s i n g DS c o n t e n t , specific

c o s t s o f p r e s s e s i n c r e a s e more the intersection point towards

r a p i d l y than the l o w e r DS v a l u e s .

e n e r g y demand, s h i f t i n g

Numerous s t u d i e s o f a p p l i c a t i o n published thermal (ref. 38-43). is

ranges o f the

b o t h d e h y d r a t i o n m e t h o d s h a v e been relationship b e t w e e n p r e s s i n g and exhausted in

A graph d e p i c t i n g Fig. 4.18(b).

drying

shown i n

As c a n be s e e n ,

a t 8% DS i n

cossettes,

i n c r e a s i n g t h e DS c o n t e n t o f p r e s s e d p u l p f r o m 22% t o

30% r e s u l t s

176

()

g I III"" Illlllllllllllll"""'thermal

I
mechanical

^1
0 20 40 60 80 J 100 20 40 60 80

Final DS content in p u l p ( % )

DS content in p u l p ( % )

F i g . 4 . 1 8 . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m e c h a n i c a l and t h e r m a l p u l p d e h y d r a t i o n : ( a ) s p e c i f i c e n e r g y demand v s . f i n a l DS c o n t e n t , ( b ) w a t e r amount i n p u l p DS c o n t e n t ( a f t e r r e f . 5 1 ) . an i n c r e a s e o f w a t e r amount removed b y t h e r m a l Simultaneously, about 1/3. three energy-saving techniques related to pulp d e h y d r a t i o n o f about dehydration is 1/7.

vs.

t h e w a t e r amount removed b y t h e r m a l

r e d u c e d by

In the f o l l o w i n g ,

dehydration

technology are d i s c u s s e d : pressing at increased f i n a l drying; DS c o n t e n t o f t h e pulp;

low-temperature steam drying.

4.5.2

P r e s s i n g t o h i g h DS c o n t e n t press o f contemporary design u t i l i z e s t i m e on t h e f i n a l DS c o n t e n t t h e combined e f f e c t This of

A mechanical

p r e s s u r e and r e t e n t i o n

of the p u l p .

phenomenon are the

has been e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d f o r shown i n F i g . 4 . 1 9 nominal cost. (ref.44).

different

p r e s s d e s i g n s ; sample r e s u l t s time, corresponding to

The nominal

retention its

c a p a c i t y o f the p r e s s , determines rotational v e l o c i t y o f the

d i m e n s i o n s and t h u s t h e is reduced, longer this

investment

When t h e

rotor

retention however,

t i m e i s e n s u r e d and a h i g h e r DS c o n t e n t t h a t the c a p a c i t y u t i l i z a t i o n only if the press design i s operating

can be a t t a i n e d ;

implies,

decreases. Therefore, real

progress is in the

achieved most

i m p r o v e d t o g i v e a h i g h DS c o n t e n t

economical

conditions. introduced only limited

Up t o now, t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p r e s s m a n u f a c t u r e r s changes t o t h e i r solution scales products (refs.

4 4 , 4 5 ) . Among t h e new d e s i g n s , a F r e n c h b o t h on p i l o t and industrial be n o t e d .

a t t a i n i n g 50% DS was s u c c e s s f u l l y t e s t e d , 42). The c o n c e p t o f p u l p c e n t r i f u g i n g

(ref.

also deserves to

177

10

20

30

40

50

60

Retention time (min)

F i g . 4.19. pressure. It is

Attainable

DS c o n t e n t

of pressed pulp v s . retention

time

and

a well

known phenomenon t h a t t h e properties pectins

results

of pressing are to on t h e

some

extent of

d e p e n d e n t on t h e pectins. If the

o f the wet p u l p ,

most n o t a b l y extraction, and t o o as p u l p

condition becomes

a r e decomposed d u r i n g

pressing long pulp

difficult.

For t h i s

reason, too

high temperatures

retention

times in the

extractor

s h o u l d be a v o i d e d , as w e l l

r e c y c l e s . Moreover, by l a c t i c acid the is not

advantageous e f f e c t s bacteria, sugar giving

can be a c h i e v e d b y c o n t r o l l e d

infection

l o w pH o f t h e

p u l p and g o o d p r e s s i n g . As t h i s to i n c r e a s e , the full-scale in tower feasibility experiments

a l s o causes

losses in the e x t r a c t i o n

o f t h e method i n two Austrian

obvious.

A r e f e r e n c e can be made t o where m i c r o b i a l infection

factories, continuous case, sugar the lost

e x t r a c t o r s was c o n t r o l l e d (ref. 46).

through In of one

f o r m a l i n dosing v i a h i g h - p r e c i s i o n metering systems results were c l e a r l y the positive; in the other It factory,

the value

annihilated

effect

of energy saving. improving

can a l s o be by

mentioned dosing

that there sulphuric

h a v e been e x a m p l e s o f acid to press water mainly

wet pulp p r o p e r t i e s 4). the addition

(pH v a l u e about

In recent y e a r s ,

on an e m p i r i c a l 44,47). their

basis,

of

pressing

aids -

has become w i d e s p r e a d a r e t h e most p o p u l a r or s l u r r y to the Tests of ratios

(refs.

Calcium s a l t s low c o s t . or to the

- Ca(HS02)2,

CaCl2,

CaSO^

because o f

The a i d s pulp at

a r e added i n the e x t r a c t o r (ref. 48).

solution outlet. Different limit.

extraction

feed water

liming of fresh

c o s s e t t e s h a v e a l s o been p e r f o r m e d but 500 g p e r 1 t beet is

of aid/beets

are used, of the of

about the published

upper

More s y s t e m a t i c determine

studies limit

effect

of pressing aids, of calcium salts in

recently,

an u p p e r per

the (ref. It

loading 49).

at 4 milligram dry substance that the aids even content

equivalents

100 g b e e t is

The i n c r e a s e

the

of the pressed pulp containing further. trivalent

3-4%.

has a l s o k^^{SO^)^,

been e s t a b l i s h e d may r a i s e the

ions,

e.g.

p u l p DS c o n t e n t

178

T h e amounts o f s a l t s disappear loss in the j u i c e

used as p r e s s i n g a i d s a r e so small purification

that

t h e y seem t o increased sugar 50). The its

process, although s l i g h t l y

i n m o l a s s e s c a n be e x p e c t e d e s p e c i a l l y when u s i n g C a C l ^ c h a n g e when m o l a s s e s i s on p u l p p a r t i c l e s added t o the p u l p . It is

(ref.

conditions

known t h a t

osmotic e f f e c t

r a i s e s t h e amount o f w a t e r t h a t k g / 1 0 0 kg b , it

c a n be r e m o v e d however, the

from the p u l p . A f t e r sugar content

a d d i n g a s much m o l a s s e s a s 3-4

i n t h e p r e s s f i l t r a t e may become so h i g h t h a t (particularly if the molasses i s is to thicken

c a n n o t be second in

recycled to pressing, a special

the e x t r a c t o r

added i n t h e the f i l t r a t e 38).

s e e b e l o w ) . One p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n e v a p o r a t o r and t o recycle it to

the presses ( r e f .

The improvements application initially

in press d e s i g n , pulp conditioning

in the e x t r a c t o r

and It was

o f p r e s s i n g a i d s c a n be c o m b i n e d w i t h pressing aids,

double-stage pressing.

tested without

g i v i n g a DS i n c r e a s e o f up t o

10% a b o v e can

that attained be a t t a i n e d , 4.5.3 It

i n the f i r s t

s t a g e . U s i n g p r e s s i n g a i d s , 35-40% DS i n t h e p u l p level seems t o be somewhat lower.

b u t an e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d drying S e c t i o n 1.2.8

Low-temperature was m e n t i o n e d in

t h a t owing t o in conventional

the process layout thermal the drying is

and poor. of fuel

parameters,

the energy u t i l i z a t i o n high-temperature

Assuming t h a t

g a s e s s h o u l d be f e d t o

d r y e r , burning satisfied

c a n n o t be a v o i d e d and o n l y a p a r t utilizing boiler flue gases. the

o f t h e e n e r g y demand c a n be

T h e r e f o r e , a proposal gas t e m p e r a t u r e

has been made t o low enough t o

introduce waste this cost

a drying process with heat from the

initial

utilize

sugar manufacturing

process. Called low-temperature i n a few a p p l i c a t i o n s .

drying, As t h e the

p r o c e s s has p r o v e d t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y f e a s i b l e of the n e c e s s a r y equipment is very

h i g h , however, i t

c a n n o t be s e e n as

ultimate energy-saving solution utilized in e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t

but rather

as a n o t h e r new s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t t o

be

factories. can be c o n s i d e r e d f o r utilization are

The streams o f waste heat t h a t available in the f o l l o w i n g water; media:

barometric

vacuum pan v a p o u r ; c o n d e n s a t e (ammonia w a t e r ) ; spent carbonatation vapours from lime flue gas from gas;

slaking;

boilers; pulp drying. (refs.

p o s s i b l y , s p e n t gas from h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e has been e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d temperature is

Heating of a i r 51-54).

i n a number o f p u b l i c a t i o n s

The a t t a i n a b l e as w e l l

o f the order o f -

50-70C. The e x a c t v a l u e air humidity at the

selected,

as o t h e r

process parameters

including

179

dryer

outlet

- d e t e r m i n e t h e e n e r g y demand p e r 1 kg w a t e r F i g . 4.20.

removed from t h e high-

pulp,

as a p p r o x i m a t e l y shown i n t h e d i a g r a m o f temperature d r y i n g , say at e n e r g y p e r 1 kg w a t e r 500C a i r

When c o m p a r e d t o

temperature at the d r y e r i n l e t , (at air

40-80% more

i s needed i n

low-temperature drying

humidity the it

c h a n g i n g f r o m 50% t o 90%). outlet temperature

In order to minimize

t h e s p e c i f i c e n e r g y demand, high, this implying

s h o u l d be l o w and o u t l e t to dry the pulp to i s most s u i t a b l e

humidity

that

is very d i f f i c u l t temperature d r y i n g drying,

a h i g h DS c o n t e n t . as a f i r s t

Consequently, lowhigh-temperature such

stage preceding It

where the f i n a l

DS c o n t e n t can be a t t a i n e d .

has been p r o v e d t h a t o f both types of

a s o l u t i o n c a n s a v e more e n e r g y t h a n a p a r a l l e l drying (ref. 51).

combination

air t e m p e r a t u r e at d r y e r inlet 5500 a i r humidity at d r y e r outlet

20

AO

60

80

100

120

Air temperature at d r y e r outlet {C)

F i g . 4 . 2 0 . S p e c i f i c e n e r g y demand i n l o w - and m e d i u m - t e m p e r a t u r e d r y i n g as a f u n c t i o n o f p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s ( a f t e r K . K r l l , T r o c k n u n g s t e c h n i k , 2nd e d n . , S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , B e r l i n , 1978). A possible design for is shown schematically a low-temperature d r y e r o f the t r a v e l l i n g - s c r e e n type in F i g . 4.21 (the dryer consists of multiple is cells like

t h e one shown i n

cross-section). It

c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s p e c i f i c p o w e r demand f a n s b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e f o r most rest. in The parameters o f a l o w in Table 4.2. of

a b o u t 50 kWh p e r 1 t w a t e r r e m o v e d , t h e a i r it and t h e c o n v e y o r and s c r e e n d r i v e s f o r

the

temperature d r y e r operated in a sugar f a c t o r y O t h e r d e s i g n s h a v e been d e s c r i b e d i n t h e As t h e introduction of

FRG a r e l i s t e d (refs.

literature

55-57). on

l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e d r y i n g has a d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s e f f e c t

180

pulp in

47 - - - r - - z - z - . - ^

A-A

air out

iL

pulp out \/_ou i

Ai
F i g . 4 . 2 1 . Scheme o f a l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e d r y e r 2 - a i r f a n , 3 - a i r d i s t r i b u t o r and s c r e e n . TABLE 4.2 dryer (after ref. 51). VTe p e r 1 t w a t e r removed a t evaporating capacity ( t / h ) 25 34600 T h e r m a l c a p a c i t y (kW) 43370 H e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a i n a i r h e a t e r s (m ) 2830 Air flow ( t / h ) Power demand, i n c l u d i n g w a s t e - h e a t 1500 r e c o v e r y e q u i p m e n t (kW) ^ 50 Average a i r temperature a t heater o u t l e t ( C) 25 Average pulp r e t e n t i o n time (min) 36X16X19 D i m e n s i o n s (m) ^ 600 T o t a l s c r e e n a r e a (m ) 1600 Total weight ( t ) 1384 1735 113 60 30 1153 1446 94 50 (after ref. 53). 1 - air heater,

Parameters o f a low-temperature

Quantity

Total value

t h e power b a l a n c e o f t h e f a c t o r y , thermal

a p r o p o s a l was made t o

create

an

additional of the

c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n p u l p d r y i n g and s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r e , evaporation station, In t h i s

w i t h t h e aim increasing

i n c r e a s i n g t h e steam demand o f t h e primary-energy input turbine to

without

the f a c t o r y .

w a y , t h e steam f l o w t h r o u g h

the

can be i n c r e a s e d and a d d i t i o n a l

power g e n e r a t e d . A s s u m i n g t h a t vapour to an

the air

additional heater,

connection consists of supplying t h i r d - e f f e c t temperature a b o u t 90C can be a t t a i n e d ; F i g . 4.20,

an a i r

this its

solution specific

is

known as

medium-temperature

d r y i n g . As can be s e e n i n significantly

energy The

demand d o e s n o t d i f f e r air this

from t h a t o f

low-temperature

drying.

f l o w and s c r e e n s u r f a c e resulting in

i n t h e d r y e r can be c o s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e d , h o w e v e r , c o s t s . U s i n g medium-

r e d u c e d power demand and i n v e s t m e n t

181

temperature total other

drying followed

by c o n v e n t i o n a l

drying with

boiler

flue

gas, heat

the from

p u l p amount can be d r i e d factory

u s i n g o n l y w a s t e and l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e l a y o u t o f the energy system i s ref. 58).

sections. A suitable in F i g . 4.22 (after

shown

schematically

p r e s s e d pulp 90 3rd-effect vapour steam ^ I

fuel flue gas 205C dried pulp

F i g . 4 . 2 2 . E n e r g y s y s t e m l a y o u t f o r d o u b l e - s t a g e p u l p d r y i n g u s i n g w a s t e and l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e h e a t f r o m b o i l e r s and s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r e ( a f t e r r e f . 5 8 ) . 1 - b o i l e r , 2 - t u r b i n e , 3 - sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s , 4 - medium-temperature dryer, 5 - conventional dryer. 4.5.4 Steam drying alternatives to in conventional thermal dehydration, to the steam obvious

In the search f o r

d r y i n g has r e c e i v e d much a t t e n t i o n p r o p e r t y o f making i t and p u l p d r y i n g , dried this easy to

recent years. the

In addition

integrate

h e a t economy i n

sugar

manufacture pulp, as i t is

method c a n a l s o

improve the q u a l i t y the risk

of the

i n the absence o f a i r

and t h u s w i t h o u t

o f o x i d a t i o n . Among (refs. 13,59-61), the

four

industrial-scale Swedish u n i t to

steam d r y e r s p r e s e n t l y i n o p e r a t i o n d r i e d pulp which remaining

produces h i g h - q u a l i t y (ref. 62)

is

subsequently

transformed for

a food a d d i t i v e

and t h e

o n e s seem t o

be u s e d m a i n l y

the purpose o f

improving

e n e r g y economy. steam d r y i n g force is somewhat d i f f e r e n t from that

T h e t h e r m o d y n a m i c mechanism o f of conventional and t h e

d r y i n g . The d r i v i n g heating agent i s at

o f t h e mass e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n a p u l p between the in steam temperature the

particle

the d i f f e r e n c e the

and t h e s a t u r a t i o n temperature temperature, of

temperature

pressure maintained the d r y e r is

t h e d r y e r . As steam

the p a r t i c l e

entering

lower than the

the p a r t i c l e

may i n i t i a l l y the saturation

absorb water temperature

by c o n d e n s a t i o n . has been a t t a i n e d the at the of

Evaporation begins a f t e r particle

s u r f a c e , and t h e s a t u r a t i o n Only in the

zone i s

g r a d u a l l y extended to

centre the is

the p a r t i c l e . particle unlikely

l a y e r s from which water significantly from the

has been r e m o v e d can saturation

temperature to

differ

v a l u e , which

happen i n a w e l l

designed d r y e r .

In t h i s

way o v e r h e a t i n g o f t h e

pulp

182

can be a v o i d e d , w i t h

a positive effect

on t h e q u a l i t y

of the f i n a l is

product. Fig. 4.23.

A diagram o f pulp temperature

changes d u r i n g

steam d r y i n g

shown i n

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

Water content ( k g / k g D S )

Fig.

4.23.

Changes o f a v e r a g e p u l p t e m p e r a t u r e ref. 38). reported are in the

and w a t e r c o n t e n t d u r i n g

steam

drying

(after

T h e steam t e m p e r a t u r e s

r a n g e 132-189^0. The w o r k i n g in F i g . 4.24. their It seems

p r i n c i p l e s o f t w o d r y e r d e s i g n s a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y t h a t the s o l u t i o n s feasibility. The d r y e r a p p l i e d (Fig. 4.24(a), after in a sugar f a c t o r y ref. 61). in FRG i s have y e t t o be o p t i m i z e d w i t h

respect to

economic

of the t r a v e l l i n g - s c r e e n a unit

type t/h

The dimensions g i v e n a p p l y t o like

r a t e d 20

evaporated water. section. the

The d r y e r c o n s i s t s o f n i n e c e l l s temperature fans, of the

t h e one shown i n

cross-

The s a t u r a t i o n

r e c i r c u l a t e d vapour i s p o w e r demand i s t water.

132C. Due t o to that is

presence o f

circulation

its is,

specific

similar

of a low-temperature

dryer, that

a b o u t 50 kWh/1

As t h e d r y e r vapour

(a)
pulp in

40 m

pulp out condensate vapour

F i g . 4 . 2 4 . w o r k i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f steam d r y e r s : (b) f l u i d i z e d bed. 1 - heater, 2 - screens, 3 - f a n , 4

^7!^|5",^^;;. tluiaizeo

183

heated by e x h a u s t steam, power g e n e r a t i o n . If

its

presence in

an e n e r g y s y s t e m f a c i l i t a t e s d r y e r used i n the pulp

increased initial

combined w i t h a l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e d e s i g n makes i t possible to

process stage, t h i s without direct

dry the e n t i r e

amount is

expenditure of primary in Fig. 4.25(a).

energy. A suitable

energy-system layout

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y

(a) flue g a s steam

Qir I

p r e s s e d pulp

U
waste heat partly dried pulp

vapour

fuel
dried pulp

(b)

steam

fuel

-
vapour

steam ^ I

pressed p u l p

dried pulp

F i g . 4.25. Energy system l a y o u t s f o r steam-drying o f the p u l p : ( a ) d o u b l e - s t a g e d r y i n g , steam d r y e r h e a t e d w i t h e x h a u s t s t e a m ( a f t e r r e f . 3 8 ) , ( b ) s t e a m d r y e r h e a t e d w i t h h i g h - p r e s s u r e steam ( a f t e r r e f s . 1 3 , 6 3 ) . 1 - b o i l e r , 2 - t u r b i n e , 3 - s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s , 4 - l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e d r y e r , 5 - steam d r y e r , 6 - waste-heat recovery subsystem, 7 - vapour washer. A Danish design employing the c e l l u l a r Fig. 4.24(b) (after refs. 13,63). f l u i d i z e d - b e d technique is shown in

The f l u i d i z e d tubular

bed c o n s i s t s o f m u l t i p l e situated in the rated 6

cells of

arranged in a c i r c l e a vertical vessel.

surrounding the

heater

centre t/h

In a prototype a p p l i c a t i o n , It is h e a t e d b y steam a t in the f a c t o r y

the dryer i s

evaporated water. happens t o

12 b a r and 220C f r o m a b o i l e r steam does not

which

be a v a i l a b l e

in question; t h i s

184

contribute the

to

power g e n e r a t i o n . is

The vapour p r e s s u r e fluidized

is maintained at the

3.5

bar

and

temperature

162C a b o v e t h e is to

bed and 189C a t than

heater

outlet.

The r e c i r c u l a t e d

vapour flow directed

35-40 t i m e s l a r g e r the evaporator

the water the heat

evaporation. consumption is shown in

As v a p o u r e n e r g y i s sugar manufacture schematically in

station,

c a n be r e d u c e d . A p o s s i b l e Fig. 4.25(b). s a v i n g s can be i m a g i n e d

energy-system layout

C o n s i d e r a b l e heat drying of the pulp

in

sugar f a c t o r i e s it is

employing to

steam-

and v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n . from the it to

For example,

proposed and

superheat

vapour withdrawn deliver

second e v a p o r a t o r (ref.

effect 64).

subsequently it in

c o m p r e s s e d , and t o possible various to

a steam d r y e r

T h i s w o u l d make and p u l p gas drying

integrate

e n e r g y economy i n

sugar manufacture those employing

types of

energy systems,

including

turbines.

REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 L . R o s e n b e r g , T e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s i n some o f E u r o p e ' s s u g a r p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s . S u g a r . J . , 4 6 ( 5 ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) 7-11. E . R e i n e f e l d , U b e r d i e Kampagne 1985, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 1 ( 4 ) ( 1 9 8 6 ) 3 0 3 - 3 1 3 . E.W. K r a u s e , New e q u i p m e n t and p r o c e s s e s i n t h e s u g a r i n d u s t r y , i n : F . O . L i c h t Y e a r b o o k and D i r e c t o r y , R a t z e b u r g , 1985, p p . E 5 - E 3 6 . H. S c h i w e c k , T h . C r o n e w i t z and G . W i t t e , Some t h o u g h t s on t h e c l a s s i c a l method o f j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n . S u g a r J . , 4 7 ( 1 1 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 1 8 - 2 2 . A . I . Khomenko, 0 t e p l o v o i e k o n o m i c h n o s t i s i s t e m diffuziya-defekatsiya, Sakh. P r o m . , (11) (1983) 42-47. G . W i t t e and H . S c h i w e c k , D i e A u s n u t z u n g d e s W r m e i n h a l t e s v o n C a r b o n a t a t i o n s b r d e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 109(8) (1984) 706-710. A n o n y m o u s , R e c u p e r a t i o n t h e r m i q u e s u r b u e e s de s e c o n d e c a r b o n a t a t i o n a l a R a f f i n e r i e N o t r e - D a m e a O r e y e , S u c r . B e i g e , 103 ( 1 9 8 5 ) 5-11. T e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n from F i v e s - C a i l Babcock, L i l l e , 1986. W. L e k a w s k i and K. U r b a n i e c , E n e r g y s a v i n g t h r o u g h m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c a r b o n a t a t i o n p r o c e s s , Z u c k e r i n d . , 110(9) (1985) 810-813. . Bogumil, Experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of the carbonatation process at i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 111(6) (1986) 565-568. . U r b a n i e c , H e a t economy i m p r o v e m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e carbonatation p r o c e s s i n beet sugar p l a n t s . Paper p r e s e n t e d a t the International C o n f e r e n c e " I m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e B e e t S u g a r P r o d u c t i o n " , W a r s z a w a , May 1987. R . F . M a d s e n , V e r s c h i e d e n e Z u c k e r h a u s k o n z e p t e und i h r E i n f l u s s a u f den E n e r g i e v e r b r a u c h , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 1 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 9 8 6 ) 1121-1126. R . F . Madsen, P r o g r e s s i n Danish sugar p r o d u c t i o n w i t h i n the p a s t decade, Paper p r e s e n t e d a t the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e "Improvement o f t h e Beet S u g a r P r o d u c t i o n " , W a r s z a w a , May 1987. K. W a g n e r o w s k i , D. D a b r o w s k a and C . D a b r o w s k i , P r o b l e m e d e r M e l a s s e r s c h p f u n g , . Z u c k e r i n d . , 12(9) (1962) 664-671. . S c h i w e c k , M g l i c h k e i t e n z u r Senkung d e s E n e r g i e b e d a r f s im Z u c k e r h a u s , Z u c k e r , 30(10) (1977) 525-534. K . E . A u s t m e y e r and R. M a r w e d e , E n t w u r f und B i l a n z i e r u n g weiterfhrender Z u c k e r h a u s k o n z e p t e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 2 ( 3 ) ( 1 9 8 7 ) 193-201. S . M a t u s c h , P r a k t i s c h e E r f a h r u n g e n m i t den K h l u n g s k r i s t a l 1 i s a t o r K K T , Z u c k e r i n d . , 112(4) (1987) 274-276. H. E i c h h o r n , A r b e i t s w e i s e m i t k o n t i n u i e r l i c h e n Vakuum-Maischen, System B e g h i n - S a y , i n d e r R a f f i n e r i e E l s d o r f , Z u c k e r i n d . , 112(2) 114-117. D. S c h l i e p h a k e , K . E . A u s t m e y e r and R. Hempelmann, Khlungskristallisation v o n Magmen h h e r e r R e i n h e i t , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 0 ( 4 ) ( 1 9 8 7 ) 2 6 9 - 2 7 3 . A . R . S a p r o n o v , V . l . T u z h i l k i n and A . P . S h c h e r e n k o , S o v r e m e n n y e n a p r a v l e n i y a u l u c h s h e n i i k r i s t a l l i z a t s i i s a k h a r a , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 5 ) (1985) 42-44.

12 13

14 15 16 17 18 19 20

185

21 22 23

24

25 26

27 28 29 30

31 32 33

34

35 36 37 38

39

40 41 42 43 44 45 46

. R e i n e f e l d , b e r d i e Kampagne 1979, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 5 ( 4 ) ( 1 9 8 0 ) 3 2 9 - 3 4 0 . E . R e i n e f e l d , b e r d i e Kampagne 1981, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 7 ( 5 ) ( 1 9 8 2 ) 3 6 9 - 3 8 0 . K . E . A u s t m e y e r , A n a l y s i s o f s u g a r b o i l i n g and i t s t e c h n i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . I n t . S u g a r J . , 88 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , P a r t I ( 1 0 4 5 ) 3 - 7 , P a r t I I ( 1 0 4 6 ) 2 3 - 2 9 , P a r t I I I (1047) 50-55. H. S c h i w e c k and M. M u n i r , Das H e r s t e l l e n e i n e s gemeinsames Kristallfussmagmas f r W e i s s z u c k e r - 1 und - 2 n a c h dem V e r f a h r e n d e r S d d e u t s c h e n Z u c k e r - A G , Paper p r e s e n t e d a t the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference "Improvement o f t h e B e e t S u g a r P r o d u c t i o n " , W a r s z a w a , May 1987. R . F . Madsen and W. K o f o d N i e l s e n , D i e Kampagne 1977 i n d e r " A / S De Danske Sukkerfabrikker", Z u c k e r i n d . , 103(10) (1978) 831-839. Anonymous, E r z e u g u n g von R b e n r o h s a f t d u r c h m e h r s t u f i g e G e g e n s t r o m Auswaschung von z e r k l e i n e r t e m R b e n m a t e r i a l b e i n i e d r i g e n T e m p e r a t u r e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 110(8) (1985) 709-710. J . M . R a n d a l l , R . H . E d w a r d s and E . Z a r a g o s a , E x p r e s s i o n o f j u i c e f r o m s u g a r b e e t t i s s u e . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t 2 3 r d ASSBT M e e t i n g , San D i e g o , F e b r u a r y 1985. T . B a l o h , Reversosmose i n d e r T e c h n o l o g i e des Z u c k e r s , . Z u c k e r i n d . , 25(8) (1975) 452-456. S . E . B i c h s e i and A . M . S a n d r e , A p p l i c a t i o n o f membrane t e c h n o l o g y t o j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n . I n t . Sugar J . , 84(1005) (1982) 266-268. W. K o f o d N i e l s e n , S . K r i s t e n s e n and R . F . M a d s e n , P r o s p e c t s and p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n a p p l i c a t i o n o f membrane f i l t r a t i o n s y s t e m s w i t h i n t h e b e e t and cane s u g a r i n d u s t r y . Sugar T e c h . R e v . , 9 ( 1 ) (1982) 59-117. T . R . H a n s s e n s ( e t a l . ) . U l t r a f i l t r a t i o n as an a l t e r n a t i v e f o r raw j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n i n t h e b e e t s u g a r i n d u s t r y , Z u c k e r i n d . , 109(2) (1084) 152-156. W. C a p e l i n . B e e t j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n b y r e v e r s e o s m o s i s . I n t . S u g a r J . , 84(1007) (1982) 323-324. P . J . W r o b e l and J . A . H e i s t , S u g a r c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n f r o m b e e t j u i c e s and molasses u s i n g t h e h y d r a t e f r e e z i n g p r o c e s s . I n t . Sugar J . , 89(1062) (1987) 111-117. S . E . B i c h s e l , M. C l e a r y and T . S . B a r r o n , Steam c o n s u m p t i o n r e d u c t i o n b y e u t e c t i c f r e e z e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f s u c r o s e . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t 2 3 r d ASSBT M e e t i n g , San D i e g o , F e b r u a r y 1985. K. B u c h h o l z ( e t a l . ) , U n t e r s u c h u n g e n z u r B i l d u n g v o n B i o g a s a u s R b e n p r e s s s c h n i t z e l n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 11(9) (1986) 837-845. E . T h i e r , K o n s e r v i e r u n g s t e c h n i s c h e und w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e A s p e k t e d e s P r e s s s c h n i t z e l a b s a t z e s , Z u c k e r i n d . , 106(1) (1981) 60-65. J . B e c k h o f f and C . H e l l e r , P r e s s s c h n i t z e l - e i n e A l t e r n a t i v e z u r S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(3) (1983) 213-217. M. Kunz and P. V a l e n t i n , S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g ohne P r i m r e n e r g i e e i n s a t z unter a u s s c h l i e s s l i c h e r N u t z u n g d e r Abwrme- und E i n d a m p f P o t e n t i a l e d e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k , Z u c k e r i n d . , 111(8) (1986) 741-750. T h . C r o n e w i t z ( e t a l . ) . b e r den E i n f l u s s v e r s c h i e d e n e r G r s s e n a u f den E n e r g i e b e d a r f und S t a u b e m i s s i o n v o n S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g s a n l a g e n u n t e r B e r c k s i c h t i g u n g des V e r w e i l Z e i t v e r h a l t e n s d e r S c h n i t z e l whrend der T r o c k n u n g , Z u c k e r , 28(8) (1975) 401-410. H . H u b e r , Bestimmung d e s o p t i m a l e n E n e r g i e v e r b r a u c h s f r d i e E n t w s s e r u n g der e x t r a h i e r t e n S c h n i t z e l , Z u c k e r , 30(9) (1977) 485-489. T h . C r o n e w i t z , Wege z u r r a t i o n e l l e n E n e r g i e v e r w e n d u n g b e i d e r S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g i n d e r Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 105(2) (1980) 129-139. M. Demaux, P r e s s a g e e t s e c h a g e d e s p u l p e s de b e t t e r a v e s . F a c t e u r s de r e d u c t i o n des c o u t s . I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 1 0 2 ( 7 - 8 ) (1985) 723-730. . Demaux, C o u t de l ' e n e r g i e e t p r e s s a g e d e s p u l p e s de b e t t e r a v e s , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 103(7-8) (1986) 661-667. O p t i m i e r u n g d e r mechanischen S c h n i t z e l a b p r e s s u n g , Z u c k e r i n d . , 106(11) (1981) 965-981. Symposium: " S c h n i t z e l a b p r e s s u n g - S t a n d 1 9 8 7 " , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 2 ( 7 ) ( 1 9 8 7 ) 571-579. F. H o l l a u s and G . P o l l a c h , V e r b e s s e r u n g d e r S c h n i t z e l a b p r e s s u n g d u r c h g e s t e u e r t e I n f e k t i o n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 1 ( 1 1 ) ( 1 9 8 6 ) 1025-1030.

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47 48 49 50 51 52 53

54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64

P. C a u l k i n s , G . Holman and L . N o r m a n , Gypsum - c o s t - e f f e c t i v e p r e s s i n g a i d . Sugar J . , 47(12) (1985) 21-23. J . M . R a n d a l l , W. C a m i r a n d and E . M . Z a r a g o s a , E n e r g y r e d u c t i o n b y c o s s e t t e l i m i n g , Z u c k e r i n d . , 107(1) (1982) 38-46. . B u c h h o l z , R. T a r r a c h and K . - M . B l i e s e n e r , C h e m i s c h e A s p e k t e d e r mechanischen S c h n i t z e l e n t w s s e r u n g , Z u c k e r i n d . , 111(1) (1986) 23-27. E . R e i n e f e l d , b e r d i e Kampagne 1980, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 6 ( 5 ) ( 1 9 8 1 ) 3 9 7 - 4 0 6 . D. S c h r d e r , E i n i g e Gedanken zum E i n s a t z e i n e r Niedertemperaturtrocknung i n n e r h a l b d e r S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(2) (1983) 126-135. P. V a l e n t i n , E r h h t e A b w r m e n u t z u n g d e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k i n d e r N i e d e r temperaturtrocknung, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 8 ( 1 1 ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) 1025-1033. K . E . A u s t m e y e r and W. P o e r s c h , N i e d e r t e m p e r a t u r t r o c k n u n g - G r u n d l a g e n und Betrachtungen zur W i r t s c h a f t l i c h k e i t , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(9) (1983) 861-868, 1 0 8 ( 1 1 ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) 1033-1041, 1 0 9 ( 5 ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) 4 1 1 - 4 1 9 , 1 1 0 ( 1 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 2 8 - 3 4 . H . K l e b e r , Anwrmung v o n L u f t f r d i e Niedertemperatur-Trocknung, Z u c k e r i n d . , 110(8) (1985) 686-688. W. K u n z , D i e N i e d e r t e m p e r a t u r t r o c k n u n g in Verbindung mit der t r a d i t i o n e l l e n S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(9) (1983) 868-870. Anonymous, N i e d e r t e m p e r a t u r - S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g in der Zuckerfabrik A r t e n a y , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 8 ( 2 ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) 135. E. S c h r t e r , Die Niedertemperaturtrocknung i n L e h r t e - F u n k t i o n s w e i s e und B e t r i e b s e r f a h r u n g e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 111(6) (1986) 545-549. K . E . A u s t m e y e r and U . B u n e r t , A b w r m e n u t z u n g im Zusammenhang m i t d e r S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g , 110(8) (1985) 659-670. A n o n y m o u s , P i l o t a n l a g e f r S c h n i t z e l t r o c k n u n g m i t t e l s Dampf, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 0 ( 1 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 54. Anonymous, Dampftrockner f r S c h n i t z e l , Z u c k e r i n d . , 110(8) (1985) 707-708. A n o n y m o u s , S t e a m - h e a t e d p u l p d r y e r , i n : F . O . L i c h t Y e a r b o o k and D i r e c t o r y , R a t z e b u r g , 1986, p p . G 5 - G 9 . C . Gudmundson, p e r s o n a l communication. A . S l o t h J e n s e n ( e t a l . ) . B e e t p u l p d r y i n g i n s u p e r h e a t e d steam under p r e s s u r e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 112(10) (1987) 886-891. . O t o r o w s k i , Pulp d r y i n g . Paper p r e s e n t e d a t the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference "Improvement o f the Beet S u g a r P r o d u c t i o n " , W a r s z a w a , May 1987.

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Chapter 5

EQUIPMENT DESIGN FOR E F F I C I E N T ENERGY

UTILIZATION

5.1

SCOPE OF THE PROBLEMS T h e d e v e l o p m e n t s o f e n e r g y - s a v i n g p r o c e s s e s and e q u i p m e n t a r e mutually is the

dependent. attainable

While the process requirements

influence

equipment d e s i g n , i t decisive in

equipment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which are o f t e n applies to

constraining sugar

the parameters o f a p r o c e s s . T h i s manufacturing

large s e c t i o n s o f the b e t w e e n numerous sugar

process in which i n t e r a c t i o n s are taking place as t o unit

interconnected crystallization, equipment

equipment u n i t s etc.), as w e l l

(juice purification, in

operations performed

specialized

(extraction,

heating,

etc.). new e q u i p m e n t total of the to an heat

By i n t r o d u c i n g designs, it

s e l e c t i v e d e s i g n changes o r a p p l y i n g e n t i r e l y c u t down t h e

becomes p o s s i b l e t o

p o w e r demand and t h e

demand o f a s u g a r f a c t o r y . equipment u n i t s

In a d d i t i o n ,

improved c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

o f which a thermal

system i s

composed may c o n t r i b u t e

improved e f f e c t i v e n e s s r a t i o progress Chapter, -

and t h u s

r e d u c e d n e t h e a t demand. C o n s i d e r a b l e recent years. the In the present

has been a c h i e v e d i n t h e s e a r e a s i n

design trends are reviewed r e l a t i n g to

following

equipment:

extractors, evaporators, heat exchangers, vacuum p a n s , centrifugals. EXTRACTORS The e s s e n t i a l function o f an e x t r a c t o r thermal c a n be d e s c r i b e d a s counter-current of cell begins For also this

5.2

leaching of membranes i s at

cossettes.

Initial

breakdown o r d e n a t u r a t i o n

r e q u i r e d t o make s u c r o s e e x t r a c t i o n instantaneous at

possible. Denaturation a b o v e 90C. thus

50-60C and becomes a l m o s t it i s necessary to

temperatures

reason,

s u p p l y heat to system.

the e x t r a c t o r , which i s

a component o f t h e t h e r m a l As t h e d r i v i n g

force of sucrose extraction

is

the d i f f e r e n c e the

of

concentration of the juice the than

b e t w e e n t h e c o s s e t t e s and t h e e x t r a c t i n g can never exceed t h a t

juice,

concentration

in the e x t r a c t e d m a t e r i a l . juice, limit, the j u i c e an i d e a l

Taking into account that draft can n e v e r be l o w e r of infinite force

cossettes contain 95%; t o

a b o u t 95% c e l l theoretical In r e a l i t y ,

attain this

extractor

length and

w o u l d be r e q u i r e d .

in order to is

increase the d r i v i n g the extractor,

reduce equipment s i z e ,

excess water

fed to

this

causing

188

increased j u i c e From t h e extractor -

draft.

The p r a c t i c a l

range o f j u i c e

drafts

is

105-140%. to which

t r e n d t o w a r d e n e r g y s a v i n g , two b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t s follow: which allows the recovery of

d e s i g n e r s must r e s p o n d of c o l d raw j u i c e ,

production

low-temperature

heat which would otherwise in the p o s s i b i l i t y a reduction

be w a s t e d ; the extractor to at low j u i c e draft, which results

of operating

o f the

amount o f w a t e r

be e v a p o r a t e d . t h e way t h e c o s s e t t e s are transported tower Their type, working

Using a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i t h i n the scroll extractor, four

with respect to

d e s i g n s a r e t h e most w i d e l y u s e d t o d a y : t y p e and drum t y p e . As c a n be s e e n , trough-type extraction It

(or trough)

t y p e , m o v i n g bed ( o r b e l t ) in Fig.

principles of

a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y

5.1. o f the to the the

the

production

c o l d raw j u i c e In t h i s

has been c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is transferred attached to

(DOS) e x t r a c t o r mixture from vapour large

only.

d e s i g n , heat heating

condensing in capacities,

jackets

trough.

seems t h a t a t enough t o

however, the

heating

jackets

are not e f f e c t i v e

ensure is the

a c o r r e c t temperature practical There limit is o f the

distribution capacity of of this

in the e x t r a c t i o n trough-type

mixture,

s o 3000 t / d

extractors the

today. extractor types.

no c o n s t r a i n t

kind r e l a t i n g to

other

(a)

(b)

\-

e
7^

F i g . 5.1. Working p r i n c i p l e s o f e x t r a c t o r s : ( a ) t o w e r , ( b ) moving b e d , ( c ) t r o u g h , ( d ) drum. - h e a t e x c h a n g e r c o s s e t t e s - j u i c e ( m i x e r ) , - j u i c e h e a t e r . 1 - c o s s e t t e s , 2 - f r e s h w a t e r , 3 - p r e s s w a t e r , 4 - raw j u i c e , 5 exhausted c o s s e t t e s , 6 - steam, 7 - r e c i r c u l a t e d j u i c e , 8 - e x t r a c t i o n m i x t u r e .

189

because heat at the rate

is of

supplied v i a separate up t o 300%. Originally

heat exchangers to invented to deliver

the j u i c e

recirculated these is as a

h o t raw j u i c e ,

d e s i g n s must be m o d i f i e d cooled, in counter-flow, but

by adding

a heat exchanger (mixer) c o s s e t t e s . The m i x e r designs, i t

in which j u i c e

by incoming

can be i n s t a l l e d structurally results in

separate u n i t ,

i n new d r u m - t y p e extractor

can a l s o be of a mixer

integrated with the increased investment

proper.

The a d d i t i o n

c o s t s , w h i c h can a p p a r e n t l y

be o f f - s e t

by c o s t

reductions

associated with energy savings. The a p p l i c a t i o n standard practice (ref. 1). of mixers in new e x t r a c t i o n stations c a n be c o n s i d e r e d as the e x i s t i n g extractors used 2).

n o w a d a y s , and m i x e r s

a r e a l s o added t o a trough-type to

One c a s e has been r e p o r t e d o f a p p l i e d as a m i x e r temperature is

apparatus

(formerly (ref.

as an e x t r a c t o r ) The a t t a i n a b l e temperature. o f the

linked usually

a drum-type

extractor

juice

11-15

above t h e

cossettes steam s a v i n g s figure of should the

D e p e n d i n g on t h e

extractor

t y p e and l o c a l

conditions, 3); this

o r d e r o f 0.5

k g / 1 0 0 kg b h a v e been r e p o r t e d as i t d e p e n d s on t h e

(ref.

be t r e a t e d thermal little

cautiously,

accompanying c o r r e c t i o n s 4), however, i t

s y s t e m as w e l l . sense to if

As p o i n t e d

o u t by G e n i e ( r e f .

makes returns

i n v e s t t o o much i n a m i x e r mixer of size is

subsystem because the in addition,

thermal

diminish

a certain

exceeded and,

sucrose losses low

i n c r e a s e as a r e s u l t temperatures and l o n g

increased bacterial times.

activity

on a c c o u n t o f

retention draft

Lowering o f

the j u i c e

has a l r e a d y b e e n d i s c u s s e d i n it

Section

1.3.4. a

Being always a premise necessity to

for

reduced energy consumption, in which heat

becomes a l m o s t

i n modern s u g a r f a c t o r i e s

consumption demand f o r

has been d e c r e a s e d heating the the juice vapours

a certain

l e v e l . The a s s o c i a t e d d e c r e a s e i n t h e the impossibility of full utilization

may l e a d t o

o f vapours from applied.

evaporation p r o c e s s , unless vapour compression i s d r a f t w o u l d be much more c o n v e n i e n t , which s t i l l requirements of the remain to be s o l v e d . but it

Lowering o f design

raises extractor of

problems

A better

understanding owing t o

the

design the theory

has been a c h i e v e d i n process ( r e f s .

recent years, 5-8).

advances i n

extraction

Each e x t r a c t o r

can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a number o f mass t r a n s f e r number o f steps in a perfect batch e x t r a c t o r

units,

which be of

can be d e f i n e d as t h e required to sugar

t h a t would same l o s s

produce the

same j u i c e

from the

same c o s s e t t e s w i t h t h e formulae, the see r e f . is the

in exhausted cossettes 16;

( f o r mathematical higher that the

6).

Practical

v a l u e s range from 8 to and t h e lower the j u i c e

the

figure

better at

extractor, For 4) in

draft

c a n be m a i n t a i n e d

a given sugar l o s s .

the drum-type

d e s i g n , the

requirements

h a v e been s u m m a r i z e d b y G e n i e ( r e f . in j u i c e draft requires a

a graph ( F i g . 5 . 2 ) . structural

As c a n be s e e n ,

a reduction i.e.,

change i n e x t r a c t o r

design;

an i n c r e a s e d number o f

transfer

190

101 e v a p o r a t e d w a t e r less per 100 kg beets

L 10 15 No. of t r a n s f e r units

20

F i g . 5 . 2 . R e d u c t i o n o f j u i c e d r a f t v s . number o f t r a n s f e r u n i t s o f e x t r a c t o r 0.2% s u c r o s e l o s s on b e e t s and 18% DS i n p r e s s e d p u l p ( a f t e r r e f . 4 ) . units. Similar relationships exist for other extractor types, this the

for

stimulating height of

a l s o numerous m o d e r n i z a t i o n s a tower or the particularly length

of existing other

units.

When i n c r e a s i n g are

of a trough,

improvements

i n t r o d u c e d as

well,

easily controlled

drives,

improved m i x i n g / t r a n s p o r t i n g (refs. 1,9-11).

elements,

more e f f e c t i v e 5.3 5.3.1 It

heat-supply subsystems, e t c .

EVAPORATORS Conventional was p o i n t e d applications out in S e c t i o n 3.3.2 that a high heat t r a n s f e r of the evaporators. At intensity low e n e r g y heating

s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d as an i m p o r t a n t cost, intensive heat t r a n s f e r

feature

h a s been t r e a t e d

as a means t o

reduce

s u r f a c e a r e a s and t h u s initiated station,

investment

c o s t s . The t r e n d towards e n e r g y s a v i n g s of designers. In a m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t vapour effects. evaporator

changes i n the a t t i t u d e a high p r i o r i t y utilization temperature is of

g i v e n nowadays t o m a i n t a i n i n g low-grade heat from the final

temperatures As a may

facilitating consequence, be s m a l l e r heating The

differences

between v a p o u r s i n even a t

consecutive effects the expense o f larger

t h a n t h o s e recommended i n t h e p a s t , areas. between h e a t i n g

surface trade-off

s u r f a c e a r e a and t e m p e r a t u r e (refs. this 12-15).

difference

has

been s t u d i e d b y numerous a u t h o r s prescriptions understanding formula

A l t h o u g h no u n i v e r s a l

design to better

h a v e been f o r m u l a t e d , of the relationships (ref. 15)

work n e v e r t h e l e s s c o n t r i b u t e s

i n v o l v e d . L e t us c o n s i d e r an the optimal temperature

approximate ^ ^ ^ in (5.1)

g i v e n by Baloh

for

difference is

an e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t

in which the j u i c e

temperature

(absolute value)

where c , i s a T^ is

the

annual

cost of

1 m

heating k is the

surface area, c overall

is

the

energy

cost,

the environment is the duration

temperature, of

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficient,

and

the o p e r a t i n g

season.

191

As can be s e e n , reduced at seasons. relative It to

the temperature

difference

in

an e v a p o r a t o r b o d y s h o u l d be heat t r a n s f e r and p r o l o n g e d increases

high energy c o s t ,

highly

intensive

s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d , h o w e v e r , when t h e e v a p o r a t o r c o s t t h e e n e r g y c o s t , o r when t h e important feature o f the capital cost is increased.

Another its

evaporators is

the j u i c e

retention time

t i m e and

distribution.

At juice

temperatures

a b o v e 105C, t h e

retention

determines affecting juice

t h e amount o f h y d r o l i z e d s u c r o s e and decomposed i n v e r t colour formation necessitating in the j u i c e . As p o i n t e d o u t in

sugar,

this a high

Section 4.3, may

colour,

a large massecuite c i r c u l a t i o n ,

indirectly formation and the

i n c r e a s e t h e e n e r g y demand o f t h e in the evaporator s t a t i o n associated requirement retention

sugar h o u s e . The problem o f in

colour 16)

has been s t u d i e d

recent years ( r e f . fairly clear:

on e v a p o r a t o r d e s i g n i s

t h e mean time

juice spectrum

t i m e s h o u l d be as s h o r t as p o s s i b l e , and t h e t h e mean v a l u e .

retention

s h o u l d be c o n c e n t r a t e d c l o s e t o From t h e v a r i e t y o f the e x i s t i n g

requirements mentioned above, i t At least

is

necessary to

evaluate

evaporator designs c r i t i c a l l y .

three disadvantageous identified: because o f the

p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e p o p u l a r R o b e r t - t y p e e v a p o r a t o r c a n be a part o f the a v a i l a b l e head; heat t r a n s f e r in the last coefficient temperature difference

becomes l o s t

hydrostatic -

the o v e r a l l

decreases r a p i d l y with its

increasing times

juice smaller

concentration; than t h a t

evaporator e f f e c t ,

v a l u e may be 5-6

in the f i r s t retention

effect; time i s of the order of several minutes; liquid in addition, spectrum

- mean j u i c e

owing t o n a t u r a l of retention

circulation is rather

in a r e l a t i v e l y wide.

large

volume, the

times

For t h i s

reason other in

evaporator types, p a r t i c u l a r l y recent years.

thin-film types,

have

received attention elsewhere (ref.

Among numerous d e s i g n s t h a t a r e

reviewed the

17),

t h e f a l l i n g - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r s seem t o tubular

be b e s t s u i t e d t o

requirements. schematically for

Three v e r s i o n s o f the in F i g . 5.3

f a l l i n g - f i l m d e s i g n a r e shown a Robert-type unit is also given of to

(where a sketch o f

comparison). Thin j u i c e device,

i s s p r e a d on t h e v e r t i c a l as a f i l m on t h e

t u b e b u n d l e b y means from top to

a distributor bottom.

and f l o w s the

inner tube wall m long.

The t u b e s used i n

s u g a r i n d u s t r y a r e 6-12

In order

prevent v i b r a t i o n s , a result o f heating

the tubes are led through b a f f l e s the chest with the

placed about 2 m a p a r t .

As

e x h a u s t steam o r v a p o u r , v a p o u r i s concentrated j u i c e the

generated into

from the j u i c e .

Having l e f t

tube bundle, the

falls outlet

t h e e v a p o r a t o r b a s e and t h e v a p o u r f l o w s nozzle. The f u n c t i o n i n g the e f f i c i e n c y of the j u i c e

through a separator to

distribution of

device is

of

critical If

importance wetting of

to

and r e l i a b i l i t y

the f a l l i n g - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r .

192

O)

^ 1 }

Fig. 5 . 3 . Falling-film evaporators (courtesy Wiegand) and a Robert-type evaporator, ( a ) falling-film unit with adjacent centrifugal separator, ( b ) with integrated separator at the base, ( c ) with external vapour ducts and integrated separator at the top. 1 - juice inlet, 2 - recirculated juice to the distributor, 3 - juice outlet, 4 - heating-steam inlet, 5 - condensate outlet, 6 - vapour outlet.

-mi-ir
.-^\

0 0

IL 11

193

a tube wall apart, this

becomes i n s u f f i c i e n t , resulting this

there

is

a risk

that

the

liquid It is

film will therefore

tear

in scale formation

on t h e t u b e w a l l .

essential

that

d e v i c e works w i t h o u t

c l o g g i n g , ensuring also uniform principles of four

juice

distribution distributor

on t h e t u b e - s h e e t s u r f a c e . T h e w o r k i n g d e s i g n s a r e shown i n Fig. 5.4.

patented

(a)

(b)

1
v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v v

F i g . 5.4. J u i c e d i s t r i b u t i o n d e v i c e s employed i n f a l l i n g - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r s : ( a ) and ( b ) c i r c u l a r a r r a n g e m e n t s , ( c ) b a r s and t u b e i n s e r t s u n d e r m u l t i p l e n o z z l e s , ( d ) b a f f l e s under a s p r i n k l e r . In order to avoid i n s u f f i c i e n t tube wetting at reduced l o a d , a recirculation can

pump can be a t t a c h e d t o t h e e v a p o r a t o r . U s i n g r e c i r c u l a t i o n , be a c h i e v e d a t An e s t i m a t e l o a d s as l o w as a b o u t 40% o f t h e n o m i n a l o f the a t t a i n a b l e overall heat t r a n s f e r

safe operation

value. coefficient is of the in of the in

f a l l i n g - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r as a f u n c t i o n Fig. 5.5 (after ref. 18), with

of juice

concentration

shown

an a n a l o g o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p there

characteristic

R o b e r t - t y p e d e s i g n . As can be s e e n , w h i l e in the f i r s t evaporator e f f e c t ,

i s no n o t i c e a b l e d i f f e r e n c e

the value o f

k at j u i c e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s 35-70% DS

in a f a l l i n g - f i l m unit For t h i s

can be up t o

100% a b o v e t h a t

in a Robert-type evaporator. by f a l l i n g - f i l m o n e s i n final

reason, replacements o f Robert-type u n i t s

194 S o fj^ 3500 3000 2500h 2000

\ \ \

/fallinc

film

ge
5
o

1000

Rot

20 30 AO 50 60 70

Mean juice concentration ( % DS)

F i g . 5.5. O v e r a l l heat t r a n s f e r evaporators ( a f t e r r e f . 18). evaporator effects

coefficients

of

R o b e r t and

falling-film

h a v e been u n d e r t a k e n retention time in it

i n numerous

factories. is typically about 19),

T h e mean j u i c e 1.5 this min.

a falling-film unit c a n be c u t field down t o of

Taking special

measures,

l e s s than

30 s ( r e f . and

requiring

proper precautions the

in the

automatic times of is

control quite

safety

devices.

As, in addition,

spectrum o f the

retention

narrow, in the

f a l l i n g - f i l m units initial

match v e r y w e l l It

requirements

application at low

evaporator effects.

has a l s o been r e p o r t e d t h a t s c a l i n g may o c c u r i n

juice evaporator unit

concentrations,

only negligible

a falling-film

even though s c a l e f o r m a t i o n previously used.

was a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m

in a Robert-type

In the f i r s t critical sugar

evaporator e f f e c t , risk

the

problem o f entrainment carryover will It seems t h a t lead to

separation the

becomes of

because o f the

that juice

presence of safely

in the

second-effect

condensate.

the development t h a t t h e y can be (refs. 20-23).

different

entrainment their

s e p a r a t o r s has a d v a n c e d s o f a r r e s p e c t i v e ranges o f operation

applied within

Centrifugal 10-40 m/s,

s e p a r a t o r s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a r e l a t i v e l y and a p r e s s u r e d r o p o f baffles

large vapour v e l o c i t y , "zigzag" m/s, and with

10-100 m m H^O. The p o p u l a r at vapour v e l o c i t i e s

curvilinear resulting 1 . 5 - 1 0 m/s juice a droplet and

a r e most e f f e c t i v e

3-12

p r e s s u r e d r o p s 12-25 12-50

mm H ^ O . F i n a l l y , mesh p a d s can be u s e d a t

m m H2O. W h i l e t h e c e n t r i f u g a l smaller of than 10 m i c r o n s , The l a t t e r

separators cannot stop v e r y f i n e down t o partial

droplets diameter

t h e mesh p a d s a r e e f f e c t i v e design is however prone t o in the

5 microns.

clogging

by d r y s u b s t a n c e s o f the j u i c e , with time. In order to

this

resulting

performance

deteriorating water

prevent deposit build-up,

periodical

washing w i t h entrainment Fig. 5.6.

may be r e q u i r e d . A d e t a i l separation

of a f a l l i n g - f i l m evaporator with shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in

augmented b y a mesh pad i s

195

^condensate MESH PAD

F i g . 5.6. I n t e g r a t e d entrainment of a f a l l i n g - f i l m evaporator. 5.3,2 It Unconventional was m e n t i o n e d applications in

separator equipped w i t h

a mesh pad a t

the

base

S e c t i o n 1.2.5

that

substantial overall

reductions

of

the

total the from

h e a t demand i n evaporator juice. to

sugar manufacture become s m a l l e r to

may c a u s e t h e

v a p o u r demand i n to be e v a p o r a t e d

than the this

amount o f w a t e r is to

A possible solution

problem

combine c o n v e n t i o n a l

multilowto

stage evaporation with temperature the

one o r two e v a p o r a t i o n in the additional

s t a g e s h e a t e d by waste h e a t ; e v a p o r a t o r s c a n be d i r e c t e d is an a l t e r n a t i v e firstor to

vapours obtained It

condenser.

s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d t h a t t h i s i n w h i c h an e q u i v a l e n t Compared w i t h

a vapour

compression c i r c u i t vapour is

amount o f

second-effect advantage

recirculated. the

vapour compression, i t the factory. evaporation

has t h e

of not a f f e c t i n g Two d i f f e r e n t practice (i) last (ii)

power b a l a n c e o f

concepts of

unconventional

h a v e been i m p l e m e n t e d

in

recently. between c o n v e n t i o n a l evaporation stages or after (refs. 24-26). multi-stage 27). a part the

Thickening of j u i c e evaporator e f f e c t , Pre-evaporation of

u s i n g vacuum-pan v a p o u r s thin juice prior to the

conventional drying (ref.

evaporation process,

using o u t l e t in in the

gases from pulp

Another p r o p o s a l , s t i l l of the t h i n j u i c e vapours It is (ref. 28). flow

design stage,

consists of pre-evaporating

a double-effect

e v a p o r a t o r h e a t e d by v a c u u m - p a n

characteristic the j u i c e therefore leaving

of all

these concepts t h a t in the

in order to

utilize

the

lowlow. and

grade heat, The j u i c e is

temperature

e v a p o r a t o r s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t l y to entering the special evaporator

c o o l e d down p r i o r it.

warmed up a f t e r

196

I n case ( i ) , temperature, undesirable

at

0.12 is

bar e v a p o r a t i o n

p r e s s u r e and 54 C n o m i n a l

juice at

there

a problem t h a t fluctuations.

the j u i c e For t h i s the

may become s u p e r s a t u r a t e d the assumed i s more 5.7(a).

parameter

reason, i f

thick-juice safely At lower The vapour cross-

concentration utilized prior

e x c e e d s 72-73% D S , t h e n to it the last evaporator to is

special

evaporator

effect, the

as shown i n

Fig.

concentrations, problem w i t h the and t h e sections difficult

can be a t t a c h e d evaporator

evaporator the

outlet.

Fig. the

5.7(b). heating

special

that

pressures of

vapour generated from j u i c e of to the flow channels are certain

are v e r y

low.

As a c o n s e q u e n c e , l a r g e are

required

and h i g h v a p o u r v e l o c i t i e s

avoid in

evaporator

parts.

F i g . 5 . 7 . J u i c e e v a p o r a t i o n u s i n g vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l f o u r - s t a g e e v a p o r a t i o n : ( a ) b e t w e e n s t a g e s 3 and 4 , ( b ) a f t e r s t a g e 4. 1 - s p e c i a l e v a p o r a t o r , 2 - heat e x c h a n g e r , 3 - steam, 4 - vacuum-pan vapour, 5 - thin j u i c e , 6 - thick j u i c e . To the knowledge o f the the present author, all At the evaporators heated by vacuumis known be of to

pan v a p o u r s a r e o f offer

f a l l i n g - f i l m type.

least

one m a n u f a c t u r e r Fig. 5.3; it

a design not very d i f f e r e n t a separate condenser

from those (ref. tank 26).

shown i n

should consists unit

connected to

A competing in

solution

an e v a p o r a t o r , schematically in the figure

c o n d e n s e r and j u i c e in Fig. 5.8 (after

integrated

a tower-like

shown given of

ref.

24).

T h e mass and h e a t with a processing it

balance data capability to

correspond to

a sugar f a c t o r y special

7200 t / d . 8.3

As can be s e e n , per 100

the

e v a p o r a t o r makes

possible

evaporate to

kg w a t e r

kg b e e t u s i n g

o n l y secondary heat w i t h o u t

contributing

process

heating.

197

EVAPORATOR vacuum pan v a p o u r 60C. 7.7 kg/100 kg b_ ^ ^ c o o l i n g w a t e r 28C

juice 53%DS

barometric water 38^C^ THICK JUICE TANK

F i g . 5 . 8 . F a l l i n g - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r h e a t e d b y v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r and f e a t u r i n g i n t e g r a t e d c o n d e n s e r and t h i c k - j u i c e t a n k ( a f t e r r e f . 2 4 ) . The solution under (ii) is known f r o m a p r o t o t y p e a p p l i c a t i o n it was s t i m u l a t e d Due t o in a 6000 of

an

t/d

sugar f a c t o r y

(ref.

27).

Actually,

by t h e n e c e s s i t y very stringent

cleaning the o u t l e t environmental

gases from the pulp d r y e r .

requirements,

double-stage cleaning of

(cyclones followed 68C made i t

by a to

w a s h e r ) was a d o p t e d . T h e a v a i l a b i l i t y include a gas-heated evaporator in the i n the gas condenses i n the function are as an a d d i t i o n a l heating

c l e a n gas a t

possible

new i n s t a l l a t i o n . unit

As t h e v a p o u r p r e s e n t to particles

chamber, the

can be e x p e c t e d finest dust

gas-cleaning stage in which the water.

separated while The flow of thin

SO^ and NO^ d i s s o l v e i n juice d e l i v e r e d to flow.

pre-evaporation is juice at

110 t / h ,

i.e.,

about

1/3 to

o f the t o t a l

thin

juice

The i n f l o w i n g

15.6% DS i s juice

c o o l e d down at

60C and e x p a n d e d t o 44C i n

the e v a p o r a t o r s ; the

outflowing

21.5% DS i s warmed up t o 90C. Two f a l l i n g - f i l m circulation 2 of 1750 m were i n s t a l l e d consisting for this application.

evaporators without Each u n i t

juice surface are

has a h e a t i n g

o f t u b e s 51 m m outer gas s i d e ,

diameter

and 8 m l o n g . introduced at

The t u b e s the upper

p e r i o d i c a l l y w a s h e d on t h e t u b e s h e e t and f l o w i n g in

using hot water tube

a f i l m on t h e o u t e r

walls.

198

To complete

this

r e v i e w , another unusual

evaporator application

c a n be In 64% DS kg

m e n t i o n e d . T h e medium t h i c k e n e d order t o make t h e

i s green syrup leaving a Quentin u n i t . diluted to

ion exchange p r o c e s s p o s s i b l e , the s y r u p i s unit, w h i c h r e q u i r e s a d d i n g up t o returned to it is the 2.9

before entering beet.

this

kg w a t e r p e r 100 subsystem,

As t h e d i l u t e d

syrup is

crystallization

this

w a t e r must be e v a p o r a t e d . I f

done i n C vacuum p a n s , t h e n a c o r r e s p o n d i n g Alternatively,

i n c r e a s e o f t h e h e a t demand o f t h e s u g a r h o u s e c a n be e x p e c t e d . e x c e s s w a t e r can be e v a p o r a t e d u s i n g w a s t e With i t s the syrup i s film unit temperature reduced to heat. to the

50C, s i m i l a r l y

case d i s c u s s e d above,

d e l i v e r e d to

an e v a p o r a t o r h e a t e d b y v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s . A f a l l i n g equipped w i t h its own c o n d e n s e r h a s b e e n

(without this

syrup r e c i r c u l a t i o n ) application. results

selected for

T h e main p o i n t s

o f t h e d e s i g n a n a l y s i s and a literature Fig. (ref. 5.8. 28). This

summary o f o p e r a t i o n a l solution 5.4 h a s much i n

c a n be f o u n d i n t h e

common w i t h t h e e v a p o r a t o r shown i n

HEAT EXCHANGERS T h e r e a r e no r e v o l u t i o n a r y new d e s i g n s i n t h e j u i c e heater field, but the to

requirements the e x i s t i n g three factors the thermal

discussed in S e c t i o n 3.3.2

n e c e s s i t a t e a more c a r e f u l of view of energy

approach

v a r i e t y o f c h o i c e s . From t h e p o i n t s h o u l d be t a k e n into account:

utilization,

r e s i s t a n c e of the

heating

surface, particularly risk of scale

under

real

operating -

conditions,

associated w i t h the

build-up; relationship heated; important between

the p o s s i b i l i t y

o f m a i n t a i n i n g an e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d intensity and t h e p r e s s u r e d r o p i n t h e pure c o u n t e r - f l o w , low-temperature

the heat t r a n s f e r the p o s s i b i l i t y case o f

liquid

of obtaining

which i s

especially

in the

recuperation of

heat. in Fig. 5.9.

T h r e e w i d e l y used j u i c e

h e a t e r d e s i g n s a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y the p l a t e

The f a c t o r s mentioned above a r e d e c i s i v e i n q u a l i f y i n g as t h e d e s i g n w h i c h can be a d a p t e d most e a s i l y t o In addition to very high o v e r a l l

heat exchanger

different

operating coefficients, as t h e y plate are

conditions.

heat t r a n s f e r

heat exchangers g i v e the user a real offered today with:

chance o f easy maintenance,

v a r i o u s channel

geometries providing f o r liquids;

self-cleaning

effects,

and

thus

suited to plate

particle-containing suited to

materials

various corrosion possible to

requirements; operate plate heat exchangers

packing materials

w h i c h make i t up t o

safely at In plate

temperatures

260C. sugar i n d u s t r y , As i t is the classical version of small the plate

early applications

in the

h e a t e x c h a n g e r was d o m i n a n t . (sometimes l e s s than

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by v e r y

spacing

1 mm), s c a l e b u i l d - u p

not o n l y causes a

reduction

199

()

(b)
1^

(c)

F i g . 5 . 9 . Schemes o f j u i c e h e a t e r s : 1 - inflowing j u i c e , 2 - outflowing 5 - spent vapour. o f the heat t r a n s f e r intensity,

(a) tubular, (b) plate, (c) s p i r a l . j u i c e , 3 - heating vapour, 4 - condensate,

but also a r a p i d use o f

increase o f the pressure drop plate heaters if there is

on t h e j u i c e a risk

s i d e . T h i s excludes the

classical

o f heavy s c a l i n g , deposit

as on raw j u i c e (below 70C).

and p a r t i c u l a r l y

in the

temperature

range o f p r o t e i n

In recent y e a r s , market. o f the The m o d i f i e d

a new g e n e r a t i o n o f p l a t e design is

h e a t e r s has been i n t r o d u c e d t o scale build-up. A

the

less s e n s i t i v e to however, i s

side-effect heat transfer

changed f l o w - c h a n n e l is smaller than

geometry, in the

t h a t the o v e r a l l

coefficient results the

classical

v e r s i o n . A summary o f

operational in

o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e new p l a t e (ref. 30).

h e a t e r s u s e d on raw j u i c e

c a n be f o u n d

literature

There are s t i l l

certain

applications

i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y where o t h e r E x a m p l e s c a n be c i t e d heaters optimally s t a g e . T a b l e 5.1 heaters installed of

heat

e x c h a n g e r d e s i g n s can p r o f i t a b l y factories

be u s e d .

sugar for

equipped w i t h v a r i o u s types o f j u i c e characteristic

selected gives a

the requirements

of every heating spiral and p l a t e to note,

summary o f t h e d a t a on t u b u l a r , West E u r o p e a n f a c t o r y . sugar industry, It is

i n a 6600 Danish

t/d

interesting

however, t h a t plate

in the

only tubular

h e a t e r s a r e u s e d and t h e

units

h a v e been

200

TABLE Juice

5.1 heaters of d i f f e r e n t Heating d e s i g n s i n a 6600 t / d medium Heater tubular spiral

II II

sugar

factory. surface (m^)

Location Raw j u i c e
II II

type

Heating area

Pre-limed
II II

juice
II II

Clear juice Thin juice

II II II II II II

5th v a p o u r condensate vacuum-pan v a p o u r condensate 4th vapour 3rd vapour

II II

tubular plate
II II II II

2nd v a p o u r 1st vapour e x h a u s t steam unit

250X2 38X2 150X2 69X2 150X2 83* 345* 210* 83+116 64+89 parallel)

single

( o t h e r heaters are i n s t a l l e d

two i n

found too d i f f i c u l t Another j u i c e tubular heater

to vent

(ref.

31). be m e n t i o n e d (refs. is the segmented It is scale to

heater

design which deserves to in the

introduced

S o v i e t sugar i n d u s t r y

32-34).

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by j u i c e build-up.

v e l o c i t y a b o u t 3 m/s o r e v e n h i g h e r , F i g . 5.10, the j u i c e flow path for

this is the

reducing

As can be s e e n i n

streamlined flow of for the

ensure a low p r e s s u r e l o s s . A p p a r e n t l y , the heating vapour are f a r from optimum, and t h e

conditions

use o f v a p o u r e j e c t o r s (ref. 33).

improvement o f the

heat t r a n s f e r

has been r e p o r t e d

heating vapour Top view J u i c e out

3
condensate Fig. 5.10. Scheme o f a s e g m e n t e d t u b u l a r heater.

201

In heat exchanger a p p l i c a t i o n s and e v a p o r a t i o n , the trends

other

than j u i c e

heating

between

extraction stil

are s i m i l a r .

Although the

tubular

design is

v e r y much i n u s e , t h e demand f o r intensity discussed juice is in increasing. the

exchangers ensuring a high heat in is is the unconventional that the

transfer circuits of

For example, it

evaporation temperature the

preceding S e c t i o n ,

essential

returned to

the processing l i n e plate

as c l o s e as p o s s i b l e t o

initial application.

temperature. Still another

As a r u l e , useful

heat exchangers are s e l e c t e d f o r o f the in plate heat exchangers i s

this

feature

their

compactness, characteristic

w h i c h makes them e a s y t o requirement 5.5 5.5.1

install

a limited space, t h i s or extensions.

being a

of factory modernizations

VACUUM PANS Batch-type units discussed in

The thermal Section 3.3.2. and a l a r g e type u n i t s .

a s p e c t s o f vacuum-pan d e s i g n were p r e l i m i n a r i l y It can be n o t e d t h a t surface a large overall

heat t r a n s f e r features boiling

coefficient of the batchin

heating Taking

area are c e r t a i n l y essential

desirable role o f the

i n t o account the however, other the

process

sugar manufacture, higher priority.

requirements

s h o u l d p e r h a p s be g i v e n e v e n short

Most o f a l l ,

vacuum pan s h o u l d e n s u r e a r e a s o n a b l y and h i g h crystal quality. Actually,

boiling time, factors -

high c r y s t a l

yield to the

these

can a l s o be l i n k e d yield quality

e n e r g y demand: in reduced massecuite to better circulation; for centrifuging; of

increased crystal improved c r y s t a l lower water

results

contributes in

conditions

i.e.,

consumption

centrifugals

and t h u s

a r e d u c e d amount

syrups. On t h e b a s i s o f advances o f the inadequacies of the theory of crystallization and accumulated well first rate

experience, understood. stage o f the resulting

b a t c h vacuum p a n s a r e now r e l a t i v e l y typically too large during

The h e a t i n g boiling

surface area i s (cf.

the

cycle

Section 1.3.5).

A high water evaporation too high

from bubble b o i l i n g where c r y s t a l

causes the

occurrence o f zones of

supersaturation, takes is place.

conglomerates the

are created or secondary s u r f a c e , where the crystals

nucleation

In the

regions close to

heating

temperature to dissolve.

higher,

the

solution

may be u n d e r s a t u r a t e d , impossible to

causing the the

As t h e of

local

processes are is adversely last

control,

granulometric

distribution

crystals

affected. the boiling rate cycle, is at the heating surface area is desired

During the usually too

stage of

small.

The e v a p o r a t i o n in the

insufficient the

to maintain the crystals. is installed in

concentration

gradient

solution if

surfaces of stirrer

The s i t u a t i o n

can be i m p r o v e d

an e f f i c i e n t

the mixing

vacuum p a n . D u r i n g s o l u t i o n

thickening

and c r y s t a l

formation,

intensive

202

reduces the dangers o f massecuite

local

overlast

and u n d e r - s a t u r a t i o n . stage o f the the boiling,

In the the

highly

viscous helps to

obtained during circulation, the

the this

stirrer

increase the

increasing

overall

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficient by that

and i n t e n s i f y i n g

evaporation.

Positive effects utilized in the

can a l s o be o b t a i n e d sugar b o i l i n g

c h a n g i n g t h e way t h e vacuum pan i s is, by employing etc. the crystal 35,36);

process,

footing

technique,

introducing

controlled

vacuum 4.3.

changes,

(refs.

t h e s e methods

h a v e been r e v i e w e d i n S e c t i o n

( a )

(b)

(c)

F i g . 5 . 1 1 . E x a m p l e s o f s t i r r e r a r r a n g e m e n t s i n b a t c h vacuum p a n s : ( a ) s t i r r e r w i t h i n c a l a n d r i a , inward c i r c u l a t i o n , ( b ) s t i r r e r above c a l a n d r i a , outward c i r c u l a t i o n , ( c ) s t i r r e r below c a l a n d r i a , outward c i r c u l a t i o n ( a f t e r r e f . 3 6 ) . It s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t a t boiling present, the requirements o f the crystal this growth area

stage o f the continues,

c y c l e are not f u l l y of

known. W h i l e

research in

the

present state follows.

k n o w l e d g e on t h e

d e s i g n o f modern vacuum p a n s

c a n be s u m m a r i z e d as (i)

Among v a r i o u s t y p e s o f p a n s shown i n or streamlined

Fig.

5.11,

the

calandria

designs other

with

ample d o w n t a k e s and f l a t (refs. (ii) 36,37).

bottoms

are p r e f e r r e d to

solutions

The h y d r o d y n a m i c s o f m a s s e c u i t e of length

circulation

seem t o

be w e l l

understood. diameter of

The o p t i m i z a t i o n the downtake It

and d i a m e t e r (refs.

of heating

t u b e s and t h e

has been s t u d i e d

38,39). at a satisfactory relative to design of the is stirrer stirrer and the

(iii)

has t a k e n

a long time to

arrive

propellers heating

and a p r o p e r a r r a n g e m e n t ( F i g . 5.12).

of nozzles

surface to

The speed o f p r o p e l l e r during

rotation the last

carefully the boiling (refs.

selected, cycle, 36,40).

ensure increased heat t r a n s f e r also keeping the

stage of

while

p o w e r demand a t

as l o w a l e v e l

as p o s s i b l e

The a d v a n t a g e s o f f o r c e d c i r c u l a t i o n popular to install It

a r e so e v i d e n t t h a t in old,

it

has become

s p e c i a l l y designed s t i r r e r s

natural-circulation a vacuum pan installed

vacuum p a n s . in strike the

has been p r o v e d b y m e a s u r e m e n t s made i n can i n c r e a s e t h e

t h a t such a s t i r r e r final stage o f

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficient

during

boiling boiling

( a t magma c o n c e n t r a t i o n t i m e b y 1/3 (ref. 1).

90-93% DS) b y

100-400%, and s h o r t e n t h e

203

F i g . 5 . 1 2 . D e v e l o p m e n t o f f o r c e d - c i r c u l a t i o n vacuum p a n s : ( a ) d e s i g n p r o p o s a l f r o m 1896, ( b ) d e s i g n f r o m 1949, ( c ) scheme o f a vacuum pan f o r a f t e r p r o d u c t b o i l i n g ( a f t e r r e f . 40). 1 - j u i c e i n l e t , 2 - vapour o u t l e t , 3 - massecuite o u t l e t , 4 - h e a t i n g chamber, ( 5 ) s t i r r e r . As p r a c t i c a l experience proves, i f a s o p h i s t i c a t e d mechanical automatic boiling design of a then

b a t c h vacuum pan i s the results

combined w i t h e f f e c t i v e satisfactory. that in

controls,

c a n be r e a l l y the f a c t

N e v e r t h e l e s s , the

sugar

technologists trade-off attained.

a r e now a w a r e o f

batch pans, nothing of different

more t h a n a boiling

between c o n f l i c t i n g Substantially

requirements

stages of

c a n be

improved response t o

the process requirements

c a n o n l y be e n s u r e d

i n c o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n s . 5.5.2 It Continuous units is an e n e r g y - s a v i n g p o t e n t i a l inherent ability to in continuous the the and

has l o n g been known t h a t t h e r e reasons i s

vacuum p a n s . One o f t h e fluctuations evaporator to o f the

their

eliminate l o a d on

heating makes i t

v a p o u r demand. T h e r e s u l t i n g possible to stabilize with

stable

station

thick-juice

concentration

avoid condenser losses e f f e c t i v e l y , energy saving i s boiling also obtained

r e d u c e d n e t h e a t demand as a after every batch

result.

A direct

because steaming

discontinuous

cycle is

no l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y . T h e a d v a n c e s i n control

v a c u u m - p a n d e s i g n and h i g h l y e f f i c i e n t difficult of for c o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n s t o

s y s t e m s , h o w e v e r , made i t

more types

compete. During the

1970s, v a r i o u s

c o n t i n u o u s pans were t r i e d : or multiple-compartment There were r e p o r t s t h a t but mainly

groups o f units,

interconnected batch pans, tower, etc.

horizontal (refs. 38,

single41-44).

crystallization

satisfactory

operation of

certain

d e s i g n s had of them

been o b t a i n e d ,

on l o w - g r a d e s t r i k e s .

Even though t h e

number that

c o n t i n u o u s p a n s was s l o w l y i n c r e a s i n g ,

t h e r e were a l s o r e p o r t s

some o f

204

were taken

out of operation

because o f to

unsatisfactory solve:

results

(ref.

45).

Two

problems proved t o the period for because o f

be most d i f f i c u l t

which continuous incrustations

operation the

c o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d unit, e s p e c i a l l y on

was

rather

short,

within

high-purity

massecuites; the granulometric distribution pans. (ref. 46), in practice no footing. of c r y s t a l s was w i d e r than that attainable in

well

o p e r a t e d , modern b a t c h out

As p o i n t e d

by A u s t m e y e r and F r a n k e n f e l d

c o n t i n u o u s vacuum pan c o u l d be s u c c e s s f u l l y i m p l e m e n t e d It seems now, h o w e v e r , t h a t results. accumulated experience is

without

crystal to bring

beginning

positive design footing 540 m^, 17.5 6.1 is t/h t/h

Several units

of a well

known h o r i z o n t a l 1986)

multiple-compartment crystal area of

(80 pans d e l i v e r e d o r o r d e r e d up t o (ref.25). is A unit r a t e d 31 t / h 12.5 t/h

a r e now o p e r a t e d w i t h heating

massecuite, with Similar area o f

surface rated at

supplied with

s e e d magma. surface

apparatus 754 m , i s

C massecuite, with

a heating

supplied

with part

s e e d magma. B o t h u n i t s directly into

are heated w i t h the

vapour at

100C, o f w h i c h a circulation. (ref. is 47).

injected

t h e magma w i t h results

aim o f in the

improving literature

A summary o f the flow of

operational

can be f o u n d

As

s e e d magma l a r g e r research is

t h a n 30% o f

t h e vacuum pan o u t p u t figure.

a clear reports less than

disadvantage, that

u n d e r way t o

reduce t h i s

There are

by m o d i f y i n g

pan d e s i g n and c o n t r o l be p o s s i b l e (ref. 48).

principles,

operation with

5% s e e d magma w i l l

From t h e d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e continuous pan e v o l v e d i n

mentioned

a b o v e , a new v e r s i o n o f (ref. 49). On t h e

horizontal positive

South A f r i c a

basis of

6.75m

F i g . 5 . 1 3 , Scheme o f 1 - standard l i q u o r , 5 - stirrer.

a c o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n , o f L a n g r e n e y t y p e ( a f t e r r e f . 2 - s e e d magma, 3 - m a s s e c u i t e , 4 - h e a t i n g s u r f a c e s ,

52).

205

results

obtained

in

the

cane s u g a r i n d u s t r y , (ref. 50).

it

has r e c e n t l y

been i n t r o d u c e d

to

a European beet sugar f a c t o r y Another circular (refs. 17 t / h horizontal

single-compartment

d e s i g n was m o d i f i e d outlet section,

by a d o p t i n g Fig.

a 5.13 at

shape o f v e s s e l w i t h a s t i r r e d The dimensions given in

as shown i n a unit It is

51,52).

the

figure

apply to 620 m^.

rated normally

C massecuite, with heating

surface area o f

F i g . 5 . 1 4 . Scheme o f a c o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n , o f BMA t y p e ( a f t e r r e f . 54) 1 - f e e d l i q u o r , 2 - s e e d magma, 3 - m a s s e c u i t e , 4 - v a p o u r , 5 - h e a t i n g s u r f a c e s , 6 - s t i r r e r s , 7 - steam.

206

operated with c r y s t a l the

footing. it is

Numerous a p p l i c a t i o n s a l s o used i n C s t r i k e

of

this

unit

are

known sugar

in

cane s u g a r i n d u s t r y ; (ref. 51).

in a French beet

factory

The t o w e r d e s i g n has r e c e n t l y results seem t o be b e t t e r this

been a d o p t e d b y a n o t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e r , The u n i t c o n s i s t s o f a cascade o f from the

and

the

time.

several the

crystallization

chambers, where the massecuite f l o w s a s shown i n Fig. 5.14 (refs.

top towards

bottom under g r a v i t y , given in the figure

36,53,54).

The d i m e n s i o n s a heating

apply to

a unit

rated

a t 45 t / h

A massecuite, with are fed

surface area o f i n t o the to 4. of the first

1590 m^. chamber;

T h e s e e d and t h e part of the

feed s o l u t i o n is the

continuously chambers 2 requirements surface,

feed s o l u t i o n is adapted to

also fed to operational

Each c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n relevant part o f the

chamber

b o i l i n g cycle in For example, while

terms

o f volume,

heating the

stirrer

characteristics,

etc.

the

stirrers in the

used i n

upper lowforming

chambers a r e h i g h - s p e e d a g i t a t o r s , speed t u r b i n e in certain stirrers

those

lower

chambers a r e

augmenting m a s s e c u i t e c i r c u l a t i o n . without

Incrustations

chambers can be r e m o v e d i n d i v i d u a l l y o f the unit. The tower is

fully

interrupting heat the

operation transfer

heated w i t h vapour at

90C and a h i g h levels in

intensity

is maintained

by c o n t r o l l i n g

the massecuite

individual The

chambers. towers are operated s u c c e s s f u l l y in A s t r i k e of in a few from

crystallization in

factories one

FRG. A r e d u c t i o n

s t e a m demand b y a b o u t 5% has been r e p o r t e d and i m p r o v e m e n t s results are s t i l l being

factory.

Although corrections

introduced The

into this flow 5.6 5.6.1 of

design,the operational

are s a t i s f a c t o r y output.

(refs.

55,56).

s e e d magma i s

k e p t b e l o w 20% o f t h e pan

CENTRIFUGALS Introduction influence of centrifugals on t h e energy consumption motors. E v e n more of in a factory

The d i r e c t is

associated with electricity-consuming is the indirect influence of

driving

important, centrifuged affect In in Each

however,

associated w i t h the q u a l i t y

s u g a r and w i t h t h e e f f i c i e n c y t h e mass f l o w s the use. of and t h u s t h e

syrup separation,

because these f a c t o r s in the

overall

energy consumption

sugar house. are

contemporary sugar i n d u s t r y , Modern d e s i g n s o f

b o t h b a t c h and c o n t i n u o u s

centrifugals in Fig.

b o t h m a c h i n e s a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y applies (ref. to

5.15.

them has i t s as t o

a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s ; t h i s aspects of sugar c e n t r i f u g i n g

energy

problems

as w e l l 5.6.2 The

other

57).

Batch machines development o f batch centrifugals i.e. has f o r many y e a r s been This characterized is the cause

by a t r e n d of the

towards b i g g e r baskets, large-capacity

increased capacity. running

problem w i t h

irregularly

electrical

drives

207

F i g . 5 . 1 5 . Schemes o f c e n t r i f u g a l s : ( a ) b a t c h m a c h i n e , ( b ) c o n t i n u o u s m a c h i n e . 1 - d r i v i n g motor, 2 - basket, 3 - massecuite i n l e t , 4 - sugar o u t l e t , 5 s y r u p - c o l l e c t i n g c a s i n g , 6 - s u g a r - c o l l e c t i n g c a s i n g , 7 - wash n o z z l e s . mentioned in Section 1.4.3. During the 1970s and 1 9 8 0 s , at much e f f o r t the was s p e n t on

the development o f d r i v e s t h a t characteristic Many f o r m s the 1970s, o f the of

can work e f f i c i e n t l y cycle. h a v e been a p p l i e d

speed changes

centrifuging drive

electrical

to

the

batch machines. became very

In

pole-change asynchronous a l t e r n a t i n g of speed c o n t r o l

c u r r e n t motors

popular. the

The p r i n c i p l e

can be s e e n i n t h e (in rpm)

equation

expressing

number o f

revolutions s) stator

o f an a s y n c h r o n o u s m o t o r

= (60f/p)(l where f slip. The s l i p is the

(5.2) frequency, is the number o f poles, and s i s the motor

c a n be d e f i n e d

as (5.3)

s = (n^ - n)/n^ w h e r e n^ i s the s y n c h r o n o u s number o f revolutions.

208

Standard s i n g l e - s p e e d asynchronous motors have a l a r g e s l i p during running-up, this

connected to being the different another,

a fixed-frequency

source In

cause o f e n e r g y l o s s e s . numbers o f poles are the

pole-change motors, installed. of

multiple windings with f r o m one w i n d i n g In t h i s to

By s w i t c h i n g

step-changes of

number

revolutions

can be o b t a i n e d .

way, average s l i p four

and a s s o c i a t e d e n e r g y to five different In

losses during speeds r a t h e r addition, of the

r u n n i n g - u p c a n be r e d u c e d . By r e d u c i n g than a single-speed motor, regenerative braking

l o s s e s can be r e d u c e d b y 75-80%. can be u t i l i z e d for partial

electrical

recovery

kinetic

e n e r g y o f t h e mass b e i n g

centrifuged. possible for direct current and costly

Advances i n semiconductor drives to become h i g h l y

t e c h n o l o g y made i t in

competitive

recent years.

The c o m p l i c a t e d

W a r d - L e o n a r d s y s t e m s h a v e been r e p l a c e d b y s i m p l e controlled frequency, efficient this drives there (ref. 58). As t h e d.c. motor is

and r o b u s t

thyristorcurrent More For

n o t d e p e n d e n t on

a r e no s l i p

losses during

r u n n i n g - u p and b r a k i n g . be a p p l i e d in d.c.

e n e r g y r e c o v e r y t e c h n i q u e s can a l s o motor

drives.

reason, the d . c . solution

uses l e s s energy than a . c . application 59,60). it of

motors w i t h

pole-change. the

Another

b a s e d on t h e drive stator to the

semiconductor

devices is principle vary

frequency converter a.c. consists voltage of v a r y i n g the proportionately

(refs.

The speed c o n t r o l is also necessary to

frequency;

the the for

f r e q u e n c y . The f r e q u e n c y c o n v e r t e r c o n v e r t s of t h e mains into variable values suitable to be

constant alternating the speed s e t t i n g s

quantities

of the motor. If

This

enables the a direct is

speed o f the motor current

infinitely is used,

variable.

a converter with

intermediate any

circuit

t h e n e n e r g y r e c o v e r y when b r a k i n g the motor is simply operating

possible without

additional back an

effort: into

as a g e n e r a t o r and f e e d i n g

energy

the mains.

The mains

side o f the

c o n v e r t e r c a n a l s o be e q u i p p e d w i t h b a s i c amount o f t h e control

oscillation power, thus

circuit

which compensates the factor.

reactive

e n s u r i n g a h i g h power efficiency of the

The a v e r a g e with that of

frequency converter a.c.

drive in

is a

comparable centrifuging

the d . c .

drive.

T h e power d i a g r a m s o f b o t h d r i v e s (after refs. 58-60). complete

c y c l e a r e compared i n Modern c e n t r i f u g a l technological microprocessor flow

F i g . 5.16

d r i v e s are supplied with

controls

for

the and

of operations. are is

Electronic circuits

tend to For the

dominate,

applications

increasingly frequent. utilized.

c y c l i c sequence, is the for whole smooth

a memory p r o g r a m m a b l e c y c l e automatic battery

control

I n many c a s e s ,

not o n l y

but groups o f machines are a l s o a u t o m a t i c a l l y

linked,

operation. is nearly 150 y e a r s o l d . It c a n now be c o n s i d e r e d the problems.

The b a t c h s u g a r c e n t r i f u g a l

a v e r y t h o r o u g h l y developed machine, refinement of details. Among t h e

and f u r t h e r

progress consists of to energy

details

which are r e l a t e d

209

filling

speeding up

centrifuging

braking

discharging

F i g . 5.16. Power-time diagrams o f batch c e n t r i f u g a l d r i v e s : ( a ) f r e q u e n c y c o n v e r t e r a . c . d r i v e , ( b ) d . c . d r i v e ( a f t e r r e f s . 5 8 - 6 0 ) . Shaded a r e a s i n d i c a t e energy recovered during braking. wash s y s t e m s s h o u l d be named. As a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d optimization o f w a t e r wash i s important to in Section 1.3.4, the sugar it of

the energy consumption be f l e x i b l e as t h e

in the

h o u s e . Modern wash s y s t e m s s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e possible to the wash. optimize

e n o u g h t o make

t h e s p r a y g e o m e t r y , as w e l l

t i m i n g and d u r a t i o n circulation (ref. 61).

Examples o f c o n s i d e r a b l e improvements c a n be f o u n d i n

in massecuite literature

o b t a i n e d b y wash o p t i m i z a t i o n 5.6.3 C o n t i n u o u s machines

the

With r e s p e c t to to

p o w e r demand, c o n t i n u o u s c e n t r i f u g a l s is u s u a l l y from a s t a n d a r d a . c .

are c l e a r l y motor.

preferable is

b a t c h t y p e s . The d r i v e compared w i t h that

The motor

small

o f a batch machine, present.

since the high

accelerating/

decelerating

l o a d s a r e no l o n g e r

The d o m i n a t i n g

continuous-action design p r i n c i p l e

is

that

of a v e r t i c a l - a x i s , centrifugal In

c o n e - b a s k e t machine. The performance o f the in low-grade s t a t i o n s of is

contemporary continuous that of the

usually equivalent to

batch machine. continuous

the c e n t r i f u g i n g is

h i g h - p u r i t y massecuites, however, the to t h e b a t c h one ( r e f . is followed 62).

centrifugal

generally inferior

In c e r t a i n crystal

applications, in batch

continuous centrifuging machines.

by a f i n i s h i n g

treatment

T h e main d i s a d v a n t a g e o f resulting from c o l l i s i o n s of

continuous centrifuging c r y s t a l s , ejected at

is

the

crystal

damage the sugar-

a high speed, with

210

collecting

casing. This of

has a d i r e c t indirectly,

detrimental

effect

on t h e

granulometric in the

distribution sugar (refs.

crystals;

increased massecuite

circulation

h o u s e can be a r e s u l t . 25,63), in at least

Following years of is

r e s e a r c h w o r k on t h i s

problem

one m a n u f a c t u r e r

now o f f e r i n g

a d e v i c e w h i c h c a n be Formed as a w h e e l a speed lower than

installed

c o n t i n u o u s machines t o b a s k e t and t h e (ref. is 64).

reduce c r y s t a l it is

damage. at

p l a c e d between t h e t h a t o f the basket

casing,

rotated

Another problem so t h e wash c o n t r o l

t h a t t h e wash a c t s d i f f e r e n t l y so f i n e as w i t h

in

a continuous designed

machine, batch and is 50 has

c a n n o t be q u i t e

a well

machine. other

The s i t u a t i o n

i m p r o v e s as w o r k on t h e Taking into it

refinement

o f wash s y s t e m s

details

continues.

account t h a t the seems t h a t its

c o n t i n u o u s machine

y e a r s younger than the n o t y e t been f u l l y REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

batch one,

energy-saving potential

utilized.

12 13 14

15 16 17 18

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211

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52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62

63 64

A n o n y m o u s , Le c r i s t a l 1 i s e u r c o n t i n u ( L i c . L a n g r e n e y ) a l a S u c r e r i e de M a r i e , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 102(7-8) (1985) 713-717. . R e i n e f e l d , b e r d i e Kampagne 1983, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 9 ( 5 ) ( 1 9 8 4 ) 3 9 9 - 4 1 1 . E . D . B o s s e , A new e v a p o - c r y s t a l 1 i z a t i o n t o w e r f o r w h i t e s u g a r and l o w raw p r o d u c t s . Sugar y A z c a r , 81(5) (1986) 33-56. . H e r r m a n , Neue Systeme z u r k o n t i n u i e r l i c h e n K o c h a r b e i t - B M A - V e r d a m p f u n g s K r i s t a l l i s a t i o n s t u r m , Z u c k e r i n d . , 112(4) (1987) 277-280. J . Below, Die V K T - A n l a g e i n L e h r t e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 112(4) (1987) 280-284. J . O . Smith, Recent p r o g r e s s i n sugar c e n t r i f u g i n g . Sugar T e c h . R e v . , 4(1) (1976/77) 49-87. . G r a s s , S p e z i a l a n t r i e b e f r d i e Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 7 ( 9 ) ( 1 9 8 2 ) 863-868. H. G r a s s , D i e E n t w i c k l u n g e l e k t r i s c h e r Zuckerzentrifugenantriebe, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 0 ( 2 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 132-136. T e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n from Feiten&Gui1leaume E n e r g i e t e c h n i k , Nordenham, 1985. E . R e i n e f e l d , b e r d i e Kampagne 1982, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 8 ( 4 ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) 3 0 7 - 3 1 9 . P. C r e d o z , J . L e d o u x and G . J o u r n e t , T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o n t i n u o u s c e n t r i f u g i n g i n the f i e l d o f h i g h - p u r i t y s u g a r s , Sugar y A z c a r , 75(2) (1980) 34-42. . R e i n e f e l d , b e r d i e Kampagne 1980, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 6 ( 5 ) ( 1 9 8 1 ) 3 9 7 - 4 0 7 . Anonymous, K r i s t a l l r a d z u r V e r r i n g e r u n g von K r i s t a l 1bruch i n k o n t i n u i e r l i chen Z e n t r i f u g e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 2 ( 1 ) ( 1 9 8 7 ) 34.

213

Chapter

AUTOMATIC CONTROL FOR E F F I C I E N T ENERGY

UTILIZATION

6.1

SCOPE OF THE PROBLEMS Automatic process control is indispensable to the contemporary sugar improved role in equipment ensuring reality. into

industry. into

When i m p l e m e n t i n g

optimized processes or putting control often plays a leading

o p e r a t i o n , the automatic intentions

t h a t the

of a technologist this is also true

o r an e q u i p m e n t in the case o f

d e s i g n e r become a

To a l a r g e e x t e n t , t h e e n e r g y economy. This are

improvements

introduced

Chapter presents a review of the useful in optimizing

applications

of automatic

control in

that the to

particularly

e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n of automatic controls

sugar f a c t o r y .

Actually,

the f u n c t i o n i n g

c a n be r e l a t e d

t h e e n e r g y economy i n automatic control circuits

a v a r i e t y of ways.

To begin w i t h ,

e x a m p l e s c a n be named o f s u c h as This combustion control to the

controlling or

energy processes d i r e c t l y , (ref. 1). is

in a b o i l e r will

in a pulp drying furnace

type of

application sugar

n o t be d i s c u s s e d h e r e , h o w e v e r , as i t

not s p e c i f i c

industry. control circuits serves the purpose o f stabilizing the of milk-ofthe

Another group o f automatic

p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s , w h i c h has some i n f l u e n c e processes affected. This c a n be e x e m p l i f i e d flow to

on t h e by t h e

e n e r g y demand o f automatic control station.

l i m e d e n s i t y and m i l k - o f - l i m e settings

the j u i c e

purification

Here, juice in

are always arranged to

ensure the

CaO d o s e s r e q u i r e d b y t h e

purification

p r o c e s s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e amount o f e x c e s s w a t e r t h e p r o c e s s v a r i e s d e p e n d i n g on t h e q u a l i t y

introduced

milk-of-lime to control, with

of the

automatic In

v a r y i n g h e a t demand i n t h e e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s as a r e s u l t . controls of this kind need n o t on t h e i r be d i s c u s s e d i n operation are

principle, detail, obvious.

automatic

greater

as t h e

energy-related requirements the

rather applications of the

One p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i o n i s large f l u i d streams.

flow

control, case,

especially in

concerned w i t h control changing

In t h i s

the working

principle pumping

module may d i r e c t l y flows. control

influence

t h e p o w e r demand o f f l u i d

under

Certain affect

s y s t e m s c a n be r e l a t e d

to

the

e n e r g y economy b e c a u s e t h e y in the thermal of system.

possible fluctuations

o f steam and v a p o u r f l o w s

Such f l u c t u a t i o n s states

can i n d u c e e x t r a h e a t

losses characteristic effect on the

transient

of the e v a p o r a t o r , with ratio

a detrimental

time-averaged are of examples flows of

effectiveness of automatic

o f the thermal

s y s t e m . L e t us n o t e t h a t t h e r e purpose o f of stabilization in the

c o n t r o l s mainly like

s e r v i n g the

process media,

the system o f

coordination

flows

juice

214

purification in the

station,

or the

system o f

coordination

o f batch equipment in stable to

operation in

sugar house. A p p l i c a t i o n s o f s e c t i o n s of the operation. important

such systems r e s u l t

h e a t demand regularized

respective evaporator

sugar manufacturing

process, leading

Particularly processes

applications

of

automatic

control

are concerned w i t h together that

in which the

requirements of It

sugar manufacture

are linked

with those of the

e n e r g y economy. belonging to

was p o i n t e d o u t

in the preceding chapters conflict. on t h e T h e way s u c h system are

requirements

t h e s e two g r o u p s o f t e n a large extent,

conflicts applied. often

a r e r e s o l v e d may d e p e n d , t o The a s s o c i a t e d m u l t i v a r i a b l e , difficult which i s to solve,

control

multi-objective stimulates

control the

problems

very

however. T h i s well

use o f

computer

technology, It

particularly

suited to

complex c o n t r o l

tasks. of of

c a n be c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e a b o v e i n t r o d u c t i o n control and v a r i o u s c o n t r o l in a sugar f a c t o r y . applications In the

that various aspects may a f f e c t

automatic

the e f f i c i e n c y

energy u t i l i z a t i o n

subsequent S e c t i o n s , s i x

different

problem areas are d i s c u s s e d : development o f computer-based c o n t r o l flow control using v a r i a b l e systems;

speed d r i v e s ;

extraction evaporation

control; control; control;

sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n pulp drying control.

6.2 It

COMPUTER-BASED CONTROL SYSTEMS is characteristic consists of of conventional control technology that functions the and approach to

applications suitable control applied. The

identifying

necessary control a system.

selecting

control task,

m o d u l e s w h i c h add up t o control

In the

case o f a complex m u s t be

a multitude of

modules o r a s p e c i a l i z e d c o n t r o l l e r automate.

For t h i s

r e a s o n , s u c h t a s k s may be v e r y c o s t l y t o c o m p u t e r s made i t the possible to

advent of d i g i t a l

change t h e

conventional for the

approach. additional computer -

Instead of perfecting functions,

s y s t e m by a d d i n g , is, the

each t i m e , modules central processor of

a s i n g l e module - t h a t for

can be u t i l i z e d including

information processing. All

the necessary to to

operations,

computations,

are c a r r i e d out s e q u e n t i a l l y according is u s u a l l y h i g h enough being

a p r e - e s t a b l i s h e d program. The speed o f t h e computer follow t h e e v o l u t i o n o f s i g n a l s coming f r o m t h e

installation

controlled.

T h e r e a r e numerous e x a m p l e s o f c o m p u t e r - o r m i c r o p r o c e s s o r - b a s e d s y s t e m s effectively replacing conventional loops c o n t r o l l i n g to combustion in boilers and to

pulp drying furnaces, d e l i v e r y of materials juice purification, operation of filter

lime k i l n s ,

milk-of-lime flows

flow in

stations,

coordination of

the

215

manufacturing Significant

line

between e x t r a c t i o n

and e v a p o r a t i o n , e t c . from improved c o n t r o l

{refs.

2-9). in

energy savings r e s u l t i n g 2,3,8).

h a v e been r e p o r t e d

some c a s e s ( r e f s . Owing t o solely the

development o f

h a r d w a r e and s o f t w a r e ,

the

computer

is

no l o n g e r of

a d a t a p r o c e s s i n g m a c h i n e b u t a l s o an e n g i n e e r i n g t o o l complex i n s t a l l a t i o n s , as w e l l as c o l l e c t i n g other

capable

controlling

data f o r

direct This computertransmission

management o f t h e p r o c e s s o r f o r stimulates controlled and not o n l y the equipment,

transmission to

computers.

replacement o f

conventional

control

l o o p s by

but also the

development o f data a c q u i s i t i o n ,

p r o c e s s i n g systems t h a t

could not e x i s t without of of

c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y . Two systems to the and c a n

possible principles are shown i n

of architecture The f u n c t i o n s

complex computer-based c o n t r o l s u c h s y s t e m s c a n be t a i l o r e d

F i g . 6.1.

needs o f

individual

stations,

p r o c e s s s e c t i o n s o r e v e n an e n t i r e as w e l l as d a t a m o n i t o r i n g ,

factory

include automatic recording,

process control of alarms,

p r o c e s s i n g and

handling

etc.

( Q )

(b)

PROCESS

PROCESS

F i g . 6 . 1 . Schemes o f c o m p l e x c o m p u t e r - b a s e d c o n t r o l s y s t e m s : ( a ) h i e r a r c h i c a l system, ( b ) d i s t r i b u t e d system. 1 - s u p e r v i s o r y computer, 2 - dual p r o c e s s c o n t r o l computer, 3 - disk s t o r a g e , 4 - c o n t r o l l o o p s , 5 - l o c a l c o n t r o l computers, 6 - local area networks i n c l u d i n g m u l t i p l e c o n t r o l l o o p s , 7 - i n p u t / o u t p u t i n t e r f a c e , 8 - data b u s , 9 - data communication l i n k . The importance of computer t e c h n o l o g y t o t h e d e s i g n and o p e r a t i o n o f 10-19). sugar

factories new

has been d i s c u s s e d e l s e w h e r e ( r e f s . of

C o n c e r n i n g e n e r g y economy, following

possibilities

improved energy u t i l i z a t i o n systems: stations,

are d e r i v e d from the

features -

o f computer-based c o n t r o l of control of

integration into

individual

with

interactions

b e t w e e n them

taken

account;

216

integration

o f management and u t i l i z a t i o n laboratory, automatic

o f data o r i g i n a t i n g measuring

from v a r i o u s counters,

sources, factory It is

such as t h e records, etc.

instruments,

felt

t h a t t h e s e new p o s s i b i l i t i e s utilization

h a v e n o t y e t been f u l l y in the

realized. in

Examples o f t h e i r Chapter 6.3 6.3.1 It and 7.

are mentioned

s u b s e q u e n t S e c t i o n s and

FLOW CONTROL USING VARIABLE Introduction has a l r e a d y been m e n t i o n e d

SPEED DRIVES

i n S e c t i o n 1.4.3

t h a t t h e d r i v e s o f pumps, electrical

fans

compressors are t y p i c a l l y

responsible for Among t h e largest

a b o u t 60% o f t h e

energy

consumed i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y . m a c h i n e s c a n be named: boiler f e e d pumps;

power c o n s u m e r s , t h e

following

b e e t pumps; pumps i n t h e j u i c e pumps; in the boiler house; purification station;

- main j u i c e - waste-water forcing

f a n s and e x h a u s t f a n s vapour compressors; low-temperature

- mechanical air fans in

pulp d r y e r s . of the f a c t o r y or the throughputs of the individual too.

As t h e p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y stations This is vary, the flows

o f m e d i a d e l i v e r e d b y pumps and f a n s a r e v a r i e d modules which a d j u s t the flows to the

e n s u r e d by a u t o m a t i c With the f l o w control

required

values.

methods w i d e l y a p p l i e d , the machine, its

t h e most

economical control takes module place

o p e r a t i o n o f the system comprising is achieved at t h e maximum f l o w .

d r i v e and t h e

At reduced f l o w ,

energy d i s s i p a t i o n

in the

s y s t e m and t h e

d r i v e consumes more p o w e r t h a n r e a l l y n e c e s s a r y . t h e p o w e r consumed b y t h e d r i v e o f a pump o r the

Using v a r i a b l e speed c o n t r o l , a f a n can be m i n i m i z e d control for

any f l o w v a l u e . The a t t a i n a b l e it is

s a v i n g d e p e n d s on the

method r e p l a c e d ; t y p i c a l l y ,

o f t h e o r d e r o f 20-40% o f the e n t i r e operation.

electrical 6.3.2

e n e r g y consumed b y t h e d r i v e d u r i n g

Pump d r i v e s o f t h e pump a t a given liquid flow is to generate a pressure high liquid the of

The t a s k enough t o is

overcome the p r e s u r e l o s s i n t h e is

h y d r a u l i c system t o which the function of

d e l i v e r e d . The p r e s s u r e l o s s while

an a p p r o x i m a t e l y q u a d r a t i c

flow,

t h e p r e s s u r e g e n e r a t e d b y a r o t o d y n a m i c pump a t according to t h e pump

a constant

rate

r e v o l u t i o n d e p e n d s on t h e f l o w , Consequently, hydraulic When the

characteristics. the 6.2.

the pressure e q u i l i b r i u m

b e t w e e n an u n c o n t r o l l e d pump and f l o w v a l u e , as shown i n value, it is Fig.

system i s

obtained at a d e f i n i t e

r e q u i r e d f l o w d e v i a t e s from the e q u i l i b r i u m

necessary to

217

Flow ( k g / s )
F i g . 6 . 2 . Pump c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( 1 ) and p r e s s u r e l o s s i n a h y d r a u l i c s y s t e m ( 2 ) . Hs - s t a t i c h e a d , - dynamic h e a d , - e f f e c t i v e h e a d , G - e q u i l i b r i u m f l o w . Dashed l i n e s i n d i c a t e pump c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t d i f f e r e n t r a t e s o f r e v o l u t i o n . overcome t h e mismatch hydraulic system. a difference is c r e a t e d between the liquid d e l i v e r e d to flow the of liquid between t h e characteristics o f the pump and t h a t o f the

Using a by-pass c o n t r o l ,

p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e pump and t h e f l o w T h e pump i s is operated at to the a flow suction larger nozzle.

o f the than This

system. liquid

really is

n e e d e d , and t h e

excess

recirculated

accompanied by e n e r g y pump d r i v e

dissipation

in the

b y - p a s s v a l v e . T h e power consumed b y t h e

can be e x p r e s s e d as (6.1)

= ( G ^ + G ^ ) g H / n b = N^,^ + where G^ i s mass f l o w effective deliver of t h e mass f l o w recirculated of liquid d e l i v e r e d to the the hydraulic

system, G^ i s is the to

the

liquid, the

g is

acceleration is is the

of gravity, the

pump h e a d , x]^ i s flow of liquid

pump e f f i c i e n c y , n e e d e d , and

p o w e r consumed by

the

really

power l o s t

liquid

recirculation. A method w h i c h flow control is by f a r t h e most p o p u l a r in the sugar i n d u s t r y consists the of

by t h r o t t l i n g .

Using a t h r o t t l i n g hydraulic

valve installed system, the

between

discharge n o z z l e o f the

pump and t h e

d y n a m i c head c a n be

c h a n g e d and t h u s a d i f f e r e n c e t h e pump and t h e effective pressure at than

can be c r e a t e d b e t w e e n t h e the system i n l e t . needed, which

p r e s s u r e g e n e r a t e d by operated at an

T h e pump i s is

head l a r g e r in the

really

accompanied by e n e r g y pump d r i v e c a n be

dissipation e x p r e s s e d as \

throttling

v a l v e . T h e p o w e r consumed b y t h e

= G^g(H + H ^ / n ^ = N^^ + is the the effective head l o s t by t h r o t t l i n g , G^ at is the pump

(6.2) efficiency, is

where N^^ i s

power consumed t o by t h r o t t l i n g .

d e l i v e r mass f l o w It

effective is

head H , and N-j f r o m ]^

t h e power l o s t because the Typically,

s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t another region of its

different

pump i s

operated at of

characteristics. constant speed

the e f f i c i e n c y

a rotodynamic

pump o p e r a t e d a t

218

d e c r e a s e s when m o v i n g away f r o m t h e n o m i n a l contributing to the energy d i s s i p a t i o n effects

operating

conditions, throttling flow

this control. methods Its to

induced by t h e of

The e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n

characteristic

the

control

d i s c u s s e d a b o v e c a n be e l i m i n a t e d principle different of the c a n be s e e n i n speeds are F i g . 6.2,

by u s i n g a v a r i a b l e

speed c o n t r o l .

w h e r e pump c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s By v a r y i n g t h e

corresponding revolution

indicated

by dashed l i n e s .

rate to

t h e pump i m p e l l e r , characteristics of

the e f f e c t i v e the hydraulic

pump head c a n be n e a r l y

ideally pump

adjusted drive of

system. Consequently, the needed t o deliver the

consumes o n l y as much power as r e a l l y liquid. of the

required flow t h a t the

the

Another advantage o f a v a r i a b l e pump d e v i a t e s o n l y n e g l i g i b l y variable

revolution

speed i s

efficiency of in

from i t s

maximum v a l u e . A c o m p a r i s o n and t h r o t t l i n g c o n t r o l is

power c o n s u m p t i o n f o r Fig. 6.3.

speed c o n t r o l

shown

100 c

80

I
3

60

AO 20

20

AO 60 80 Flow ( 7 )

100

F i g . 6 . 3 . Power consumed b y a pump d r i v e a t v a r i a b l e t h r o t t l i n g , 2 - v a r i a b l e speed c o n t r o l . In a s p e c i f i c variable application, the

flow.

1 -

control

by

e n e r g y s a v i n g w h i c h can be a t t a i n e d load c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e c o n o m i c s , as t h e o f the

by

using

speed c o n t r o l of

d e p e n d s on t h e i s a matter

pump. T h e

feasibility

t h e method

value o f energy saved drive (ref. 20).

s h o u l d be w e i g h e d a g a i n s t t h e 6.3.3 Fan d r i v e s

increased investment

cost o f the

The f l o w throttling Section; in the

o f gas d e l i v e r e d by a f a n control according to the is

c a n a l s o be v a r i e d b y u s i n g discussed in the

a by-pass or

principles that

preceding installed with inlet

one p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e line o f the f a n .

t h e t h r o t t l i n g v a l v e c a n be method u s e d i n

suction

Another control constant

connection of

large-capacity

fans operated at

speed employs the

positioning

219

guide vanes f o r According to e x p r e s s e d as "2"2u where u i s

a variable

peripheral

component o f equation, the

the

gas v e l o c i t y

at

inlet.

E u l e r ' s pump and t u r b i n e

theoretical

head can be

l^lu^ of transportation the at t h e mean r o t o r and t h e diameter, c^

(6.3) is 1 -

the v e l o c i t y

the peripheral inlet

component o f g is

gas v e l o c i t y , of

s u b s c r i p t s denote

and 2 - o u t l e t ;

the a c c e l e r a t i o n head -

gravity. the effective inlet head t o o varies is

As can be s e e n , as c^^

the t h e o r e t i c a l

and t h u s

i s v a r i e d . When t h e the gas f l o w

angle of the

inclination fan rotor is

o f the

guide vanes

changed, method smaller

entering

a l s o changed. T h i s particularly

control at flows

i s more e c o n o m i c a l than

than c o n t r o l

by t h r o t t l i n g ,

70-75% o f t h e maximum to the

value. is variable speed control power in fan

Similarly

c a s e o f t h e pump, h o w e v e r , i t fan

w h i c h e n s u r e s t h e most e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t consumption Fig. 6.4. curves representing three

operation. control

A comparison o f methods is in

different of variable (ref.

shown

Obviously,

the f e a s i b i l i t y

speed c o n t r o l

a specific

application

d e p e n d s on e c o n o m i c f a c t o r s

20).

20

40 60 Flow ( " / )

80

100

F i g . 6 . 4 . Power consumed b y a f a n d r i v e a t v a r i a b l e f l o w . 1 - c o n t r o l b y t h r o t t l i n g , 2 - p o s i t i o n i n g of i n l e t guide vanes, 3 - v a r i a b l e speed. 6.4 EXTRACTION CONTROL The dynamic r e s p o n s e o f t h e is very extraction slow. Using process performed conventional in contemporary circuits, the is often results of

continuous e x t r a c t o r s

control

time span between s e t - p o i n t the order of unable to can too the several the

adjustment

and a t t a i n m e n t o f a d e s i r e d r e s u l t this r e a s o n , a human o p e r a t o r although is good

hours. Mainly for extraction

control

process very e f f e c t i v e l y , If

certainly

be a c h i e v e d b y e x p e r i e n c e d p e r s o n n e l . draft, is detected, then several the

a disturbance,

s u c h as bring

large a juice situation

h o u r s may be n e e d e d t o factory must be

back t o

normal.

In the meantime,

operated

220

u n d e r abnormal Effective

conditions

inducing

an e x c e s s i v e h e a t the

consumption. conventional controllers to

extraction

control

c a n be e n s u r e d i f

a r e r e p l a c e d by a c o m p u t e r - b a s e d c o n t r o l monitor

s y s t e m . T h i s makes i t employ c o n t r o l

possible

t h e t r e n d s o f p a r a m e t e r s m e a s u r e d and t o

algorithms parameters process. parameter

preventing undesirable situations. facilitates If efficient

The s t a b i l i z a t i o n

of extraction

e n e r g y usage i n t h e e n t i r e computer is able to

sugar manufacturing r e s t o r e the d e s i r e d

a disturbance o c c u r s , the

r e g i m e more q u i c k l y Various extractor to their control.

t h a n a human

operator. i n S e c t i o n 5.2 of control require different systems used i n approaches connection literature and

types mentioned

The e s s e n t i a l

features

with tower, (refs.

drum and m o v i n g - b e d e x t r a c t o r s h a v e been p r e s e n t e d i n t h e Control o f the trough e x t r a c t o r illustration is particularly

14,21,22).

simple,

c a n be s u m m a r i z e d h e r e f o r extractor, in with indications

p u r p o s e s . An o u t l i n e

of a trough is given

o f t h e m e a s u r e d and c o n t r o l l e d (ref. 6):

parameters,

F i g . 6.5. levels in

The i n p u t s beet silo;

a r e as f o l l o w s

b e l t w e i g h e r on b e l t cossettes level 4 bubble-tube fresh-water press-water level

for

cossettes; end; intermediate points in the trough;

at j u i c e

l e v e l s at

flow; flow; tank. system i s to keep t h e level of the cossettes

in press-water task

The e s s e n t i a l

o f the c o n t r o l

Press water and fresh water flow control

Speed control of slicing machines

Speed control of h e l i c e s ^

^
Juice flow

control

Temperature control

F i g . 6.5. Working p r i n c i p l e o f the automatic c o n t r o l o f a t r o u g h e x t r a c t o r ( a f t e r r e f . 6 ) . P o i n t s o f measurements: C - r a t e o f d e l i v e r y o f c o s s e t t e s , L 0 - L 6 - l e v e l s , T 0 - T 5 - t e m p e r a t u r e s , F l and F2 - f l o w s .

221

in the e x t r a c t o r

satisfactory

under a l l control,

conditions. as w e l l of

In a d d i t i o n , start-up

the

computer

takes care o f the temperature procedures, of including starting etc.

as o f t h e all

and s h u t - d o w n closing

and s t o p p i n g

motors,

o p e n i n g and

main v a p o u r v a l v e , The

c o m p u t e r c a n a l s o be c h a r g e d w i t h from the fact that the d r a f t

draft and t h e of

optimization. sugar loss in

This

problem

originates

exhausted

cossettes are

interrelated.

The i n f l u e n c e

the d r a f t

on e n e r g y demand c a n be in

c a l c u l a t e d from the e v a p o r a t o r heat b a l a n c e . The sugar c o n c e n t r a t i o n e x h a u s t e d c o s s e t t e s can be e x p r e s s e d u s i n g S i l i n ' s b^ = ( ( a where a i s cossettes, the l)b^/(a exp(((a the j u i c e d r a f t , A is 1)/a)(ATLx/y)) b^ i s the 1) in the formula

(6.4) incoming L is

sugar concentration is

a characteristic

constant, is the

the absolute temperature, time, and i s the

length of

100 g c o s s e t t e s ,

extraction

juice

viscosity. For given prices of sugar l o s t s u g a r and f u e l , it thus becomes p o s s i b l e t o express the

value of energy

i n e x h a u s t e d c o s s e t t e s , and t h e v a l u e o f t h e n e c e s s a r y o f the j u i c e value. of the s u g a r l o s s c a n be a c h i e v e d u s i n g on-line of draft. T h i s makes i t possible to

input,

as f u n c t i o n s draft

determine

the optimal

A more r e l i a b l e measurements o f the a p p l i c a t i o n s the of

determination sugar content industrial

o f the press water. with

E x a m p l e s a r e a l s o known juice sampling

refractometers

automatic

for

o n - l i n e measurements o f t h e j u i c e model can be e x t e n d e d t o by p r e d i c t i n g

concentration. the

Furthermore, the

optimization of white price of

incorporate

consequences o f of

the e x t r a c t i o n

nonsugars,

the d i s t r i b u t i o n case, the

t h e e x t r a c t e d s u g a r between draft d e p e n d s a l s o on t h e

s u g a r and m o l a s s e s . molasses.

In t h i s

optimal

Summaries o f o p e r a t i o n a l control can be f o u n d i n t h e draft are of the

results

obtained with (refs.

computer-based

extraction of

literature order of

21,23).

The r e p o r t e d r e d u c t i o n s

the j u i c e 6.5 It

1-2%.

EVAPORATION CONTROL follows from the characteristics o f the thermal s y s t e m t h a t two a s p e c t s to the of

automatic

evaporation control stabilization

are p a r t i c u l a r l y of

important of

e n e r g y economy, and

namely e f f e c t i v e effective effects.

the concentration

thick juice,

stabilization

o f vapour pressures in the

individual

evaporator 24), pressure

As p o i n t e d o u t b y Z a g r o d z k i t h r e e in the e f f e c t

d e c a d e s ago ( r e f .

stabilization heating Other is

from which vapour i s withdrawn f o r in ensuring stable to the evaporator

vacuum-pan

a decisive factor requirements

operation. features of the

control

are linked It is

characteristic to

multiple-effect

evaporator s t a t i o n .

essential

ensure economical

222

Operation o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l e f f e c t s , heat t r a n s f e r flexible and t o m i n i m i z e

that

i s , t o maintain optimal

conditions f o r

sucrose decay. Concerning the process dynamics, station to

adaptation

of the evaporating capacity o f the entire of thin juice entering

changes i n t h e f l o w When p e r f o r m i n g

the evaporator i s primarily the automatic control

required.

the necessary functions, disturbances resulting

system should following

be a b l e t o e l i m i n a t e quantities: thin juice juice flow

from f l u c t u a t i o n s

of the

and c o n c e n t r a t i o n ;

levels

in the evaporator bodies;

heating

v a p o u r demand ( e s p e c i a l l y v a p o u r w i t h d r a w n f o r v a c u u m - p a n h e a t i n g ) . requirements listed a b o v e , v a r i o u s e x t e n s i o n s c a n be a d d e d

To t h e g e n e r a l

d e p e n d i n g on t h e t y p e o f e v a p o r a t o r e m p l o y e d . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e R o b e r t t y p e a n d f a l l i n g - f i l m evaporators are preferably feed-controlled, while e v a p o r a t o r must be p r o v i d e d w i t h discharge c o n t r o l . contained, faster a h y d r a u l i c seal the climbing-film this implying

at the outlet, in juice

M o r e o v e r , owing t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

volumes times

t h e dynamic r e s p o n s e o f t h e t h i n - f i l m e v a p o r a t o r s i s s e v e r a l

than t h a t o f the Robert e v a p o r a t o r s . c h a r a c t e r i z i n g v a r i o u s e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n s can systems. T y p i c a l s o l u t i o n s are very are reviewed

The m u l t i t u d e o f r e q u i r e m e n t s

be met o n l y b y a p p l y i n g v a r i o u s c o n t r o l elsewhere however, (refs. 25-27).

T h e p r o c e s s e s t o be c o n t r o l l e d

complex,

as t h e y c o n s i s t o f i n t e r r e l a t e d

r a p i d phenomena o f h e a t t r a n s f e r a n d For this control r e a s o n , i t may be d i f f i c u l t s y s t e m s , and t h e v a r i a t i o n s by automatic a r e shown primitive

relatively to attain

s l o w phenomena o f mass t r a n s f e r . satisfactory results with typical This

found i n p r a c t i c e control

seem t o be i n f i n i t e .

c a n be e x e m p l i f i e d Four d i f f e r e n t

o f the concentration of thick j u i c e .

solutions

schematically to

i n F i g . 6 . 6 . T h e systems u n d e r ( a ) , ( b ) and ( c ) a r e t o o under a l l conditions. Better results

perform s a t i s f a c t o r i l y the fourth

c a n be o b t a i n e d evaporator

with

system, i n which t h e f l o w o f vapour from t h e l a s t

effect

i s m e a s u r e d and compared w i t h

t h e r e q u i r e d v a l u e d e t e r m i n e d on t h e b a s i s before the l a s t effect. This

o f measurements o f j u i c e principle

fow and c o n c e n t r a t i o n by i n t r o d u c i n g

c a n be a l s o m o d i f i e d

a correction of the required

v a p o u r f l o w d e p e n d i n g on t h i c k - j u i c e It juice may be a d d e d t h a t

c o n c e n t r a t i o n measured. of thick-

e v e n more c o m p l e x s y s t e m s o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n At required

concentration are encountered in p r a c t i c e .

concentration requirement of

v a l u e s a p p r o a c h i n g 75% D S , due w e i g h t s h o u l d be g i v e n t o t h e s a f e t y concerned with saturation the risk of thick juice

becoming s u p e r s a t u r a t e d . A s t h e s t a t e additional m e a s u r e m e n t s become in the control

d e p e n d s on j u i c e

temperature,

n e c e s s a r y and e x t e n d e d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g algorithm. A l t h o u g h good r e s u l t s

must be i n c l u d e d

c a n be o b t a i n e d u s i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l

evaporator

control.

223

()

to condenser

-to condenser

F i g . 6.6. P o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s o f the automatic c o n t r o l o f t h i c k - j u i c e concentration: (a) t h i c k - j u i c e r e c i r c u l a t i o n , (b) t h i n - j u i c e by-pass, ( c ) v a r i a b l e pressure in the l a s t evaporator e f f e c t , (d) v a r i a b l e vapour f l o w from next to the l a s t e f f e c t to the condenser. D, F - m e a s u r e m e n t s o f d e n s i t y and f l o w , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; R, C - r e g i s t r a t i o n and c o n t r o l , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; U F , FFRC - e l e m e n t s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o m p u t a t i o n o f r e q u i r e d f l o w v a l u e and t h e c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n a c t u a l and r e q u i r e d f l o w v a l u e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

224

t h e a b o v e e x a m p l e can be s e e n as an i n d i c a t i o n control algorithms must be q u i t e complicated,

of

the f a c t

that

effective using computerA solution

and t h e i r costly.

implementation reason,

conventional

control

t e c h n o l o g y may be r a t h e r is now g a i n i n g

For t h i s

based e v a p o r a t o r c o n t r o l recently (ref. implemented

popularity

(refs.

1,3,14,22).

in a s e x t u p l e - e f f e c t p e r f o r m e d by t h e

e v a p o r a t o r c a n be c i t e d

as an e x a m p l e divided

28).

The f u n c t i o n s modules.

computer program are l o g i c a l l y

into three (i) (ii) (iii)

Pressure c o n t r o l . Suppression of f l u c t u a t i o n s Stabilization of juice concentration. a predetermined level. of

of thick-juice

concentration at

The l o c a t i o n s o f t h e c o n t r o l measurement o f t h e e s s e n t i a l Module (i) is responsible for

v a l v e s i n t h e e v a p o r a t o r scheme and t h e p o i n t s v a r i a b l e s a r e shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y adjustments o f the p o s i t i o n in Fig. 6.7.

o f the

by-pass valve of the the fourth

between f i r s t -

and f o u r t h - e f f e c t

v a p o u r , as w e l l

as o f t h e p o s i t i o n s

v a l v e s on v a p o u r l i n e s position effect.

connected to

t h e c o n d e n s e r . Module ( i i ) flow to the inlet

adjusts of the to

o f the v a l v e c o n t r o l l i n g

thin-juice

T h e t h i r d module c o n t r o l s t h e sixth-effect

by-pass flow the

of fourth-

sixth-effect the

v a p o u r and t h e f l o w o f

vapour to

condenser. I f

concentration of thick juice the vapour flow flow is to

tends to

be t o o l o w ,

t h e b y - p a s s v a l v e c l o s e s and the by-pass sixth-

the condenser i s

i n c r e a s e d . In the opposite case,

increased, this vapour.

being e q u i v a l e n t to

"negative condensation" of

effect

In t o t a l ,

the system u t i l i z e s 6 binary inputs

28 a n a l o g i n p u t s (state

( f l o w s , p r e s s u r e s and of control functions) and

concentrations), 6 analog outputs

of activation

(variables

controlled).

to ^^condenser 1 thin juice 2 3 U 5 6 thick juice

lb
F i g . 6.7. Working p r i n c i p l e o f the automatic c o n t r o l o f a s e x t u p l e - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r ( a f t e r r e f . 2 8 ) . P o i n t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t : a - d - f l o w s , e and f concentrations, g-j - pressures.

225

6.6 6.6.1

SUGAR C R Y S T A L L I Z A T I O N Introduction use o f a u t o m a t i c of

CONTROL

The

control

in

the

s u g a r h o u s e was i n i t i a l l y reproducible results

stimulated of the

by

the requirements crystallization methods f o r factors

sugar q u a l i t y ,

requiring

p r o c e s s . Rising energy c o s t s exposed the

significance of The

control

i n c r e a s i n g the e f f i c i e n c y

of energy u t i l i z a t i o n . are

following

associated w i t h the q u a l i t y

of process control

particularly

important: effective stabilization of process parameters; in the crystallization evaporator scheme; station;

exact d i s t r i b u t i o n smooth w i t h d r a w a l energy-efficient Practical

o f mass f l o w s of heating

vapours from the i n vacuum p a n s .

sugar b o i l i n g

e x p e r i e n c e p r o v e d t h a t good r e s u l t s the control o f the of the s u g a r house i s equipment of

c a n be a t t a i n e d

if

a two-level includes is

approach t o the

a d o p t e d . The lower while the

level

controllers

individual coordination

units,

upper l e v e l

created to conclusion

ensure the is t h a t the

interrelated control

processes. Another justifies the

practical use of

complexity of systems.

algorithms

computer-based c o n t r o l A prerequisite stabilization thick-juice of for

the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f

s u g a r house c o n t r o l

is

the operated of at

of process inputs.

In contemporary sugar f a c t o r i e s stabilization

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a p p r o a c h i n g 75% D S , t h e and s y r u p s becomes c r i t i c a l . to

parameters reproducible water

the t h i c k j u i c e

In order to

ensure

results

of feed intakes control

t h e vacuum p a n s and t o risk of

r e d u c e t h e amount o f

drawn f o r

purposes, the of

undesirable crystal

f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d be temperature,

eliminated. this is

As t h e s t a t e

saturation

d e p e n d s a l s o on s o l u t i o n the in

no l o n g e r o n l y a q u e s t i o n o f thick-juice in parameters

controlling

concentration. shown a is If

The

can be s t a b i l i z e d

a conditioner

schematically vessel

F i g . 6.8. before the

The j u i c e

l e a v i n g the evaporator i s tank.

expanded i n

installed

thick-juice

The r e q u i r e d j u i c e is also

temperature

maintained

by c o n t r o l l i n g

the p r e s s u r e . The v e s s e l increases the diluted

level-control led. above the

the s e l f - e v a p o r a t i o n o f t h i c k j u i c e r e q u i r e d v a l u e , then the o u t l e t 6.6.2 The Sugar boiling part of the

concentration with thin

stream i s

juice.

essential

h e a t consumed i n In the

the

b a t c h vacuum pan i s phase o f t h e b o i l i n g a t t a i n the

needed t o cycle,

evaporate water from sugar s o l u t i o n . the initially drawn s o l u t i o n In the is is

first

thickened

in order to in

required or, in some

supersaturation. instances, intakes

remaining drawn t o

phases, water

sugar s o l u t i o n s control

pure water

t h e vacuum pan f o r

p u r p o s e s . Water the supersaturation.

immediately

after

seeding are required to

stabilize

226

to condenser

to sugar house
F i g . 6 . 8 . Scheme o f a u t o m a t i c t h i c k - j u i c e c o n d i t i o n i n g . 1 - c o n d i t i o n i n g v e s s e l , 2 - t h i c k - j u i c e t a n k . P, L , D - p r e s s u r e , l e v e l and d e n s i t y , r e s p e c t i v e l y ; I , C - i n d i c a t i o n and c o n t r o l , r e s p e c t i v e l y . Later on, crystal growth i s associated with t h e need t o draw w a t e r maintaining

t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n e v a p o r a t i o n and c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n . in order to keep t h e strike before it is discharged. control of to

F i n a l l y , w a t e r may be d r a w n

The i m p o r t a n c e utilization lies

o f an a u t o m a t i c

boiling

efficient

energy factors water

in e l i m i n a t i n g the the interventions

influence

indeterministic - on t h e

associated with

o f a human o p e r a t o r the b o i l i n g

amount o f

drawn and t h u s on e n e r g y s p e n t d u r i n g of (i) contemporary automatic controls

cycle.

The e s s e n t i a l (refs.

functions 29-35).

can be s u m m a r i z e d as f o l l o w s

Continuous measuring o f the automatic thickening

s y r u p and m a s s e c u i t e l e v e l s f o r and a u t o m a t i c

automatic

charging, heating (ii)

c h a n g e o f f e e d s u p p l y , vacuum and

vapour supply. o f s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n , u s u a l l y by measuring t h e massecuite. t h e vacuum l e v e l heating in the pan. the whole cycle. dielectric

Continuous control

value or c o n d u c t i v i t y o f the (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) final Continuous control Continuous control Continuous control of

o f the

vapour supply during temperature.

o f the massecuite

C o n t i n u o u s measuring o f t h e power consumption o f t h e thickening to

stirrer,

this

allowing

t h e optimum m a s s e c u i t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n b e f o r e d i s c h a r g e . system, the and s t o p p i n g and ( i v ) computer a l s o t a k e s o f the vacuum-pan care of all valve

In a computer-based c o n t r o l operations during The f u n c t i o n s consumption. starting under

cycle. in minimizing is desirable heat to

(iii)

are p a r t i c u l a r l y

useful

At the beginning o f the c r y s t a l o f the In t h i s

growth phase, i t this

increase the temperature the pressure in the without crystal pan.

sugar s o l u t i o n ; way, the

c a n be done b y

increasing

crystallization

can be i n c r e a s e d the

spending a d d i t i o n a l

energy to

intensify

e v a p o r a t i o n . L a t e r o n , when

g r o w t h becomes l i m i t e d b y t h e e v a p o r a t i o n , t h e p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be

227

reduced, flux at

this

resulting

in

reduced s o l u t i o n

temperature

and t h u s

increased heat is of also sucrose

the heating

s u r f a c e . An a d d i t i o n a l

energy-saving effect reduced s o l u b i l i t y of

obtained, (i.e.,

namely e x t r a c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n

due t o

without

heat e x p e n d i t u r e ) . The p r i n c i p l e the boiling cycle is

program-controlled Fig. 6.9(a). When

temperature performing

changes d u r i n g the temperature

shown i n

r e d u c t i o n , the

control

algorithm

should avoid grain

excessive temperature formation.

gradients, with

the associated r i s k

of false

(a)

(b)

lower limit

Time

Time

F i g . 6.9. P r i n c i p l e s o f p r o g r a m - c o n t r o l l e d changes o f important v a r i a b l e s the automatic b o i l i n g c y c l e : (a) temperature, (b) heating-vapour f l o w . 1 - e v a p o r a t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l l y d r a w n s o l u t i o n , 2 - s e e d i n g and c r y s t a l f o r m a t i o n , 3 - c r y s t a l g r o w t h , 4 - time i n t e r v a l o f f l o w c o n t r o l using optimization algorithm. The c o n t r o l water of intakes of heating v a p o u r s u p p l y makes i t possible to

during

avoid unnecessary part the the

accompanying the advanced c r y s t a l cycle, the control algorithm

growth phase. During t h i s the set-point solution of value of

the b o i l i n g

adjusts

v a p o u r f l o w d e p e n d i n g on t h e d r y s u b s t a n c e c o n t e n t r a t e at which the massecuite controlled level is

o f the

d r a w n and

r a i s e d . The p r i n c i p l e is shown i n Fig. to

program-

changes o f the vapour f l o w under (i) and ( i i i ) the

6.9(b). v a r y the d u r a t i o n upper-level at a In change of the

The f u n c t i o n s boiling cycle,

c a n be u t i l i z e d

according to it is

requirements

d e f i n e d by t h e

control.

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , predetermined r a t e , addition, is

possible to

r a i s e the massecuite

level

thus a f f e c t i n g

t h e time needed t o

r e a c h t h e maximum.

the s e t - p o i n t

v a l u e o f t h e vacuum l e v e l in order to influence

and t h e moment when i t s the rate of crystal

i n i t i a t e d c a n be a d j u s t e d

growth. by the

The c o m p l e x i t y o f c o m p u t e r - b a s e d b o i l i n g p a r a m e t e r s o f one o f t h e a n a l o g and 32 d i g i t a l systems a v a i l a b l e as w e l l

controls

c a n be i l l u s t r a t e d (ref. 36). It

on t h e m a r k e t

uses 8

inputs,

as 4 a n a l o g and 16 d i g i t a l

outputs.

228

Communication w i t h

the

user i s

possible via display,

printer, a data

k e y b o a r d and u s e r communication level.

defined push-buttons. channel, which permits 6.6.3 Coordination of

The s y s t e m i s

also equipped w i t h to

data t r a n s m i s s i o n s u g a r house

and f r o m t h e

upper c o n t r o l

operations sugar b o i l i n g make it possible to

The r e p r o d u c i b l e undertake to the task

results of

o f automated the

coordinating

processes of multi-stage the quality

crystallization of results, of

achieve the is far

best overall

results.

The c o n c e p t o f

however,

f r o m o b v i o u s . L e t us f o r m u l a t e

two h y p o t h e t i c a l

objectives

coordination: - maximizing - maximizing processed in On t h e white sugar output per 100 kg b e e t p r o c e s s e d ; expressed in amount o f thick juice

s u g a r house t h r o u g h p u t , unit time.

basis o f these o b j e c t i v e s , it is also possible to

two d i f f e r e n t

control

strategies

c a n be (ref.

defined; 37).

combine them i n t o the minimization

one compromise o f the

strategy

A n a l o g o u s l y , one can i m a g i n e control control

e n e r g y demand

being

a c c e p t e d as one o f t h e being included in the

objectives, strategy.

and s e a r c h i n g f o r

energy savings

I n any c o n t r o l related to the

strategy,

a c c o u n t s h o u l d be t a k e n of continuous

o f numerous

constraints volumes

interaction of of

and b a t c h e q u i p m e n t , etc.

storage

available,

limitations

heating

vapour s u p p l y ,

Practical

experience the

proves that v i o l a t i o n s disturbances occurring At the present state

these c o n s t r a i n t s

are the

primary

cause o f

in manually

operated c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n coordination

subsystems. attention the is sugar

o f development o f disturbances is

control,

c o n c e n t r a t e d on a v o i d i n g house. their A contributing environment This

i n mass and e n e r g y f l o w s w i t h i n crystallization to automatic to

factor

t h a t the e x i s t i n g

s u b s y s t e m s and sugar house be a c c o u n t e d the

are often

not p a r t i c u l a r l y

suited

operation. for in the

results

in a multitude of

special

constraints

control

algorithms.

T y p i c a l examples a r e : limited

limited capacity of operation of the

vacuum s y s t e m , t o o s m a l l evaporator in the at control, etc.

storage tanks, For t h i s

range o f

reason, the general than the

objectives of control of

coordination aimed

e s t a b l i s h e d systems are the constraints, preventing

less important like

functions

satisfying

scheduling of operation etc. (refs.

b a t c h vacuum p a n s These functions mixers

and c e n t r i f u g a l s , consist mainly and a d j u s t i n g of

tank o v e r f l o w , levels in

38-41).

s u p e r v i s i n g the

syrup tanks

and m a s s e c u i t e In t h i s

the working

c y c l e s o f the

batch equipment. c a n be

manner,

a regularization The r e s u l t s The a t t a i n a b l e w a t e r drawn t o implementing

o f s u g a r house o p e r a t i o n the

obtained. positive. amount After of

obtained with

coordination

systems are c l e a r l y by r e d u c t i o n in to

e n e r g y s a v i n g s c a n be i l l u s t r a t e d

o f the 42).

b a t c h vacuum pans i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y coordination system, water intakes

FRG ( r e f .

the

vacuum pans C w e r e

229

reduced from the strike, It is water felt

initial

level

o f a b o u t 30 kg p e r

1 t

magma t o

zero.

In A magma.

intakes

were n e a r l y h a l v e d from about improvements

12 t o

7 kg p e r

1 t of

that further of

a r e needed i n The e x i s t i n g of

t h e methods

coordination fully utilize

s u g a r house o p e r a t i o n . technological

coordination control of the

s y s t e m s do of

not

the

potential

integrated

individual

stations

and i n t e g r a t e d process.

management o f d a t a on t h e

details

sugar

crystallization 6.7

PULP DRYING CONTROL The g o a l of the moisture pulp drying content. process is to dry the final incoming pressed pulp of is to the to dried

a definite pulp

T y p i c a l l y , the 5-6%; in the

moisture

content it

should not

be l o w e r t h a n

subsequent p e l l e t i n g ,

eventually

i n c r e a s e d t o 9-11%. T h e s e v a l u e s a r e d e s i r a b l e w i t h keeping quality of the dried to pulp.

r e s p e c t both

e n e r g y economy and t h e The t a s k content of the

automatic

control

system i s

keep t h e It

final

moisture to

o f the

d r i e d pulp at

a predetermined mainly

level.

s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e of the rate of

eliminate delivery of

disturbances resulting of pressed pulp,

from f l u c t u a t i o n s content problems of

the moisture control

pressed pulp,

and t h e

quality to

pressed pulp.

The r e v i e w o f

p r e s e n t e d below i s

limited gases. is not

the problems Control specific

characteristic

o f drum-type

d r y e r s heated by combustion r e v i e w as i t

o f the to the

combustion process i s sugar industry. reasons f o r

e x c l u d e d from the

T h e r e a r e two main control: -

the d i f f i c u l t i e s

encountered in

pulp

drying

a c c u r a t e measurements

of the moisture

content

of

the

pulp are d i f f i c u l t

to

make; the process i s its c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l a r g e details of ratio the of gas f l o w to pressed o f the of pulp 2-4

flow;

v a l u e d e p e n d s on t h e dryers

p r o c e s s , and i s characteristic boiler control flue

order

in high-temperature featuring

(lower values being or utilization of

dryers

gas r e c i r c u l a t i o n first

gas). in use the

Because o f t h e

p r o b l e m , most a u t o m a t i c exit

systems p r e s e n t l y

r e l y on measurement o f t h e final moisture the of content

gas t e m p e r a t u r e , pulp.

indirectly

representing actual value

o f the

dried the

D e p e n d i n g on t h e to the

measured,

system a d j u s t s settings are

energy input

dryer furnace. the results principle of of

Possible the the dryer risk of

corrections laboratory control

introduced according to samples.

analyses of d r i e d pulp t h e way t h e moisture

The w o r k i n g act.

affects

dryer operators

In order to

avoid the with

too high f i n a l

content,

they tend to

o v e r d r y the

pulp,

too

large

an e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n The g a s / p u l p r a t i o ,

as a

result. a large specific volume o f the gas, r e s u l t s g a s and t h a t of in

along with

a considerable difference

between t h e

retention

time o f the

230

the pulp dryer

in the is

d r y e r drum. W h i l e t h e time needed f o r o f the o r d e r o f one h o u r , reason, i f exit the

the

pulp

to

reach

the

outlet

retention

time o f

t h e g a s may be heat balance but

several of

seconds. For t h i s

a disturbance is

o c c u r s and t h e changed w i t h i n content o f the

the d r y e r changes, the minutes

gas t e m p e r a t u r e final

seconds, dried

15-20 is

a r e needed b e f o r e t h e is the

moisture

pulp

changed. T h i s time lag controlling transient

underlying

cause o f the dryer.

difficulties

associated drying is of the

with

processes in the

For example, in p a r a l l e l ,

in pulp one o f

stations

equipped w i t h absorb the the

t w o o r more d r y e r s w o r k i n g swings in the

them

destined to parameters, result is

p r o c e s s . When e x p e c t i n g f l u c t u a t i o n s to catch the worst c o n d i t i o n . be t o o h i g h , and t h e A

operator

usually tries gas t e m p e r a t u r e

typical energy

t h a t the e x i t larger than

tends to

consumption Various

r e a l l y necessary. pulp drying mentioned control h a v e been p r o p o s e d 43,44). to

systems o f automatic difficulties

overcome t h e t y p i c a l improvements moisture

above ( r e f s .

Considerable the

h a v e been a t t a i n e d of the pulp

b y u s i n g new methods o f measurement o f 22,45). As t h e control functions however,

content

(refs.

are the is

e x t e n d e d and c o n t r o l conventional

algorithms

become i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p l e x , and c o s t l y .

s y s t e m s become c o m p l i c a t e d

A contributing

factor

t h a t the energy-saving extensions of the pulp drying process, l i k e of boiler flue the gas o r gas r e c i r c u l a t i o n , require the addition

utilization control

of extra

loops to

basic system. can a t t a i n v e r y g o o d r e s u l t s possible using in this

A l t h o u g h an e x p e r i e n c e d d r y e r o p e r a t o r a conventional field (ref. control

s y s t e m and new d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e s t i l l is certainly in

46),

the f u t u r e

computer-based s y s t e m s . The demonstrated in a sugar step in

advantages o f factory in

computer

application

h a v e been c l e a r l y

FRG, where computer

t e c h n o l o g y was i n t r o d u c e d as a l o g i c a l

dried pulp

F i g . 6 . 1 0 . P o i n t s o f measurement o f main v a r i a b l e s i n t h e a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l o f a p u l p d r y e r : 1 - combustion gas t e m p e r a t u r e , 2 - temperature i n the drum, 3 - o u t l e t temperature, 4 - f i n a l moisture content, 5 - fuel flow, 6 - a i r flow, 7 - feeder c a p a c i t y , 8 - i n i t i a l moisture content. F - f u r n a c e , D -drum, A - afterdryer.

231

improving

the e x i s t i n g

pulp drying

controls on t h e

(ref.

47).

The mathematical

model

of the

t h e p r o c e s s d y n a m i c s was i d e n t i f i e d actual pulp drying o f model station, using

b a s i s o f measurements correlation

recorded in analysis of

a method c o m p r i s i n g

and

estimation and o u t p u t The the

parameters.

A sketch of is

a dryer, with Fig. in 6.10.

indication

input

v a r i a b l e s of the model, controls of three

shown i n

computer

d r y e r s working in

parallel.

It

was e s t i m a t e d a b o u t 2.5%.

that It is

implementation

this

system r e s u l t e d

a fuel to

saving of

noteworthy that t h i s by

s a v i n g was o b t a i n e d

relative

dryer operation

supervised Similar dryer

experienced operators

using w e l l - f u n c t i o n i n g

conventional of

controls.

results

are r e p o r t e d from o t h e r

cases o f a p p l i c a t i o n

computer-based

controls. REFERENCES 1 2 3 J . D o b r z y c k i , A u t o m a t y z a c j a w P r z e m y s l e C u k r o w n i c z y m , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1974. A n o n y m o u s , B o i l e r f u e l c o s t s r e d u c e d . S u g a r J . , 4 4 ( 9 ) ( 1 9 8 2 ) 21. J . A . H e i n b a u g h , D i r e c t d i g i t a l c o n t r o l o f t h e b o i l e r h o u s e , p u l p d r i e r , and m u l t i - e f f e c t e v a p o r a t o r s . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t 2 3 r d ASSBT M e e t i n g , San D i e g o , F e b r u a r y 1985. J . A . F i t z p a t r i c k , T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o m p u t e r s and e l e c t r o n i c s t o p r o c e s s c o n t r o l i n Thames R e f i n e r y , I n t . S u g a r J . , 8 2 ( 9 8 0 ) ( 1 9 8 0 ) 2 3 1 - 2 3 6 . J . S . Hogg and D . F . A . H o r s l e y , T h e u s e o f s m a l l c o m p u t e r s i n B r i t i s h b e e t s u g a r f a c t o r i e s . I n t . Sugar J . , 82(980) (1980) 240-243. R . F . Madsen, P r o g r e s s i n Danish sugar p r o d u c t i o n w i t h i n the p a s t decade. Paper p r e s e n t e d a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e "Improvement o f Beet Sugar P r o d u c t i o n " , W a r s z a w a , May 1987. K.A. S c h u l t e s , Mikrocomputergesteuerte D i c k s a f t f i l t e r s t a t i o n , Zuckerind., 1 0 4 ( 1 1 ) ( 1 9 7 9 ) 1029-1031. P. S l u g o c k i , R e g u l a c j a p r z e p l y w u mas w C u k r o w n i C h e l m z a , G a z . C u k r . , 9 3 ( 4 ) (1985) 79-81. M. S t a s z c z a k , A . B r a t e k and E . K u l a s z y n s k i , M i k r o p r o c e s o r o w y s y s t e m k o o r d y n a c j i p r z e p l y w u mas w s u r o w n i C u k r o w n i R o p c z y c e , G a z . C u k r . , 9 3 ( 5 - 6 ) (1985) 73-75. H . K e m t e r , E i n n e u e r Weg b e i d e r P r o z e s s a u t o m a t i s i e r u n g i n d e r Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Z u c k e r i n d . , 103(11) (1978) 939-945. G . W i n d a l , A p p o r t d e s t e c h n i q u e s m o d e r n e s en a u t o m a t i s a t i o n de s u c r e r i e , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 9 6 ( 7 - 8 ) (1979) 737-745. . P a s c h o l d , E i n s a t z v o n P r o z e s s r e c h n e r n i n b e l g i s c h e n und n i e d e r l n d i s c h e n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 105(4) (1980) 343-344. L. W e n z e l , B e i s p i e l e von A u t o m a t i s i e r u n g s k o n z e p t e n i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 107(10) (1982) 934-936. G . W i n d a l , L ' i n f o r m a t i q u e i n d u s t r i e l l e d a n s 1 ' o p t i m i s a t i o n e n e r g e t i q u e du p r o c e d e de f a b r i c a t i o n , i n : P r o c . 1 7 t h C I T S , C o p e n h a g e n , 1983, p p . 4 5 - 6 5 . H . S . B i r k e t t , Computer a p p l i c a t i o n s . Sugar J . , 46(10) (1984) 10-12. Anonymous, A u t o m a t i s a t i o n e t i n f o r m a t i q u e i n d u s t r i e l l e , S u c r . F r . , 127(103) (1986) 110-114. P. M o s e l ( e t a l . ) , P r o z e s s a u t o m a t i s i e r u n g und D a t e n - M a n a g e m e n t m i t dem n e u e n D C I - S y s t e m im Werk P l a t t l i n g d e r S d d e u t s c h e n Z u c k e r - A G , Z u c k e r i n d . , 111(4) (1986) 321-328. T h . C r o n e w i t z , Wechselwirkungen bei der Entwicklung von D a t e n v e r a r b e i t u n g und V e r f a h r e n s t e c h n i k - M g l i c h k e i t e n d e r P r o z e s s f h r u n g i n d e r Z u k u n f t , Z u c k e r i n d . , 112(2) (1987) 103-107. P. P e t e r s , A u t o m a t i s i e r u n g s - und P r o z e s s d a t e n e r f a s s u n g s a n i agen i n sddeutschen Zuckerfabriken - eine Standortbestimmung, Z u c k e r i n d . , 112(2) (1987) 107-114.

4 5 6

7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

18

19

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20 21 22

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

36 37

38 39 40 41 42

43 44

45 46 47

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Grasmann and 0 . P a r i s e k , Messen und R e g e l n d e s D u r c h f l u s s e s und d e r D i c h t e v o n D i c k s a f t und D n n s a f t , Z u c k e r , ( 1 9 6 9 ) 4 3 2 - 4 3 8 . Die Regelung der V e r d a m p f s t a t i o n i n der Z u c k e r f a b r i k , T e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m S i e m e n s , F r t h , 1975. T . W . B a k e r , E v a p o r a t i o n and h e a t i n g , i n : G . T . Meade and J . C . Chen ( E d s . ) , Cane S u g a r H a n d b o o k , W i l e y , New Y o r k , 1977, p p . 1 8 5 - 2 3 5 . J . C . G i o r g i , P. G i r a u d and A . D e l e u r e n c e , G e s t i o n a u t o m a t i q u e de l ' a t e l i e r d ' e v a p o r a t i o n , S u c r . F r . , 126(93) (1985) 123-128. H . - F . K o r n , D i e P r a x i s d e s k o n t r o l l i e r t e n und a u t o m a t i s i e r t e n Kochens, Z u c k e r , 19(13) (1966) 337-349. R . J . B a s s and J . D o n o v a n , M i c r o p r o c e s s o r c o n t r o l o f s u g a r b o i l i n g , S u c r . B e i g e , 9 5 ( 8 ) (1976) 421-433. G . W i n d a l and A . D e l e u r e n c e , R e s u l t a t s i n d u s t r i i s de l a c o n d u i t e d e s c u i t e s par m i c r o - o r d i n a t e u r , S u c r . F r . , 9 6 ( 3 ) (1979) 121-122. P.W. v a n d e r P o e l ( e t a l . ) , A u t o m a t i s i e r u n g d e r K o c h s t a t i o n d e r C S M - Z u c k e r f a b r i k B r e d a , Z u c k e r i n d . , 107(2) (1982) 113-117. P.W. v a n d e r P o e l ( e t a l . ) , E n e r g i e e i n s p a r u n g e n b e i d e r V e r d a m p f u n g s kristallisation, Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(10) (1983) 934-939. D. H o k s , A u t o m a t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d s u g a r b o i l i n g s y s t e m . S u g a r J . , 46(7) (1983) 8-9. S . C . H . M c C a r e y and F . F e a r n s i d e , A s p e c t s o f a u t o m a t i c s u g a r b o i l i n g a t Newark f a c t o r y . I n t . S u g a r J . , P a r t I 8 7 ( 1 0 4 3 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 2 0 8 - 2 1 3 , P a r t I I 87(1044) (1985) 223-227. G . R . M o l l e r , A a n i s h m i c r o p r o c e s s o r c o n t r o l l e r f o r t h e pan f l o o r . Sugar y A z c a r , 80(7) (1985) 33-35. D. P i o t r o w s i c i and K. U r b a n i e c , O p t i m a l c o n t r o l o f batch-continuous c r y s t a l ! f z a t i on o f s u g a r . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t 7 t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress C H I S A r ^ B l , P r a g u e , S e p t e m b e r 1981. G . W i n d a l , A u t o m a t i s a t i o n p a r m i c r o - o r d i n a t e u r d e s c u i t e s 2eme e t 3eme j e t de l a S u c r e r i e de T o u r y , S u c r . F r . , 9 4 ( 3 ) ( 1 9 7 7 ) 1 2 9 - 1 3 5 . G . W i n d a l and A . D e l e u r e n c e , G e s t i n a s s i s t e e du c h a n t i e r de p r e m i e r jet, S u c r . F r . , 9 6 ( 3 ) (1979) 123-126. G . W i n d a l and A . D e l e u r e n c e , A p p l i c a t i o n a l a c r i s t a l 1 i s a t i o n du p r o c e d e C h e o p s de g e s t i n c o o r d o n n e e , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 9 8 ( 7 - 8 ) ( 1 9 8 1 ) 5 8 1 - 5 8 8 . . H a r r i s o n and J . R u z i c k a , S u p e r v i s o r y c o n t r o l and d a t a a c q u i s i t i o n for p r o c e s s . Sugar J . , 48(1) (1985) 5-9. W. A s s e n m a c h e r , . M e r e n s k y and K. W h r l e , A u t o m a t i s c h e S t e u e r u n g e i n e r Kochstation mit d i s k o n t i n u i e r l i c h e n Kochapparaten, Z u c k e r i n d . , 111(6) (1986) 549-554. F. Baunack, T r o c k n u n g , i n : F. S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , T e c h n o l o g i e des Z u c k e r s , S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1968, p p . 8 4 5 - 8 8 3 . H . A . P a s c h o l d , D i e R e g e l u n g v o n a d i a b a t i s c h e n und nicht-adiabatischen T r o c k n e r n am B e i s p i e l v o n T r o m m e l - und d a m p f b e h e i z t e n Rhrenbndeltrocknern, Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 3 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 9 7 8 ) 1036-1030. H. Kemter, Regelung von S c h n i t z e l t r o m m e l t r o c k n e r n , Z u c k e r , 30(1 ) ( 1 9 7 7 ) 7 - 1 0 . H . P . G i l d e r s l e e v e , Beet p u l p d r y i n g c o n t r o l . Sugar J . , 44(5) (1981) 15-18. P. M o s e l ( e t a l . ) , F h r u n g e i n e r T r o m m e l t r o c k n e r a n l a g e f r P r e s s s c h n i t z e l m i t einem P r o z e s s r e c h n e r , Z u c k e r i n d . , 105(6) (1980) 554-561.

233

Chapter 7

MONITORING OF THE HEAT CONSUMPTION

7.1 7.1.1

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS Scope o f t h e problems of h e a t economy i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y all are, on t h e one h a n d , to

The r e q u i r e m e n t s

ensure a continuous heat s u p p l y to proper operating conditions for smooth f a c t o r y

s e c t i o n s o f t h e p r o c e s s and t o equipment, as t h e s e a r e

maintain

the f a c t o r y operation,

the minimize without stations,

prerequisites for heat consumption monitoring

and on t h e o t h e r

hand, to

in the p r o c e s s . A l l

these tasks

c a n n o t be f u l f i l l e d units and p r o c e s s

heat consumption i n

individual

equipment

o v e r s e e i n g equipment o p e r a t i o n , determining It is the p o s s i b i l i t i e s

identifying

causes f o r in

heat

l o s s e s and

for

improvements

h e a t economy. consideration

traditionally

understood that

the problem area under

includes: fuel fuel and f u e l storage; in boilers;

c o m b u s t i o n and steam g e n e r a t i o n

electricity

g e n e r a t i o n i n t h e power h o u s e ; for process purposes. needs o f factory the sugar i n d u s t r y , it is general regulations them such from

steam and v a p o u r u t i l i z a t i o n Along w i t h satisfying the

specific

necessary

i n most c o u n t r i e s t o m o n i t o r

operation according to The

regulations usually

concerning the o p e r a t i o n o f e n e r g y - s u p p l y equipment. keeping o p e r a t i n g r e c o r d s and p e r i o d i c a l l y This applies

require

evaluating to

the p o i n t equipment -

of view of energy u t i l i z a t i o n . as: boilers;

in p a r t i c u l a r

steam and w a t e r turbines;

l a r g e heat r e c e i v e r s (heat e x c h a n g e r s , d r y e r s , controlling It and m e a s u r i n g that, equipment.

etc.);

can be s t a t e d

unlike

design problems, monitoring are not very well

problems

associated the

with

t h e h e a t economy i n In t h i s

sugar f a c t o r i e s

covered in

literature.

Chapter, the

basic factors

needed t o m o n i t o r operating

and e v a l u a t e are

h e a t economy c o r r e c t l y and e f f e c t i v e l y brought together. important topics

under actual

conditions

As o n l y t h e most is attributed of controlling to

c a n be d i s c u s s e d h e r e , t h e h i g h e s t

priority

problems d i r e c t l y

associated with

e n e r g y s a v i n g s . The problems individual m a c h i n e s and Chapter. under

specific

aspects o f the operation o f

equipment u n i t s It

a r e r e g a r d e d as b e i n g b e y o n d t h e

scope o f t h i s

has been assumed t h r o u g h o u t t h i s

Chapter t h a t the

sugar f a c t o r y

234

consideration

is

c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y an a v e r a g e l e v e l monitoring

of process

instrumentation. some modern

T h e a d v a n c e d m e a s u r i n g and a u t o m a t i c plants 7.1.2 are largely ignored here.

systems used i n

Theoretical

background devoted s o l e l y to in well the e n e r g y economy ( r e f s . 1-4), and (refs.

In the also 5-9),

publications special

in the

chapters

known b o o k s on b e e t s u g a r t e c h n o l o g y is treated only marginally. The

monitoring

o f the

heat consumption

information practical

gathered in

t h e s e s o u r c e s may p r o v e i n s u f f i c i e n t this problem.

as a b a s i s It may t h e n in

for become such

engineering

analyses associated with theoretical

necessary to fields (i)

r e l y on g e n e r a l listed below.

relationships,

particularly

as t h o s e

The f i r s t

law o f thermodynamics,

as a b a s i s f o r in stations,

determining equipment

the or

energy

balances of parts. 2.1. This

thermal

p r o c e s s e s and f l o w s matter

equipment in Section literature

important

has been d i s c u s s e d i n g r e a t e r treatment refs.

detail

F o r an e x t e n s i v e t h e o r e t i c a l

10 and 11,

or other

on a p p l i e d t h e r m o d y n a m i c s , (ii) The thermodynamics

may be c o n s u l t e d . and s t e a m , w h i c h a r e t h e above a l s o include b a s i c media in the to

of water

thermal this other

p r o c e s s e s . The books mentioned T a b l e s o f thermodynamic for numerical

chapters devoted refs. 12, or 13 and

topic.

functions

are given in for

sources, while

approximations

calculator-

computer-

aided c a l c u l a t i o n s . (iii) give (iv)

A p p e n d i x 1 may be c o n s u l t e d . particularly worth attention, as a b o v e . to t h e mechanism of because i t may

Combustion. T h i s process i s rise to

considerable energy l o s s e s ; l i t e r a t u r e as a g r o u p o f to

Heat t r a n s f e r , losses.

phenomena c o n t r i b u t i n g the above l i t e r a t u r e ,

most h e a t

In addition

refs.

14 and 15 can be

recommended. (v) The f o u n d a t i o n s of industrial measurement, as a b a s i s f o r the data For may be gathering

and d a t a technical

interpretation details

on w h i c h h e a t - e c o n o m y m o n i t o r i n g information on e r r o r analysis,

must r e l y . refs. 15-18

and f o r

consulted. It s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t p r o p e r a n a l y s i s and e f f e c t i v e the utilization of steam and v a p o u r f o r sugar manufacturing is s o l v i n g o f the process purposes problems often

associated with require

deep u n d e r s t a n d i n g process in objects

of the

process. to identify units, the heat

An e s s e n t i a l balances o f the stations,

heat-economy m o n i t o r i n g i.e.

under c o n s i d e r a t i o n , factory.

equipment

process balance the of

o r even the e n t i r e the

The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

o f a heat

consists of establishing mass and e n e r g y s t r e a m s each s t r e a m .

boundary o f a thermodynamic

system, determining

c r o s s i n g the it

b o u n d a r y , and r e c o g n i z i n g t h e m a g n i t u d e o f the appropriate

In p r a c t i c e ,

r e q u i r e s t h a t measurements

235

parameters are taken. theoretical

Not a l l

parameters

need t o

be k n o w n , h o w e v e r , as

the

balance d e s c r i p t i o n

e n a b l e s one t o

c o n s t r u c t a system o f v a l u e s as r e q u i r e d

equations. for

The m e a s u r e m e n t s s h o u l d s u p p l y as many p a r a m e t e r determining the remaining ones from t h e it

equations. is necessary to observe the conformity for

When p e r f o r m i n g of the s t a t e

the measurements,

o f the thermodynamic

system c o n s i d e r e d w i t h the c o n d i t i o n s has been f o r m u l a t e d . (2.3) or (2.6), If In

which the t h e o r e t i c a l

balance d e s c r i p t i o n originating

particular,

when u s i n g t h e f o r m u l a e

from eqns.

steady-state of the

c o n d i t i o n s must be m a i n t a i n e d

throughout test

the t e s t

period.

fluctuations

p a r a m e t e r s c a n n o t be a v o i d e d , t h e the v a l i d i t y individual In o f mean v a l u e s (the

p e r i o d s h o u l d be l o n g e n o u g h t o

ensure for

recommendations c o n c e r n i n g t e s t

durations

stations

are given below). the p r e r e q u i s i t e the for measurements l e a d i n g to a

an e x i s t i n g

factory,

correct

heat balance i s

that

s y s t e m be e q u i p p e d w i t h g o o d m e a s u r i n g a false balance and

equipment. finally

C l e a r l y , e r r o n e o u s m e a s u r e m e n t s may l e a d t o It is thus

t o wrong c o n c l u s i o n s . be i n s t a l l e d

recommended t h a t more needed f o r

measuring of the

instruments

than are t h e o r e t i c a l l y

solution

system o f b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s . Measurement d a t a balance r e s u l t s 7.1.3 Example the energy balance o f due t o obtained in different ways.

can t h e n be c h e c k e d b y

comparing

When i n v e s t i g a t i n g overcome d i f f i c u l t i e s centrifugals.

the

sugar house, i t

is

necessary to

t h e p e r i o d i c o p e r a t i o n o f t h e vacuum p a n s and

F o r e x a m p l e , t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f a b a t c h vacuum pan

noncondensable gases
AUXILIARY BOUNDARIES | "

cooling water

, '

A / r

1 '

, ^ - "

leaks I ' '

4 SUGAR H O U S E EQUIPMENT

heat losses sugar molasses condensate

J
~" SYSTEM" BOUNDARY ~ "

Fig.

7.1.

Energy balance o f the

sugar house.

236

s h o u l d be a n a l y s e d f o r relationships however, the

the

entire (2.1)

boiling

cycle, with

the

aid

of

balance output,

b a s e d on e q n s . b a l a n c e can r e l y

and ( 2 . 4 ) .

For s t a b i l i z e d concerning

s u g a r house

on t h e

relationships

steady-state p l a c e d as shown is also be

conditions, in Fig. 7.1,

i.e.

eqns.

(2.3)

and ( 2 . 6 ) .

The system boundary the

is

w h e r e an a u x i l i a r y

boundary f o r

condenser balance the balances

indicated. performed for

The measurements o v e r an a d e q u a t e

necessary for time, so t h a t

establishing reliable water

should

mean v a l u e s can be temperature, relatively etc.

calculated overall

steam and c o n d e n s a t e f l o w s , the

barometric

I n an

energy balance f o r streams

s u g a r h o u s e , one c a n n e g l e c t

small

energy motors is

s u c h as c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n in mixers,

h e a t and w o r k p e r f o r m e d and p u m p s ) . A n o t h e r leaks

by d r i v i n g

(especially that

centrifugals

convenient assumption seals,

t h e mass l o s s e s c a u s e d b y u n c o n t r o l l a b l e etc.) are treated jointly

(leaking

evaporation losses

f r o m open t a n k s , in leaks,

as mass s t r e a m G ^ ^ . T h e e n e r g y those resulting from

h o w e v e r , may c o n v e n t i o n a l l y to the environment,

be a d d e d t o jointly

heat all

transfer the

and t r e a t e d Fig.

as h e a t Q . A s s u m i n g t h a t from the as

remaining

quantities the "

shown i n

7.1

h a v e been d e f i n e d

measurements,

equations ^4 "

o f mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s ^

can be w r i t t e n ^5

^sl "
%A^

%2

"

%3

<^s5 = ^ 1

^2

* ^ 3 =

+ ^4

^ S2^2

^ ^s3^3

^ ^54^4 ^ ^ 5 ^ 5

= ^^^^ * \z\z'
Hence t h e ^5 Q = total leak * stream and t o t a l ^4^4 Typical TABLE balance data 7.1 of the G (kg/100 kg b) sugar house, c a l c u l a t e d t (C) h (kJ/kg) for and r e s u l t s uncontrollable (^1 (Sl^l * S2^2 '^S3hs3 7.1. heat *

^ 3 ^ 3 are

^ ^4^4

loss ^4^

^sl ^ hz

" '^s4 ^ ^ ^ 3 ^ 3 "

^ ^2

^3

G^^h^T

+ G^2^2

^ 4 ^ 4

Ss^S^

are given

in Table

Mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e S t r e a m name k 1 2 3 4 5 j 1 2 3 4 5 Inlet Thick juice Thin juice Water Vapours Cooling water Outlet Sugar Molasses Condensate Barometric Leaks

100

kg

beet.

G-h ( k J / 1 0 0 kg

b)

28.6 2.4 9.4 26.4 360.0

103.3 95 80 20

306 371 335 2754 84

8752 890 3149 72706 30240

water

14.0 3.6 25.2 382.0 2.0

20 20 95 55 Heat

23 105 398 230 losses

322 378 10030 87860 17147

237

7.1.4 The

Monitoring

and r e d u c t i o n o f t h e

heat

consumption as a s y s t e m k e p t complicated, in its certain

h e a t economy i n a s u g a r f a c t o r y by a f u e l s u p p l y . As t h i s

c a n be t r e a t e d

operation

system i s

relatively

functioning parameters

can be e v a l u a t e d o n l y on t h e

basis of

recorded values of

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g s e l e c t e d thermal

processes. I t

has been s u g g e s t e d identify heat losses out

a b o v e t h a t t h e d a t a on s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n and their possible reduction. Monitoring the e x i s t i n g

c a n be a p p l i e d t o results

t h u s e n a b l e one t o

point

where, effects

and i n w h a t m a n n e r , can be e x p e c t e d .

installation

c a n be i m p r o v e d and w h a t

Experience proves that

if

no s y s t e m a t i c m o n i t o r i n g o f t h e

h e a t economy has yield thermal

been c a r r i e d o u t p r e v i o u s l y , i n i t i a t i n g advantageous r e s u l t s . system, even w i t h o u t

s u c h a c t i o n may i m m e d i a t e l y o f the existing

An i n v e n t o r y and d o c u m e n t a t i o n h e a t b a l a n c e s , e n a b l e s one t o in the f u n c t i o n i n g in condensate l i n e s of

d i s c o v e r the equipment

abnormalities units and of

which are not v i s i b l e stations, like errors

individual

causing

incomplete

utilization

c o n d e n s a t e e n e r g y , and e r r o r s vapour flows to

in vapour l i n e s

causing small important

uncontrollable c o n c l u s i o n on w a y s heat balances of

between e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s .

The most

r e d u c e h e a t c o n s u m p t i o n can o f stations

c o u r s e be d r a w n f r o m t h e factory. It in is

individual

and o f t h e e n t i r e

another matter,

however, the of

i n w h a t manner t h e c o n c l u s i o n s a r e i m p l e m e n t e d i m p r o v e m e n t s a r e a l w a y s aimed a t raw m a t e r i a l , manufacturing potential It or unit amount o f

practice.

In p r i n c i p l e , amount to

reducing heat consumption per u n i t s u g a r . The e s s e n t i a l aim,

however, i s

reduce the

c o s t s . The economic f a c t o r s heat consumption is

should f i n a l l y utilized in or

decide whether not. c a s e s can t h e

reduction of

s h o u l d a l s o be remembered t h a t o n l y

exceptional

measures

r e d u c i n g h e a t c o n s u m p t i o n be r e g a r d e d as " p u r e " h e a t economy c o r r e c t i o n s . As a rule, and corrective actions are concerned w i t h the factors affecting of thick both process juice, has is and

h e a t e c o n o m y . As an e x a m p l e , c o n s i d e r t h e to the

concentration in

a p a r a m e t e r whose i m p o r t a n c e

heat consumption

sugar manufacture parameter,

been d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 1 . 3 . 5 . A n y c o r r e c t i o n o f unthinkable sugar 7.2 7.2.1 In it of is without prior

this

however,

a n a l y s i s o f p o s s i b l e consequences i n

sugar y i e l d

quality. Q U A L I T Y OF WATER AND STEAM Scope o f t h e q u a l i t y inspection conditions for boilers and turbines, systems

order to maintain proper operating necessary to i n s p e c t the q u a l i t y systematically is to

o f w a t e r and steam i n t h e t h e r m a l required, to take c o r r e c t i v e laboratory

sugar f a c t o r i e s

and, i f

action.

T h e aim o f t h e analysis, -

inspection

establish, in:

by measurement o r

t h e amounts o f supplied to

impurities the boiler;

feed water

238

boiler

water

and s t e a m ; from the evaporation are also station. and t h u s at the the quality stages

condensate, p a r t i c u l a r l y The parameters

o f make-up w a t e r

important,

inspection o f the With as:

includes analyses of process. their

raw w a t e r

and o f w a t e r

individual

purification respect to

physical

properties,

the

impurities

c a n be

classified

- mechanical

impurities, or

with

particle

s i z e s a b o v e 0.1

micron,

appearing

as

suspended matter colloidal

sediment; with particles b e t w e e n 1 nm and 0.1 micron, creating

impurities,

suspensoids; - molecular impurities, the with particles b e l o w 1 nm a p p e a r i n g the cumulative in solutions. of but

With r e s p e c t to certain groups o f

chemical

properties, important of

concentrations

compounds a r e

(examples: hardness, a l k a l i n i t y ) , some s p e c i f i c elements

so a l s o t h e (examples: Owing t o result

individual oxygen, the

concentrations

and compounds

SiO^). requirements of water and steam that

extremely high q u a l i t y

from the

advanced p o w e r - g e n e r a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s the problem o f quality

used i n

large-scale has small

electricity evolved into part of it

generation, an e n t i r e really

inspection

and c o n t r o l 19). Only a

branch o f engineering to thermal

science ( r e f .

is

applicable

systems a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

sugar

technology. The d e t a i l s in d i f f e r e n t types, local and p r i n c i p l e s of quality inspection of water and steam may or equipment technologist vary

sugar f a c t o r i e s , conditions or

in accordance with regulations. bear the

installation the for

local

As a r u l e ,

chief

and c h i e f

power e n g i n e e r j o i n t l y sometimes, the

responsibility

inspection is required.

principles; 7.2.2

agreement o f the

equipment manufacturer

Condensate inspection of it is condensate from the e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n suitable as a f e e d - w a t e r of direct component t h a t for the is to

T h e aim o f t h e

e s t a b l i s h whether or not returned to is the b o i l e r

c a n be boilers

house.

(The q u a l i t y

feed water

inspected separately.)

Attention

s h o u l d be f o c u s e d on m o l e c u l a r w h i c h may i n d i c a t e droplets leaking

impurities tubes first in

and p a r t i c u l a r l y

on s u g a r c o n c e n t r a t i o n ,

the evaporator or the presence of j u i c e effect. The p r e s e n c e o f to the boiler, s u g a r makes might it

in vapours from the

practically

impossible heating

to

direct

condensate other

as t h i s

cause f o u l i n g

o f the

s u r f a c e and

dangerous e f f e c t s . of

As h i g h c o n d e n s a t e t e m p e r a t u r e

may i n d u c e t h e

decomposition rely on

s u c r o s e w h i c h t h e n becomes u n d e t e c t a b l e ,

operators

a r e recommended t o

239

the determination of

o f oxygen consumption, which

is

a measure o f

the

concentration inspection

o r g a n i c compounds. A c c o r d i n g l y , a n a l y s e s i n deal

condensate q u a l i t y consumption. is

typically As f a r

w i t h p H , s u g a r p r e s e n c e and o x y g e n boilers of

as t h e c o n d e n s a t e b y - p a s s i n g t h e detection of

concerned, the operation

inspection of Routine

i a aimed a t equipment

s u g a r as an i n d i c a t i o n or j u i c e foam

improper

(juice

droplets

in v a p o u r s ) , or

leaking tubes. Once t h e

i n s p e c t i o n may r e l y of sugar in

on s a m p l e s t a k e n

from condensate tanks. however, i t

presence obtain

a t a n k has been d e t e c t e d ,

may become n e c e s s a r y t o the individual

condensate samples from the o u t l e t units. An i m p o r t a n t factor to

pipes connected to

equipment

be a c c o u n t e d f o r is the

in ensuring the

efficiency

of of sugar

condensate q u a l i t y in

inspection first

frequency of

analyses. Detection s h o u l d be

condensate from the If there

and s e c o n d e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s

performed tests of the are

continuously. repeated over evaporator.

a r e no a u t o m a t i c several minutes tests

a n a l y s e r s , t h i s means t h a t t h e at a position in the v i c i n i t y with oxygen

a cycle of

Accurate laboratory

for

sugar, together least

consumption measurements,

are r e q u i r e d at

every 2 hours. Other as i n the case o f

condensate feed-water the

a n a l y s e s may be p e r f o r m e d w i t h t h e inspection. boiler

same f r e q u e n c y , set of

An e x a m p l e o f a c o m p l e t e for a specific

condensate a n a l y s e s , a c c e p t e d by is given in Table 7.2.

manufacturer

sugar f a c t o r y ,

TABLE

7.2 condensate a n a l y s e s . Dimension Tests^per^8-hour

Example o f a s e t o f Quantity

pH Total hardness Oxygen consumption Alkalinity Sugar p r e s e n c e

mval/litre mg K M n O ^ / l i t r e mval/litre

4 1 4 2 4*

*/
number o f 7.2.3 laboratory tests aimed a t v e r i f i c a t i o n water boilers consists of evaporator condensate to is u s u a l l y o n l y a few depend other issued which of routine tests Feed w a t e r and make-up the

Feed w a t e r make-up w a t e r

supplied to is

a d d e d . T h e demand f o r

make-up w a t e r

p e r c e n t on b e e t s . G e n e r a l l y , q u a l i t y on t h e boiler

requirements

concerning feed water standards or

t y p e and steam p r e s s u r e . in

I n some c o u n t r i e s , field. (ref.

regulations

h a v e been i n t r o d u c e d in the

this

Q u a l i t y recommendations 20). Below, the

i n B e l g i u m can be f o u n d formulated in

literature (ref. 21)

requirements

Polish regulations

are reviewed. from mechanical impurities. A pH

T h e f e e d w a t e r m u s t be c o l o u r l e s s and f r e e

240

above 7 i s preferably possible,

r e q u i r e d and t h e b e l o w 5-10 but its

oxygen consumption

s h o u l d be as l o w as p o s s i b l e , h a r d n e s s s h o u l d be as l o w as boiler type, in steam the case a of

mg K M n O ^ / l i t r e . T h e w a t e r upper l i m i t at the

allowable heat f l u x boilers 0.01

d e p e n d s on t h e surface (for

p r e s s u r e and t h e water-tube hardness o f as s m a l l

heating

example,

radiant up t o

a t 40 b a r o p e r a t i n g

p r e s s u r e , feed water with

mval/litre

can be a c c e p t e d ) . T h e o x y g e n c o n t e n t for is

s h o u l d be The not

as p o s s i b l e , n o t e x c e e d i n g 0 . 0 2 - 0 . 0 3 m g / l i t r e - with mg/litre. boiler dioxide, pressure, different p h o s p h a t e s and i r o n which the danger o f corrosive action

modern b o i l e r s .

CO^ c o n t e n t e x c e e d 20

a s s o c i a t e d - must

D e p e n d i n g on t h e content of silicon

levels of alkalinity

and o f

the

compounds can be a c c e p t e d . T h e

concentration defined at mg/litre

of oil-type for

impurities older

c a n n o t e x c e e d a l i m i t w h i c h has been large water v o l u m e and a t 0.5-1.0

10 m g / l i t r e

boilers with

for

modern b o i l e r s

o p e r a t e d a t 40 b a r steam p r e s s u r e . the set of it is obligatory necessary to feed-water determine: a n a l y s e s . For

T h e same r e g u l a t i o n

defines

t h e most w i d e l y u s e d b o i l e r - pH; oxygen consumption;

types,

hardness; d i s s o l v e d oxygen content;

- mechanical alkalinity;

impurities;

SiO^ concentration; CO^ c o n c e n t r a t i o n ; oil-type impurities;

- water

appearance. boilers list operated at a p r e s s u r e b e l o w 16 b a r , the determination regulations s e c t i o n , the o n l y the first 5

For o l d e r

a n a l y s e s on t h e are o b l i g a t o r y . modern b o i l e r s by t h e boiler's

and, a d d i t i o n a l l y ,

of temporary that

hardness, for formulated

An i m p o r t a n t not mentioned manufacturer inspection final result

s e c t i o n of the in are in of the general

stipulates

requirements

decisive. installations the may be aimed results of at

Water-quality controlling operations the

the water-treatment the treatment,

together with

unit

s u c h as c o a g u l a t i o n , inspection properties

filtration,

d e c a r b o n i z a t i o n , and local

softening. which and

The d e t a i l e d means t o the

scheme s h o u l d be a d a p t e d t o of the raw w a t e r , the

conditions,

treatment In the

process structure ion exchange

requirements treatment,

i m p o s e d on f e e d - w a t e r o f the

parameters.

case o f

control

ion-exchanger a c t i v i t y analyses, the on o p e r a t o r s .

must be

included. formulated set by of the

Concerning the boiler

frequency of are binding

requirements

manufacturer

U s u a l l y , a complete

241

a n a l y s e s s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d t h r e e shift. Local c o n d i t i o n s may make i t while

times

a day,

i.e.

once p e r 8 - h o u r

working

necessary to

perform c e r t a i n

a n a l y s e s more

frequently, however,

o t h e r s may e v e n be o m i t t e d .

In the

c a s e o f new b o i l e r s ,

s u c h c h a n g e s must be a c c e p t e d b y t h e

manufacturer. the d i f f e r e n t boiler stages of

An e x a m p l e o f a c o m p l e t e a treatment is

set of water analyses in

p r o c e s s , and f e e d - w a t e r 7.3.

a n a l y s e s a c c e p t e d by t h e

manufacturer,

shown i n T a b l e

7.2.4

B o i l e r w a t e r and steam in boilers in is the inherently boiler associated with This, in the increasing creates the

Steam g e n e r a t i o n concentration of

impurities

water.

turn,

danger o f d i s t u r b a n c e s i n b o i l e r Mechanical impurities

operation. tend to increase boiler of foaming; if kind

of organic o r i g i n

combined w i t h m i n e r a l of boiler

impurities,

t h e y cause the of mineral

formation

a dangerous become

s c a l e . Mechanical into

impurities

o r i g i n might

transformed foaming

sludge or hard b o i l e r colloidal

scale. Colloidal silicon boiler dioxide

impurities is

a l s o cause

and s l u d g e f o r m a t i o n ; as i t or

particularly is very difficult the may lead

dangerous, to

becomes t r a n s f o r m e d lubricant

into

s c a l e which

remove. O i l

present in

boiler

water

becomes s i n t e r e d on eventually, this

heating to

s u r f a c e s , making h e a t t r a n s f e r tubes. Similar

more d i f f i c u l t ; effects are

burning o f the b o i l e r

i n d u c e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f molecular impurities

organic molecular

impurities

( e . g . s u c r o s e ) , while mineral

cause s c a l e f o r m a t i o n Quality

or corrosion. water is aimed a t determining limit. The whether or not inspection boiler of the

inspection of boiler impurities

concentration of requirements

exceeds the allowable by t h e boiler

can be f o r m u l a t e d

manufacturer is that the

o r by

inspection authorities. impurities must be s m a l l

The g e n e r a l enough t o

principle ensure:

concentration

elimination

of corrosion processes; s c a l e and s l u d g e formation; while heat losses resulting from the

limitation of boiler

- maintaining boiler

t h e p r o p e r steam p u r i t y , reasonably

blowdown a r e k e p t

small. quality inspection of the boiler water alkalinity,

According to

Polish regulations,

s h o u l d c o m p r i s e , f o r most b o i l e r s , S i O ^ c o n t e n t and P ^ O ^ c o n t e n t . particulate

particulate

and d i s s o l v e d m a t t e r , it is enough t o

For older and

boilers,

determine

and d i s s o l v e d m a t t e r , obtain

alkalinity. counteract However, sludge effective the

In order to precipitation, control results of the

a t e m p o r a r y pH i n c r e a s e and t o boiler

p h o s p h a t e may be a d d e d t o concentration of

water.

impurities

relies

on b o i l e r it is

blowdown. With possible to

of analyses of b o i l e r the

water

and make-up w a t e r ,

predetermine

n e c e s s a r y blowdown r a t e

in order to maintain

a constant

desired

242

TABLE 7.3

Example of a set of analyses for make-up water and feed water (radiant boilers, 40 bar steam pressure). Upper number - tests per 8-hour shift, lower numbers - allowable values. Water After With desorption Filtered "^^^^""^ coagulant -T>T^erea ^^^^"^ g^^hange H+ O O 7.0-9.5 Feed exchange Na+ 7.0-9.5 1 5.0-10.0 ! Q 05 1 0.05-0.10 1 0.02-0.03 1 1.0-3.0 1 in 24 h ^^^^ Q 5 J Q Q5 ^ 0.03-0.05 irregular 0.05-1.00 After

Quantity

1 in 24 h

8.5-11.0

Oxygen consumption , 4 o/, u (mg KMnO^/litre) 1 24 h

Total hardness (mval/litre)

i o /i u 1 m 24 h

Oxygen content (mg/litre)

PpOc content (mg/litre)

Fe content (mg/litre)

. . 1 in 24 h

Oil content (mg/litre)

243

concentration

in the b o i l e r

water

(for

details,

see r e f .

22).

It

s h o u l d be therefore

e m p h a s i z e d t h a t e x c e s s i v e blowdown means a l o s s o f be a v o i d e d . Steam l e a v i n g t h e b o i l e r water, particularly if contains impurities

e n e r g y and s h o u l d

originating

from the

boiler silicon and

foaming o c c u r s . Such i m p u r i t i e s

- especially into the

d i o x i d e and i r o n there

compounds - a r e d a n g e r o u s , as t h e y f a l l the durability of the

turbine

form d e p o s i t s which a f f e c t their function

turbine

elements

and of

disturb

( e . g . hinder

t h e movement o f v a l v e p a r t s ) . impurity content of the

Control boiler

steam p u r i t y The l i m i t inspection,

s h o u l d be b y c o n t r o l of impurity

o f the in

water. its

concentration

s t e a m , as w e l l w i t h the

a s t h e method o f boiler and

s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d and f i n a l l y

by c o n s u l t a t i o n in practical

turbine steam

manufacturers, quality -

verified include:

operation.

Typically,

monitoring should

SiO^ concentration; overall Fe c o n c e n t r a t i o n ; conductivity of the condensate at boiler water 20C. the is

electrical

The f r e q u e n c y o f a n a l y s e s o f requirements twice daily. the o f the boiler

and steam s h o u l d f o l l o w the

manufacturer:

typically,

required frequency efficient

Practical

experience proves, of boiler

however, t h a t f o r

quality

control,

b a s i c parameters

water

( p H and e l e c t r i c a l

conductivity)

must be d e t e r m i n e d more An e x a m p l e o f boiler TABLE

frequently. boiler water and s t e a m a n a l y s e s , a c c e p t e d b y is given in Table the

a set of for

manufacturer 7.4

a specific

sugar f a c t o r y ,

7.4.

Example o f a s e t o f Quantity

boiler

water

and s t e a m a n a l y s e s . Dimension Allowable values 7 50-5000 0.1-6.0 3-10 c a 25 max. max. 0.02 0.02 Tests 8-hour per shift

Boiler water

pH Electrical conductivity Alkalinity "p" P2O5 c o n t e n t SO2 c o n t e n t Fe c o n t e n t SO2 c o n t e n t

yS/cm mval/1itre mg/1itre mg/1itre mg/1itre mg/1itre

4 1-2 1 2 irregular 1 1

Steam

7.2.5

Sampling o f w a t e r

and

steam and p r e s e r v e d i n g l a s s b o t t l e s then tap water corks boiled w h i c h a r e washed with water, distilled are source

Water samples a r e c o l l e c t e d

i n advance w i t h soap o r soda s o l u t i o n , water. used. and t o Similarly washed g l a s s p l u g s , o r sampling water

and f i n a l l y in d i s t i l l e d

T h e method o f

s h o u l d be a d a p t e d t o t h e For example,

type o f water

the a n a l y s i s r e q u i r e d

(ref.23).

raw w a t e r

f r o m a pump o r

244

a pipeline the

should flow is

for

about

10 m i n u t e s content

before of

a sample

is

collected;

if

analysis

concerned w i t h the

d i s s o l v e d g a s , sample

aeration

must be a v o i d e d . C o n d e n s a t e and b o i l e r 24) and s a m p l i n g water a r e sampled a c c o r d i n g to s t a n d a r d methods (ref.

equipment

can a l s o be s t a n d a r d i z e d

(ref.25). in

Condensate samples pipelines, latter lower than or

can be o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h through drain possibility the is

special

gauge c o c k s i n s t a l l e d of water-level if the

relevant The

cocks t h a t are p a r t s particularly

indicators.

important

condensate pressure i s

atmospheric

pressure; otherwise, used.

drain

cocks o r a i r - e s c a p e cocks at

the

steam t r a p s

can be

Feed-water type, test

and b o i l e r - w a t e r

s a m p l e s must

be c o o l e d . U s u a l l y , s i m p l e in connection w i t h the

coilrelevant

w a t e r - c o o l e d heat exchangers are cocks. It s h o u l d be p o i n t e d

installed

out that entire the

s u c h c o o l e r s may be s u b j e c t boiler. case o f steam s a m p l i n g ; and

to

hydraulic

tests,

together w i t h the is

Sample c o o l i n g collected sampling, in

also necessary in 26).

steam

is

condensate form ( r e f .

Like

feed-water to

boiler-water so that

c o n d e n s a t e f l o w must be a l l o w e d p r i o r initially of present in the

sample c o l l e c t i o n , the

any i m p u r i t i e s 7.2.6

p i p e and i n

c o o l e r a r e washed away.

Determination

physical

properties for the h e a t economy s y s t e m s , concentration of only are

From t h e p o i n t physical

of view of of water

suitability related to

properties

impurities

important. The appearance o f w a t e r Such t e s t s is e v a l u a t e d by t r a n s p a r e n c y and t u r b i d i t y (ref. 27). impurities in water is the of Test dry tests.

are g e n e r a l l y standardized concentration the of

The measure o f matter content,

non-volatile

i.e.

amount o f d r y m a t t e r weight is determined 28).

remaining after

after at

1 litre 105C.

water

has been e v a p o r a t e d ; i t s

drying

procedures are also standardized The t o t a l density. or salt content

(ref.

in water

c a n be e x p r e s s e d i n d i r e c t l y aerometers

by the in

water kg/litre

F o r r a p i d measurements can be

of density,

calibrated

d e g r e e s Baume ( B ) The c o n t e n t of

used. specific it is

salts,

a c i d s and b a s e s can be e x p r e s s e d b y t h e of the water. As t h i s

electrical measured a t

conductivity 20C. In the

d e p e n d s on t e m p e r a t u r e , different

c a s e o f m e a s u r e m e n t s made a t to

temperatures, As

conductivity conductivity applied

v a l u e s s h o u l d be c o r r e c t e d a c c o r d i n g measurements

standardized formulae. they are are

c a n e a s i l y be r e c o r d e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y , inspection.

widely

in water

and steam q u a l i t y 29).

Measuring procedures

standardized

(ref.

245

7.2.7

Total

h a r d n e s s and t e m p o r a r y is a measure o f t h e Hardness i s

hardness to produce d e p o s i t s and that acids; to appear that Water

Hardness form b o i l e r

tendency of water c a u s e d by c a l c i u m ^Qi^^O^'^Z'

scale.

and magnesium s a l t s salts of inorganic

as b i c a r b o n a t e s , is, sulphates,

Ca(HC02)2

chlorides

and n i t r a t e s

(CaSO^, MgCl^,

Cdi(H^)^) or

and o t h e r s . milligramthe

h a r d n e s s can be e x p r e s s e d i n d e g r e e s , o r g r a m - e q u i v a l e n t s equivalents degree o f water, or per u n i t volume. In several it

European c o u n t r i e s , corresponds to

s o - c a l l e d German 1 m*^ o f

h a r d n e s s has been a p p l i e d ; 10 mg CaO i n 1 litre.

10 g CaO i n

The t o t a l that is,

hardness o f water the water

can be d e t e r m i n e d sample w i t h

using the versenate (ref.

method,

by t i t r a t i n g

sodium v e r s e n a t e temporary

30).

Total

h a r d n e s s can be r e g a r d e d as t h e

sum o f

h a r d n e s s , caused by other titrating

c a l c i u m and magnesium b i c a r b o n a t e s , c a l c i u m and magnesium s a l t s . water with 7.2.8 hydrochloric acid. and s u g a r

and p e r m a n e n t

h a r d n e s s , c a u s e d by by

T e m p o r a r y h a r d n e s s can be d e t e r m i n e d

Oxygen consumption

content quantity, of the chemical o x y g e n demand, and some are other

Oxygen consumption conventional

and a r e l a t e d

measures o f t h e inorganic

concentration compounds.

organic

impurities

easily oxidizable

The o x y g e n c o n s u m p t i o n permanganate oxidize the solution. impurities It in

can be d e t e r m i n e d is expressed in

by t i t r a t i n g w a t e r w i t h of

potassium to into

the milligrams By c o n v e r t i n g

KMnO^ u s e d quantity

1 litre the

of water. chemical

this

t h e oxygen amount, Tests of performed the

we o b t a i n

o x y g e n demand. (2 m g / 1 i t r e o r more) method. With larger can be sugar

presence of

sucrose in water

using the well classical

known a l p h a - n a p h t o l analysis techniques and o t h e r

concentrations, applied (ref.

known i n

s u g a r t e c h n o l o g y can be continuous are also measurement, in use.

31).

Conductometric for

methods f o r monitoring,

particularly 7.2.9

suitable

condensate q u a l i t y alkalinity

Hydrogen ion c o n t e n t ,

and o t h e r

properties by is of colorimetric t h e most the It widely

T h e v a l u e o f pH i n

aqueous s o l u t i o n s measurement. the

can be d e t e r m i n e d The l a t t e r method force

a n a l y s i s o r by e l e c t r i c a l used; it

c o n s i s t s o f measuring cell, i.e.

electromotive immersed in

so-called s h o u l d be the

pH-metric pointed

two e l e c t r o d e s

the is

solution.

out,

however, t h a t the measuring T h e r e f o r e , pH m e t e r s solutions. of

error

highly

d e p e n d e n t on often by

electrode

condition.

s h o u l d be t e s t e d For r e l i a b l e accidentally

measuring it is samples

t h e pH v a l u e s o f two r e f e r e n c e necessary to with eliminate the

measurement, polluting

possibility

water

any i m p u r i t i e s .

The t e m p e r a t u r e is

of the water

tested

s h o u l d be 20C. of

Alkalinity

of water

caused by t h e

presence of

h y d r o x i d e s and s a l t s

246

e l e m e n t s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e p o t a s s i u m and c a l c i u m g r o u p s . t i t r a t i n g water with Other oxygen chemical hydrochloric acid. for water quality content;

It

can be d e t e r m i n e d

by

analyses important

inspection

are:

( u n d e r s t o o d as d i s s o l v e d f r e e content;

oxygen)

carbon d i o x i d e phosphate silicon oil iron

content; content; impurities) content; content.

dioxide

( u n d e r s t o o d as o i l - t y p e ( u n d e r s t o o d as t o t a l

iron

i n v a r i o u s compounds)

7.3 7.3.1

FUEL A N A L Y S I S Sampling o f fuels results of laboratory tests p e r f o r m e d on an transports

Fuels are evaluated using the averaged l a b o r a t o r y sample. during unloading,

Samples s h o u l d be t a k e n to

from the f u e l

so t h a t n e c e s s a r y c l a i m s the

the s u p p l i e r furnace,

can be made, and a l s o actual important

from the f u e l heating

stream i n t r o d u c e d to

boiler

so t h a t t h e

v a l u e c a n be a c c o u n t e d f o r coal and o t h e r

i n t h e e n e r g y b a l a n c e . The most are the percentages of of important case o f coal

properties of matter,

solid fuels

combustible types fuels, are such

moisture

and a s h . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (ref. 32).

s t a n d a r d i z e d i n many c o u n t r i e s

In the

liquid

p r o p e r t i e s as v i s c o s i t y , t h e p e r c e n t a g e s o f finally national the percentage of water,

s u l p h u r and v a n a d i u m o x i d e , and important. For details,

are p a r t i c u l a r l y 33). for

s t a n d a r d s s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d ( r e f . sampling of fuel is a prerequisite

Correct properties. a parent tons;

reliable

determination

of

its

The f o l l o w i n g lot is

concepts are applied

in defining

sampling p r o c e d u r e s : than

t h e amount o f a d e f i n i t e

type of f u e l ,

not greater

1000 -

a primary

sample i s

a sample t a k e n

f r o m one p l a c e stream; all primary

in the parent

lot,

or a

single -

sample t a k e n

from a f l o w i n g - f u e l a sample c o n t a i n i n g a part of

a g r o s s sample i s

samples; laboratory

an a v e r a g e d sample i s

t h e g r o s s sample d e s t i n e d f o r

analyses. In the case o f coal the parent lot or other solid fuels, it is d e s i r e d t h a t each p a r t i c l e t h e s a m p l e as Primary with in

be g i v e n t h e same p r o b a b i l i t y despite differences

o f being chosen f o r size

every other

particle,

in p a r t i c l e

or shape.

s a m p l e s s h o u l d p r e f e r a b l y be c o l l e c t e d f r o m a f u e l the frequency adjusted to of the s i z e o f the from r a i l w a y of parent cars,

s t r e a m on a c o n v e y o r , and t o the

lot

r e q u i r e d number is allowed is are

samples. D i r e c t sampling if there is

trucks

or fuel

piles

only

no p o s s i b i l i t y all

sampling

from c o n v e y o r s .

The g r o s s sample t h a t the samples

formed by m i x i n g

p r i m a r y s a m p l e s ; c a r e s h o u l d be t a k e n

247

h a n d l e d s o as t o m i n i m i z e appropriate standards

changes i n f u e l 34). it is

properties.

For d e t a i l s ,

see

the

(ref.

In the case o f

liquid

fuels,

important

to

apply the

same method

of will

s a m p l i n g when c o l l e c t i n g be o b t a i n e d . a way t h a t run i n t o later. to

the primary in

samples from w h i c h t h e a v e r a g e d sample s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d if a batch o f in such

Sampling o f f u e l s

storage tanks liquid is

no p a r t i c u l a r

layer of

preferred;

liquid

is hours

a tank,

then the f i r s t

sampling

should occur not e a r l i e r be done c o n t i n u o u s l y ,

t h a n two

Sampling from flow,

p i p e l i n e s may e i t h e r at

proportionally constant

the fuel

or p e r i o d i c a l l y

constant frequency; periods with

flow

conditions

are p r e f e r r e d . sample volume i s d e f i n e d by t h e lot. capacity of the sampling device,

The p r i m a r y

and s h o u l d be f i x e d f o r l a r g e enough f o r

a given fuel

T h e g r o s s sample v o l u m e s h o u l d be l e a s t 3 kg. In the

the p r e p a r a t i o n

o f an a v e r a g e d s a m p l e o f a t in

case o f a r b i t r a t i o n averaged samples o f liquid 7.3.2 fuels,

analyses performed

two o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t For d e t a i l s

laboratories, of

up t o 9 kg may be r e q u i r e d . 35. coal is properties certainly

on s a m p l i n g

see r e f . of

Determination

The m o i s t u r e solid fuels,

content

one o f t h e m o s t boiler

important

properties efficiency.

of

as i t

can a d v e r s e l y i n f l u e n c e ignition

c a p a c i t y and

A high moisture value decreases. At

c o n t e n t makes f u e l

more d i f f i c u l t ,

while the

heating

low t e m p e r a t u r e s

of flue

gas a p p r o a c h i n g t h e moisture in the

boiler

outlet,

condensation

of vapours o r i g i n a t i n g corrosion of boiler

from f u e l

p r e s e n c e o f S O ^ and S O ^ c a u s e s fuel moisture may

parts.

A t f r e e z i n g ambient and

temperatures,

cause s e r i o u s problems I n chemical applied. while

in transportation

unloading. i n h e r e n t and t o t a l in s o l i d fuel that moisture are

a n a l y s e s , the concepts o f is the p a r t with

free,

Free moisture

o f the water

evaporates at in

attaining equilibrium

the environment is

( w a t e r removed by d r y i n g of the water t h a t

ambient t e m p e r a t u r e ) . the fuel after

Inherent moisture it

the p a r t

remains

atmospheric d r y i n g ; without

can be d e t e r m i n e d b y f i n d i n g t h e mass additionally dried at 105-llC. A h i g h ash capacity of the ash

decrement o f f u e l Ash, i.e.

free moisture,

mineral

matter,

decreases the heating

value of

fuel.

c o n t e n t makes t h e and e f f i c i e n c y . heating content, and t h e

c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s more d i f f i c u l t ,

and r e d u c e s b o i l e r the fouling

F l y ash i n f l u e

g a s may be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r parts.

s u r f a c e s and e r o s i o n w e a r o f b o i l e r a coal sample o f 1-2 g mass i s roasted.

In order to

determine

burned in

a l a b o r a t o r y oven at

815^C,

residue is

additionally in coal

Combustible matter combustion p r o c e s s , of combustible

i n c l u d e s the elements t h a t take

part

in

the content

i.e.

c a r b o n , h y d r o g e n and s u l p h u r . if

Knowledge o f there is no

the

e l e m e n t s may be e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t

possibility

248

of

directly

determining

the

combustion heat or heating

value of the

fuel,

as

these q u a n t i t i e s Section 7.3.4).

can be a l t e r n a t i v e l y Sometimes i t in boiler

c a l c u l a t e d b y an i n d i r e c t to determine the

method content

(see of energy

may be i m p o r t a n t a s h , as t h i s combustion.

combustible matter loss resulting from of

would allow c a l c u l a t i o n

of the

incomplete

For d e t a i l s procedures, 7.3.3 the

coal

a n a l y s i s and s t a n d a r d s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s h o u l d be c o n s u l t e d oil property of fuel at oil is (ref. 36,37).

laboratory

literature fuel

Properties of

P e r h a p s t h e most oils

important 2E

the v i s c o s i t y .

Light the

fuel

o f v i s c o s i t y up t o prior

(degrees Engler) Heavy f u e l

20^C may be s u p p l i e d t o of

burners without either once, in

heating.

oils

h i g h v i s c o s i t y must be h e a t e d b e f o r e pumping and (up to before the

i.e.

b e f o r e pumping,

or twice,

i.e.

dispersing oil

b u r n e r s . The n e c e s s a r y t e m p e r a t u r e

150C) d e p e n d s on 33).

t y p e , and can be f o u n d i n d i a g r a m s o r nomographs ( r e f . Other essential Sulphur i s parameters important are the sulphur content

and v a n a d i u m o x i d e reasons; i t parts o f the boiler may be boiler. parts.

content.

not only f o r

environmental

responsible for

low-temperature

c o r r o s i o n in the o u t l e t

V a n a d i u m o x i d e , V 2 0 ^ , may c a u s e h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e 7.3.4 H e a t o f c o m b u s t i o n and h e a t i n g combustion, Q ^ , i s in the value

corrosion of

The h e a t o f quantity

amount o f e n e r g y r e l e a s e d p e r constant volume; it is

unit

of fuel

compressed oxygen a t temperature

additionally of the or

assumed t h a t

the fuel is

b e f o r e c o m b u s t i o n and t h e initially condensed. is one o f

temperature

combustion products

20C, and t h e w a t e r is finally

present in

the f u e l ,

c r e a t e d by b u r n i n g o f h y d r o g e n , The d e t e r m i n a t i o n of heat o f

combustion

t h e most

important particular and meet 37). fuel

l a b o r a t o r y measurements needed f o r c a r e and a c c u r a c y i s liquid fuels is the

heat-economy m o n i t o r i n g ,

and t h u s to

r e q u i r e d . T h e s t a n d a r d method a p p l i c a b l e bomb-calorimeter method. The a p p a r a t u s is

solid

required to

a standard s p e c i f i c a t i o n , T h e bomb i s (about usually 1 g) is a small held

and t h e p r o c e d u r e u s e d i s vessel

also standardized ( r e f . mass o f it the is

stainless-steel

i n which a small If the fuel is

in a c r u c i b l e

(Fig. 7.2). the

solid,

c r u s h e d and t h e n p r e s s e d i n t o is ignited by f u s i n g

form o f a p e l l e t

in a special is in

press. the

The p e l l e t pellet

a piece of wire with

which i t it.

contact;

can a l s o be made w i t h part

the fuse wire passing through circuit

The w i r e forms firing fuel is

o f an e l e c t r i c a l situated it is in in

w h i c h can be c o m p l e t e d b y a bomb. If a liquid

button which i s being t e s t e d ,

a position

remote from t h e

contained the

in a gelatine a little is

c a p s u l e and t h e of

f i r i n g may of top

be a s s i s t e d b y i n c l u d i n g combustion.

crucible

paraffin

known h e a t

The c r u c i b l e c a r r y i n g the f u e l

located

in the

bomb, and t h e

249

o f the is

bomb i s

screwed down. Oxygen i s d e p e n d i n g on t h e fuel is

then admitted s l o w l y u n t i l located

the

pressure calorimeter

20-35 b a r ,

t y p e . T h e bomb i s poured i n t o the

in the

and a m e a s u r e d q u a n t i t y

of water

calorimeter.

F i g . 7 . 2 . Scheme o f t h e bomb c a l o r i m e t e r . 1 - i n s u l a t i n g c o v e r , 2 3 - bomb, 4 - i n s u l a t i n g f e e t , 5 - f u e l s a m p l e i n a c r u c i b l e . The c a l o r i m e t e r is c l o s e d , the external connections to the

water,

circuit is

a r e made, immersed stirrer fifth

and an a c c u r a t e t h e r m o m e t e r to a proper depth

of the f i x e d - r a n g e or the The w a t e r is stirred

Beckman t y p e

in the water.

by a m o t o r - d r i v e n A t t h e end o f the

and t e m p e r a t u r e minute, until the

o b s e r v a t i o n s are taken e v e r y minute. fired and t e m p e r a t u r e fall; then, the

charge i s

readings are taken frequency of

every

10 s e c o n d s be

the

readings begin to every minute. corrected for

r e a d i n g s can a g a i n

reduced to 2-3 K, is

The measured t e m p e r a t u r e

r i s e , which should not exceed the fuel formulae tested given in is finally the the

various losses according to combustion o f the

respective

s t a n d a r d s . The heat o f

c a l c u l a t e d from the measuring e r r o r If, for

heat balance e q u a t i o n , estimated.

also given in the

s t a n d a r d s , and

can be

a n y r e a s o n , t h e bomb c a l o r i m e t e r of the fuel is

method c a n n o t be u s e d , it is p o s s i b l e to

but

the

chemical the

constitution

known, t h e n

calculate case o f

heat o f

combustion using a p p r o p r i a t e t y p e s , the

formulae.

For example, may be

in the

European coal

s o - c a l l e d Dulong's formula l)/8) + 93S

applied (7.1)

= 341C + 1444{H where C , H, 0,

(0 + -

(kJ/kg) carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

N , and S a r e t h e

percentages of

n i t r o g e n and s u l p h u r . The a c c u r a c y o f t h e s e s o - c a l l e d i n d i r e c t of combustion is limited. the methods f o r of determination of the heat

At a carbon content

a b o u t 86%, is

and an o x y g e n about 2%.

c o n t e n t b e l o w 7.5%,

accuracy o f the Dulong's formula

250

The h e a t i n g latent

value o f the

fuel

is

equal

to fuel

the

heat o f

combustion minus This emitted in

the

heat o f the water the fact

coming f r o m t h e

during in is

combustion. furnaces is

corresponds to flue gas t o

t h a t w a t e r vapour formed and t h e latent heat

the

the atmosphere, measurement). value of Q ^ , the formulae

lost

(contrary to

a bomb

calorimeter

The h e a t i n g combustion Again,

the f u e l ,

Q ^ , c a n be c a l c u l a t e d

as a f u n c t i o n

of

the

heat,

h y d r o g e n p e r c e n t a g e and t h e m o i s t u r e c a n be f o u n d i n t h e liquid (kJ/kg) fuels relevant standards.

p e r c e n t a g e W. For example,

detailed

P o l i s h Standards state = and f o r = It is - 2 5 . 1 9 ( 9 H + W) solid fuels

that for

(7.2)

24.55(8.9H

+ W) in the of

(kJ/kg) case o f the liquid fuels, empirical formulae o f the are heat

(7.3)

noteworthy that for

available

calculation the

hydrogen content in solid

as a f u n c t i o n

of

combustion, while determined. Indirect literature to

hydrogen content

f u e l s must be

experimentally

calculation is

o f the

heating

value using the the following

formulae formula

given in may be

the

also possible. types:

For example,

applied

European coal

= 339(C - 0 . 7 5 ( 0 / 2 ) ) where 7.3.5 is Fuel

+ 1193(H - 0 . 1 2 5 ( 0 / 2 ) )

+ 105S other

25W.

(kJ/kg) above.

(7.4)

the percentage o f storage inspection

inherent moisture;

symbols as

Coal their -

piles

s h o u l d be v i s u a l l y

inspected d a i l y

during

the

first

3 months by:

after

d e l i v e r y and t w i c e o f the

a week t h e r e a f t e r . pile surface after

A fire

hazard i s

indicated

spot-wise drying

rainfall;

e s c a p i n g steam c l o u d s ; d e p o s i t s o f a s h and s u l p h u r a p p e a r i n g on t h e e s c a p i n g smoke o f characteristic odour. temperature twice A coal of f i r e hazard. be If of the coal pile surface;

A more p r e c i s e i n s p e c t i o n in the during piles the

procedure r e q u i r e s t h a t the

be m e a s u r e d . T h e s t a n d a r d measurement

frequency is

a week

first

2 months and o n c e e v e r y two weeks t h e r e a f t e r . as an i n d i c a t i o n lot must

temperature the

a b o v e 45C s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d r i s e s above 60C, t h e furnace. Polish regulations,

temperature the

relevant fuel

immediately

directed to

According to than

coal-storage yards with permanent

capacities

larger

500 t o n s must be e q u i p p e d w i t h of instruments

temperature-measuring The s i m p l e s t tube t h a t

systems, instrument inserted is

consisting

spaced l e s s than

5 m apart. a steel

a mercury-in-glass

thermometer

placed inside

c a n be

251

in the fuel

layer.

Special s i g n a l l i n g

thermometers

o r remote measuring

systems

can a l s o be a p p l i e d . Fuel oil is held in storage tanks outside the boiler h o u s e , and an supply is requires usually

intermediate installed before it in,

tank w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f about 8 - h o u r s ' or close t o , the b o i l e r

boiler

h o u s e . As h e a v y o i l

heating and

c a n be pumped t o is

the b u r n e r s , temperature to this

control

in the tanks an

pipelines controlled

e s s e n t i a l . A standard solution system complete w i t h temperature.

problem i s

automatically and

heating

remote-temperature

measurements

devices warning o f excess 7.4 7.4.1 BOILERS Methods o f

measurement part o f the thermal s y s t e m , where

The b o i l e r s

c a n be r e g a r d e d as a s p e c i a l

c o n s i d e r a b l e e n e r g y l o s s e s c a n o c c u r o r c o n s i d e r a b l e e n e r g y s a v i n g s can be attained. maintained indices to Energy d e l i v e r e d in fuel in proper condition. be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y optimal c a n be e f f i c i e n t l y is utilized one o f t h e if boilers important small are

Boiler efficiency

c h e c k e d and c a r e f u l l y w a t c h e d , b e c a u s e e v e n value, if maintained for

d e v i a t i o n s from i t s

a l o n g p e r i o d , may c a u s e

considerable energy losses. I n some c o u n t r i e s , g e n e r a l installed in sugar f a c t o r i e s . for It boiler safety This r e g u l a t i o n s may a p p l y t o by the the boilers

can be e x e m p l i f i e d

so-called obligatory least in every

"Measurement l i s t Poland ( r e f . hour, for 21).

o p e r a t i o n " . Table 7.5,

which i s

s t a t e s what parameters

s h o u l d be r e c o r d e d a t

routine

checking o f b o i l e r

operation. o f parameters needed f o r the boiler is energy to

A boiler balance i s

scheme w i t h an i n d i c a t i o n shown i n F i g . 7.3.

The e s s e n t i a l

problem o f b o i l e r

checking

tg.pg.D

Tsuperheated

steam

Fig. list

JTT

\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ ^ \ \ \ \ \

f e e d - w a t e r ^ ^ | j \ ^ p ^ . t ^ 21 are indicated according to the

7 . 3 . Scheme o f a b o i l e r . M e a s u r i n g p o i n t s o f measurements. T a b l e 7.5.

252

TABLE

7.5 for boiler operation, according to Polish regulations capacity above 5 r r r r r r r r r

**7

Measurement l i s t No. Parameter

(ref. 3^^^^^

21).

Boiler 1-5 t/h r r r r r x* x** r

t/h p^ p^ t^

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Feed-water pressure Steam p r e s s u r e a t b o i l e r o u t l e t Steam p r e s s u r e i n b o i l e r drum Feed-water temperature Temperature a f t e r feed-water heater Steam t e m p e r a t u r e a t b o i l e r o u t l e t Blast air pressure A i r pressure before a i r heater A i r pressure after a i r heater F l u e gas temperature b e f o r e feed-water heater F l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e b e f o r e a i r h e a t e r F l u e gas t e m p e r a t u r e b e f o r e chimney A i r temperature before a i r heater A i r temperature a f t e r a i r heater Draught i n f u r n a c e above s t o k e r Draught before feed-water heater Draught a f t e r superheater Draught before a i r heater D r a u g h t b e f o r e chimney CO2 c o n t e n t i n f l u e g a s b e f o r e c h i m n e y Feed-water flow Steam f l o w C o m b u s t i b l e m a t t e r i n ash Fuel f l o w
*7

D only in

X = r e q u i r e d ; r = recommended; except hand-fired b o i l e r s equipped w i t h superheaters. determine how much e n e r g y i s

furnaces;

consumed i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f a d e f i n i t e Two i n d i c e s

amount the

of

steam a t t h e r e q u i r e d p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e . boiler efficiency

can be u s e d ,

and t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n p e r

1 kg steam q . (7.5) h^ i s t h e e n t h a l p y of of

= D ( h ^ - h^)/(BQ^)-100% w h e r e D i s t h e mass o f steam g e n e r a t e d i n t h e b o i l e r , steam a t t h e b o i l e r fuel outlet, h w consumed i n t h e b o i l e r furnace, and i s the heating as value of fuel.

i s the enthalpy o f feed water,

i s t h e mass

The e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n p e r 1 kg steam can be c a l c u l a t e d q = BQ^/D In order to determine fuel, the f o l l o w i n g the above i n d i c e s , in addition

(7.6) to the heating value of

quantities consumed;

must be f o u n d f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s :

- t h e mass o f f u e l -

t h e mass o f steam g e n e r a t e d ; t h e steam p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e (for enthalpy determination); steam-flow

t h e mass o f f e e d w a t e r d e l i v e r e d t o t h e b o i l e r

( c h e c k on

253

measurement); the feed-water T h e amount o f is calibrated temperature solid fuel (for enthalpy determination). b y an a u t o m a t i c scale which used.

is weighed, preferably absence o f

daily.

In the

scales, a volumetric

method can be in flow the

Fuel-oil pipeline. taken

consumption

can be m e a s u r e d b y f l o w m e t e r s heat balances, it is

installed

supply be

For accurate

recommended t h a t

readings

every f i v e

minutes. steam i s m e a s u r e d b y f l o w m e t e r s of a water meter is installed it is on t h e and e v e n t u a l l y feed-water the checked against If a

T h e amount o f the indications

supply l i n e . soot blowers

high-accuracy balance the boiler

required,

recommended t h a t if the in

and

blowdown a r e t e m p o r a r i l y

cut o f f ;

blowdown c a n n o t be a v o i d e d , the feed-water meter

then a p p r o p r i a t e indications. Mean v a l u e s o f of temperature

c o r r e c t i o n s must be i n t r o d u c e d

the water

and steam p a r a m e t e r s

can be e s t i m a t e d

w i t h the For

aid

and p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s f r o m t h e parameters 15 minutes.

recording

instruments.

accurate

energy balances, the readings taken A routine measuring every

can be c a l c u l a t e d

as mean v a l u e s o f

instrument

boiler

check c o n s i s t s o f and r e c o r d i n g

observing the important

indications

of

the

installed hour.

instruments

the

readings at

least

every

Information operation,

gathered in

t h i s way g e n e r a l l y e n a b l e s us t o consumption, and t o of establish the sugar

evaluate how i t factory. is

boiler influenced by

especially fuel resulting

load f l u c t u a t i o n s Periodic boiler on t h e period boiler 7.4.2 units

from o p e r a t i o n

c h e c k s s h o u l d be aimed a t at least every 10 d a y s . taken

analysing

the

energy balances of calculations during

the

Energy balance every

s h o u l d be b a s e d test stabilized

results (ref.

o f measurements

15 m i n u t e s

a 6-hour is

39).

The p r e r e q u i s i t e during that time.

for

a reliable

energy balance

operation Combustion

evaluation requirements to be a c c o u n t e d f o r in the boiler of in combustion evaluation are

The e s s e n t i a l related to

t h e phenomena o c c u r r i n g decomposition

furnace.

The combustion components, dioxide i.e.

process

includes fuel carbon,

and o x i d a t i o n

combustible

sulphur

and h y d r o g e n , i n t o

carbon d i o x i d e , for effective

sulphur

and

water, a

respectively. sufficiently

Two b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t s high temperature the

combustion supply.

are thus

and an a d e q u a t e o x y g e n process is

Evaluation of determining the

combustion of

b a s e d on f l u e - g a s

analysis,

aimed The

at

content

carbon d i o x i d e , evaluate

c a r b o n m o n o x i d e and o x y g e n . the combustion p r o c e s s by

measured CO^ c o n t e n t w i t h the the real theoretical CO^ c o n t e n t indicates

e n a b l e s us t o CO^ c o n t e n t is

comparison If is

calculated the

from s t o i c h o m e t r i c value,

relationships.

lower than

theoretical supply or

and t h e 0^ c o n t e n t

high,

this

an e x c e s s i v e a i r

a leaky

boiler

exhaust channel.

254

From s i m u l t a n e o u s to determine the

furnace

temperature the

and d r a u g h t m e a s u r e m e n t s ,

it

is

possible

reasons f o r indicates

situation. combustion, solid fuels, resulting either from a fuel layer

T h e CO c o n t e n t inadequate on t h e air

incomplete case o f

feed o r ,

in the

from too t h i c k

stoker. of combustion e v a l u a t i o n is take to determine the energy losses corrective flue-gas amounting it to

The u l t i m a t e goal resulting from the

c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s and t o

appropriate and t h e

m e a s u r e s . T h e c h i m n e y l o s s d e p e n d s on t h e temperature. This is the largest of the

CO^ c o n t e n t

energy l o s s e s , normally In older boiler

8-12% o f t h e e n e r g y d e l i v e r e d i n t h e f u e l . 20%. T h e c h i m n e y l o s s can be c a l c u l a t e d t^ (%)

types, formula

can e x c e e d

from the

Siegert

= a(t^

(7.7)

0.10

0.09

0.08

0.07

1
0.05

0.04

16

18

20

22

CO2 c o n t e n t in f l u e g a s ( % ) Fig. coal 7.4. C o e f f i c i e n t in the and l i g n i t e , d a s h e d l i n e s S i e g e r t formula - wood. (after ref. 40). Solid lines -

255

where i s moisture

a coefficient

d e p e n d i n g on t h e

content,

fuel

t y p e and t h e t^ is the

fuel

content at

( t h e v a l u e o f c a n be f o u n d i n boiler outlet in and t ^ is

Fig. 7.4), the ambient

flue-gas in C.

temperature

the

temperature

F o r g a s - and o i l - f i r e d function t g - t
3

boilers,

formulae

expressing the

chimney l o s s as a difference to 41). of

o f C O ^ and 0^ c o n t e n t c a n be f o u n d i n t h e the calculations

in the f l u e

g a s and t e m p e r a t u r e

literature,

and e v e n c a l c u l a t o r

programs

automate

o f the

c h i m n e y l o s s h a v e been p u b l i s h e d principle gas. 5% i n It on t h e

(ref.

The i n c o m p l e t e combustible in boilers hand-fired incomplete Fig. 7.5.

combustion

l o s s , S j , depends i n

content

gases ( C O ,

hydrocarbons) in

the f l u e

amounts t o boilers of

0.5-1.5% with the gas.

e q u i p p e d w i t h modern f u r n a c e s , and up t o f u r n a c e s . Due t o measurement d i f f i c u l t i e s , combustion We s e e t h a t 4-6%. loss usually relies 1 % CO i n f l u e

older

determination

on t h e CO c o n t e n t o f t h e f l u e an e n e r g y l o s s of

gas c o r r e s p o n d s t o

approximately

T h e a s h l o s s , S ^ , d e p e n d s on t h e d e p e n d s m o s t l y on t h e f u e l

combustible matter

content

in the ash. in

This

t y p e and t h e

f u r n a c e t y p e . The ash l o s s

oil-fired

CO c o n t e n t in flue g a s (%) 0.3 O.A 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.5

10

1.5

1.0

0.8

0.6

Incomplete combustion loss (%) Fig. 7.5. Incomplete combustion loss Sj (after ref. 40).

256

M a s s of a s h a s
3 A 5 6 7 8

p e r c e n t a g e of fuel m a s s ( % )
9 10 11 12 13 15 16

Ash l o s s ( % ) Fig. 7 . 6 . Ash l o s s (after ref. 3 7 ) . while in the case o f 5-14% in coal-fired boilers, it c a n be 6-18% ash

boilers 0.5-4.0% in

does n o t e x c e e d 1 . 5 % , in

pul v e r i z e d - c o a l f u r n a c e s , furnaces. combustible heat

stoker-fired

boilers,

and of

hand-fired

T h e a s h l o s s c a n be e s t i m a t e d matter content C in the

as a f u n c t i o n (Fig.

the

mass and t h e

ash samples

7.6). walls.

The r a d i a t i o n It

loss,

S ^ , is

caused by thermal

radiation

from b o i l e r in large

d e p e n d s on b o i l e r and up t o

capacity small

(Fig. 7 . 7 ) . boilers

T y p i c a l values are 0 . 5 % insufficient thermal

boilers

10% in

with

insulation.

3.2

2 o

\\

.1.6
^0.8 :

10 ' lA '18 20 AO 12 16 Boiler capacity ( t / h )

60

80

100

F i g . 7 . 7 . Radiation loss S R ( a f t e r r e f . 4 0 ) . 1 - b o i l e r s equipped with h e a t e r s and f e e d - w a t e r h e a t e r s , 2 - b o i l e r s w i t h o u t h e a t e r s .

air

257

7 . 4 . 3 Steam

generation c h e c k s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d basic operating to three essential areas: the

A steam g e n e r a t i o n operational safety,

the

parameters

and t h e

correctness of and

steam g e n e r a t i o n signalling safety

process. Safety requirements as w e l l

concerning measuring

equipment,

as o v e r - p r e s s u r e p r o t e c t i o n , and a r e o m i t t e d the deviations by o t h e r here.

a r e g o v e r n e d by

regulations

i n most

countries

As t o

basic operating limits

parameters, that

from t h e i r power-house

nominal

values

cannot exceed the mainly the

are r e q u i r e d

equipment, The steam and

turbines

and t h e

steam t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g stabilized l i m i t e d to

station.

p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e thus of the task

are automatically personnel is

i n modern b o i l e r s , checking the

o f the operating control.

correctness

the automatic As t o the

steam g e n e r a t i o n

process, i t parts:

s h o u l d be remembered t h a t heater, boiler

it

consists and of

of

the

processes in three

boiler

feed-water

proper results

superheater. measurements be u s e d ; operation 7.4.4 It (test

T h e s e p r o c e s s e s can be e v a l u a t e d on t h e specified in Section 7 . 4 . 1 . at

basis o f the

Recording instruments

should

preferably in

otherwise, reports.

readings taken

least

e v e r y h o u r s h o u l d be i n c l u d e d

Energy balance o f the is

boiler least every ten to days

recommended t h a t e n e r g y b a l a n c e s be s e t up a t are explained in value of in the the Section 7 . 4 . 1 ) . fuel must a l s o

conditions the

In addition

parameter the

values,

heating

be k n o w n . T h e mean v a l u e s o f

parameters

are a p p l i e d

calculations. the boiler, Qp, i s transformed into steam

The e n e r g y o f t h e energy, Qp = Q 3

fuel

supplied to

Q ^ , and e n e r g y l o s s e s , Qj^.
+ QL

(7.8)

The e n e r g y s u p p l i e d Qp =
BQH

can be c a l c u l a t e d

as
(7.9)

where i s of the

t h e mass o f f u e l

supplied to

the

boiler,

and Q ^ i s

the

heating

value

fuel. steam g e n e r a t i o n can be c a l c u l a t e d from the formula

T h e e n e r g y consumed i n

Qs = D ( h ^ - h^)
where D i s boiler for t h e mass o f h^ i s steam g e n e r a t e d , a c c o r d i n g of steam (found t^), s for to in f l o w measurement steam t a b l e s is or at

(7.10)
the

outlet,

the enthalpy

diagrams, of the

t h e m e a s u r e d p r e s s u r e p^ and t e m p e r a t u r e s

and h w

the enthalpy

feed water If

(found in

tables

the measured t e m p e r a t u r e the boiler

t^). can a l s o be

Qp and Q ^ h a v e been c a l c u l a t e d , according to eqn. (7.5).

efficiency the

calculated

The a c c u r a c y o f

efficiency

v a l u e depends

258

mainly

on m e a s u r i n g e r r o r s

i n t h e measurements o f

steam f l o w

and f u e l

mass. the is

In heat

some i n s t a n c e s , b o i l e r

efficiency

c a n be c a l c u l a t e d more a c c u r a t e l y i f The r e l e v a n t f o r m u l a

l o s s e s h a v e been d e t e r m i n e d = 100 -

(see Section 7 . 4 . 2 ) . (%)

( S ^ + S j + S ^ + S^)

(7.11)

7.4.5

Example boiler h a s b e e n t e s t e d and t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a summarize t h e test

A coal-fired results: coal coal

c o n s u m p t i o n , = 5550 k g / h ; heating value, = 21440 k J / k g ;

steam f l o w ,

D = 32900 k g / h ; h^ = 3172 kJ/kg; kJ/kg. thus:

steam e n t h a l p y , feed-water The

enthalpy,

h , = 488 w

essential

e n e r g y b a l a n c e components a r e the boiler

energy supplied to

Qp = 5550-21440 = 1 . 1 9 - 1 0 ^ k J / h ; e n e r g y consumed i n s t e a m g e n e r a t i o n - 488) = 0.88-10^ k J / h ;

Q3 = 32900(3172 energy loss

Q L = Qp - Q 3 = 0 . 3 1 - 1 0 ^ k J / h . It is now p o s s i b l e t o calculate the boiler efficiency

= (0.88-10^/1.1910^)100 and

= 73.9% steam

t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n p e r 1 kg kJ/kg.

q = 5550-21440/32900 = 3617

7.5 7.5.1

TURBO-GENERATORS Method o f essential measurement problem o f turbo-generator generation. It is checking is to determine the heat the per

The

consumption i n e l e c t r i c i t y steam r a t e , S, t h a t is,

c o n v e n t i o n a l l y e x p r e s s e d as

t h e mass o f steam consumed i n t h e t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r

1 kWh o f e l e c t r i c a l S = M/E where i s period in The

energy produced: (7.12) the t u r b i n e within a certain time in kWh.

(kg/kWh) t h e mass o f steam s u p p l i e d t o kg, and i s the e l e c t r i c a l

e n e r g y p r o d u c e d a t t h e same t i m e as

same i n d e x can a l s o be c a l c u l a t e d (kg/kWh) t h e mass f l o w o f in kW. steam i n

S = D/N where D i s

(7.13) k g / h , and i s the e l e c t r i c a l effect of

the t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r

259

The e s s e n t i a l

information

contained in the

S v a l u e can a l t e r n a t i v e l y o f the

be

expressed using the (see Section 7 . 5 . 5 ) . measurements a r e -

concept o f the o v e r a l l In order to calculate

efficiency both

turbo-generator following

i n d i c e s , the

necessary: D (kg/h); effect, (kW);

steam a m o u n t , ( k g ) o r s t e a m mass f l o w , amount o f e l e c t r i c a l inlet inlet outlet pressure of temperature temperature efficiency). is

e n e r g y , (kWh) o r e l e c t r i c a l (bar); (C); (C)

s t e a m , p^ of

steam, t^

o f s t e a m , t^

(required only for

the

calculation

of

overall

T h e way i n w h i c h t h e t e s t determine how t h e t e s t

p e r f o r m e d and t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e can be i n t e r p r e t e d . turbine A routine is

measurements b a s e d on b y steam loads. also

results

check i s

m e a s u r e m e n t s r e p e a t e d e v e r y 30 m i n u t e s ; generation in the b o i l e r and b y t h e

operation

determined and t h e r m a l but

accompanying e l e c t r i c a l

The r e s u l t i n g t h e method o f As t o

S value r e f l e c t s its utilization

not only the turbo-generator q u a l i t y under a c t u a l is load conditions. testing turbine

the p e r i o d i c checking, t h i s under s t a b i l i z e d o p e r a t i n g equilibrium

aimed a t

output

and

efficiency into

conditions.

The t u r b i n e is

s h o u l d be b r o u g h t the It load is of

thermal

in advance, before the

test

initiated; test. to the

s h o u l d be s t a b i l i z e d and t h e n h e l d c o n s t a n t d u r i n g recommended t h a t t h e the test. frequency of

the e n t i r e

t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s be r e l a t e d of ref. 42 i s that

the d u r a t i o n test duration in

For example, the

recommendation

c a n be 15 o r 60 m i n u t e s , Table TABLE 7.6. 7.6

and t h e

recommended m e a s u r i n g f r e q u e n c y i s

shown

Recommended f r e q u e n c y o f Measurement

instrument

readings in turbo-generator ^^"^ ^^P" 15 m i n u t e s 60 m i n u t e s 1 1 1 1 1 1 min 1 min 1 min min min 5 min min 5 min min 5 min min 5 min b e g i n n i n g and end o f t e s t

tests.

Electrical effect Steam f l o w T e m p e r a t u r e o f i n c o m i n g steam P r e s s u r e o f incoming steam T e m p e r a t u r e o f e x h a u s t steam P r e s s u r e o f e x h a u s t steam E l e c t r i c i t y meter i n d i c a t i o n s Steam c o u n t e r i n d i c a t i o n s

7.5.2

Steam c o n s u m p t i o n steam c o n s u m p t i o n , a q u a n t i t y on w h i c h t h e b a l a n c e and t h e routine

The t r u e

checking o f the t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r are based, indications at t h e b e g i n n i n g and e n d o f t h e

c a n be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m test. It is

steam-counter the

necessary to modify

260

counter nominal

indications flow-meter

if

t h e steam p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e

d e v i a t e from

the

v a l u e s at the time o f the t e s t .

I n the case o f

periodic should to

c h e c k s aimed a t t h o r o u g h t u r b i n e be a d d i t i o n a l l y the D = formula - M^)f^/T (kg/h) duration corrected for

i n s p e c t i o n , t h e steam c o n s u m p t i o n v a l u e

p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e

deviations, according

(7.14) are the modified in counter and fj^ i s a

where i s the t e s t indications correction If

i n h , M-j and

at the beginning factor.

and a t t h e end o f t h e t e s t

kg,

t h e measurements a r e t a k e n f r o m a steam f l o w m e t e r and D2, ..,

modified formula is

flow used: (7.15)

values D p D = O^f,

D ^ h a v e been r e c o r d e d , t h e n t h e f o l l o w i n g

w h e r e D ^ i s t h e mean v a l u e o f t h e steam f l o w . t h e 2.5% i n t e r v a l D ^ Otherwise, = (d/n) a r o u n d t h e mean v a l u e , t h i s

If is

some m e a s u r e m e n t s f a l l c a l c u l a t e d as

beyond

/DT)2 i=l ^ t h e mean a r i t h m e t i c fj^, v a l u e s h o u l d be t a k e n . is calculated for a back-pressure turbine inlet

(7.16)

The c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r ,

as

the inlet

product of three c o e f f i c i e n t s temperature coefficients manufacturer. 7.5.3 T u r b o - g e n e r a t o r power and o u t l e t

reflecting

the d e v i a t i o n s of nominal

pressure,

p r e s s u r e from t h e i r

v a l u e s . T h e d a t a on t h e s e form by t h e turbine

s h o u l d be s u p p l i e d i n d i a g r a m o r t a b l e

output principle control i s a p p l i e d as i n of the turbocontrol, the

I n power o u t p u t m e a s u r e m e n t s , t h e same g e n e r a l c a s e o f steam c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e b a l a n c e and r o u t i n e generator s h o u l d be b a s e d on a c t u a l

output values, while

in periodic

corrections for

the d e v i a t i o n s o f operating parameters are n e c e s s a r y . the turbo-generator

I n t h e c a s e o f m e a s u r e m e n t s t a k e n f r o m an e l e c t r i c m e t e r , power o u t p u t is calculated as

= (E2 - E ^ ) A f p / T where i s the t e s t

(kW) duration in h, E^ and E2 a r e t h e e l e c t r i c m e t e r in

(7.17) indications constant

a t t h e b e g i n n i n g and a t t h e end o f t e s t and f p If i s the c o r r e c t i o n factor.

kWh, A i s t h e e l e c t r i c m e t e r

t h e r e a d i n g s a r e t a k e n f r o m a power o u t p u t m e t e r , is used: (kW) i s t h e mean a r i t h m e t i c f^,

then the

following

formula = N^fp where

(7.18) v a l u e o f t h e power o u t p u t , i n kW. turbine

The c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r ,

i s a g a i n c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f

261

characteristics, values. 7.5.4

taking

into

account the

parameter

deviations

from t h e i r

nominal

Turbo-generator energy

balance all incoming and o u t g o i n g mass

In the energy balance o f a t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r , and e n e r g y f l o w s incoming exhaust steam; steam; energy produced; to the environment. with s h o u l d be a c c o u n t e d for:

electrical

heat d i s s i p a t e d

T h e scheme o f a t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r energy streams is shown i n Fig.

an i n d i c a t i o n

of

the

s y s t e m b o u n d a r y and

7.8(a).

(a)
SYSTEM BOUNDARY r heat loss

live steam TURBINE

electrical effect

>

exhaust steam

F i g . 7.8. Energy c o n v e r s i o n p r i n c i p l e o f a t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r w i t h a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e , ( a ) e n e r g y b a l a n c e s c h e m e , ( b ) steam e x p a n s i o n p r o c e s s shown i n t h e M o l l i e r diagram. Assuming t h a t follows from the the flows first of incoming s t e a m and e x h a u s t s t e a m a r e e q u a l , that (7.19) loss, and h^ and h-j are the enthalpies of incoming steam and it

law o f

thermodynamics

Dh^ = + Dk^ where Q i s the

- Q heat

exhaust steam, 7.5.5

respectively. efficiency possible of in a steam t u r b i n e consists to the of

T u r b i n e and t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r is

The p r o c e s s t h a t transforming into

theoretically

mechanical

work a p a r t

the

steam e n e r g y , e q u a l

262

isentropic pressure. friction turbine, a part of

e n t h a l p y drop w i t h This is

the

expansion from diagram,

initial

to

final

steam are the only always

shown i n t h e M o l l i e r leaks

Fig. 7.8(b).

As t h e r e

l o s s e s and i n t e r n a l the the real

associated with the drop pattern is

steam e x p a n s i o n i n the into

process follows enthalpy

shown i n

diagram, while mechanical

isentropic of the internal ^2^

transformed drop in

work.

The u t i l i z a t i o n by t h e ^i so-called -

isentropic efficiency

enthalpy

a turbine

can be e x p r e s s e d

= ( ^

(^-20) enthalpy value after isentropic expansion to the

w h e r e h^ i s final

the t h e o r e t i c a l

p r e s s u r e , and t h e

remaining

s y m b o l s a r e as a b o v e . is of primary importance if the combined

The v a l u e o f t h e generation value, the of

internal

efficiency is

h e a t and e l e c t r i c i t y

c o n s i d e r e d . The h i g h e r the energy that

efficiency the

larger

t h e amount o f e l e c t r i c a l If the periodic

can be g e n e r a t e d f r o m reveal that control the

same amount o f internal internal

steam. is

turbine

inspections

efficiency

d e c r e a s i n g , t h e n one may e x p e c t t h a t t h e repair. work o b t a i n e d losses in the in the

valves,

s e a l s or blade system r e q u i r e only a part into

Actually, transformed

o f the mechanical energy. Energy

turbine

can be are between heat

electrical in the

turbo-generator gear

caused by f r i c t i o n the turbine

b e a r i n g s and p o s s i b l y i n energy consumption in

the

transmission

and g e n e r a t o r , in

auxiliary

mechanisms,

and

dissipation for,

the generator w i n d i n g .

These l o s s e s are c o n v e n t i o n a l l y through the cylinder. drop in a turbine

alowed

together with

l o s s e s c a u s e d b y steam l e a k s surface of the of the turbine

s e a l s and b y

heat d i s s i p a t i o n The o v e r a l l

from the

utilization

isentropic

enthalpy

turbo-generator

can be e x p r e s s e d by t h e = n..3600/(S(h^ It follows -

overall

efficiency (7.21)

h^)) (7.20) and ( 7 . 2 1 ) t h a t once the it quantities

from eqns.

discussed calculate turbo-

in the

S e c t i o n s 7 . 5 . 1 - 7 . 5 . 4 h a v e been d e t e r m i n e d , internal efficiency of the t u r b i n e and t h e

becomes p o s s i b l e t o efficiency

overall

o f the of the and

generator. mechanical

No s i m p l e method e x i s t s , efficiency, ^, ^. the It

however, f o r

determination

turbine the

transmission

gear e f f i c i e n c y , to remember

^^, that

generator e f f i c i e n c y ,

can t h u s

be u s e f u l

Vtg'^g =
7.5.6 Example d r i v e n by a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e test results has been t e s t e d

(^-22)

A turbo-generator following -

and

the

d a t a summarize t h e effect,

(mean v a l u e s ) :

electrical steam f l o w ,

N^ = 6593 kW; m

= 58830 k g / h ;

263

inlet

p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e kJ/kg);

of

s t e a m , p^ = 3 4 . 3 3 b a r ,

t^

= 433.2C

( e n t h a l p y h^ = 3300 outlet

p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e kJ/kg).

of

s t e a m , p-j

= 3.52

bar,

t^

= 193.3C

( e n t h a l p y h^ = 2851 Correction factors, f^ The

from diagrams s u p p l i e d by t h e 1/f^. effect

turbine

manufacturer,

are

= 1 - 0 . 9 9 7 - 0 . 9 9 = 0.987 =

c o r r e c t e d values of the e l e c t r i c a l

and steam f l o w

are

thus

= 6 5 9 3 / 0 . 9 8 7 = 6679 kW, D = 58830-0.987 = 58064 k g / h . The steam r a t e is kg/kWh. isentropic expansion to the outlet

S = 58064/6679 = 8 . 6 9 The theoretical

enthalpy value after is

pressure, The . The

f r o m steam t a b l e s , turbine

h^ = 2732 k J / k g . is

internal

efficiency

= (3300 - 2 8 5 1 ) / ( 3 3 0 0 overall

2732) = 0 . 7 9 0 . is

turbo-generator efficiency

= 0.790-3600/(8.69(3300 - 2851)) 7.6 7.6.1 PROCESS HEATING Evaporator EQUIPMENT

= 0.729.

Juice thickening from the heating

in a multiple-effect

e v a p o r a t o r d e p e n d s on h e a t of

transmission

steam t o

the vapours. Cascade-type heating utilization utilized in of heat

consecutive consecutive juice heating and

evaporator

effects

ensures multiple further

in the

e v a p o r a t i o n s t a g e s . Heat i s other process sections. functioning o f the of

sugar b o i l i n g ,

Proper

the evaporator s t a t i o n evaporator effects works w e l l only if

is

v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on auxiliary

the

functioning The

individual

and t h e i r

equipment. is

cascade-heating p r i n c i p l e effect.

i n t e n s i v e heat t r a n s f e r

e n s u r e d i n each In is the

case o f

Robert-type e v a p o r a t o r s , the j u i c e According to

level

in 6),

the the

heating optimal

tubes juice

of primary is

importance.

some s o u r c e s ( r e f .

level higher

20-30% o f t u b e h e i g h t . 8). Even i f

The v a l u e s g i v e n i n o t h e r of, s a y , 10% t u b e it

sources are has a

10-15% limited marked

(ref.

a difference

height

influence

on t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r

intensity,

s h o u l d be remembered t h a t on juice

d e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h e s e v a l u e s w o u l d h a v e an u n f a v o u r a b l e e f f e c t thickening. For wetting with the the correct operation is of f a l l i n g - f i l m necessary. tear

evaporators, sufficient a juice flow in is

liquid

o f the tube wall risk that

Too small apart, this

associated

the f i l m w i l l

resulting tube w a l l .

local experience length of

s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n and i n c r u s t a t i o n s proves that liquid wetting

forming

on t h e

Practical per u n i t

c a n be e v a l u a t e d u s i n g v o l u m e f l o w

264

tube circumference at for

the o u t l e t .

As a f i r s t

approximation

o f minimum w e t t i n g can be

the evaporation o f sugar s o l u t i o n s ,

the value of

15 1 i t r e s / ( h - c m )

used. Heat t r a n s f e r the outer can a l s o be h i n d e r e d by i r r e g u l a r i t i e s tubes. This in steam c o n d e n s a t i o n on noncondensables condensate as

s u r f a c e s o f the heating and i f the

can be a v o i d e d i f

are vented e f f e c t i v e l y , level both from r i s i n g

condensate drainage prevents the nozzles. Extreme care i s

above t h e o u t l e t

recommended h e r e ,

l e a k i n g steam t r a p s For d e t a i l s , 3.2.2.

and e x c e s s i v e v e n t i n g may c a u s e u n n e c e s s a r y v a p o u r and venting

losses. under

s e e c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e u n d e r S e c t i o n 3.2.1

Section

I n many s u g a r f a c t o r i e s ,

scale build-up

on t h e

internal

surfaces of intensity

heating to

t u b e s and t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g r e d u c t i o n o f t h e a situation where the t o t a l to temperature thick-juice If

heat t r a n s f e r

may l e a d (from

decrease in the evaporator temperature)

heating-steam temperature the required juice

becomes i n s u f f i c i e n t is in held turn,

for

thickening.

the processing c a p a b i l i t y

constant, causes sugar

a l o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h i c k j u i c e must be a l l o w e d w h i c h , i n c r e a s e d heat consumption factory. Actually, optimal The s i t u a t i o n earlier in the s u g a r h o u s e and f i n a l l y normal if

in the e n t i r e scale is

can be b r o u g h t back t o is it

the

removed. of non-

s c a l e removal also,

recommended, as i t is easier to

allows

elimination scale

heat u t i l i z a t i o n ;

remove t h e

thinner

layers.

The c h o i c e o f

t h e moment a t w h i c h s c a l e r e m o v a l

s h o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n coefficients in the

can be evaporator heat

b a s e d on o b s e r v a t i o n o f t h e o v e r a l l effects. transfer This

heat t r a n s f e r

r e q u i r e s measuring the q u a n t i t i e s

needed t o

calculate

the

coefficients. e v a p o r a t o r check i s to determine the

As p r e s e n t e d a b o v e , t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e course of the m u l t i - s t a g e

e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s , and p o s s i b l y t o r e d u c t i o n of the evaporator,

introduce

some

p r o c e s s c o r r e c t i o n s aimed a t

steam c o n s u m p t i o n . it

In a well check the

d e s i g n e d and p r o p e r l y m a i n t a i n e d temperature increase. have t o differences in the

w o u l d be e n o u g h t o and t h e o v e r a l l

individual

effects

concentration operation

If,

however, t e c h n i c a l

characteristics

and c o r r e c t n e s s o f

be i n v e s t i g a t e d , t h e n t h e f o l l o w i n g to the f i r s t effect, heating

measurements a r e n e c e s s a r y : b); individual effects, t p t^,

steam f l o w temperature (C); p^,

( k g / 1 0 0 kg

and p r e s s u r e i n p^, .., (bar);

chambers o f

.., -

temperature p^, p^,

and p r e s s u r e i n v a p o u r chambers o f .., flow, (bar); G ( k g / 1 0 0 kg t^, b);

individual

effects,

t p

t^,

..,

(C); -

thin-juice thin-juice t, ..,

temperature, (C);

and j u i c e

temperature

in the

individual

effects,

t l
-

thin-juice

concentration,

b^,

and j u i c e

concentrations at

consecutive

outlets,

265

bp

b^, It is

..,

(% D S ) . to adapt the measuring t e c h n i q u e s to in temperature in the peculiarities In the placed the of

important

multi-stage following, close to

evaporation, particularly it is assumed t h a t

determination.

the thermometers tubes, thus temperature reliability

t h e v a p o u r chambers a r e the temperatures point elevation). of

the top o f the

heating

indicating + boiling of

superheated vapours ( s a t u r a t i o n It only s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t if

the t e s t

results

can be a c h i e v e d operation, is In

t h e measurements a r e p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g and j u i c e - l e v e l oscillations

steady-state evaporator limited. Extreme care

when p a r a m e t e r

are

recommended when c o l l e c t i n g principle, so test cocks f o r

juice

samples f o r

c o n c e n t r a t i o n measurements.

juice

sampling

s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d w i t h w a t e r the

coolers, are in

t h a t the j u i c e

can be c o o l e d t o flow

a b o u t 20C. D u r i n g t h e t e s t , is ensured, and t h e

cocks

o p e n e d so t h a t a s t e a d y j u i c e vessels l a r g e enough t o sampling

samples a r e c o l l e c t e d

ensure concentration

averaging. if the j u i c e samples have in the must and

Sufficient

a c c u r a c y can be o b t a i n e d e v e n however, the concentration

n o t been c o o l e d . T h e n , laboratory be taken

values determined

s h o u l d be c o r r e c t e d f o r account in the

self-evaporation effects and j u i c e

(these effects from the first value

into

samples o f t h i n j u i c e If the

second e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s ) . is b*, then the + Am) true

laboratory-estimated is (% DS)

concentration

concentration

b = b*/(l

(7.23) juice (7.24) w h i c h c a n be calculated

w h e r e Am i s Am = ( h where h i s as

t h e mass o f w a t e r - h) enthalpy

evaporated from

1 kg o f

hJ/(2676 a the j u i c e

(kg) in the test cock o u t l e t ,

approximately (kJ/kg) boiling juice at as (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg). becomes p o s s i b l e From t h e to dry matter atmospheric pressure. For (7.25) typical

h = 4.19(1 - 0 . 5 2 b / 1 0 0 ) t and h a is the enthalpy of the it

juice

concentrations,

can be c a l c u l a t e d h^ = 421 - 2.19b

thin juice juice juice after after first effect

second e f f e c t

h^ = 423 - 2 . 2 0 b a h = 430 - 2 . 2 3 b a

Once t h e a b o v e q u a n t i t i e s identify the course of for

h a v e been m e a s u r e d , i t

the m u l t i - s t a g e i-th

evaporation process. effect

balance equation

the

evaporator

Gbo = G J b .
we can c a l c u l a t e = GbQ/b. Next, t h e mass o f e v a p o r a t e d w a t e r can be the j u i c e flow (kg/100 kg b )

(7.26)

(7.27)

calculated

266

W. = G^_^ The e f f e c t i v e At. = formula is valid only i f tV temperature difference in the

(kg/100 i-th

kg b ) is

(7.28)

effect

(7.29) i s t h e v a p o u r t e m p e r a t u r e measured i n surface. If the temperature the the

(This

v a p o u r chamber c l o s e t o t h e j u i c e v a p o u r chamber o u t l e t , value of boling point

i s measured a t the

then the e f f e c t i v e elevation.)

d i f f e r e n c e must be r e d u c e d b y

Using the q u a n t i t i e s heat t r a n s f e r

determined a c c o r d i n g t o the above f o r m u l a e ,

the

overall 2. It is

coefficient

can be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m a g r a p h g i v e n i n r e f . iterative

also p o s s i b l e to apply a simple computerized. i.e. The a l g o r i t h m

a l g o r i t h m w h i c h can c o n v e n i e n t l y be h"(t) and h'(t), of and

uses the thermodynamic f u n c t i o n s

e n t h a l p i e s o f d r y s a t u r a t e d steam and s a t u r a t e d w a t e r as f u n c t i o n s and h ' ^ ( t , b ) , i.e. juice e n t h a l p y as a f u n c t i o n in unit time

temperature,

o f temperature is

concentration.

T h e amount o f h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d h'(tp)

= (1 + e . ) ( W . ( h " ( t ^ ) -

+ G^(hJ(t^.pb..^) o f the i-th

hJ(tJ,b.))) effect. formula

(7.30)

where e / i s t h e heat l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t The o v e r a l l k. heat t r a n s f e r coefficient

evaporator

can be c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e

= Q./(F.At.) In c o n c l u s i o n , l e t us s p e c i f y t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r

(7.31) evaporator checking. temperatures

A routine in the

check s h o u l d c o n s i s t s o f r e c o r d i n g the j u i c e effects

and v a p o u r

individual

and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h i n and t h i c k j u i c e . T h e l e a s t every 0.5-1.0 hour. evaporator, i s necessary. In l e a s t 4-6 hours

r e c o r d i n g f r e q u e n c y s h o u l d be a t

I n p e r i o d i c c h e c k s , a more d e t a i l e d including order the determination

i n v e s t i g a t i o n of the coefficients, test

o f heat t r a n s f e r of results,

to ensure the r e l i a b i l i t y

durations of at

s h o u l d be a d o p t e d . be p e r f o r m e d e v e r y transfer 7.6.2

I n the case o f heat t r a n s f e r 10 d a y s ,

o b s e r v a t i o n s , the t e s t s

should heat

and e v e n more f r e q u e n t l y when marked d r o p s i n

coefficients

h a v e been o b s e r v e d .

Example a 4-hour t e s t areas in 2 four of the

I n a s u g a r f a c t o r y o p e r a t e d a t a c a p a c i t y o f 4000 t / d , evaporator station has been p e r f o r m e d . T h e h e a t t r a n s f e r a r e : 2100, 2400, 2100

consecutive evaporator effects values of t h i n - j u i c e beet,

and 1050 m . T h e mean kg/100 kg

f l o w and t h i n - j u i c e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n a r e Gjj = 124.9

bg = 13.9% D S . O t h e r t e s t (7.28)

data are g i v e n i n the upper p a r t juice flows, amounts o f

of Table water

7.7.

Using eqns. ( 7 . 2 7 ) ,

and ( 7 . 2 9 ) ,

e v a p o r a t e d and e f f e c t i v e the centre o f Table 7.7.

t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s c a n be c a l c u l a t e d , a s shown

in

267

Finally, overall TABLE

the

graph given in

ref.

2 c a n be u s e d . a r e shown i n the

The r e s u l t i n g lower p a r t

values

of 7.7.

heat t r a n s f e r 7.7

coefficients

of Table

Example o f e v a p o r a t o r t e s t E f f e c t No.

results. 1 21 134.0 128.5 82.0 43.0 5.5 3.84 2 35 127.4 121.0 49.3 32.7 6.4 2.20 3 52 119.7 112.9 33.2 16.1 6.8 1.14 4 60 110.0 103.7 28.7 4.5 6.3 0.70

J u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t o u t l e t (% DS) T e m p e r a t u r e i n h e a t i n g chamber ( C ) T e m p e r a t u r e i n v a p o u r chamber (C) J u i c e f l o w ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) W a t e r e v a p o r a t i o n ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) E f f e c t i v e temperature d i f f e r e n c e Heat t r a n s f e r coefficient

(K)

(Wimh))

7.6.3

Extractor extractor functions, i.e. proper exhaustion of heating cossettes of the at to a extraction to and

The e s s e n t i a l obtaining

high-purity

raw j u i c e , of

a r e d e p e n d e n t on r a p i d cells, of followed

inflowing

cossettes for temperature is

denaturation

living

by e x t r a c t i o n

level

o f 70-74C. The p a r t that operation.

the

h e a t economy r e l a t e d

aimed p r e c i s e l y a t

The f o l l o w i n g general

discussion applies mostly and comments types. are

the t r o u g h - t y p e on m o n i t o r i n g

(DOS) e x t r a c t o r s ,

but the

recommendations for other

principles heating

and m e t h o d s jackets in

are also v a l i d trough-type

extractor two o f them

There are four

extractors; of

u s u a l l y h e a t e d by s e c o n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r a t other is two a r e h e a t e d b y t h i r d - e f f e c t at checking whether

a temperature

112-115C, w h i l e Extractor

the

vapour at the

103-105C. of

monitoring temperature correct venting of

aimed m a i n l y

requirements

extraction for

and c o r r e c t n e s s o f extractor heating 3.2.1 operation

heat supply are f u l f i l l e d . is efficient

The p r e r e q u i s i t e

c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e and e f f i c i e n t in this

jackets;

the

control

problems

area were d i s c u s s e d i n

Sections extraction is of the the

and 3 . 2 . 2 . itself.

Other thermal For c o r r e c t

problems

c a n n o t be s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e of the check r e s u l t s , in it

process

interpretation be g i v e n t o zone; -

recommended t h a t extractor: A -

consideration

heat t r a n s f e r extraction

two p a r t s

cossettes heating

process zone (where Fig. 7.9. the

temperatures t h e mass f l o w heat in

of juice in

and c o s s e t t e s a r e e q u a l ) , t is

as shown i n in C,

G denotes specific w, fresh

k g / l O O kg b ,

the temperature b,

and C i s

kJ/(kgK).

The s u b s c r i p t s p, pulp

denote:

c o s s e t t e s ; pw, p r e s s w a t e r ;

water;

j , raw j u i c e ;

( e x h a u s t e d c o s s e t t e s ) ; m, j u i c e - c o s s e t t e s

mixture

b e t w e e n z o n e s A and B. Using the d e f i n i t i o n cossettes according to = 100.G.C.(t^ of ref. the e f f i c i e n c y 43 t(,)) (%) (7.32) of heat exchange between j u i c e and

tj)/(G(^C^,(t^

268

Gw CvA /t V

GpCptp GjCjtj

"

F i g . 7 . 9 . H e a t b a l a n c e scheme o f t h e t r o u g h e x t r a c t o r . p a r t . F o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f s y m b o l s , see t e x t . we can e x p r e s s t h e = ((100 Taking into h e a t demand f o r - t^) cossettes heating (kJ/100 kg b ) the as

A - front

part,

rear

E)/E)Gj^C^(t^ account that

(7.33) raw j u i c e draft i n %, the

= 1 0 0 - G / a , where a i s parameters

relationships (Fig. 7.10).

between e x t r a c t i o n It

can be shown

diagrammatically highly

can e a s i l y be s e e n t h a t as:

the thermal

phenomena a r e

d e p e n d e n t on s u c h p r o c e s s f a c t o r s cossettes quality,

as l o w e r q u a l i t y

causes a decreased v a l u e ;

50 80 h =120 = 115 AO = 70 =110 =80 =90 = 100

S
c

60
L_ )

D O

O ^ AO O

30 .

20 ^ =80/ E = go

20 h

10 5 Cossettes 10 temperature (C) parameters in the f r o n t p a r t o f the ( % ) , - h e a t e x c h a n g e e f f i c i e n c y {% 15

F i g . 7.10. R e l a t i o n s h i p between e x t r a c t i o n extractor ( a f t e r r e f . 43). a - j u i c e draft

269

d e - a e r a t i o n o f the j u i c e - c o s s e t t e s m i x t u r e ,

as i n s u f f i c i e n t

de-aeration

causes

to decrease; juice draft, as i t s increase immediately causes i n c r e a s e d heat consumption in

the -

extractor; o f the j u i c e level at E. correct extractor of the operation cossettes necessarily temperature. the outlet screen, as an i n c o r r e c t juice

stabilization

level

may a l s o r e d u c e t h e v a l u e o f

The d i a g r a m a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t involves variable juice If the temperature is low,

as a f u n c t i o n a lower j u i c e in the

cossettes temperature

temperature

s h o u l d be purification is

accepted, w i t h subsequent j u i c e station. 10-15 K. The o p t i m a l temperature

heating

heaters before the

difference

between j u i c e

and c o s s e t t e s

In order to extractor

achieve a complete e v a l u a t i o n

of

the

thermal

conditions, the

the

check s h o u l d i f

p o s s i b l e c o n s i s t o f measuring a l l ( s e e F i g . 7.9 test results,

quantities symbols). For also

included in the correct

heat balance o f the

and t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f the following data are

interpretation

necessary: the cossettes length;

the j u i c e

draft; de-aeration of the j u i c e - c o s s e t t e s mixture and

comments on c o s s e t t e s q u a l i t y , level at the o u t l e t

the j u i c e

screen. possible to from

Known v a l u e s o f t h e calculate the

i n w a r d and o u t w a r d mass f l o w s make i t h e a t demand ( w i t h o u t losses to the

theoretical

environment)

the energy balance

equation

For

heat-economy m o n i t o r i n g p u r p o s e s , the but the measuring equipment

real

h e a t c o n s u m p t i o n w o u l d be installed at the for (equal that are

interesting, extractors

conventionally If

does n o t a l l o w f o r of

such a measurement. is installed,

additional

equipment

the determination to vapour f l o w s )

condensate f l o w and G g , i n t^

then condensate flows Providing t^^

k g / 1 0 0 kg b ,

c a n be d e t e r m i n e d .

the vapour temperatures a l s o measured, i t parts of the

"

and t g ,

and c o n d e n s a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s calculate the

and t ^ g , in both

becomes p o s s i b l e t o

heat consumption

extractor
"^-^^^CA) ^9 b) (7.35)

QA = S ^ ^ A

Q = G g ( h g - 4 . 1 9 t ^ g ) w h e r e h^ and hg a r e t h e e n t h a l p i e s tg, respectively. D e p e n d i n g on t h e 1 . 5 - 2 . 0 k g / 1 0 0 kg b. cossettes temperature, of vapours in kJ/kg,

(kJ/100 at

kg b ) t^

(7.36) and

temperatures

the vapour consumption of up t o

in

Part A

is

I n P a r t B, a v a p o u r f l o w

1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b i s

required

270

without

press-water heating,

o r somewhat l e s s

if

the press water

is

heated. during

Temperature monitoring the e n t i r e operations.

a t t h e e x t r a c t o r must be r o u t i n e l y possibly unusual

performed including

A heat balance d e t e r m i n a t i o n ,

c o n d e n s a t e - f l o w m e a s u r e m e n t s , may become n e c e s s a r y i f extractor 7.6.4 operation. heaters the j u i c e o r o t h e r media such u n i t in the

problems occur

in

Juice

The h e a t s u p p l y t o

heaters as

is

aimed

at

a t t a i n i n g the temperature carbonatation, to filtration,

needed f o r etc.

operations

liming, however, not operation point of of of the only all

Attention

s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d , but also to the

the f u n c t i o n i n g

o f each p a r t i c u l a r part

heater,

h e a t e r s v i e w e d as an i m p o r t a n t view, h e a t economy m o n i t o r i n g their

of the

h e a t e c o n o m y . From t h a t

should comprise checking the process requirements, of h e a t i n g media

temperatures as w e l l as

media f o r the

correspondence with of the d i s t r i b u t i o n

inspecting

suitability

( c o n d e n s a t e and v a p o u r s principle of heat-saving high

f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r and vacuum p a n s ) . T h e e s s e n t i a l media d i s t r i b u t i o n enough t o transfer t h a n 5-10 is to supply the heater with

a medium a t

a temperature

heat the j u i c e , a r e a and j u i c e above the

but not too

h i g h . D e p e n d i n g on h e a t e r d e s i g n , s h o u l d be n o t

heat higher

velocity, juice

the vapour temperature temperature

final

(see a l s o S e c t i o n 3.3.2

on

utilization

of vapours). heaters, t h e y s h o u l d be t h o r o u g h l y inspected for the their

Regarding i n d i v i d u a l functioning level in the

as h e a t r e c e i v e r s . I n t h e heating chamber i s

case o f vapour h e a t i n g , important

condensate 3.2.1

particularly

(see also Section

on c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e ) . T h e c o n d e n s a t e l e v e l above t h e o u t l e t transfer nozzles, as t h i s

s h o u l d n o t be a l l o w e d t o overall proper

rise

would reduce the e f f e c t i v e to attain is the

heat juice the inspection be be

coefficient, Similar

making i t

more d i f f i c u l t

temperature. accumulation of the vents

problems o c c u r i f

heat t r a n s f e r

hampered b y

o f noncondensables; the (see Section 3 . 2 . 2 ) . in the

heater

check s h o u l d t h u s intensity is

include can a l s o

The heat t r a n s f e r heating tubes; this

r e d u c e d by s c a l e b u i l d - u p accounted f o r in the

another

problem to

inspection. of heat balance p o s s i b l e , the following

I n o r d e r t o make c a l c u l a t i o n s measurements a r e required: G (kg/100 t^ t^ kg

j u i c e mass f l o w , juice inlet outlet

b);

temperature, temperature,

(^C); (C);

- juice juice

c o n c e n t r a t i o n , b (% D S ) ; G^ (kg/100 t^ kg b); (or, in the case

v a p o u r o r c o n d e n s a t e ( s e e b e l o w ) mass f l o w , vapour temperature, t^,

and c o n d e n s a t e t e m p e r a t u r e ,

(C)

271

of

condensate h e a t i n g , in the

initial heating

and f i n a l

temperatures,

t^-j,

t^^ the

(^) same time).

condensate l e v e l

chamber s h o u l d be w a t c h e d a t during the is at steady-state nominal least

T h e measurements p o s s i b l y at the factory.

s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d flow

heater

operation, of

the j u i c e

corresponding to duration

processing capability 1-2 hours, with an have the

T h e recommended t e s t frequency of

instrument-reading been c a l c u l a t e d ,

5-10

minutes.

After

mean p a r a m e t e r

values If

the

heat t r a n s f e r

intensity

s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d f i r s t . is

c o r r e c t value o f the vapour ( o r an i n s u f f i c i e n t venting), At juice

inlet

condensate) temperature (with

accompanied by and

temperature on t h e flow,

increase

proper condensate drainage

then s c a l i n g

heating G, the (kJ/100

s u r f a c e s may be s u s p e c t e d . consumed can be c a l c u l a t e d as (7.37) can be f o u n d b, and i s in the tables heat or loss

known j u i c e - m a s s t^)(l + n)

heat

Q = GC(t2 where the calculated

kg b ) C (kJ/(kgK)), concentration,

specific

heat o f of

the j u i c e , the j u i c e

as a f u n c t i o n

coefficient. On v a p o u r h e a t i n g , if perfect heat consumption of the on t h e v a p o u r s i d e can be d e t e r m i n e d is ensured ( t h a t is, only if only

operation

steam t r a p s is

steam can be

leakage

in the

condensate stream method,

eliminated). the

The condensate f l o w condensate in as

measured by a v o l u m e t r i c container.

by c a t c h i n g can t h e n

a special

The heat consumption

be c a l c u l a t e d

Q = G^(h" - 4.19t^)

(kJ/100 in

kg b ) kJ/kg.

(7.38)

where h" d e n o t e s v a p o u r e n t h a l p y In the case o f

condensate h e a t i n g , t^2) heater

the

corresponding formula

is (7.39)

Q = G^-4.19(t^^ As t o

kg b ) check measurements, unit operations an i n s p e c t i o n of

the frequency of b e f o r e most season. the

temperatures during heating the

important

s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d in the d i s t r i b u t i o n be c o r r e c t e d .

routinely of Detailed in the

entire

Any i r r e g u l a r i t i e s h e a t e r s must

noticed

media t o of

individual

immediately if

investigations heating 7.6.5

heater

o p e r a t i o n may be r e q u i r e d

difficulties

occur

o f process media.

B a t c h vacuum pans is a decisive operation installed for sugar y i e l d and s u g a r q u a l i t y . to The sugar

Sugar b o i l i n g boiling time, factory

combined w i t h

pan v a p a c i t y , the heat

can be a l i m i t a t i o n consumption for

processing capability.

In a d d i t i o n , the total

sugar

b o i l i n g may i n v o l v e 40-50% o f consequence, one o f investigations of

process-heat consumption.

As a be ser: as

heat in

consumption

i n vacuum p a n s must

t h e most s e r i o u s t a s k s

heat-economy in the

monitoring. from

In p r a c t i c e ,

a h e a t economy c h e c k

s u g a r h o u s e c a n n o t be s e p a r a t e d

272

a technological

check.

The reason i s

that

the of

heat consumption thick juice

for

sugar

boiling as

d e p e n d s on t h e amounts and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s on t h e amount o f w a t e r of introduced into the to

and r e m e l t ,

as w e l l as

s u g a r house v i a such o p e r a t i o n s vacuum p a n s . in a vacuum pan ( o r

dilution

s y r u p s , w a s h i n g and i n t a k e s consumption o f vapours f o r

The t o t a l

sugar b o i l i n g sum

in

a g r o u p o f vacuum p a n s ) can be e x p r e s s e d as t h e = + G^ the vapour consumption for for boiling

(kg/100 sugar s o l u t i o n s , water from the

kg b ) and G ^ i s intakes. formulae kg b ) kg b )

(7.40) the Both (ref. 8)

where G^ i s vapour

consumption

the evaporation

of additional

quantities

d e p e n d on t e c h n o l o g i c a l t^) + (1 h^) -

parameters

according to h^)

G^ = u M ^ C g t ^ G^ = W(h^ where u i s solutions

b^/b^)(h^ -

h))/(h^

(kg/100 (kg/100

(7.41) (7.42) sugar

h)/(h^ the

loss coefficient

(1.1-1.2),

is

the

total bj^ i s

amount o f the final

supplied to

t h e vacuum pan i n i n % DS, the boiling in

k g / 1 0 0 kg b , is

concentration solutions initial vapour, heating is the in

o f massecuite kJ/(kgK), t|^ is

t h e mean s p e c i f i c in C,

heat o f t^ is of the the

the mean vacuum-pan of the

temperature C, h , is w the t^,

temperature h is

of the s o l u t i o n s of water at

enthalpy h^ i s

the enthalpy the

temperature (all

the enthalpy in kJ/kg),

v a p o u r , h^ i s amount o f w a t e r

condensate enthalpy intakes, prove that is in

enthalpies b.

and W

from

k g / 1 0 0 kg

The a b o v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s heat savings in is particularly

t h e most

important the

factor

in

obtaining It thick

sugar b o i l i n g important

adherence to

technological the

guidelines. of

to maintain

high values in the

concentrations decrease, the

juice,

s y r u p s and r e m e l t . decrease in

Should any o f

concentrations

resulting

b^ v a l u e w o u l d r e s u l t

i n an i n c r e a s e d v a l u e o f

vapour

c o n s u m p t i o n , G ^ . W a t e r i n t a k e s t o vacuum p a n s s h o u l d be r e d u c e d t o a minimum; o t h e r w i s e , t h e f a c t o r G w o u l d c a u s e an u n n e c e s s a r y i n c r e a s e i n v a p o u r w consumption. this is the On t h e other hand, the vacuum i n the pans i s also important, which is as

essential

factor short

in ensuring boiling times

intensive without

heat t r a n s f e r , increasing as h e a t are:

necessary to maintain As t o the

energy expenditure. receivers should

individual

vacuum p a n s , t h e i r T h e most

operation points

be t h o r o u g h l y -

investigated.

important chamber;

condensate drainage from the venting of the of heating

heating

chamber; from the heat t r a n s f e r purposes a r e : surface.

elimination

incrustations needed f o r tj^;

The measurements boiling

monitoring

temperature,

v a p o u r p r e s s u r e , Pj^; heating-vapour temperature, t^;

273

condensate temperature, the

t^. enable us, e v e n t u a l l y , and ( 7 . 4 0 ) . (It to determine the out enthalpy that to M^,

Values of

above parameters in eqns.

values appearing performing sugar

(7.39)

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d obstacles

t h e measurements (ref. 16).)

entails

overcoming the

specific the

related

boiling

At the b|^,

end o f

strike,

amount o f m a s s e c u i t e

and t h e f i n a l

concentration

become k n o w n . least the two s t r i k e s . strike The f r e q u e n c y (at least of 10-15

The measurements instrument readings). Using the supplied to

should comprise at

r e a d i n g s s h o u l d be a d a p t e d t o

duration

estimated

mean v a l u e o f t h e the

concentration

of

sugar

solutions solutions

t h e vacuum p a n , as

amount o f w a t e r

e v a p o r a t e d from the

can be c a l c u l a t e d = M^(b./b^ 1)

(kg/100 o f the at total

kg b ) vapour consumption vacuum p a n s . is often impossible condensate

(7.43) for

D i r e c t measurement lack of f l o w meters

individual

Providing that volumetric

d r a i n a g e and v e n t i n g condensate amount, be m e a s u r e d w i t h schematically indicator the in

do n o t to

cause vapour l e a k s ,

determination can

of

the

equal

G ^ , can p o s s i b l y be u s e d . an i n d u c t i v e f l o w meter

Condensate f l o w as shown

also

the

aid of 11.

installed

F i g . 7.

A condensate tank equipped w i t h g l a s s make i t check the possible to for

a water-level integral of

and a s e p a r a t e s i g h t r e c o r d s , and t o the

check the correct

f l o w meter

conditions

measurement

( l a r g e movements o f

c o n d e n s a t e column must the

be a v o i d e d ) . during one strike

With p r o p e r vacuum-pan o p e r a t i o n ,

vapour consumption

F i g . 7 . 1 1 . M e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e c o n d e n s a t e f l o w f r o m t h e h e a t i n g chamber o f a vacuum pan ( a f t e r r e f . 4 4 ) . 1 - vacuum p a n , 2 - c o n d e n s a t e t a n k w i t h a w a t e r level i n d i c a t o r , 3 - flow meter, 4 - s i g h t g l a s s , 5 - pressure-balancing pipe.

274

should not exceed the G.

L

value ( k g / l O O kg b ) of 1.20Wg i s m e n t i o n e d , but t h i s seems t o be (7.44)

= (1.02 6,

to

1.15)W^ e

In r e f .

the upper l i m i t

inappropriate

i n these days o f energy s h o r t a g e s . addition to the monitoring t e c h n i q u e s d e s c r i b e d above i s requires the pans. the

A very useful

measurement o f t o t a l installation

vapour consumption

i n vacuum p a n s . T h i s

o f a f l o w m e t e r on t h e main p i p e l i n e method i s n o t e n t i r e l y

supplying vapour to

Even t h o u g h t h i s steam, checks, periodic it

a c c u r a t e when a p p l i e d t o orientation. For r o u t i n e

saturated vacuum-pan while in

g i v e s a much-needed p r a c t i c a l f l o w v a l u e s and f l o w level

actual

oscillations

can be e s t i m a t e d ,

checks, the o v e r a l l

o f v a p o u r c o n s u m p t i o n and a b n o r m a l if the equipment

c o n s u m p t i o n jumps can be e v a l u a t e d and a n a l y s e d . I n p r i n c i p l e , configuration o f the supply pipes a l l o w s , at each i n d i v i d u a l pan.

v a p o u r - f l o w measurement

c o u l d be i n s t a l l e d 7.6.6

Other heat r e c e i v e r s to t h e main h e a t r e c e i v e r s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , t h e r e the sugar d r y e r , melter, a r e numerous heated storage nozzle systems

In addition small tanks for

heat r e c e i v e r s in a sugar p l a n t : (containing thick juice, remelt,

syrups, molasses, e t c . ) , If used,

w a s h i n g and s t e a m i n g ,

and m o l a s s e s pumping s y s t e m . also contribute to heat

cube s u g a r

p r o d u c t i o n and p u l p p e l l e t i n g As e a c h o f t h e a v e r y small individual

consumption. responsible poorly attention, of the for

heat r e c e i v e r s mentioned above i s

portion

of the t o t a l

heat consumption, they are u s u a l l y

s u p e r v i s e d or even t r e a t e d m a r g i n a l l y . as t h e i r total. The e s s e n t i a l

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y d e s e r v e more a considerable portion

c o m b i n e d h e a t c o n s u m p t i o n may c o n s t i t u t e

problem i n the monitoring is,

o f small

heat r e c e i v e r s i s to process

the

detection of excessive - that requirements

out of a l l

proportion

- c o n s u m p t i o n o f steam o r v a p o u r s . E v e n i f this

the equipment

is cases

properly maintained,

may happen b e c a u s e o f o p e r a t o r e r r o r s ; t y p i c a l o f vacuum p a n s . and t h e consumption o f

a r e s u g a r w a s h i n g and t h e s t e a m i n g - o u t Approximate v a l u e s o f thermal media i n v a r i o u s u n i t s

parameters

heating sugar d r y e r is maintained at

are g i v e n in T a b l e 7.8.

The o p e r a t i o n o f the measured. I t be

r e q u i r e s t h a t some p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s recommended t h a t t h e m o i s t u r e a t 0.5-1.5%, the a i r 110-120C. Small flow at content 5-15

are a d d i t i o n a l l y in

sugar from c e n t r i f u g a l s and t h e a i r

k g / 1 0 0 kg b ,

temperature

h e a t r e c e i v e r s s h o u l d be e x a m i n e d a t

the beginning o f the repairs.

season,

and

also following

temporary shut-downs o r equipment

In the case o f additional

e q u i p m e n t w h e r e h e a t c o n s u m p t i o n d e p e n d s on o p e r a t o r q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ,

275

TABLE

7.8 heat r e c e i v e r s . Heating medium Consumption ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b )

Heating o f v a r i o u s small Equipment Sugar dryer

Storage tanks (combined) Melter Sugar washing S t e a m i n g - o u t o f vacuum p a n s Pulp pelleting

exhaust steam, I s t - e f f e c t vapour 2nd-effect vapour 2nd-effect vapour s t e a m 5 b a r , 200C exhaust steam, 1st- or 2nd-effect vapour steam 5 b a r

b e l o w 1.0 b e l o w 1.5 0.2-0.3 1.5-2.0 below below 1.5 0.2

s p o t c h e c k s a r e recommended ( t h i s to the steaming-out 7.7 7.7.1 AUXILIARY

applies to

sugar washing i n

centrifugals

and

o f vacuum pans and p i p e l i n e s ) .

EQUIPMENT station station certain serves to definite reduce the values of steam p r e s s u r e and are

Throttling-desuperheating

The t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g decrease attained. into its temperature so t h a t

both parameters transform live the

In thermal

systems, such s t a t i o n s

are applied to

steam

l o w - p r e s s u r e steam, t o

supplement the t u r b i n e - e x h a u s t steam, o r to be u s e d i n the M o l l i e r the

intermediate-pressure

steam ( u s u a l l y a b o u t 5 b a r ) process is

centrifugals. diagram in in a

The t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g Fig. 7.12. The p r e s s u r e r e d u c t i o n

shown i n

consists of throttling

steam f l o w is

reducing valve at by injecting mixing

constant enthalpy state D in

(segment A B ) . The t e m p e r a t u r e (automatically state of the

decreased that close

water at it with

s u c h an amount B, t h e final

controlled) C is

after to

steam a t

state

of the mixture

saturation.

In p r a c t i c e ,

steam a t

the o u t l e t is,

throttling-desuperheating

station

may be s l i g h t l y

superheated, that

its

t e m p e r a t u r e may be 30-40

above t h e s a t u r a t i o n For the e n t i r e

temperature. system, the f u n c t i o n i n g o f the throttlingof the

thermal

desuperheating station particular importance.

that

s u p p l i e s make-up s t e a m t o

t h e e x h a u s t steam i s following should

T h e demand f o r

e x h a u s t steam f l u c t u a t e s ,

changes i n e v a p o r a t o r l o a d s . The t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g compensate f o r the inlet to these f l u c t u a t i o n s , heating so t h a t

station

constant pressure i s maintained evaporator station to effect. at

at

the

chamber o f t h e f i r s t

The check o f t h e t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g verification values, least live of the process parameters. of actual

s h o u l d be aimed t h e mean

In addition

parameter of at

fluctuations

values are also instrument

important.

During a t e s t

1-2

hours, the f o l l o w i n g

readings are required every

5 minutes:

steam p r e s s u r e and

temperature;

276

Entropy
F i g . 7.12. Working p r i n c i p l e o f the t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g station. SC - s a t u r a t i o n c u r v e , p^ - p r e s s u r e o f l i v e s t e a m , pg - p r e s s u r e o f make-up s t e a m ; A - s t a t e o f steam a t i n l e t , - s t a t e o f steam a f t e r r e d u c i n g v a l v e , C - s t a t e o f steam a t o u t l e t , D - s t a t e o f w a t e r b e f o r e d e s u p e r h e a t e r . steam p r e s s u r e a f t e r the reducing valve; the desuperheater; the desuperheater. by i n c r e a s i n g the

steam p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e of

after

of water

supplied to

Fluctuations

steam p r e s s u r e can be e s t i m a t e d instrument readings, for

simply

frequency o f the fluctuations thermometers guidelines: at

example t o as t h e

every minute. of

Temperature

can be e v a l u a t e d o n l y r o u g h l y , is too large. The r e s u l t s

lag

industrial the following

s h o u l d be e v a l u a t e d a g a i n s t

t h e mean i n l e t - p r e s s u r e value, the t o l e r a n c e

value, of

constrained within

the

r e g i o n 5% a r o u n d

the

nominal

t h e mean v a l u e o f t h e

reduced pressure i s

also

v e r y good r e d u c e d - p r e s s u r e s t a b i l i z a t i o n its mean v a l u e . in the

means t h a t

pressure fluctuations

do

n o t e x c e e d 2% o f

However, l a r g e r system o p e r a t i o n

fluctuations

can be a l l o w e d , turbine) are

provided that disturbances avoided; the steam t e m p e r a t u r e temperature,

( e s p e c i a l l y the

after

the

desuperheating is the

s h o u l d be h i g h e r eliminate

than the

the

saturation

because t h i s

o n l y way t o

uncontrollable e x c e e d 40 K. to

presence of excess water.

However, superheating

should

not

In order

interpret conditions.

test

results

correctly, least

attention

s h o u l d be g i v e n for normal

to

the operating

There are at

three

requirements

277

operation

o f the

throttling-desuperheating than

station;

namely,

load

fluctuations the boiler of

s h o u l d be no more i n t e n s i v e

under average o p e r a t i n g its

conditions, and t h e

l o a d s h o u l d be r e a s o n a b l y l o w e r t h a n water supplied to the

maximum c a p a c i t y ,

pressure the

d e s u p e r h e a t e r s h o u l d be a t

l e a s t 4 bar h i g h e r than

r e d u c e d steam p r e s s u r e . It the is recommended t h a t t h e t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g o f the s e a s o n and t h e n p e r i o d i c a l l y station is checked at

beginning

e v e r y t e n d a y s o r two w e e k s .

7.7.2

Barometric

condensers p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t while of also role, as i t influences such

The v a p o u r - c o n d e n s i n g s t a t i o n important

p r o c e s s e s as s u g a r b o i l i n g , absorbs large

interacting

w i t h the to

thermal

system because i t environment. ensure the

amounts

heat to is

be d i s s i p a t e d the

the should obtain batch low vacuum

An i m p o r t a n t

process requirement ( h i g h vacuum) of

that is

condensers

constant

low p r e s s u r e and r a p i d is

that

necessary to in the

b o i l i n g temperatures pans. A thermal

thickening that the

sugar s o l u t i o n s of

requirement

temperature

barometric

water

should in to the get feed

be as l o w as p o s s i b l e , cooling water water towers.

b u t h i g h enough t o

ensure rapid it

heat d i s s i p a t i o n may be i m p o r t a n t high to of

In double-stage first

condensing systems,

from the for the

stage with a temperature

sufficiently the

s e r v e as the

extraction is

process. Simultaneously,

operation

vapour-

condensing s t a t i o n

d e p e n d e n t on e f f i c i e n t

e v a c u a t i o n o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s by cooling to towers. the coolingThis

vacuum pumps and a l s o on h e a t d i s s i p a t i o n The e s s e n t i a l water problem in

from the is

condenser i n s p e c t i o n

determine

consumption w h i l e possible to the water is 4-6

collecting

i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e

condensation process. are s a t i s f i e d , and

makes i t whether duration minutes: -

check whether

process requirements

consumption

can be d e c r e a s e d . T h e recommended measurements

condenser-test 20-30

h o u r s . The f o l l o w i n g

s h o u l d be r e c o r d e d e v e r y

t h e vacuum i n

the

condenser at upper p a r t of

the the

vapour i n l e t

nozzle

level; cooling water inlet;

t h e vacuum i n t h e the temperature of of

condenser above the the

the vapours s u p p l i e d to water; before at

condenser;

t h e mass f l o w the

cooling of of the the

temperature

cooling water barometric

the the

condenser; condenser o u t l e t (at both

the temperature in a

water

outlets Test the

double-stage condensing s h o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d the

station). the following is guidelines: bar (600 mm H g ) , as

results

against

d e s i r a b l e vacuum i n 0.88 bar

condenser centre its the upper part;

a b o u t 0.8

against is the

(660 m m Hg) i n temperature of

desirable

barometric

water

in

a single-stage

condenser

45-50C;

278
be in a double-stage condenser, the temperature of the barometric water should

60-65C
the

in the

first

s t a g e and

40-45C

in the

second s t a g e ; at actual condenser pressure

difference

between t h e water

saturation

temperature

and t h e

barometric

temperature at the

should not the test of

e x c e e d 5 K. s h o u l d be a c c o u n t e d f o r the as v a p o u r in the

Operating conditions evaluation temperature flow of of test the

time o f

results.

The e f f i c i e n c y

t h e vacuum pumps and important, as w e l l

cooling water

are e s p e c i a l l y flow

fluctuations,

because a temporary

i n c r e a s e may i n d u c e

l o w e r e d vacuum. in between is

U n d e r normal maintaining saturation

factory-operating

conditions, as t o o

possible d i f f i c u l t i e s large a difference that flow the

appropriate

v a c u u m , as w e l l

and b a r o m e t r i c - w a t e r

temperatures, In t h i s

indicate case, the

condenser of

o v e r l o a d e d by e x c e s s i v e v a p o u r f l o w . vapours in the f r e e - f l o w The approximate G^, value c a n be

velocity

the verified. vapour

c r o s s - s e c t i o n area of the heat losses to

c o n d e n s e r s h o u l d be environment) of

(neglecting calculated

the

of the

mass f l o w , energy

from the e q u a t i o n s

c o n d e n s e r mass and

balances

= G^,

(7.45)

w h e r e G.

is

the

unknown mass f l o w

of

barometric

water

in

k g / h , G,

is

the

known

D
mass f l o w of cooling water in kg/h, and h ^ , of w h i c h can be d e t e r m i n e d determination ^ = velocity of as f u n c t i o n s flow (kg/h) as known t e m p e r a t u r e s t^,

W
h ^ and hj^ a r e e n t h a l p i e s t^ in kJ/kg, Upon and t ^ .

t h e v a p o u r mass \ ^

(7.47) (7.48)
steam a t temperature velocity condenser body, i n m. T h e f l o w

the flow

can be c a l c u l a t e d

w = G^vy((TTd2/4)-3600)
where v ^ i s t^, and d i s the the specific inner volume, diameter m/s. the

(m/s)
i n m'^/kg, o f d r y s a t u r a t e d of the

should not exceed It is

50-60

recommended t h a t after that,

condensers are checked a t

the

beginning

of

the from

season; normal 7.7.3 As

inspection

s h o u l d be u n d e r t a k e n w h e n e v e r d e v i a t i o n s

condenser operation Steam traps Section is

occur.

emphasized i n

3.2.1,
reliable

one o f t h e

essential

requirements This

of

proper can be

steam o r v a p o u r h e a t i n g satisfied, providing it is

condensate d r a i n a g e . system i s

requirement

t h a t the unusual in It

entire

p r o p e r l y d e s i g n e d and or makeshift to

maintained.

In p r a c t i c e ,

not

that design errors equipment

modifications

c a u s e steam c o n s u m p t i o n above t h e actual need.

individual

units

i n c r e a s e by the

25-50%
for

s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d

here t h a t

prerequisite

279

routine

checking o f

steam t r a p s is

is

to

eliminate detecting

such e r r o r s . and e l i m i n a t i n g malfunctioning indicate Nozzleto

C h e c k i n g o f steam t r a p s traps. the

aimed a t

C o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e can be o b s e r v e d a t w a t e r - l e v e l in the heating chambers o f t h e

gauges t h a t

condensate l e v e l

relevant apparatus.

t y p e steam t r a p s

are often

equipped w i t h

s i g h t - g l a s s e s t h a t make i t are detected, it

possible

o b s e r v e steam l e a k s . refer to

When i r r e g u l a r i t i e s instruments

may be n e c e s s a r y t o the trap

the measuring

in the thermal

system; however, i f its nominal

pressure drop across the t r a p

does n o t d i f f e r

much f r o m

value,

damage can be s u s p e c t e d . A damaged t r a p Steam t r a p detector metal (ref. operation 45).

must be r e p l a c e d w i t h o u t

delay. sound

can a l s o be i n v e s t i g a t e d u s i n g an u l t r a s o n i c

A less reliable the t r a p surface

method e m p l o y s a s t e t h o s c o p e , o r e v e n a (an i n i t i a l trial s h o u l d be made t o ensure

rod touching method i s

that this 7.7.4

efficient). pipelines in a thermal system are i n t e r c o n n e c t e d by pipelines utilization. depends,

Steam and v a p o u r

T h e e q u i p m e n t and m a c h i n e s pipelines for transport of

steam, vapour or w a t e r . because o f their

Steam and v a p o u r on t h e e n e r g y

are p a r t i c u l a r l y It

important

influence

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t p l a c e , on s a t i s f y i n g with the

correct operation of

a steam p i p e l i n e s u c h as

in the f i r s t positioning

basic construction rules condensate f l o w - o f f , thermal

pipe-

s l o p e needed f o r

applying necessary installing byand

d r a i n a g e and v e n t i n g , pass l i n e s , shut-down, etc.

providing appropriate

insulation, for

These r u l e s are p a r t i c u l a r l y as f o r the smooth r e p a i r the

important

safe start-up individual system. It

as w e l l

and m a i n t e n a n c e o f the entire

equipment u n i t s unusual

without

affecting

operation of

is

not

in p r a c t i c e , due t o

however, to

find that

these r u l e s are not modifications. pipeline It

completely s h o u l d be is to

satisfied

design e r r o r s or makeshift prerequisite kind. is aimed at: for

understood here t h a t the eliminate errors of that

normal

checking

Checking o f steam-leakage

steam p i p e l i n e s detection and

elimination; repair. leakages to the environment as f l o w s and

thermal-insulation

i n s p e c t i o n and

Steam-leakage d e t e c t i o n

consists of finding

uncontrolled flows through f a u l t y leaking valves in

d r a i n s o r v e n t s , as w e l l

i n d u c e d by task in are

by-pass or reserve l i n e s .

T h i s may be a d i f f i c u l t if thermometers to

complex p i p i n g installed in

systems; i t the piping

c a n be made e a s i e r sections. It is

and manometers

all

sufficient

perform

steam-leakage

checks a t the b e g i n n i n g o f the equipment repairs. checks o f

s e a s o n and a f t e r

temporary shut-downs or

T h e aim o f t h e

thermal

insulation

is

to

identify

and

eliminate

280

unnecessary heat l o s s e s from the p i p e l i n e s e c t i o n s should immediately enough t o eliminate be r e p a i r e d . inflow,

s u r f a c e . Wet o r damaged

insulation it is will factory

In cases o f wet i n s u l a t i o n ,

the water

as h e a t f l u x

from the p i p e s u r f a c e the

cause subsequent d r y i n g . start-up, to and a f t e r

Insulation

c h e c k i n g s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d a t repairs. Attention s h o u l d be

equipment o r p i p i n g fittings,

directed

pipe sections close to Vents

h a n g e r s and c o m p e n s a t i o n p i e c e s .

7.7.5

The h e a t i n g juice

chambers o f e q u i p m e n t

h e a t e d by v a p o u r s , s u c h as e v a p o r a t o r s ,

h e a t e r s and p r i m a r i l y

vacuum p a n s , s h o u l d be c o n t i n u o u s l y v e n t e d . condensing vapours tend to It is usually at accumulate and in the

Noncondensable gases p r e s e n t i n lower regions of heating

chambers.

these p o i n t s ,

particularly installed

w h e r e t h e v a p o u r p a t h s e n d , t h a t v e n t i n g n o z z l e s s h o u l d be 46); the n o z z l e s possible to s h o u l d be c o n n e c t e d t o control the flow. o f noncondensable gases, pressure o f the steam then to pipes equipped with

(ref.

v a l v e s t h a t make i t If their venting

does n o t p r e v e n t t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n

increased partial

p r e s s u r e causes the p a r t i a l decreases the

decrease, which in turn venting thus r e s u l t s

condensation temperature. temperature

Insufficient and less

in a decreased e f f e c t i v e w h i c h means:

difference

intensive -

heat t r a n s f e r

decreased j u i c e decreased f i n a l longer boiling

evaporation in the e v a p o r a t o r s ; juice time temperature in the heaters;

in the

b a t c h vacuum p a n s . amount o f steam t o to escape, together with amount t o the

Venting always causes a c e r t a i n noncondensable gases. and, if possible, to It is thus

important

reduce t h a t

a minimum venting in

r e c o v e r heat from the escaping m i x t u r e . s e l e c t e d places in the thermal

Most o f t e n ,

pipes are connected at Section 3.2.2.

s y s t e m , as e x p l a i n e d

When c o n t r o l l i n g valve

the flow

of

a gas-vapour mixture, 1/4 to is 1/3

it

is

recommended t h a t at a time. in the It

the

s p i n d l e be t u r n e d n o t more t h a n kind of flow

revolution

should

be o b s e r v e d t h a t t h i s v e n t s opened t o visible steam

control

realizable only is

case o f by

t h e a t m o s p h e r e , as e x c e s s i v e v e n t i n g

indicated

there

outflow. of venting that is particularly needed i n the at the steam to

The a c c u r a t e c o n t r o l

e v a p o r a t o r s would r e q u i r e n o z z l e before the the venting difference temperature heating

installation chamber i n l e t

o f p r e c i s i o n thermometers and i n the heating

chamber c l o s e in a

nozzle. o f about

Opening o f the 1 K. As i t is

control

valve should r e s u l t

temperature small of

practically

i m p o s s i b l e t o measure such a is recommended t h a t , four

difference with

adequate a c c u r a c y i t

instead resistance

two t h e r m o m e t e r s ,

a s p e c i a l measuring

s y s t e m be u s e d i n c l u d i n g

281

thermometers This is

and an e l e c t r i c a l useful in

bridge equipped w i t h four the s e c o n d and t h i r d highest.

resistors

(ref.

47). the

particularly

evaporator effects

where

concentration

o f noncondensables i s

Checking o f v e n t i n g of the season, after

systems should p r i m a r i l y

be c a r r i e d

out

at

the

beginning Also in in

temporary

s h u t - d o w n s and a f t e r by t o o in the low f i n a l

equipment juice

repairs.

cases o f

irregularities,

indicated

temperatures

the

heaters or too slow sugar b o i l i n g a standard 7.8 7.8.1 It routine.

vacuum p a n s , a v e n t i n g

c h e c k s h o u l d be

PULP DRYER Methods o f is measurement this Section that the d r y e r under c o n s i d e r a t i o n gases. Compared t o its is

assumed t h r o u g h o u t drum-type

a classical system in

d r y e r heated by c o m b u s t i o n a pulp heat is

a thermal is to is thus

sugar manufacture, as t h e

d r y e r equipped w i t h utilized

own f u r n a c e same a p p l i e s pulp drying

extremely p r i m i t i v e , dryers utilizing flue

o n l y once ( t h e loss in

gases from b o i l e r s ) . i s why t h e is drying

Any h e a t

irrecoverable, A drum-type a list of

and t h a t

p r o c e s s s h o u l d be c a r e f u l l y in Fig. 7.13,

monitored. with

pulp dryer that

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y in

together

quantities

appear

t h e mass and h e a t

balances.

p r e s s e d pulp

e x h a u s t gas t2.C02

B.QH

F i g . 7 . 1 3 . P o i n t s o f measurement i n 3 - a f t e r d r y e r . For the e x p l a n a t i o n The e s s e n t i a l determine the

pulp dryer check. 1 - furnace, o f s y m b o l s , see t e x t . a pulp dryer

2 -

feeder,

problem o f m o n i t o r i n g e n e r g y usage i n drying a definite

is

to The heat

heat consumption w h i l e

amount o f p u l p . the of dryer

consumption efficiency,

can c o n v e n t i o n a l l y , and t h e heat

be e x p r e s s e d b y two for the

indices:

consumption as

evaporation

1 kg o f w a t e r ,

q.

The d r y e r e f f i c i e n c y

can be d e f i n e d

282

where kJ, is

is

the

theoretical

h e a t demand f o r in kg, and

evaporating water is the heating

from the

pulp in

in

the fuel

consumption

value of

fuel

kJ/kg. The h e a t consumption formula q = BQ^/W where W i s (kJ/kg) t h e mass o f w a t e r determine the evaporated in the above i n d i c e s , it dryer is in kg. the (7.50) for evaporation of 1 kg w a t e r can be c a l c u l a t e d from the

In order to following

n e c e s s a r y t o measure

quantities: consumed, ( k g ) ; fuel, (kJ/kg); ( k g ) , o r mass o f dried pulp, G^ ( k g ) ;

- mass o f f u e l heating

value of

- mass o f p r e s s e d p u l p ,

- mass o f m o l a s s e s a d d e d b e f o r e t h e d r y e r , G ^ ( k g ) ; dry matter content in pressed pulp, s^ (%), in dried pulp, S2 ( % ) , and in

molasses, -

s^ (%); before the dryer, t^ t^^ (C), (C); and a t the dryer outlet,

pressed pulp temperature gas t e m p e r a t u r e (C).

before the

d r y e r drum,

In order to

attain pulp

satisfactory samples f o r

measuring the

accuracy, care i s

required

in

taking

representative

determination dryer outlet

o f dry matter are also very

content. important. furnace The outlet, (fed gaps

T e m p e r a t u r e measurements flue but for gas t e m p e r a t u r e

before the the

before

drum must n o t

be m e a s u r e d a t

the

i n s t e a d where the f l u e temperature adjustment

g a s has a l r e a d y been m i x e d w i t h p u r p o s e s ) and a l s o w i t h air

secondary a i r in through

leaking pulp

between t h e detectors outlet

f u r n a c e and t h e d r u m , as w e l l be i n s t a l l e d at the

as a r o u n d t h e

intake.

Temperature As t o of the the for

should thus

drum b e y o n d t h e e r r o r s due t o

pulp

intake.

temperature

measurements, in is the the to

systematic drum o u t l e t

irregularities

temperature temperature A very content outlet in

distribution measurement

must be a v o i d e d . T h e r i g h t the exhaust is fan. of

place

outlet

nozzle of

useful

addition the

the

above measurements

determination

the the

CO2

t h e gas a t

dryer outlet. fan.

Gas s a m p l e s s h o u l d be t a k e n

from

n o z z l e o f the exhaust case o f a p e r i o d i c u s e d makes the it

In the measuring also to useful at

d r y e r check,

it

is

recommended t h a t

the

system

of and

possible to

determine

the

heat consumption detected.

indices

identify

reasons f o r

any i r r e g u l a r i t i e s in the

Particularly d r y e r drum and the drum are found is

a r e t h e measurements

o f CO2 c o n t e n t in

gas b e f o r e t h e

the d r y e r o u t l e t ,

as t h e d i f f e r e n c e if

CO2 c o n t e n t

shows w h e t h e r

properly sealed.

In a d d i t i o n ,

the o u t l e t

CO2 c o n t e n t

and t e m p e r a t u r e

known, t h e n a p p r o x i m a t e in the diagrams given in

values of ref.

heat consumption sources.

and g a s h u m i d i t y

can be

8 or other

283

R o u t i n e d r y e r m o n i t o r i n g s h o u l d be b a s e d on i n s t r u m e n t hour. T h e n t h e mean v a l u e s o f p a r a m e t e r s reflect not o n l y the q u a l i t y (calculated over

readings taken the e n t i r e test

every

period)

o f the d r y e r - f u r n a c e system, but a l s o conditions, s u c h as c h a n g i n g

the

influence

of disturbances

in the operating

moisture

c o n t e n t o r mass f l o w o f t h e p r e s s e d p u l p . In p e r i o d i c checks, the investigations results a r e aimed a t the determination if the d r y e r of load

dryer efficiency.

Reliable test

can o n l y be o b t a i n e d

i s s t a b i l i z e d and no s i g n i f i c a n t

disturbances o c c u r . O t h e r w i s e , the

thermal The test

c a p a c i t y o f t h e d r y e r may i n t r o d u c e duration s h o u l d be 8-12

a considerable heat-balance e r r o r . r e a d i n g s taken e v e r y 30

h o u r s , w i t h parameter hour.

minutes

and p u l p s a m p l e s c o l l e c t e d e v e r y 7.8.2

Mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f a p u l p - d r y i n g

plant describing the

The mass b a l a n c e can be a n a l y s e d on t h e dry matter G^s^ = G2S2 stream

basis o f the equation

(7.51) representative, very accurate eqn. (7.51) values makes of pulp

P r o v i d e d t h a t the p u l p samples a r e r e a l l y

o f s^ and S2 can be o b t a i n e d f r o m l a b o r a t o r y it possible to v e r i f y the indications

analyses. Thus,

o f t h e p r e s s e d - p u l p s c a l e s . T h e mass by d i r e c t i n g the d r i e d

dried pulp

l e a v i n g t h e d r y e r , G ^ , can be d e t e r m i n e d

into a container. eqn. (7.51).

Once t h e b a t c h has been w e i g h e d , one can c a l c u l a t e

G^ f r o m

T h e mass o f w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d i n t h e d r y e r can be c a l c u l a t e d W = G^(S2 - S ^ ) / S 2 + G^(S2 - s ^ ) / s 2 The t h e o r e t i c a l = W ( h ^ - h^) w h e r e h^ i s h e a t demand f o r (kg)

as (7.52) as (7.53)

w a t e r e v a p o r a t i o n can be c a l c u l a t e d (kJ)

t h e e n t h a l p y o f t h e v a p o u r s i n t h e gas a t in the pressed pulp or diagrams. is t^ in

the d r y e r o u t l e t

in

kJ/kg, h^ outlet

and h ^ i s t h e e n t h a l p y o f w a t e r can be d e t e r m i n e d

k J / k g . The e n t h a l p y vapours in the

f r o m steam t a b l e s

Actually,

gases are s u p e r h e a t e d ; the temperature u n d e r s t o o d as t h e p a r t i a l approximation error 7.8.3 is obtained

and t h e p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be satisfactory (the resulting (kJ/kg).

p r e s s u r e o f H^O i n g a s . H o w e v e r , a by a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e i s The o t h e r operation enthalpy value is

1 bar

d o e s n o t e x c e e d 1%).

h^ = 4.19tp^

Economical pulp d r y e r

In a reasonably well typical efficiency

o p e r a t e d p u l p d r y e r w i t h an i n d i v i d u a l 0.75-0.85, while heat consumption

furnace, per 1 kg

value is

e v a p o r a t e d w a t e r d o e s n o t e x c e e d 3140-3560 I n a d r y e r h e a t e d by b o i l e r c a l c u l a t e d per t o t a l flue

kJ/kg. value is conventionally 0.10-0.15, and

gas, the e f f i c i e n c y consumed i n the

amount o f f u e l

boiler

284

the

heat consumption Keeping the thermal of the

(calculated indices of

in the

same w a y ) amounts t o an a p p r o p r i a t e its 7.14. related to the

21500-28000 level

kJ/kg. good

a dryer at that

requires

understanding

relationships

affect Fig. is

heat balance,

schematically

shown i n a s i m p l i f i e d (i) The s m a l l e s t

Sankey diagram i n

p o s s i b l e heat consumption according to that eqn. the

theoretical

heat

demand, c a l c u l a t e d (ii) Pulp d r y i n g

(7.53). into the in drying the g a s must gas,

requires

energy introduced

exceed the plus the (iii) it of is

theoretical

demand by t h e

combined e n e r g y l o s s

outlet

heat

l o s s from the d r y e r generate the

drum. amount o f g a s a t fuel that the proper the temprerature, above to the amount

In order to necessary to

right

b u r n an amount o f

corresponds to

energy, plus

combustion

l o s s e s and h e a t

l o s s from the

furnace

envi ronment.

l_ >

Cf C

Heat theoretically needed

o QJ

Losses from furnace

Exhaust and radiation losses

drying plant. s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d , required (ii); and t h e final

Fig. It

7.14.

Heat balance o f the pulp from (i) in that dried

follows

process tolerances pulp should not is

dry matter

content

exceed the apparent in

value. outlet gas An

The need t o m i n i m i z e temperature equivalent before the Finally,

the exhaust l o s s

the

s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 9 0 - 1 1 5 C , and t h e formulation of the latter high, at requirement 800-900C.

gas f l o w is to

s h o u l d be m i n i m a l . gas

keep t h e

temperature

d r y e r drum r a t h e r (iii) implies

that the

gas g e n e r a t i o n gas t e m p e r a t u r e conditions, is the

should proceed with before the

excess

air

b e l o w 100-150%; o t h e r w i s e , too low. In actual air for

d r y e r drum w o u l d be is the lower. drum inlet

combustion

amount o f

excess a i r

The r e m a i n i n g and u t i l i z e d the

(secondary a i r ) gas-temperature drum and t h e sometimes

introduced

separately before air

adjustment. furnace, to

Uncontrollable the pulp

leaks are

through clearly drop. drum

gaps between t h e

and a t

intake,

disadvantageous,

leading

an u n a c c e p t a b l y distribution

large temperature over

T h e l e a k s may a l s o c a u s e t e m p e r a t u r e

irregularities

the

285

cross-section, In keeping

hampering the entire is

the air

pulp-drying

process. C O ^ measurement chemical in the gas of at the

feed under c o n t r o l ,

the d r y e r o u t l e t fuel and t h e

especially useful.

Providing the it is

composition determine

required excess a i r composition moisture at the

a r e known, of the flue

possible to the

the Taking the

desirable volumetric into account the fuel

gas b e f o r e

d r y e r drum. pulp,

and t h e w a t e r dryer outlet

e v a p o r a t e d from the can a l s o

recommended preferably, content

content

be d e t e r m i n e d

(and, actual indicate

experimentally close to air. the

verified).

The d r y e r o p e r a t o r avoiding

s h o u l d keep t h e

recommended v a l u e ,

lower values t h a t

t o o much e x c e s s

As a c o n c l u d i n g be m a i n t a i n e d dissipation at in a of

comment t o

(iii),

it

s h o u l d be s t a t e d

t h a t the

furnace

must heat

proper condition minimum. fact,

in order to

keep c o m b u s t i o n

l o s s e s and

As a m a t t e r requirements The p a r a m e t e r dryer

pulp-drying of the

operation

c o n s i s t s o f matching energy

the

on t h e

effect

drying

p r o c e s s and t h e possible to

consumption. in

v a l u e s g i v e n a b o v e make i t close to its nominal

a c h i e v e a compromise

capacity,

level.

C a p a c i t y changes r e q u i r e increase of

modifying For capacity

parameter this

v a l u e s , w h i c h c a u s e s , as a r u l e , first principle close to of its

heat consumption. is to keep t h e

reason, the if

pulp-dryer operation nominal value.

constant; 7.8.4

possible,

Example drum-type p u l p d r y e r has been t e s t e d test results: kg; in a 12-hour test and the

An o i l - f i r e d , following - mass o f oil

d a t a summarize t h e fuel oil

c o n s u m e d , = 14077 = 40400 kJ/kg; kg;

heating

value,

- mass o f

pressed pulp,

G-j = 223510

- mass o f m o l a s s e s added b e f o r e dry matter content in

d r y e r , G ^ = 8975 s-j = 17%,

kg; in dried pulp, S2 = 90.8%, and

pressed pulp,

in molasses, s -

= 76.3%; before dryer, t-j t^-j = 20 C ; and a t dryer outlet, t2 = 102C.

pressed pulp temperature gas t e m p e r a t u r e before

d r y e r drum,

= 803^0, dryer

The mass o f w a t e r W = 223510(90.7 -

evaporated in the

17)/90.7 + 8975(90.7 at the dryer outlet,

76.3)/90.7 from steam

= 183042 kg tables

The v a p o u r e n t h a l p y h^ = 2682 kJ/kg heat

The t h e o r e t i c a l

demand = 4.756-10^ kJ

= 183042(2682 - 4 . 1 9 - 2 0 ) The d r y e r efficiency

= 4.756-10^/(14077-40400)

= 0.836

286

The h e a t consumption

for

evaporation of kJ/kg

1 kg w a t e r

q = ( 1 4 0 7 7 4 0 4 0 0 ) / 1 8 3 0 4 2 = 3106 7.9 It of in COMPUTER-AIDED MONITORING

can be c o n c l u d e d f r o m p r e c e d i n g S e c t i o n s o f of the have heat b a l a n c e s needed t o been e s t a b l i s h e d ,

this

Chapter that heat

once methods economy

identification a sugar f a c t o r y

supervise the

the monitoring

p r o c e d u r e s c a n be then consists

routinely mainly

a p p l i e d on a r e p e t i t i v e

b a s i s . The p r a c t i c a l

monitoring generating, in the

o f data a c q u i s i t i o n , the

d a t a p r o c e s s i n g and r e p o r t computer. This

and can be first place, often, back

automated w i t h to the routine the

aid of a digital tasks

applies,

monitoring effort

(routine

c h e c k s ) w h i c h a r e p e r f o r m e d most

so t h a t most

initial

needed t o

prepare computerized t o o l s

can be p a i d

quickly. importance of computer-aided monitoring repetitive it to the e n e r g y economy l i e s in the with

The fact the

that,

b y r e d u c i n g t h e amount o f of the heat

and t e d i o u s w o r k a s s o c i a t e d the possibility of not the

preperation

balances, o f the

creates

systematic, to the

detailed

evaluation

energy processes. This Sections 7.2-7.8, but

applies also to

only entire in at

individual

stations

discussed in it

thermal

s y s t e m . On t h i s

basis

becomes p o s s i b l e t o entire factory,

control the

and o p t i m i z e ,

respect of

t h e e n e r g y economy o f t h e stations. data flow

operating

conditions

t h e most d e c i s i v e p r o c e s s A general factory of scheme o f t h e is

on w h i c h c o m p u t e r - a i d e d m o n i t o r i n g F i g . 7.15. The p r a c t i c a l data

of

the

operation

b a s e d c a n be s e e n i n

applications

the general

idea are d i f f e r e n t i a t e d

with

respect to the

acquisition and s e a r c h employed.

techniques, techniques By a d o p t i n g is able to

data-base s t r u c t u r e used, this

and v o l u m e ,

data-base

updating

u s e r programs a v a i l a b l e kind of structuring circulated, of well

and d a t a p r e s e n t a t i o n

methods

data processing f u n c t i o n s , proven software components

h o w e v e r , one facilitating

apply widely

DATA INPUT TERMINALS

USER TERMINALS

Software system

Updating programs

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Data acquisition programs 1

TT
Search

User programs

PRINTER

Data base

PLOTTER

programs

F i g . 7.15. operation.

Scheme o f d a t a f l o w

in

computer-aided monitoring

of

the

factory

287

smooth i m p l e m e n t a t i o n Monitoring

and h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y

of

the monitoring

system. functions of or

o f t h e e n e r g y economy can be t r e a t e d

as one o f t h e

an e x t e n s i v e m o n i t o r i n g it

system c o v e r i n g v a r i o u s aspects o f f a c t o r y

operation,

can be p e r f o r m e d by a s p e c i a l i z e d s y s t e m . T h e d a t a management f o r that required for computer-based control

monitoring

p u r p o s e s can be i n t e g r a t e d w i t h control, o r can be t r e a t e d

automatic functions. r e c o g n i z e the

independently of the

automatic

Among t h e m o n i t o r i n g condition

p r o b l e m s w h i c h must

be s o l v e d i n o r d e r t o is of

o f the energy processes, evaporator monitoring It determines the q u a l i t y of information

critical important possibilities

importance.

on t h e most creating

p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s , and i s of c o r r e c t l y diagnosing the The s i m p l e s t on f a c t o r y purposes, approach to inadequacies of

decisive in the

e n e r g y economy. is to use a p a r t of the data

evaporator monitoring in the in

operation, for

stored off-line of

c o m p u t e r memory f o r parameter

statistical periodic in

determination

the trends

v a l u e s and f o r

mass and h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s .

T h e e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s c a n be i d e n t i f i e d typically of this

terms o f average v a l u e s o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s , once p e r s h i f t . ref. 45. An e x a m p l e o f a p p l i c a t i o n

c a l c u l a t e d once p e r day o r in

a p p r o a c h can be f o u n d

A more a d v a n c e d e v a p o r a t o r m o n i t o r i n g of the e s s e n t i a l

procedure is

b a s e d on o n - l i n e the individual

recording

p a r a m e t e r s , measured c o n t i n u o u s l y i n o f the d a t a on j u i c e

effects, determined

and o f f - l i n e by l a b o r a t o r y

storing

concentrations periodically

a n a l y s e s . The c a l c u l a t i o n s

o f mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s c a n o n l y be the parameters corresponding to the

performed using time-averaged values o f periods between l a b o r a t o r y and f l o w s

a n a l y s e s . However, the

recorded values of pressures, t h u s making i t factory possible to

temperatures

can be d i s p l a y e d o r p r i n t e d ,

perform d e t a i l e d

analyses o f parameter of this

changes d u r i n g

operation.

Examples o f a p p l i c a t i o n mentioned in the

type of monitoring 49). almost

p r o c e d u r e s h a v e been

literature

(ref.

A monitoring

procedure offering

continuous a v a i l a b i l i t y

of

complete

d a t a on t h e e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s i s line, all t h e parameters needed t o

t o m e a s u r e c o n t i n u o u s l y , and t o calculate the j u i c e

record onThis

t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s . concentration values measured. It

d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean t h a t a l l the state o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r have t o certain details of

characterizing is possible using to

be a u t o m a t i c a l l y

identify indirect amount o f

t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e

evaporator ref.

m e a s u r e m e n t s , as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y an e x a m p l e r e p o r t e d i n heat t r a n s f e r r e d in the

50. The using effect the can

e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s can be d e t e r m i n e d and t h e condenser l o s s from the to the condenser. I t last is

measurements o f

condensate f l o w ,

be c a l c u l a t e d b y m e a s u r i n g t h e to note t h a t the special

vapour flow

interesting ref. 50

heat-economy m o n i t o r i n g unit handling 64 i n p u t

system d e s c r i b e d in s i g n a l s , and t h e

employs a data a c q u i s i t i o n

data

288

(including hand-held It

the

calculations

of

t h e mass and h e a t

balances)

are

p r o c e s s e d by

two

programmable

calculators. the development result of computer technology use o f of and t h e rising

can be e x p e c t e d t h a t of

importance

e n e r g y economy w i l l energy processes.

in widespread

computer-aided this kind are

monitoring of presently REFERENCES

Numerous m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m s various countries.

being implemented i n

S y m b o l s o f N a t i o n a l S t a n d a r d s u s e d b e l o w : ASTM F r a n c e , D I N - F R G , COST - U S S R , PN - P o l a n d . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

U S A , BS - G r e a t B r i t a i n ,

NF -

23 24 25 26 27

K. S c h i e b l , W r m e w i r t s c h a f t in der Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , . S t e i n k o p f f V e r l a g , D r e s d e n / L e i p z i g , 1939. . B a l o h , Wrmeatlas f r d i e Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Schaper V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1975. S . Z a g r o d z k i and A . K u b a s i e w i c z , H e a t economy i n b e e t s u g a r f a c t o r y e v a p o r a t i o n , S u g a r T e c h . R e v . , 5 ( 1 / 2 ) ( 1 9 7 7 / 7 8 ) 1-154. S . Z a g r o d z k i , G o s p o d a r k a C i e p l n a C u k r o w n i , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1979. P. H o n i g , P r i n c i p l e s o f S u g a r T e c h n o l o g y , E l s e v i e r , A m s t e r d a m , 1963. F . S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , T e c h n o l o g i e d e s Z u c k e r s , S c h a p e r V e r l a g , H a n n o v e r , 1968. R.A. McGinnis ( E d . ) , Beet Sugar T e c h n o l o g y , Beet Sugar Dev. F o u n d . , Fort Collins, 1971. J . D o b r z y c k i ( E d . ) , P o r a d n i k I n z y n i e r a - C u k r o w n i c t w o , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1973. D. U r b a n ( e t a l . ) , Z u c k e r h e r s t e l l u n g , F a c h b u c h v e r l a g , L e i p z i g , 1980. F. B o s n j a k o v i c , T e c h n i s c h e Thermodynamik, T . S t e i n k o p f f V e r l a g , D r e s d e n , 1965. T . D . E a s t o p and A . M c C o n k e y , A p p l i e d T h e r m o d y n a m i c s f o r Engineering T e c h n o l o g i s t s , 3 r d e d n . , Longmans, London and New Y o r k , 1978. U . G r i g u l l ( E d . ) , P r o p e r t i e s o f W a t e r and Steam i n S l - U n i t s , 2nd e d n . , S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , B e r l i n - H e i d e l b e r g - N e w Y o r k , 1979. M.P. V u k a l o v i c h , T e p l o f i z i c h e s k i e S v o i s t v a Vody i Vodyanogo P a r a , M a s h i n o s t r o e n i e , M o s k v a , 1967. J . P . Holman, Heat T r a n s f e r , 5th e d n . , M c G r a w - H i l l , H a m b u r g - L o n d o n - P a r i s , 1981. J . C h u d z i n s k i ( e t a l . ) , P o r a d n i k T e r m o e n e r g e t y k a , 2nd e d n . , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1974. J . D o b r z y c k i , A u t o m a t y z a c j a w P r z e m y s l e C u k r o w n i c z y m , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1974. J . S t a n e k ( E d . ) , Handbuch d e r M e s s t e c h n i k i n d e r Betriebskontrolle, Akademieverlag, L e i p z i g , 1979. R . P . B e n e d i c t , F u n d a m e n t a l s o f T e m p e r a t u r e , P r e s s u r e , and F l o w M e a s u r e m e n t s , W i l e y , New Y o r k , 1969. R. F r e i e r , K e s s e l s p e i s e w a s s e r , K h l w a s s e r - T e c h n o l o g i e , B e t r i e b s a n a l y s e , W a l t e r de G r u y t e r , B e r l i n , 1963. F . C o g e t and M. W i n k e l , Le t r a i t e m e n t d e s e a u x de c h a u f f e r i e s dans l e s s u c r e r i e s , S u c r . B e i g e , 102 ( 1 9 8 4 ) 5-11. R e g u l a t i o n s o f t h e P o l i s h M i n i s t r y o f M i n i n g and E n e r g y ( i n P o l i s h ) , M o n i t o r P o l s k i , (51) (1967). R . H . L . Howe, B o i l e r - w a t e r c o n t r o l f o r e f f i c i e n t steam p r o d u c t i o n , in: R. G r e e n e ( E d . ) , P r o c e s s E n e r g y C o n s e r v a t i o n , M c G r a w - H i l l , New Y o r k , 1982, p p . 185-188. S a m p l i n g o f i n d u s t r i a l w a t e r , ASTM D 5 1 0 - 6 8 , BS 1 3 2 8 : 1 9 6 8 ; P N - 7 4 / C - 0 4 6 2 0 . S a m p l i n g o f w a t e r f r o m b o i l e r s , ASTM 8 6 0 - 5 4 , BS 1 3 2 8 : 1 9 6 8 ; PN-74/C-04620. E q u i p m e n t f o r s a m p l i n g i n d u s t r i a l w a t e r and s t e a m , ASTM 1 1 9 2 - 7 0 ; PN-74/C-04620. S a m p l i n g o f s t e a m , ASTM 1 0 6 6 - 6 9 ; BS 3285; PN-74/C-04621. A p p e a r a n c e o f w a t e r , ASTM D 1 8 8 9 - 7 1 ; BS 2690: P a r t 9 ; NF 9 0 - 0 0 2 / 5 0 ; PN-79/C-04583.

289

28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38

39 40 41 42 43 44

45 46

47 48 49 50

P a r t i c u l a t e and d i s s o l v e d m a t t e r i n w a t e r , ASTM D 1 8 8 8 - 6 7 ; NF 9 0 - 0 2 9 / 7 0 ; COST 1 8 1 6 4 - 7 2 ; P N - 7 8 / C - 0 4 5 4 1 . E l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f w a t e r , ASTM D 1 1 2 5 - 6 1 ; BS 2690: P a r t 9 ; NF 9 0 - 0 3 1 / 7 3 ; P N - 7 7 / C - 0 4 5 4 2 . W a t e r h a r d n e s s , ASTM D 1 1 2 6 - 6 7 ; BS 1 4 2 7 : 1 9 6 2 ; NF 9 0 - 0 0 3 / 5 8 ; P N - 7 1 / C - 0 4 5 5 4 . F . S c h n e i d e r ( E d . ) , S u g a r A n a l y s i s - ICUMSA M e t h o d s , ICUMSA, P e t e r b o r o u g h , 1979. C o a l and o t h e r s o l i d f u e l s , NF 1 0 - 0 0 2 ; GOST 1 9 2 9 2 - 7 3 ; P N - 8 2 / G - 9 7 0 0 1 . F u e l o i l s , ASTM D 3 9 6 - 7 3 ; BS 2869; NF 15-010 and 0 1 1 / 6 8 ; D I N 5 1 6 0 3 - 6 6 ; GOST 1 0 5 8 5 - 6 3 ; P N - 7 5 / C - 9 6 0 2 4 . S a m p l i n g o f c o a l , ASTM D 2 2 3 4 - 7 2 ; BS 1 0 1 7 : 1 9 7 7 ; NF 0 1 - 0 0 1 ; D I N 51701; GOST 16479-70; P N - 8 0 / G - 0 4 5 0 2 . S a m p l i n g o f l i q u i d f u e l s , ASTM D 270; BS 3 1 9 5 : 1 9 5 9 ; NF 0 7 - 0 0 1 / 6 0 ; DIN 51570; GOST 2 5 1 7 - 6 0 ; P N - 6 6 / C - 0 4 0 0 0 . A . A . A v d e e v a , B . S . B e l o s e l s k i i and M . N . K r a s n o v , K o n t r o l T o p l i v a E l e k t r o s t a n t s i y a k h , E n e r g i y a , M o s k v a , 1973. H. K a r o l c z u k , R a c j o n a l n a G o s p o d a r k a Weglem E n e r g e t y c z n y m , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1978. H e a t o f c o m b u s t i o n by bomb c a l o r i m e t e r . S o l i d f u e l s , BS 1016: P a r t 5; DIN 51900; GOST 1 4 7 - 7 4 ; P N - 8 1 / G - 0 4 5 1 3 . L i q u i d f u e l s , ASTM D 2 4 0 - 6 4 ; NF 0 7 - 0 3 0 / 6 5 ; GOST 6 7 1 2 - 5 3 ; P N - 7 1 / C - 0 4 0 6 2 . R e q u i r e m e n t s and a c c e p t a n c e t e s t s , steam b o i l e r s , I S O / T C - 6 4 P u b l i c a t i o n s N o . 40-50 ( 1 9 5 7 - 5 9 ) ; D I N 1942; P N - 7 2 / M - 3 1 2 8 . P. O r l o w s k i , K o t l y Parowe w E n e r g e t y c e P r z e m y s l o w e j , WNT, W a r s z a w a , 1976. T . A . S t o a , C a l c u l a t i n g b o i l e r e f f i c i e n c y and e c o n o m i c s , i n : R. G r e e n e ( E d . ) , P r o c e s s E n e r g y C o n s e r v a t i o n , M c G r a w - H i l l , New Y o r k , 1982, p p . 2 4 5 - 2 5 0 . R e q u i r e m e n t s and a c c e p t a n c e t e s t s , steam t u r b i n e s , l E C N o . 4 5 / 1 9 7 0 ; PN-71/M-35520. A . K u b a s i e w i c z and W. L e k a w s k i , P r z e b i e g w y m i a n y c i e p l a w e k s t r a k t o r z e korytowym, Gaz. Cukrow., 83(3) (1975). K . E . A u s t m e y e r , A n a l y s i s o f s u g a r b o i l i n g and i t s t e c h n i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . I n t . S u g a r J . , 88 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , P a r t I ( 1 0 4 5 ) 3 - 7 , P a r t I I ( 1 0 4 6 ) 2 3 - 2 9 , P a r t I I I (1047) 50-55. S . J . V a l l e r y , A r e y o u r steam t r a p s w a s t i n g e n e r g y ? , i n : R. G r e e n e ( E d . ) , P r o c e s s E n e r g y C o n s e r v a t i o n , M c G r a w - H i l l , New Y o r k , 1982, p p . 1 7 0 - 1 8 4 . D. V o i t and A . H u t s i n p i 1 l e r , A p r a c t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e v e n t i n g o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t 2 3 r d ASSBT M e e t i n g , San D i e g o , F e b r u a r y 1985. S . Z a g r o d z k i and J . D o b r z y c k i , Removal o f i n c o n d e n s a b l e g a s e s f r o m c a l a n d r i a s . I n t . S u g a r J . , 71 ( 1 9 6 9 ) 2 3 5 - 2 3 7 . B . L . K a r r e n and M . K . F a v i e l l , A c o m p u t e r a p p r o a c h t o t e c h n i c a l r e c o r d s i n t h e b e e t s u g a r f a c t o r y l a b o r a t o r y , S u c r . B e i g e , 9 9 ( 2 ) (1980) 63-80. D. P i o t r o w s k i and K. U r b a n i e c , Anwenderprogramme f r den P r o z e s s r e c h n e r e i n s a t z i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 106(2) (1981) 135-138. C h . M o l l e r and H . J a n s d o r f , H e a t economy and s u p e r v i s o r y c o m p u t e r c o n t r o l . I n t . Sugar J . , 87(1034) (1985) 26-31.

290

Chapter

STEP-BY-STEP

IMPROVEMENTS

OF E X I S T I N G

ENERGY

SYSTEMS

8.1 8.1.1

THE S T E P - B Y - S T E P Introduction technical

APPROACH

From t h e

standpoint, improvements factories

it

is

difficult

t o make a c l e a r of

distinction a sugar would

between s t e p - b y - s t e p factory. probably Managers o f interpret

and an e x t e n s i v e m o d e r n i z a t i o n under d i f f e r e n t

operated

conditions on t h e

t h e s e two t e r m s to

differently, It

depending

economic distinct found

resources which are a v a i l a b l e differences in

them.

s e e m s , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e most and a m o d e r n i z a t i o n upon. can be

between s t e p - b y - s t e p of

improvements of

the methodology

implementation of

changes d e c i d e d consists of

While the modernization changes t o smaller be i n t r o d u c e d at

a factory

a package o f

extensive numerous repeated and

once, step-by-step a longer

improvements

may i n v o l v e basis of updated possible

undertakings the

spread over

time p e r i o d .

On t h e

reviews of

factory's

needs, the

objectives

are p e r i o d i c a l l y of

rationalization solutions, the

measures a r e s e l e c t e d from a l i m i t e d f i e l d limitations improvements if they being in the defined by t h e available

economic

resources. and

Consequently, implemented

e n e r g y - e c o n o m y a r e a can be d e c i d e d upon than other actions also

only

really

a r e more u r g e n t is usually

considered desirable. which improve

High p r i o r i t y or product

assigned, however, to operational safety and

measures equipment

sugar y i e l d while

quality,

reliability, Within adopted in the

also benefiting frame t h u s factory in

e n e r g y economy. various courses of local action may be Possible can

general

outlined,

a specific

in accordance w i t h the area of

conditions.

rationalization

measures

the

e n e r g y economy i n

sugar manufacture energy

be s y s t e m a t i z e d b y d i s t i n g u i s h i n g (i) Bringing the

between t h r e e ways t o into parity

reduce the its

demand,

energy-system operation

with

nominal required course of of

capabilities,

by e l i m i n a t i n g u n n e c e s s a r y d e v i a t i o n s malfunctioning

from the

e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s and i m p r o v i n g

s u b s y s t e m s and c o m p o n e n t s

the

e n e r g y s y s t e m . T y p i c a l m e a s u r e s a r e as e l i m i n a t i n g steam and v a p o u r e l i m i n a t i n g the improving improving leaks in

follows: the condensate lines;

c a u s e s o f abnormal

parameter

fluctuations; equipment; chambers of

condensate drainage the withdrawal and the heaters; formation of quality of of

from steam-

and v a p o u r - h e a t e d heating

noncondensables from the

evaporators preventing securing

scale; the condensate r e t u r n e d from the evaporator to the

proper

boilers;

291

securing proper functioning

o f the measuring

instruments

which are

essential

in monitoring (ii)

energy conversion, d i s t r i b u t i o n e n e r g y demand o f t h e

and u t i l i z a t i o n

processes. p r o c e s s . Among

Reducing the t o t a l the f o l l o w i n g

sugar manufacturing

others, -

m e a s u r e s can be u n d e r t a k e n : from the p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and p i p i n g to the

reducing the heat d i s s i p a t i o n

environment; reducing the energy consumption f o r reducing the water reducing the t o t a l replacing intake water to a u x i l i a r y purposes in the process plant;

the p r o c e s s ; to the sugar house; b y new o n e s f a c i l i t a t i n g a better

intake

outdated process-equipment units

e n e r g y economy; improving the automatic controls for better energy u t i l i z a t i o n in the follows: purposes the p r o c e s s .

(iii)

Improving the ratio

capabilities o f the

o f the energy system, i n c l u d i n g

effectiveness -

thermal

s y s t e m . T y p i c a l m e a s u r e s a r e as

r e d u c i n g t h e e n e r g y l o s s e s and t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n f o r

auxiliary

i n t h e power h o u s e ; improving t h e power f a c t o r of the e l e c t r i c a l from the subsystem; the energy system to the

reducing the

heat d i s s i p a t i o n

components o f

environment; improving improving optimizing replacing the utilization of condensates; of low-pressure vapours; evaporator; efficient

the u t i l i z a t i o n the utilization

o f vapours from the

outdated e n e r g y - s y s t e m equipment

b y more modern and

machinery; improving automatic controls to achieve better efficiency of energy conversion

and d i s t r i b u t i o n 8.1.2 Review o f is

processes. examples devoted to it s t e p - b y - s t e p improvements is felt that problems o f in the energy

There

a vast literature

economy o f s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , of

although

rationalization simply Very present valuable

power b a l a n c e s a r e n o t a d e q u a t e l y c o v e r e d . measures undertaken can be f o u n d i n the in specific

Some p u b l i c a t i o n s (refs.

particular information

factories

1,2).

articles

attempting to

draw g e n e r a l i z e d sugar in

c o n c l u s i o n s from the e x p e r i e n c e s o f i n d u s t r y managers i n v o l v e d i n a number o f T h e most accumulated improvements sugar f a c t o r i e s interesting in specific

consultants,

e n g i n e e r i n g companies o r

e n e r g y - r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n programmes i m p l e m e n t e d 3-12). is that devoted to

(refs.

group o f p u b l i c a t i o n s factories during

the experiences

longer periods of of this kind

step-by-step are r a t h e r scarce, let

(refs.

13-16).

As p r e s e n t a t i o n s

us a d d i t i o n a l l y

c o n s i d e r two e x a m p l e s o f s t e p - b y - s t e p i m p r o v e m e n t

programmes

292

w h i c h h a v e been e f f e c t e d

during

a period of

15 y e a r s i n

Swedish sugar

factories. the

T h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d b e l o w h a v e been e x t r a c t e d b y t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r published operations reports. o f the f a c t o r i e s belong to the c o n s i d e r e d a r e 2100

from

The p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s t o n s p e r d a y . As b o t h f a c t o r i e s that t h e y h a v e been s u b j e c t t o same l e v e l positions

and 5800

same c o m p a n y , i t identical

can be assumed stimulators to them.

the pressure of

economic

and t h a t t h e Their -

of technological in 1970

e x p e r t i s e has been a v a i l a b l e follows: classical

starting

can be s u m m a r i z e d as

both f a c t o r i e s

were equipped w i t h

tower-type extractors, e v a p o r a t o r s and of C sugar; boilers

juice

purification

stations,

quintuple-effect

three-boiling

crystallization both f a c t o r i e s

schemes w i t h

the a f f i n a t i o n

were equipped w i t h

oil-fired

operated at

live-steam

p a r a m e t e r s 40 b a r and 430C; in both cases, a b o u t 10% o f grid; in the l a r g e r o f the two f a c t o r i e s were this t h e p o w e r demand was c o v e r e d by p o w e r p u r c h a s e s

from the e x t e r n a l as t h e f l u e in

gases from b o i l e r s

utilized resulting -

the p u l p - d r y e r f u r n a c e , efficiency

no e c o n o m i z e r s w e r e i n s t a l l e d in the smaller larger

there,

in a boiler

8% l o w e r t h a n t h a t 1950s and 1960s,

factory;

following

i n v e s t m e n t s made d u r i n g

the

f a c t o r y was circuits. in

g e n e r a l l y equipped with T a b l e s 8.1 and 8 . 2

more modern m a c h i n e r y and a u t o m a t i c the rationalization areas in

control

list

measures t h a t were implemented both f a c t o r i e s as, starting during the period

t h e e n e r g y economy and o t h e r

related

1970-1985. T h e r e s u l t s w e r e c a r e f u l l y crisis in 1974, 24-hour the f a c t o r i e s

controlled

from the f i r s t

oil

adopted e n e r g y - m o n i t o r i n g In a d d i t i o n ,

p r o c e d u r e s b a s e d on detailed investigations every

frequent of

energy-consumption t e s t s .

t h e e n e r g y economy e m p l o y i n g o n e - w e e k t e s t year. the m o d i f i c a t i o n s

p e r i o d s were performed

second or t h i r d

In both f a c t o r i e s , introduced in the

of juice

heating

and t h e

improvements in reducing

s u g a r h o u s e s seem t o water

have p l a y e d a d e c i s i v e r o l e intake and t h e m a s s e c u i t e fluctuations

the e n e r g y consumption. The t o t a l were reduced i n

circulation originating

t h e s u g a r h o u s e s , and t h e p a r a m e t e r

from batchwise o p e r a t i o n o f the 1imited. In the larger factory,

s u g a r house equipment were

substantially

most o f t h e

investments

proposed to the actual

implement

the

energy-economy improvements were performed d u r i n g contrary, tower t h e managers o f t h e for smaller draft,

p e r i o d . On t h e the

f a c t o r y were n e i t h e r nor able to modify

able to modernize the j u i c e

extractor for

lower j u i c e

purification the 1985

station season,

l o w e r CaO r a t e

(throughout the p e r i o d o f in the

interest

including

t h e CaO r a t e was 20-25% h i g h e r t h a n the results of the

larger

factory). impressive in

Nevertheless,

15-year developments are q u i t e

TABLE 8 . data on normal-fuel (heating value

Energy-saving and other related measures introduced 1970-1985, and statistical 29300 kJ/kg) consumption in sugar manufacture in a 5800 t/d factory. Normal fuel consumed ^^^^^^^ 3.70-4.17 3.93 3.79

\/,^^w,

Year

Specification

c^r^^'-cA^^^-A^^

1966-1969

1970 1971

1972

3.58 3.56

1974

1975

3.23 3.42 3.21 3.36 3.38 3.28 3.20 3.18

1976

1977 1978 1979

1980 1982 1983

1984 1985

Automatic boiling controls installed on vacuum pans C. Two new limed-juice heaters with increased heating surface areas installed. Heating surface area in fourth evaporator effect increased. Temperature controllers installed on heaters before first and second carbonatation. Level controllers installed on water seals (acting as steam traps) in condensate drainage lines from 2nd, 3rd and 4th evaporator effects. Thermal insulation of fuel tanks improved. New boiler for off-season heating and room temperature controllers installed. One new vacuum pan A equipped with a stirrer and an air-tight, low-pressure steaming system installed. Three continuous affination centrifugals installed. One continuous centrifugal installed in strike for acceptance tests. Four continuous centrifugals installed in s t r i k e . One continuous centrifugal installed in C strike for acceptance tests. New steaming-out system using second-effect vapour installed in all vacuum pans A . Optimization of C-massecuite station completed. Economizer installed in one b o i l e r . Venting of noncondensables improved. Water intake to carbonatation sludge sweetening-off reduced. Flow meter installed on water supply to the sugar house. Stirrer installed in one vacuum pan A . Tower extractor modernized for lower j u i c e draft. Automatic boiling controls on vacuum pans A modernized. Condensate-heated plate heat exchanger installed as t h i c k - j u i c e heater instead of a tubular heat exchanger heated by third-effect vapour. Syrup wash tested in one centrifugal in A strike. Improved oil burners installed in one b o i l e r . Microcomputer-based boiler control system implemented.

3.15 3.13

293

294

TABLE 8.2 data on normal-fuel (heating value

Energy-saving and other related measures introduced 1970-1985, and statistical 29300 kJ/kg) consumption in sugar manufacture in a 2100 t/d factory. Normal fuel consumed ^^^/^^^

^ Year

.jr4. Specification

1967-1970

3.88-4.02 4.09 3.98 4.17 3.96 3.49 3.66 3.77 3.65

1971

1972 1973 1974 1975 1977 1978 1979

1980 1981 1982

3.73 3.45 3.40

1983

3.46

1984

New measuring instruments installed on the evaporator station. Equipment operators instructed on the principles of smooth operation of A-massecuite station. Energy economy analysed and equipment modernization programme proposed. Thermal insulation replaced on three evaporator bodies and one condensate tank. Stirrer installed in one vacuum pan A . New boiler for off-season heating installed. New measuring instruments installed on the extractor as well as on vacuum pans and C. Performance of C-massecuite station analysed and modernization proposed. Continuous centrifugals installed for increased throughput of C-massecuite station. Automatic temperature control circuit installed on exhaust steam supply to the evaporator station. Level controllers installed on water seals (acting as steam traps) in condensate drainage lines between evaporator effects 3 and 4 as well as 4 and 5. Syrup wash implemented in centrifugals A and B. Energy economy analysed. Chemical scale prevention implemented. Steam-turbine driven kiln-gas pumps replaced by new electrically-driven ones. New heater for thin juice installed. Vapour distribution scheme adjusted for better utilization of low-temperature vapours. Energy economy analysed. Automatic level-control circuits in the evaporator station modernized. Spiral heat exchangers heated by condensate and fourth-effect vapour implemented as raw-juice heaters. Integrated automatic control of the beet house implemented. Stirrers installed in all vacuum pans A . Continuous centrifugals installed in strike. Programmable control of A centrifugals implemented. Chemical scale prevention improved.

3.14 3.23

1985

295

both cases.

The f u e l

consumption the

expressed in larger

kg normal

fuel

per

100

kg b e e t the

has

been r e d u c e d by a b o u t 20% i n In order to approach, things initiate

factory

and by a b o u t 30% i n using on t h e the

smaller.

energy-economy improvements

step-by-step state are of

sufficient

i n f o r m a t i o n must be a v a i l a b l e action. In the

existing

and p o s s i b l e c o u r s e s o f results of

following, create

two e x a m p l e s

presented of the points The for

studies

intended to

convenient

starting

step-by-step example

improvements. is representative of rather small, and it. not-sovery The per heat

first

( S e c t i o n 8.2)

modern f a c t o r i e s limited initial initial fuel

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by r a t h e r

poor energy u t i l i z a t i o n c a n be t a k e n is to

knowledge o f measures t h a t in

improve

consumption

sugar manufacture are studied input

a b o u t 6.7

kg normal

fuel

100 kg b e e t .

P o s s i b l e improvements using

on t h e

b a s i s o f mass and

balances which are c a l c u l a t e d records.

data e x t r a c t e d from r o u t i n e b y t a k i n g t h e most the

factory

T h e h e a t s a v i n g w h i c h can be o b t a i n e d measures (aimed m a i n l y initial at heat

urgent is prepare

rationalization estimated at

reducing

energy waste) In order to is

a b o u t 20% o f t h e

consumption.

d e c i s i o n s on f u r t h e r The factory second example

improvements, ( S e c t i o n 8.3)

a detailed is

design study

recommended. sugar fuel An of

concerned w i t h a medium-capacity e n e r g y economy. The i n i t i a l fuel per 100

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a q u i t e in sugar manufacture improve the parameters

effective is 3.5

consumption

kg normal

kg b e e t . the

a n a l y s i s o f ways t o measurements of the

h e a t economy i s of

performed

using

results

e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n is created for evaluation of the

processes.

I n t h i s manner, of of small

a reliable of the

basis

consequences is

improvements 2% o f

the vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n . initial heat

The e s t i m a t e d

heat saving

the order o f The

consumption. efficient modern e n e r g y s y s t e m s can be this point. Section period 8.4 in 2 kg

experience proves that the

even h i g h l y

improved using

s t e p - b y - s t e p a p p r o a c h . To i l l u s t r a t e

p r e s e n t s a summary o f e n e r g y - s a v i n g m e a s u r e s t a k e n a large normal raw-sugar f a c t o r y . fuel per the is At present, This the factory indicates a very

during is

a 10-year

consuming

l e s s than of

100 kg b e e t .

example

also the

importance In

coordinating

h e a t and p o w e r b a l a n c e s a t demonstrated of

l o w h e a t demand.

addition,

the d i f f i c u l t y improvements improvements

distinguishing Although the

between

step-by-step the involve

and a m o d e r n i z a t i o n .

general some o f

approach to the

can be c o n s i d e r e d as e v o l u t i o n a r y , c h a n g e s and r a t h e r

steps taken

extensive technological 8.2 8.2.1 The the

costly ENERGY

investments. UTILIZATION

FACTORY CHARACTERIZED BY POOR I N I T I A L Introductory remarks this Section is

example p r e s e n t e d i n

b a s e d on a r e a l

case i n v e s t i g a t e d to the factory

by in

present author

a few y e a r s a g o . The c o n s u l t a n t

was i n v i t e d

296

q u e s t i o n by a manager whose i n t e r e s t by t h e rapidly rising oil p r i c e s at

in that

e n e r g y economy was o b v i o u s l y time. Another c o n t r i b u t i n g the

stimulated factor was

the plague o f frequent b o i l e r results. during

failures

that

seriously affected actions

operational undertaken substantial continue clear an

T h e r e was an e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t

some q u i c k

c o u l d be achieving

the

subsequent o f f - s e a s o n p e r i o d , with

t h e aim o f

energy savings a l r e a d y in the next season. the that rationalization

T h e manager was r e a d y t o

o f t h e e n e r g y economy i n coming y e a r s ,

b u t he made i t

in the foreseeable f u t u r e ,

no i n v e s t m e n t f u n d s w o u l d be a v a i l a b l e f o r factory. e n d . No a c t u a l

e x t e n s i v e modernization o f the The i n v i t a t i o n

came as t h e s e a s o n a p p r o a c h e d i t s o f the f a c t o r y ' s

data were

a v a i l a b l e on t h e d e t a i l s left for

e n e r g y b a l a n c e . As t h e r e was no t i m e it became c l e a r that evaluation data of

preparing additional

measurements,

t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d on t h e e x t r a c t e d from the f a c t o r y 8.2.2 Basic f a c t o r y

basis of the

r e c o r d s o r m e a s u r e d by t h e e x i s t i n g

instrumentation. process

d a t a and scheme o f t h e s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g 2100 t/d. 16.18%.

Processing c a p a b i l i t y : Polarization of Extractor: Juice draft:

cossettes:

trough-type. 120%. 15.80% DS and 86.82%.

R a w - j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n and p u r i t y : Pulp pressed t o : 17.3% D S . 1%.

P o l a r i z a t i o n of pressed pulp: K i l n g a s : 30-32% C O ^ v o l . Juice purification hot pre-liming

according to

the

classical 0.30

scheme, b;

comprising:

a t 45C, CaO r a t e

k g / 1 0 0 kg b;

- main -

l i m i n g a t 85C, CaO r a t e I at 80-85C; I;

2.01

k g / 1 0 0 kg

carbonatation

double-stage f i l t r a t i o n carbonatation II at

93-97C; II.

single-stage f i l t r a t i o n effect: 36%.

Purification Thin-juice Evaporator Thick-juice Sugar h o u s e : -

c o n c e n t r a t i o n and p u r i t y : station: quadruple-effect, 61.4% D S .

15.63% DS and 91.19%. Robert-type bodies.

concentration:

raw-sugar addition three-boiling sugar melted

3.21

k g / 1 0 0 kg

b; o f C s u g a r and r a w s u g a r ;

scheme w i t h in water;

the a f f i n a t i o n

- mixture

of affined

C s u g a r and raw s u g a r m e l t e d

in thin

juice.

297

Sugar o u t p u t Power h o u s e : oil-fired

(including

sugar

introduced

as raw s u g a r ) :

15.73

k g / 1 0 0 kg

b.

boilers, about 80%;

six

units

rated

12.5

t/h

and one 6.5

t/h,

average

efficiency live

steam p a r a m e t e r s

25 b a r and 425C; rated 3 M W each;

two b a c k - p r e s s u r e back-pressure 3.3 the

turbines bar.

Steam s u p p l y t o live

sugar manufacturing 4.9 bar to the

process: centrifugals; live steam) to the

steam t h r o t t l e d t o steam 3.3 receivers. bar

heating

( e x h a u s t steam and t h r o t t l e d

remaining Heating Normal

steam c o n s u m p t i o n : fuel consumption: the

56-57 k g / 1 0 0 kg 6.5

b. b. Figs. 8.1 and 8.2,

about

k g / 1 0 0 kg

The schemes o f respectively. 8.2.3 Scheme o f

b e e t h o u s e and s u g a r h o u s e a r e shown i n

the

thermal

system There are several heat economy: and s u g a r s i l o s are supplied with questionable details to

T h e scheme i s account f o r the in

shown i n

F i g . 8.3. of the

the

evaluation the

heating steam;

systems o f

factory

buildings

exhaust - melter, steam; -

remelt

heater,

thin-juice

heater

and s y r u p t a n k s

a r e h e a t e d by

exhaust

steaming-out

o f vacuum p a n s i s

performed

using

exhaust

steam; and t h e condensate

- most

condensate from steamheating systems, is

and v a p o u r - h e a t e d e q u i p m e n t , wasted; is operated as a

from the the

fourth is

evaporator

effect

as a c o n c e n t r a t o r ,

implying

that

the

evaporator the

essentially

operated scheme i s

triple-effect; primitive do n o t and t h e the temperatures requirement of of the

vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n to the

rather heaters

vapours supplied

individual

satisfy

minimum t e m p e r a t u r e the scheme o f the

differences; condensate subsystem in in poor u t i l i z a t i o n the of the the evaporator condensate area is also

primitive, the

resulting surface

energy; heaters are

heating large.

areas of

evaporator

b o d i e s and most j u i c e

very 8.2.4

Additional

information acquired area,

in

the

factory subsystems and

In the

process heating

a number o f m a l f u n c t i o n i n g

components w e r e all the

identified: were o f the float type and some o f them w e r e leaking

steam t r a p s the

vapour to

condensate

lines;

298

feed water

cossettes press water

S
c

01

EXTRACTOR PRESSES p r e s s e d pulp to drying HEATERS

.5

raw j u i c e

wet pulp

PRE-LIMING
D

MAIN LIMING

) (/)

HEATERS

CARBONATATION I

HEATER

iir~
THICKENERS juice HEATER I

-J_J:
VACUUM FILTERS water

juice

sweet water to lime slaking

sludge

CARBONATATION I I

HEATERS

to evaporation^

to s u g a r h o u s e ^ THICKENERS I I thin j uice f SULPHITATION juice |

FILTERS

sludge^

Fig.

8.1.

Scheme o f

extraction

and j u i c e

purification.

thick juice thin juice

water

row sugar

VACUUM PANS A

[ VACUUM PANS |

VACUUM PANS C |

I
rl O

MIXERS A
I I

MIXERS

| ^

MIXERS C

(-

'

I CENTRIFUGALS A I

I CENTRIFUGALS I

CENTRIFUGALS C

sugar A

sugar

sugar C

MELTER

MIXER

MIXER

affination massecuite
ELTER C

^ I
777^ ^"-TR | f I I riR

I I 'JM J
I AFFINATION I ST I CENTRIFUGALS | o | | f molass

^ I

I I

white sugar

Fig. 8.2. Scheme of the sugar house.

299

300

to b o i l e r house

to

6^

F i g . 8 . 3 . Scheme o f t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m i n t h e p r o c e s s h e a t i n g a r e a . C o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e l i n e s n o t shown i n t h e p i c t u r e a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e s e w e r s y s t e m . T h e meaning o f numbers d e n o t i n g e q u i p m e n t u n i t s i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t i n F i g . 1.5. start-up vents in the several steam t r a p s w e r e k e p t permanently open, leaking

vapour to - venting being kept

environment; in a chaotic condition, heater the vents

o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s was c l e a r l y

c l o s e d and v a c u u m - p a n v e n t s l e a k i n g

t o o much v a p o u r t o

environment; a number o f m e a s u r i n g In the instruments were m i s s i n g or out of order. maintained.

power house a r e a , t h e equipment instruments, flue

seemed t o

be r a t h e r w e l l

Among t h e m e a s u r i n g

g a s a n a l y s e r s w e r e o u t o f o r d e r and steam reliably. T h e most s e r i o u s p r o b l e m seemed resulting c o r r o s i o n damage

f l o w meters were c l e a r l y n o t w o r k i n g to be t h e p o o r q u a l i t y occurring

o f make-up w a t e r , w i t h boiler tubes.

frequently

in the

Concerning the

heat d i s t r i b u t i o n

and u t i l i z a t i o n

p r o c e s s e s , a number

of

301

deficiencies immediately -

in

the

thermal

s y s t e m and i n

the

sugar manufacturing

p r o c e s s can be

identified: l o s s e s due t o large sections of thermal insulation being in third

e x c e s s i v e heat condition

poor

or missing

( e . g . a few h e a t e r s , condensate

vapour p i p e l i n e s

from the

evaporator -

effect

and a number o f in

pipes); s y s t e m , due t o lack of room

e x c e s s i v e heat consumption control;

the

room-heating

temperature -

e x c e s s i v e heat

l o s s e s due t o

uncovered tanks open);

in

the

s u g a r house (most o f

the

existing -

c o v e r s kept

permanently of the

non-optimal

operation

e v a p o r a t o r and e x c e s s i v e p a r a m e t e r

fluctuations

due t o It

inadequate gradually

automatic

controls. during the visit to the factory in the that its energyheating

became c l e a r

economy p r o b l e m s w e r e c a u s e d m a i n l y area.

by a waste o f

heat

process

T h i s was a c c o m p a n i e d by a w a s t e o f

c o n d e n s a t e s , and t h u s e x c e s s i v e the flow This boiler of f e e d . When river to failures. the water,

consumption overloading the quality

o f make-up w a t e r w h i c h must be a d d e d t o the water-treatment o f make-up w a t e r station by a l a r g e

polluted

became u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . immediate

contributed boiler-tube

a c c e l e r a t e d c o r r o s i o n , w h i c h was t h e Taking into

cause o f

a c c o u n t t h a t no p o w e r - b a l a n c e p r o b l e m s w e r e d e t e c t e d and t h a t be w e l l maintained essential and o p e r a t e d , the above c o n c l u s i o n s

power h o u s e seemed t o point at

process heating

as t h e

problem to which a t t e n t i o n analysis.

s h o u l d be

d i r e c t e d when p e r f o r m i n g 8.2.5 Mass b a l a n c e o f t h e

subsequent stages o f the sugar manufacturing the

process shown i n T a b l e 8 . 3 . The

T h e c a l c u l a t e d mass b a l a n c e o f parameters essentially of the extraction

b e e t house i s purification

and j u i c e

p r o c e s s e s can be r e g a r d e d as

correct. the s u g a r house i s shown i n T a b l e 8 . 4 . and r e l a t i v e l y low The

T h e c a l c u l a t e d mass b a l a n c e o f parameters of

g r e e n s y r u p s A and B , indicate

i.e.

high p u r i t i e s is

concentrations, centrifugals. crystal yield to

t h a t t o o much wash w a t e r crystals dissolve in

s u p p l i e d t o A and causing a reduced sugar house. This

As a r e s u l t ,

excess water, in the

and i n c r e a s e d c i r c u l a t i o n

of massecuites the

contributes 8.2.6

t h e e x c e s s i v e h e a t demand i n the thermal

sugar house. evaluation to the evaporatora r e shown the

Heat balance o f

s y s t e m and h e a t economy were performed according

The h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s receiver a p p r o a c h . The r e s u l t s , The b a l a n c e data thermal

expressed in seem t o

s t e a m and v a p o u r f l o w s , the impression

in Table 8.5. review of is rather the

confirm the

gained from

s y s t e m scheme t h a t It can a l s o the

v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e the calculated taken

distribution is

primitive.

be s e e n t h a t

steam demand factory

3 . 5 - 4 . 5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b l e s s t h a n

steam c o n s u m p t i o n

from the

302

TABLE

8.3 beet house. Total (kg/100 flow Concentration (% DS) kg b ) Purity (%) 85.70 17.30 1.50 15.17 86.82

Mass b a l a n c e o f t h e No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 S t r e a m name

Cossettes Wet p u l p Pressed pulp Press water Fresh water Raw j u i c e Juice to pre-liming J u i c e t o main l i m i n g Juice to carbonatation I J u i c e f r o m vacuum f i l t e r s Juice to thickeners I Juice to carbonatation I I Subsider sludge I S w e e t e n i n g - o f f w a t e r t o vacuum f i l t e r s; Sludge Sweet w a t e r f r o m vacuum f i l t e r s Juice to thickeners I I Subsider sludge I I to pre-liming Juice to f i n e filters Thin juice Thin j u i c e to evaporation Milk-of-lime to pre-liming M i l k - o f - l i m e t o main l i m i n g K i l n gas t o c a r b o n a t a t i o n I K i l n gas t o c a r b o n a t a t i o n I I

100.00 85.00 30.70 54.30 50.70 120.00 123.76 125.28 135.35 17.37 152.45 130.20 22.25 14.33 9.55 9.55 130.16 3.76 126.40 126.40 119.57 1.52 10.07 4.49 0.40

13.56

91.19

records. occurring On t h e

Most p r o b a b l y , t h i s in the

is

an i n d i c a t i o n

of

steam a n d / o r v a p o u r

leaks

condensate drainage subsystem. following general conclusions

basis o f the data thus a c q u i r e d , the

were drawn. (i) The thermal system i s basis of c l e a r l y working its less e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n c o u l d be T h e most

e x p e c t e d on t h e important -

d e s i g n and e q u i p m e n t

characteristics.

reasons a r e : the system or d i r e c t l y to the environment;

steam and v a p o u r l e a k s w i t h i n unreliable venting

of noncondensables; to the environment. sugar manufacturing process in the sugar

e x c e s s i v e heat d i s s i p a t i o n

(ii)

T h e d e s i g n and p a r a m e t e r s o f to

the

house a r e a a r e c o n t r i b u t i n g deficiencies are: intake

the e x c e s s i v e t o t a l

h e a t demand. T h e e s s e n t i a l

unnecessary water too

to

remelt; i n A and c e n t r i f u g a l s . scheme i n the process heating

l a r g e wash-water consumption The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e too low. The u n d e r l y i n g

(iii)

heat d i s t r i b u t i o n reasons a r e :

area i s

- waste o f condensates;

303

TABLE

8.4 house. Total ^^^^^^^ flow Concentration

^ . / ^

Mass b a l a n c e o f t h e s u g a r

No.

S t r e a m name

ri77~T7Z

Purity
^o/^^

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Thick juice Thin juice Raw s u g a r A massecuite Green s y r u p A Wash s y r u p A White sugar massecuite Green s y r u p Wash s y r u p sugar C massecuite C sugar Molasses A f f i n a t i o n massecuite Affination syrup A f f i n e d C sugar remelt C - a f f . remelt Water t o c e n t r i f u g a l s Steam t o c e n t r i f u g a l s Water t o c e n t r i f u g a l s Water t o r e m e l t

A A

26.24 6.83 3.21 41.33 24.15 3.84 15.73 18.51 8.15 3.79 7.59 13.32 8.56 4.76 21.26 11.04 10.65 11.86 17.48 1.53 1.03 1.02 4.11

61.40 13.56 98.73 91.90 79.70 74.19 99.95 92.00 81.80 74.18 99.50 94.60 98.50 87.60 90.00 78.81 98.00 65.00 65.00

91 .14 91 .19 98.70 93.74 89.00 91.94 99.80 88.39 79.20 85.69 97.50 82.93 92.50 63.60 91.93 87.42 95.69 97.55 95.32

TABLE

8.5 in the

Steam and v a p o u r f l o w s ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) b e t w e e n s o u r c e s and r e c e i v e r s p r o c e s s - h e a t i n g area o f the thermal system. Sources No. Receivers Exhaust steam 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Extractor Raw-juice heaters Limed-juice heaters Heater in carbonatation I C l e a r - j u i c e heater T h i n - j u i c e heaters T h i c k - j u i c e heater Melter I n d i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks D i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks Remelt h e a t e r Vacuum pans A Vacuum pans Vacuum pans C Vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g O t h e r small r e c e i v e r s Sugar d r y e r Condenser Evaporator total Exhaust-steam consumption 1 Evaporator effects 2 1.18 0.44 3.67 5.85 0.45 0.40 0.38 0.55 0.36 18.61 3.46 2.67 1.80 0.50 0.50 5.85 3 0 . 0 3 10.67 51.58 0.58 0.58 3 1.85 1.23 6.30 1.30 4

n4-hv-c ^^"^^^^

condensate

304

thick juice

thin juice

raw sugar

VACUUM PANS A CD ' CD ^ MIXERS C ^ MIXERS

VACUUM PANS

VACUUM PANS C

<

'

'

<

'

'

MIXERS A

CENTRIFUGALS A I

I CENTRIFUGALS I

CENTRIFUGALS C I

sugar A

sugar

sugar C

-slumps
I ^ j MELTERB I I ""-

^ j ^ 1 LI-*,
I MpiTPRr remeltB ^7^^ I | ^ | MIXERS rpmpit AFFINATION c

| I
I

1,
I

affination massecuite

^^^^^^ C I I

white sugar

I '^"-^'^ I

I AFFINATION CENTRIFUGALS | | |

I t

^ molasses

Fig. 8 . 4 . Modified scheme of the sugar house.

305

no u t i l i z a t i o n

of fourth-effect

vapour; vapour;

inadequate u t i l i z a t i o n

of t h i r d - e f f e c t exhaust steam;

unnecessary heating with unnecessary u t i l i z a t i o n

o f e x h a u s t steam f o r

a u x i l i a r y purposes. strategy substantial improvements parameters of can be the

8.2.7

P o s s i b l e i m p r o v e m e n t s and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n h e a t economy i n d i c a t e s

Evaluation o f the

that

o b t a i n e d by t a k i n g v a r i o u s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n equipment are s u f f i c i e n t l y approach a v o i d i n g consumption large well suited to

m e a s u r e s . As t h e the factory's

needs, the to

step-by-step heat

investments

seems t o

be s u f f i c i e n t

c u t down t h e

considerably. strategy evolves naturally actions. eliminated the by r e p a i r i n g system, or from the f o l l o w i n g logical

The i m p l e m e n t a t i o n sequence o f (i) First, corrective

t h e w a s t e o f e n e r g y s h o u l d be i m m e d i a t e l y all the malfunctioning auxiliary

replacing that is:

components o f

thermal

leaking

steam

traps;

unreliable

vents; instruments. h e a t demand o f the sugar manufacturing p r o c e s s s h o u l d be

i n o p e r a t i v e measuring Second, the t o t a l

(ii)

reduced by: repairing or installing damaged o r m i s s i n g s e c t i o n s of the thermal insulation

in the process heating eliminating the

area; auxiliary p u r p o s e s and r e p l a c i n g it

u s e o f e x h a u s t steam f o r

by f i r s t - modifying cutting

or second-effect vapour; the crystallization water scheme t o to the t h e f o r m shown i n F i g . 8.4, is thus

down t h e t o t a l juice

intake water);

s u g a r house (B r e m e l t

prepared

using t h i n -

instead of

reducing the

c o n s u m p t i o n o f wash w a t e r water intake to the

i n A and c e n t r i f u g a l s ; s u g a r house even f u r t h e r by increasing

reducing the t o t a l

the t h i c k - j u i c e

concentration. the s u g a r house a f t e r water intake reductions is

T h e e s t i m a t e d mass b a l a n c e o f shown i n T a b l e (iii) all, 8.6. ratio

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s it is necessary to

of

the thermal

s y s t e m s h o u l d be i m p r o v e d . c o n d e n s a t e s by properly installing selected

First

of

eliminate

the waste o f the

condensate drainage l i n e s respective

linking all While

heaters with the

condensate tanks.

improving

energy r e c o v e r y , t h i s to improved boiler

will

reduce the d e f i c i t reliability.

o f make-up w a t e r in

and c o n t r i b u t e this

F u r t h e r improvement

r e s p e c t can be o b t a i n e d b y buildings the by w a t e r

replacing To

t h e o l d - f a s h i o n e d steam h e a t i n g complete the corrective actions

of factory related to

heating.

condensate subsystem

306

TABLE

8.6 sugar house. Total flow ^^^/^^^ 24.57 7.91 3.21 31.27 12.43 3.25 16.05 11.80 5.24 1.26 5.66 7.86 3.55 4.62 11.99 6.17 6.06 9.73 10.06 0.47 0.16 0.35 0.31 Concentration Purity (o/^j 91.14 91.19 98.70 94.11 85.00 92.91 99.95 86.29 72.00 85.29 97.50 76.87 95.50 60.00 92.33 84.69 98.52 97.03 97.91

M o d i f i e d mass b a l a n c e o f t h e No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 S t r e a m name

Thick juice Thin j u i c e Raw s u g a r A massecuite Green s y r u p A Wash s y r u p A White sugar massecuite Green s y r u p Wash s y r u p sugar C massecuite C sugar Molasses A f f i n a t i o n massecuite Affination syrup A f f i n e d C sugar remelt C aff. remelt Water t o c e n t r i f u g a l s A Steam t o c e n t r i f u g a l s A Water t o c e n t r i f u g a l s Water t o c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s C

65.00 13.56 98.73 92.00 81.00 76.93 99.96 93.00 83.00 79.27 99.50 93.50 98.50 83.50 90.50 78.64 99.00 65.00 65.00

it

is

necessary to

add, to

the

existing

equipment

and p i p i n g ,

a condensate fully the

tank

and a f e w f l a s h - v a p o u r available

c o n n e c t i o n s making i t

possible to

utilize

condensate energy in the improve the with

evaporator. ratio consists of eliminating of thirdThis be

The n e x t s t e p t o

effectiveness exhaust steam,

process-equipment heating effect amounts

improving

utilization

v a p o u r and i n t r o d u c i n g to a reconstruction the

the

utilization

of fourth-effect

vapour.

o f the vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n of the

scheme and must lines

coordinated with before. The m o d i f i e d take full

installation

condensate drainage

mentioned

vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n

scheme i s

shown i n

F i g . 8.5.

In order

to

advantage o f the should also

reconstruction

of the evaporation subsystem, level controls. the

the

evaporator

be e q u i p p e d w i t h

automatic

Equipment r e p a i r mentioned period. It under (i)

and c h a n g e s n e c e s s a r y f o r and ( i i )

introducing

modifications off-season steam of

c a n e a s i l y be c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g t h a t the resulting reduction of

one the

can be e s t i m a t e d be a t

consumption w i l l

l e a s t 4 . 5 - 5 . 0 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . scheme, i t

As r e g a r d s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n the

the vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n necessary piping and v a p o u r f l o w s )

must be p r e c e d e d b y a d e s i g n s t u d y on heat balance (expressed in

modifications.

A preliminary thermal

steam As

of the modified

system i s

presented in Table 8.7.

307

to ammonia water i tank 7

- Q -

-
r-m-

exhaust steam exhaust steam

to boiler house

-M3I

-4^

^j^^'^ljj

to

6*

.J

F i g . 8 . 5 . M o d i f i e d scheme o f t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m i n t h e p r o c e s s h e a t i n g a r e a . C o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e l i n e s n o t shown i n t h e p i c t u r e a r e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e ammonia w a t e r t a n k . T h e meaning o f numbers d e n o t i n g e q u i p m e n t u n i t s i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t i n F i g . 1.5. c a n be s e e n , which i s existing It the steam c o n s u m p t i o n c a n be r e d u c e d t o indicated in a b o u t 41.8 k g / 1 0 0 kg b, the

n e a r l y 10 k g / 1 0 0 kg b l e s s t h a n thermal system ( T a b l e 8.5).

the heat balance o f

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t e v e n a f t e r

the

completion

of

the remain full detailed the is three of rather

rationalization primitive, utilization

programme p r o p o s e d a b o v e , t h e

h e a t economy w i l l

as t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s r a t i o o f the low-temperature it is

o f a thermal

system w i t h o u t high.

h e a t c a n n o t be v e r y

Unless a

design study i s application therefore

performed,

impossible to

determine whether or not It

o f more a d v a n c e d s o l u t i o n s

c o u l d be e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e .

recommended t o e v a l u a t e t h e e n e r g y economy a g a i n a f t e r

two o r

y e a r s o f t h e s t e p - b y - s t e p i m p r o v e m e n t p r o g r a m m e , and t o p o s s i b l e e n e r g y - s a v i n g measures. The i n d i v i d u a l

repeat the a n a l y s i s

m e a s u r e s c a n be e v a l u a t e d

308

TABLE

8.7 b e t w e e n s o u r c e s and r e c e i v e r s i n thermal system. Sources Evaporator effects 2 3 4 " 1 .18 1 .87 2.44 1.32 2.54 0,.30 4,.33 condensate the

Steam and v a p o u r f l o w s ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) process-heating area of the modified No. Receivers

Exhaust steam

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Extractor Raw-juice heaters Limed-juice heaters Heater in carbonatation I C l e a r - j u i c e heaters T h i n - j u i c e heaters T h i c k - j u i c e heater Melter I n d i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks D i r e c t l y - h e a t e d syrup tanks Remelt h e a t e r Vacuum pans A Vacuum pans Vacuum pans C Vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g - o u t O t h e r small r e c e i v e r s Sugar d r y e r Condenser Evaporator total Exhaust-steam consumption

2.21

1, .14 2 .99 0,.35 0,.40 0,.30 0, .24 0, .26 13,.04 2,.87 1, .42 1, .80

0 .50 0 .50 2.21 41 ,.77 25. .99 8.16 1. .02 4. .63

economically, the lack of

creating

a basis for funds

d e c i s i o n s on t h e the

future

course of a c t i o n . the step-by-step of the

If

investment programme

continues,

next stage of

improvement can 8.3 8.3.1

can be p l a n n e d ; o t h e r w i s e ,

a modernization

factory

be c o n s i d e r e d . FACTORY CHARACTERIZED BY GOOD I N I T I A L Introductory remarks this Section is b a s e d on a r e a l 17). case investigated was ENERGY UTILIZATION

The e x a m p l e p r e s e n t e d i n

by a s p e c i a l i z e d team a f e w y e a r s ago i n planned factory i n a d v a n c e by t h e has i t s factory manager

Sweden ( r e f . (as a r u l e ,

The i n v e s t i g a t i o n

e v e r y Swedish sugar or f o u r t h year). kg

e n e r g y economy i n v e s t i g a t e d its rather

every third

T h e f a c t o r y was known f o r per 100 kg b , resulting from

l o w steam c o n s u m p t i o n , performed mainly in the 1970s. the

a b o u t 30-32

investments introduced likely to

in the

1950s and 1960s reasons, of the

and s t e p - b y - s t e p

improvements also in

For economic

s t e p - b y - s t e p approach i s introducing It improvements

remain

only practical

method

the

foreseeable

future. 5 measurements to the sessions the

was p l a n n e d t o

acquire the

necessary data during

organized approximately season. This

e v e r y two weeks f r o m t h e studying the

beginning of

end o f

a r r a n g e m e n t was f o r of time,

parameters

the

heat

utilization the

p r o c e s s e s as f u n c t i o n s

t h u s making i t

possible to

identify

309

influence

o f the

scale build-up.

The u l t i m a t e goal

was t o

prepare a

complete for

survey of the auxiliary

heat u t i l i z a t i o n

in the

sugar manufacturing in the

p r o c e s s and

p u r p o s e s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y small

evaporator s t a t i o n , the

s u g a r h o u s e and the most

a number o f effective

steam r e c e i v e r s . On t h e reduce the

basis of

survey r e s u l t s ,

measures t o

h e a t demand c o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d . actual season's operations, a was

During the o f f - s e a s o n p e r i o d preceding the special measuring system independent o f the

the f a c t o r y ' s measuring

instruments important

installed with parameters, including

aim o f p r o v i d i n g v e r y a c c u r a t e d a t a on t h e most temperatures in

n a m e l y p r e s s u r e s and

the evaporation subsystem, in t h e main v e n t i n g lines

condensate tanks.

O r i f i c e s were i n s t a l l e d evaluate the the flows to

i n o r d e r t o make i t

possible to

of noncondensables. p e r f o r m a number o f (as well juice were extra as

A r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e a l s o made w i t h analyses, alkalinity mostly of

laboratory

the d r y substance content in the case o f

and p o l a r i z a t i o n

and c a l c i u m s a l t s station)

samples taken

from the of

purification planned to

of juice

and s y r u p s a m p l e s . T h e p o i n t s identification the important of the

sampling

achieve a high accuracy of properties of all

p r o c e s s mass b a l a n c e In the

and o f t h e t h e r m a l evaporator

mass s t r e a m s . in a manner in all

area, juice of inlet

samples were t o and o u t l e t juice

be c o l l e c t e d

allowing evaporator

determination bodies. It

concentrations

the

was p l a n n e d t o

acquire the take

remaining

data from the o r d i n a r y

factory the After measurement data purpose

instrumentation, of

and t o

certain

instrument special the

readings s o l e l y for measuring system. every

cross-checking the

indications

of the

calculating period to

the time averaged v a l u e s o f a b o u t one w o r k i n g heat balance shift)

key p a r a m e t e r s ,

(lasting

was e x p e c t e d t o

p r o d u c e a b o u t 300

be u s e d i n t h e

calculations. the sugar manufacturing process

8.3.2

Basic factory

d a t a and scheme o f 3700 t/d. 15.7%.

Processing c a p a b i l i t y : Polarization Extractor: Juice draft: Raw-juice of

cossettes:

trough-type. 120%. 15.0%.

concentration:

Pulp pressed t o : Kiln Juice -

21.4% D S .

g a s : 36-38% C O ^ v o l . purification at according to 60-65C; 85C; the classical scheme, comprising:

hot p r e - l i m i n g liming at

- main -

about I at

carbonatation

80-85C; I;

double-stage f i l t r a t i o n carbonatation II at

92-95C;

310

double-stage f i l t r a t i o n concentration:

II. 14.2% D S . f a l l i n g - f i l m bodies in the remaining in the first and fifth

Thin-juice Evaporator: effects,

quintuple-effect,

Robert-type bodies concentration:

effects.

Thick-juice Sugar house:

64.8% D S .

three-boiling affined

scheme w i t h in

the thin

affination juice;

of

C sugar;

C sugar melted

standard liquor

p r e p a r e d from t h i c k j u i c e ,

s u g a r and C - a f f .

remelt.

Power h o u s e : oil-fired live-steam boiler rated 50 t / h , efficiency 91%;

parameters

60 b a r and 470C; r a t e d 6 MW;

back-pressure turbine b a c k - p r e s s u r e 3.5 the bar.

Steam s u p p l y t o

sugar manufacturing and t h r o t t l e d live

p r o c e s s : steam 3.5 steam i f b. b. necessary).

bar

(in

principle,

e x h a u s t steam o n l y ,

H e a t i n g steam c o n s u m p t i o n : Normal fuel consumption:

30-32 k g / 1 0 0 kg

a b o u t 3.6

k g / 1 0 0 kg

T h e schemes o f t h e respectively. It

b e e t h o u s e and s u g a r h o u s e a r e shown i n be s e e n t h a t water the

Figs.

8.6

and

8.7,

can i m m e d i a t e l y

sugar manufacturing and t o eliminate

process

has been c a r e f u l l y

planned to minimize of the

intakes

unnecessary r e c y c l i n g 8.3.3 Scheme o f the

process media. system A number o f details deserve to be n o t e d , as

thermal

T h e scheme i s they indicate

shown i n

F i g . 8.8.

t h a t a high degree o f attained.

rationalization

of the

e n e r g y economy has

a l r e a d y been In the

process heating ratio:

area, three

factors

make

it

possible to

attain

high

effectiveness of -

the a p p l i c a t i o n fifth-effect the the

of a quintuple-effect raw-juice

evaporator station

and t h e

utilization

vapour in

heating; raw-juice pre-limed heating; juice. them o f the falling-

utilization utilization

o f t h e vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i n o f the condensate i n consists of o f the heating nine

The e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n f i l m t y p e and t h e connections,

b o d i e s , two o f

remainder

Robert t y p e . is

A scheme o f j u i c e F i g . 8.9.

and v a p o u r surface

including

venting 8.9.)

lines,

shown i n

(Heating

areas are given in Table

A f a l l i n g - f i l m body i n t h e large overall the heat t r a n s f e r is

first

evaporator effect which remains the the

is

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a throughout at a high

coefficient

nearly constant

season. This even i f

a decisive factor takes

keeping in

evaporation capacity s e c o n d and t h i r d

level,

scale build-up

place

effects.

311

cossettes

p r e s s water HEATER 1

1
(/) o
CT

EXTRACTOR

f L-wet pulp J raw juice I

i

PRESSES \

I1 p r e s s e d pulp to d r y i n g

HEATERS

PRE-LIMING

HEATERS

milk-of - lime MAIN LIMING

i
CARBONATATION I

LIME SLAKING

j u i c e CaO

THICKENERS I

HEATERS

VACUUM FILTERS sludge water

FILTERS to evaporation CARBONATATION I I HEATERS to s u g a r house HEATERS thin j u i c e l _ i THICKENERS - juice SAFETY FILTERS

F i g . 8 . 6 . Scheme o f e x t r a c t i o n and j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n . w h i c h c o n d e n s a t e ( f r e s h w a t e r ) warms up p r e s s w a t e r .

1 -

heat exchanger

in

312

thin thick juice juice "} j I VACUUM PANS VACUUM PANS C ^

I VACUUM PANS A I

MIXERS A CENTRIFUGALS A CENTRIFUGALS

MIXERS

MIXERS C CENTRIFUGALS C sugarC

g 15 Logreen syrup AI . sugar B1 | I syrup I ^ ^^IXER

wash syrup AI

| | >,

^ MELTER

affination massecuite I I

I AFFINATION I MIXERS I AFFINATION CENTRIFUGALS g I

g affined sugar C white sugar ' ' '

f>

MELTER C molasse;

Fig. 8 . 7 . Scheme of the sugar house.

313

hot feed w a t e r from 13

saturated i steam 6Ab

OIL TANKS

1 6
CM

PULP DRYING & PELLETING STORAGE HOUSES FACTORY BUILDING

fuel

-a
power

_i_

^make-up water

OFFICE BUILDING FROM BOILER BLOWDOWN

F i g . 8 . 8 . Scheme o f t h e t h e r m a l s y s t e m . 14 - e x t r a c t o r , 18 - p r e s s - w a t e r t h e r e m a i n i n g numbers h a v e t h e same meaning as i n F i g . 1.5. D u r i n g t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s , h e a t e r 6"*" was o u t o f o p e r a t i o n .

heater;

314

to the 2nd thin juice heater thin juice

to condenser

1
1

2A

3A1

32

2B

3B

AB

Another role. f a l l i n g - f i l m body i n large heat t r a n s f e r Its

in the evaporator the fifth evaporator effect makes it a l s o p l a y s an keep the the coefficient possible to high to season.

thick juice

F i g . 8 . 9 . Scheme o f j u i c e and v a p o u r c o n n e c t i o n s Dotted l i n e s indicate venting connections.

station.

important

temperature temperature difficult to

o f the heat,

fifth-effect even d u r i n g

vapour s u f f i c i e n t l y final weeks o f body. the

utilize

lowvery

the

T h i s w o u l d be

achieve with

a Robert-type

Venting lines

from c e r t a i n

e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s and v e n t i n g other

lines

from

selected it

heaters are connected to possible to prior to utilize

vapour supply pipes of

heaters.

T h i s makes

the energy o f the mixture it to the environment

o f v a p o u r and n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s the condenser. heaters (before their of

discharging

or to

Plate

heat exchangers are a p p l i e d I) and as j u i c e heaters

as c l e a r - j u i c e after

carbonatation

carbonatation

I I . Owing t o

l a r g e heat t r a n s f e r relatively low

coefficients,

these heaters

can be s u p p l i e d w i t h

vapours

temperatures. boiler blowdown i s performed v i a a f l a s h tank boiler exhaust

I n t h e power h o u s e a r e a , connected to water the

exhaust-steam p i p e l i n e . discharged to the

F l a s h vapour obtained from the is thus mixed w i t h tank is

(subsequently

sewer system)

steam. A n a l o g o u s l y , the v e n t i n g to the

line

f r o m t h e main the

feed-water

connected fourth the

pipe supplying t h i r d - e f f e c t In t h i s

vapour to the of

heating is

chamber o f t h e flashed vapour. from

evaporator effect. pressure^ o f

arrangement, that

feed water third-effect

second-effect vapour to

8.3.4

Information

o b t a i n e d from the

measurements concentrations, as w e l l as v a p o u r and balances of

Using the

recorded values of j u i c e measured i n

condensate temperatures of

the

e v a p o r a t o r a r e a , mass and h e a t session.

the e v a p o r a t o r were c a l c u l a t e d set of input

for

e a c h measurement results

An e x a m p l e the

a complete

d a t a and c a l c u l a t i o n

(corresponding to

TABLE 8.8

Mass and heat balances of the evaporator station. Body 4B was disconnected during the actual measurement session. 1 2A 2B 3A1 3A2 3B 4A 4B 5

Evaporator body

Input data: Heating surface area (m^^) Juice concentration (% DS) 1200 inlet outlet 14.2 18.8 18.8 29.3 18.8 25.2 29.3 40.0 40.0 48.0 25.2 40.9 44.8 55.7 1210 800 880 800 1200 1100 860

700 59.7 64.8

Vapour temperature ( C )

heating chamber 1 3 7 . 4 125.2 124.7 115.6 115.3 115.6 vapour chamber 128.8 117.0 117.8 108.8 107.1 107.9 Condensate temperature (C) 136.0 126.7 126.0 117.3 118.3 117.3 114.7 Flow of noncondensables (kg/100 kg b) 0 . 0 7 0.10 0.14 0.10 0.10 0.14 0.07

108.2 92.5 91.7 0.10

91.3 77.7

Results: Juice temperature ( C ) inlet outlet inlet outlet 27.8 27.9 17.7 13.2 160 9.8 1420 17.8 18.1 8.9 9.0 9.0 8.7 113.7 85.8 50.5 32.4 35.3 26.4 32.4 23.7 8.7 8.7 4.3 8.9 1310 133.0 128.8 128.8 117.0 128.8 117.8 117.0 108.8 108.8 108.1 23.7 19.8 4.4 4.1 10.2 4.7 660 117.8 107.9 26.4 16.2 10.3 10.3 6.6 7.7 1000 108.0 93.5 36.0 29.0 6.7 7.1 4.5 5.5 375 4.5 430 93.5 80.7 51.7* 24.9 3.5 4.2

Juice flow (kg/100 kg b)

Vapour flow (kg/100 kg b)

heating chamber vapour chamber Condensate flow (kg/100 kg b) 27.7

Heat flux at heating surface (kW/m^) ^ 20.6 Overall heat transfer coefficient ( W / ( m ^ K ) ) 2400

*/

recirculation flow 315

3 1 6

second s e s s i o n , be s e e n , in the the

i.e.

t h e t h i r d week o f t h e include

season) i s

given in Table 8.8. heat t r a n s f e r

As c a n

results

h e a t f l u x e s and o v e r a l l

coefficients the

individual of

e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s . T h i s makes i t on t h e heat t r a n s f e r

possible to

evaluate

influence station.

scale build-up

intensity

in the

evaporator

The o v e r a l l

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficients

in

the

individual

evaporator the

effects

a r e shown as f u n c t i o n s characteristic of

o f time in

F i g . 8.10.

As c a n be s e e n ,

tendencies 2-4. The

R o b e r t - t y p e b o d i e s h a v e been r e g i s t e r e d i n e f f e c t s heat t r a n s f e r intensity in the f o u r t h effect was so

reduction of the after

drastic As

f i v e weeks t h a t

a s t a n d - b y body (48)

was c o n n e c t e d t o is

this

effect.

r e g a r d s t h e f a l l i n g - f i l m b o d i e s , no s c a l e b u i l d - u p effect, that while the heat t r a n s f e r intensity

visible effect

in the

first like

in the f i f t h

decreases

in Robert-type bodies. recorded values of and j u i c e the temperatures the of heating v a p o u r s , as w e l l h e a t e r s were as

Using the juice

temperatures

flows,

heat balances o f j u i c e

2500 1st effect

2000

1500

1000

500h

4 Time ( w e e k s ) F i g . 8.10. evaporator

10

Changes o f t h e a v e r a g e d o v e r a l l h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e s t a t i o n ( s t a n d - b y body c o n n e c t e d t o t h e f o u r t h e f f e c t a f t e r 5 w e e k s ) .

317

calculated for

e a c h measurement s e s s i o n . results

An e x a m p l e o f the

a complete

set of

input in the

d a t a and c a l c u l a t i o n Table 8.9. individual TABLE 8.9 As t h e

(corresponding to overall

second s e s s i o n ) i s

given of

results

include the of

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficients

h e a t e r s , the e f f e c t s

scale build-up

i n t h e h e a t e r s c a n be s t u d i e d .

Heat balances o f the j u i c e

heaters. PreClear 1 i med juice 1* juice J u i ce after 2nd carb.'* Thin juice

Raw j u i c e Medium h e a t e d 1 Input data: Heating surface a r e a (m^) Heating vapour. e f f e c t No. ^ temperature ( C) Juice temperature ( C) inlet outlet Juice flow ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) Results: V a p o u r demand ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) O v e r a l l heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2K)) 2

2*

125 5 77.7

125 5 77.7

259 4 92.5

70.2 4 92.5

70.8 4 92.5

100 3 108.1

150 3 108.1

150 2 117.3

150 1 128.8

150 exhaust 137.4

42.3 60.1 56.6

42.3 58.8 106.4

75.1 84.3 147.2

80.7 88.7 138.2

88.7 91.5 138.2

85.0 98.5 116.8

95.5 105.5 113.7

105.5 116.0 113.7

116.0 124.4 113.7

124.4 133.0 113.7

3.09

2.86

1.86

1.86

0.65

2.70

1 .96

2.08

1 .69

1.76

950

850

720

3660

4280

1680

1970

2790

1340

1360

plate

heat exchangers heat t r a n s f e r o f time that in the coefficients F i g . 8.11. in the individual juice heaters are very of in

The o v e r a l l

shown as f u n c t i o n s high, the

These c o e f f i c i e n t s

are g e n e r a l l y

which i n d i c a t e s

heaters are u t i l i z e d

effectively.

The e f f e c t s

scale build-up

can be s e e n e x a c t l y w h e r e t h e y m i g h t be e x p e c t e d , n a m e l y and c l e a r - j u i c e heaters. profiles determined during temperature shown in

raw-juice, It

pre-1imed-juice

can be c o n c l u d e d t h a t

the j u i c e - t e m p e r a t u r e

the

measurement s e s s i o n s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c o r r e c t . profiles Fig. corresponding to the beginning small in the

A comparison o f

and e n d o f t h e values -

season i s

8.12.

Noteworthy are the v e r y difference

sometimes

as l o w as 2 of

of

t h e minimum t e m p e r a t u r e tubular design.

thin-juice

h e a t e r s , which are

T h e e x h a u s t steam c o n s u m p t i o n was d e t e r m i n e d a t measurement s e s s i o n s 1-4. s e s s i o n 5, It increased to 43.1

3 0 . 5 - 3 4 . 0 k g / 1 0 0 kg b measurement season.

in

k g / 1 0 0 kg b i n stage of the

w h i c h was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f

the f i n a l

Concerning

318

4000 h clear juice ( P H E )

3000 h

2000 h

c '

1000 h

I
o

( C O

o
2 O

3000 h

2000 h

1000 h

A Time (weeks)

F i g . 8 . 1 1 . O v e r a l l h e a t t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t h e j u i c e h e a t e r s as o f t i m e . PHE - p l a t e h e a t e x c h a n g e r s . * d e n o t e s two h e a t e r s c o n n e c t e d paral l e i .

functions in

319

F i g . 8 . 1 2 . T e m p e r a t u r e s o f h e a t i n g v a p o u r s ( d a s h e d l i n e s ; numbers d e n o t e e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s ) and j u i c e ( s o l i d l i n e s ) . T h i c k l i n e s - f i r s t week o f t h e s e a s o n , t h i n l i n e s - t e n t h week o f t h e s e a s o n . the heat consumption components, particular a t t e n t i o n was p a i d t o t h e s u g a r on t h e b a s i s figures

house. of

T h e h e a t i n g - v a p o u r demand o f t h e vacuum p a n s was c a l c u l a t e d

t h e mass b a l a n c e o f t h e s u g a r c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n measurement

p r o c e s s . T h e demand

corresponding to the f i v e

s e s s i o n s were c o n t a i n e d

i n the range

1 4 . 1 - 1 6 . 8 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , w i t h a t e n d e n c y t o t h e v a p o u r used i n vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g - o u t line, it was p o s s i b l e t o m e a s u r e 1-4 t h e r e s u l t s its

i n c r e a s e as t h e s e a s o n p r o g r e s s e d . As was s u p p l i e d v i a a s e p a r a t e directly, at 0.9-1.0 and i n supply

consumption identical,

measurement

sessions

were n e a r l y

k g / 1 0 0 kg b . T h e

value determined In a d d i t i o n boiler heating drum) fuel

i n measurement

s e s s i o n 5 was 1.4 saturated

k g / 1 0 0 kg b . steam (withdrawn from the

t o the exhaust steam,

boiler

t h r o t t l e d to oil before

12 b a r i s s u p p l i e d t o t h e f a c t o r y as w e l l as o i l

f o r s u c h p u r p o s e s as in the burners

the burners, furnace

atomization

installed sessions, 0.3-0.4

in the b o i l e r

and i n t h e l i m e k i l n .

In the f i v e

measurement at

the consumption

o f 12 b a r s t e a m r e m a i n e d n e a r l y c o n s t a n t

k g / 1 0 0 kg b .

320

8.3.5

Heat balance o f the

thermal

system were performed ( o r the in the following manner: data)

The h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s using the results of

f l o w measurements

c a l c u l a t e d mass b a l a n c e steam c o n s u m p t i o n was

and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e determined individual for all

values measured, the vapour or heat r e c e i v e r s , and t h e was total

consumption

o f vapours from

the

evaporator effects

calculated; heat

using the values of the

e v a p o r a t o r p a r a m e t e r s m e a s u r e d , t h e mass and including effects, the vapour flows were (available for

balances of heating)

the e v a p o r a t o r , individual

process

from the

calculated. v a p o u r c o n s u m p t i o n may d i f f e r from

Owing t o measurement the calculated 8.10 available

errors,

total If

vapour f l o w .

the

difference

is

less

than

TABLE

Steam and v a p o u r f l o w s thermal system.

( k g / 1 0 0 kg b )

b e t w e e n s o u r c e s and r e c e i v e r s i n

the

No. R e c e i v e r s

Exhaust steam

Evaporator 1

Sources effects

Others

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Extractor Raw-juice heaters Pre-1imed-juice heaters C l e a r - j u i c e heaters Heater a f t e r carbonatation I I T h i n - j u i c e heaters O i l tanks P u l p d r y i n g and pelleting Heating of product stores Heating of f a c t o r y buildings Heating of o f f i c e buildings Main f e e d - w a t e r t a n k M o l a s s e s and a f f . - s y r u p tanks Melter C Syrup A tanks Syrup tanks Melter Vacuum pans A , B, C Vacuum-pan steaming-out Centrifugals Sugar d r y e r Evaporator total Exhaust-steam consumption Oil burners in b o i l e r and l i m e k i l n

0.83 5.95 1.86 2.51 2.70 1.96 vacuum-pan v a p o u r condensate

1.76 0.25 0.02 0.50 0.19 0.16 0.13

1.69

2.08

0.12 0.02 0.37 0.12 0.33 14.13 0.86 0.22 0.48 4.4 18.8

1.8 30.6

5.2

6.0

12 b a r

steam

321

1 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , satisfactory. concentrations 0.1% D S .

then the accuracy o f It can be added t h a t

t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s c a n be r e g a r d e d as this value is equivalent to determining juice

in the f i r s t

and s e c o n d e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s

with

an a c c u r a c y o f

The h e a t b a l a n c e d e t e r m i n e d session 8.3.6 (third week o f

using the

results

of

the

s e c o n d measurement 8.10. of possible improvements calculations discrepancies

the season) i s

presented in Table

E v a l u a t i o n o f the

h e a t economy and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

The r e s u l t s confirmed that

o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s and t h e the h e a t economy i s quite

subsequent heat balance No s u b s t a n t i a l

effective.

were o b s e r v e d between the p o t e n t i a l distribution a detailed p r o c e s s e s and t h e real

e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n and behaviour of the thermal s y s t e m . From possible small

r e v i e w o f t h e h e a t r e c e i v e r s , h o w e v e r , a number o f heat u t i l i z a t i o n sugar house, i t c a n be identified.

improvements o f

As r e g a r d s t h e consumption indicates equipment, first-effect instead. effect

was o b s e r v e d d u r i n g changed w i t h o u t

session 5 t h a t the vapour apparent reason; of the this

i n vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g - o u t if more a t t e n t i o n is

that

paid to

the f u n c t i o n i n g

steaming

t h e n v a p o u r can be s a v e d .

As some s m a l l

syrup tanks

a r e h e a t e d by

v a p o u r , a h e a t s a v i n g can be o b t a i n e d u s i n g s e c o n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r syrup tanks are d i r e c t l y h e a t e d by second-

F u r t h e r m o r e , some o t h e r

vapour without in the

any a r r a n g e m e n t s t o is

secure a uniform associated with

temperature a risk of locally can be mixing

distribution

syrup volume. T h i s

overheated zones causing e x c e s s i v e heat improved e i t h e r devices by implementing heated indirect

consumption. This heating,

situation

o r by i n s t a l l i n g

in d i r e c t l y

tanks. be applies heating

As r e g a r d s s m a l l supplied with to oil-tank first-

e x h a u s t - s t e a m r e c e i v e r s , some o f them can a c t u a l l y or second-effect vapour. as w e l l building as t o heating of In the factory first place, this The

heating,

buildings.

system in the o f f i c e Finally, it

can a l s o be s u p p l i e d w i t h the flow of the mixture

second-effect vapour. o f v a p o u r and c o u l d be r e d u c e d The a s s o c i a t e d personnel

was o b s e r v e d t h a t

noncondensables withdrawn without

from the in the

e v a p o r a t o r by v e n t i n g heat t r a n s f e r

any a d v e r s e e f f e c t s

intensity. the

energy-saving potential operate the v e n t i n g The e s t i m a t e d

can be u t i l i z e d ,

providing

operating

s y s t e m more of the

carefully. improvements listed above were c a l c u l a t e d The r e s u l t s are using listed the

effects

a computer program f o r i n T a b l e 8.11. heating Only

evaporator balance c a l c u l a t i o n s . case o f replacing

in the

e x h a u s t steam b y v a p o u r s i n estimates be t r e a t e d as

of certain

r e c e i v e r s , h o w e v e r , can t h e

the basis, the

values of expected savings. Other estimates, indicate the o r d e r o f magnitude but

o b t a i n e d on t h e

"if-then" about

leave a margin o f

uncertainty

322

TABLE

8.11 savings resulting from v a r i o u s improvements of the heat

Estimated heating-steam economy. ~ No. 1 2 3 4 I 77. ~ Specification

Estimated 3^^.^g

steam

5 6

Reducing t h e v a p o u r consumption i n vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g - o u t b y 15% R e p l a c i n g f i r s t - e f f e c t v a p o u r by s e c o n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r i n the h e a t i n g o f small s y r u p tanks Reducing the consumption o f s e c o n d - e f f e c t vapour i n the d i r e c t heating o f syrup tanks R e p l a c i n g e x h a u s t steam b y f i r s t - and s e c o n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r i n t h e h e a t i n g o f o i l t a n k s and f a c t o r y buildings R e p l a c i n g e x h a u s t steam b y s e c o n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r i n the heating o f the o f f i c e building Reducing the f l o w o f vapour-noncondensables m i x t u r e w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e e v a p o r a t o r b y 25%

0,.06 0 .02 0 .20

0 .28 0,.06 0,.10

attainable

values o f the and t o the

savings. venting

(Most n o t a b l y ,

this

applies

to

the of

vacuum-pan the vapour of reach.

steaming-out flows 0.06 The

of noncondensables. I f can be a t t a i n e d ,

reductions

b y 15% and 25%, k g / 1 0 0 kg b

respectively,

then

steam s a v i n g s be w i t h i n

and 0.10

k g / 1 0 0 kg b ,

r e s p e c t i v e l y , seem t o

a s s u m p t i o n s on v a p o u r - f l o w r e d u c t i o n , results.) T h e r e f o r e , T a b l e 8.11

h o w e v e r , can o n l y be p r o v e d by can o n l y be r e g a r d e d as a r e v i e w relative importance, but not of

practical possible absolute 8.4 8.4.1

rationalization effects.

m e a s u r e s and t h e i r

their

FACTORY FEATURING AN ADVANCED ENERGY SYSTEM Introductory remarks assumed t o give, in be c o n c e r n e d m a i n l y w i t h this white-sugar step-by-

Although the factories, step it

p r e s e n t book i s

seems r e a s o n a b l e t o

S e c t i o n , a summary o f

improvements Putting

i n t r o d u c e d on an a d v a n c e d e n e r g y s y s t e m i n aside the to p r o c e s s - s p e c i f i c aspects of this

a raw-sugar particular case, the it

factory.

may be i n t e r e s t i n g

s e e how much e n e r g y can be s a v e d , a modern f a c t o r y utilizing

and how i m p o r t a n t

power b a l a n c e becomes i n The information

energy very

efficiently. (refs.

p r e s e n t e d below i s from the m a t e r i a l FRG ( r e f . 19,20).

extracted partly

from p u b l i c a t i o n s from

18,19)

and p a r t l y

obtained d i r e c t l y

Pfeifer&Langen

Company, C o l o g n e ,

The A p p e l d o r n f a c t o r y raw s u g a r d e s t i n e d f o r company. The initial

was e r e c t e d i n

the

period

1975-77.

Its

main p r o d u c t same

is

further

processing in

a refinery

owned b y t h e

processing capability it possible to

was 4500 t / d .

However, the

equipment

was

d i m e n s i o n e d t o make further

increase the the

processing capability and t h e

without main

heavy investment.

The l a y o u t o f

process stations

323

factory

building of

were a l s o d e s i g n e d t o fuel of and p o w e r p r i c e s

facilitate in

future

extensions. of

Following these were to

the e v o l u t i o n special

F R G , a d v a n t a g e was t a k e n and a number o f

features

the Appeldorn f a c t o r y , improve the overall

improvements and, in

i n t r o d u c e d aiming to

economic r e s u l t s

particular,

reduce the energy c o s t s . At the initial steam c o n s u m p t i o n level of a b o u t 27 k g / 1 0 0 kg b , With the factory

could in p r i n c i p l e

be c o n s i d e r e d as r a t h e r

energy-efficient.

carefully and to

d e s i g n e d p r o c e s s and t h e r m a l automatic keep t h e control. controls, it

s y s t e m schemes as w e l l

as modern e q u i p m e n t

was p o s s i b l e t o

p r e v e n t u n n e c e s s a r y e n e r g y w a s t e and and u t i l i z a t i o n the processes well improvements,

energy conversion, d i s t r i b u t i o n

under attention

T h e r e f o r e , when d e s i g n i n g and i m p l e m e n t i n g two g r o u p s o f rationalization the

was t u r n e d t o -

measures: process;

reducing the t o t a l improving

e n e r g y demand o f of

sugar manufacturing

the c a p a b i l i t i e s

the energy system. process classical juice purification

8.4.2

E v o l u t i o n o f the is

sugar manufacturing a tower

The f a c t o r y station,

equipped with

extractor,

multiple-stage Initially, four

evaporator station draft about

and b a t c h - t y p e 125

crystallization The surface thin-

equipment.

a juice

k g / 1 0 0 kg b was m a i n t a i n e d . units, with heating

evaporators -

R o b e r t - t y p e and two f a l l i n g - f i l m

2
a r e a s o f 2000 m juice each - were a r r a n g e d i n about a quintuple-effect station. At a concentration 14% D S , a t h i c k - j u i c e concentration o f 66% DS was

maintained. The i n i t i a l crystallization order to v e r s i o n of the process, with s u g a r h o u s e was b a s e d on a raw s u g a r and s y r u p as t h e the pulp-drying scheme. In single-boiling final products. In

produce molasses needed i n the

plant, the

a low-grade capacity of

product the low-

s t a g e was a d d e d t o grade s t a t i o n thick-juice was 8.7

crystallization to

1978, of

was s u f f i c i e n t

process about h a l f water

the

syrup flow. in the

A t 66% DS

concentration, b. of

the t h e o r e t i c a l

evaporation

s u g a r house

k g / 1 0 0 kg

Following adjustments attained water to 5000 t / d to already

the

factory

equipment, to

the

processing

capability the draft

in

1979.

In order

reduce the

e n e r g y demand,

intake

the

p r o c e s s was r e d u c e d b y g r a d u a l l y the to

decreasing the j u i c e by a t t a c h i n g vapour

117%.

I n 1981,

e v a p o r a t i o n p r o c e s s was m o d i f i e d the to evaporator station the heat

a vapour and to

compression c i r c u i t

and r e a r r a n g i n g made i t

condensate d i s t r i b u t i o n increase t h i c k - j u i c e

r e c e i v e r s . As t h i s to 68% D S , t h e

possible

concentration

h e a t demand o f t h e in the

s u g a r house the

was r e d u c e d . H o w e v e r , a Q u e n t i n s t a t i o n capacity of this the low-grade s t a t i o n the heat demand.

was i n s t a l l e d

s u g a r h o u s e and entire syrup

was e x t e n d e d t o

process the

flow,

increasing

324

I n 1986, of the

the

processing capability

was r a i s e d t o

6200 t / d .

Owing t o

extension min), with

extractor draft

(the average e x t r a c t i o n attained a very

t i m e was c h a n g e d f r o m 87 t o 109%. A new

120

the j u i c e a heating

low v a l u e o f 2

falling-film evaporator

unit

s u r f a c e a r e a o f 2500 m concentration

was i n s t a l l e d

as t h e

fifth

effect, the

and t h e t h i c k - j u i c e crystallization

was i n c r e a s e d t o to

72-73% D S . E v e n t h o u g h

scheme was t r a n s f o r m e d

incorporate

"two-and-a-half-boiling" concentration water

( r a w s u g a r s I and I I , and a l o w - g r a d e p r o d u c t ) , and t h e introduction in the of crystal footing resulted

high t h i c k - j u i c e in 8.2 the

theoretical b.

evaporation 8.4.3

s u g a r house b e i n g the thermal the system

reduced to

k g / 1 0 0 kg

Evolution of

T h e 1978 v e r s i o n o f together 26.8 with

thermal

system i s

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y

in

Fig.

8.13,

t h e d a t a on mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s . T h e e v a p o r a t o r 100 kg b . to Owing t o utilize a rather the e n t i r e vapour to utilized. l o w h e a t demand o f

consumed the sugar

kg steam p e r it

house,

was i m p o s s i b l e large flow of

amount o f v a p o u r s , and a the c o n d e n s e r had t o be a c c e p t e d . turbo58 bar part

relatively

last-effect

T h e c o n d e n s a t e e n e r g y was n o t f u l l y generator

In the

p o w e r h o u s e , one live

d r i v e n by a b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e cover the

supplied with the

steam a t

and 500C was e n o u g h t o of the heating-steam

power demand o f

factory.

However, a

flow

had t o

be s u p p l i e d v i a t h e

throttling-desuperheating

station. Following the e x t e n s i o n s o f the factory and t h e in the resulting the increase in power

demand, a s e c o n d t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r possibility arose to sell the

was i n s t a l l e d

power h o u s e . A grid;

theoretical the the

power s u r p l u s t o

external be t o o

however, cover energy

f a c t o r y was o f f e r e d cost. policy It This

a power p r i c e w h i c h t u r n e d o u t t o

low t o of the

stimulated

a t h o r o u g h a n a l y s i s and r e - o r i e n t a t i o n power and h e a t the thermal savings.

towards f a r - r e a c h i n g was d e c i d e d t o m o d i f y

system by i n t r o d u c i n g mechanical

the

compression In order with

of to

first-effect

v a p o u r i n an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n

compressor.

c h a n g e t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e e v a p o r a t o r , v a c u u m - p a n v a p o u r s and p r e - 1 i m e d - j u i c e T h i s made i t in in possible to recirculate heating with

raw-juice

heating

condensate were vapour per

implemented. 100 kg beet

27.3

kg f i r s t - e f f e c t decrease the

the vapour-compression c i r c u i t , the evaporator to 23.6 in

and t o

heating-steam thermal

consumption system is

k g / 1 0 0 kg b . 8.14. introduced

T h e 1981

v e r s i o n of the

shown s c h e m a t i c a l l y

Fig.

Among t h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s station p l a y e d t h e main

after

1981,

extension of of a

the

evaporator

role.

Following the

evaporator with heating

a heating

surface area of evaporator

installation 2 2500 m i n t h e 2

falling-film effect, the total

last

surface area of the

r e a c h e d 14500 m . T h i s made i t at reduced temperature decrease the

possible differences

to maintain in the

73% DS t h i c k - j u i c e effects. It

concentration thus

individual

became p o s s i b l e t o

temperature

Fig. 8 . 1 3 . Simplified scheme of the thermal system of the Appeldorn factory, 1978 version (after ref. 1 8 ) . Steam and vapour flows are given in kg/lOO kg b.

325

Fig. 8 . 1 4 . Simplified scheme of the thermal system of the Appeldorn factory, 1981 version (after ref. 1 8 ) .

326

Fig. 8.15. Scheme of the utilization of condensate in the Appeldorn factory (after ref.

18).

Fig. 8.16. Simplified scheme of the thermal system of the Appeldorn factory, 1986 version (after ref.

18).

327

(and the

corresponding saturation

pressure) o f the drop in the

heating

steam,

this

resulting the

i n an i n c r e a s e d i s e n t r o p i c power g e n e r a t e d . Owing t o effects, juice

enthalpy

turbine in

and an i n c r e a s e o f individual

lower j u i c e

temperatures

the

evaporator of thick-

s u c r o s e d e c a y was a l s o (ref.

reduced, with 17,18).

a considerable reduction

c o l o u r as a r e s u l t intensive

Very (Fig.

utilization

of the

c o n d e n s a t e e n e r g y was a l s o the

implemented heating

8.15).

In a s e r i e s of

heat exchangers connected to heating, of the fuel-oil

room

system,

1imed-juice

and r a w - j u i c e temperature

heating

and w a s t e - w a t e r its initial

treatment

system, the

condensate f a l l s

from

v a l u e o f 92C t o level, parts of in

as l o w as 37C. the the

In a d d i t i o n ,

d e p e n d i n g on t h e as:

temperature

condensate stream are u t i l i z e d centrifugals; in the sludge presses;

- wash w a t e r -

sweetening-off water fresh water in the

extractor. thermal 1986 system, with the d a t a on mass and h e a t F i g . 8.16. balances the b.

T h e scheme o f t h e characteristic heating-steam 8.4.4 of the

season, in the

a r e shown i n

As can be s e e n , 18.5 k g / 1 0 0 kg

consumption

e v a p o r a t o r was r e d u c e d t o

E v o l u t i o n o f the

power

balance much e f f o r t was s p e n t on and d.c. juice drives, ensuring

When d e s i g n i n g

the Appeldorn sugar f a c t o r y , For example, j u i c e pumps i n

a l o w power demand. purification making i t

the e x t r a c t i o n

stations

were equipped w i t h apply variable kWh/100

thyristor-controlled

p o s s i b l e to

speed c o n t r o l .

As a r e s u l t , first

power season. power

consumption

as l o w as 2.54 of

kg b was a c h i e v e d i n t h e

The i n s t a l l a t i o n demand o f t h e

an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n to i n c r e a s e b y 13%.

vapour compressor caused the restore the relation

factory

In order to

b e t w e e n power g e n e r a t e d and power c o n s u m e d , a number o f were taken: the processing capability beet storage y a r d s ; treatment plant of the

rationalization

measures

an e x t e n s i o n o f

factory

took

place

without

any e x t e n s i o n o f t h e the e x i s t i n g

waste-water

was r e p l a c e d by an a n a e r o b i c

plant

c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a l o w e r e n e r g y demand; only a part of the p r e s s e d p u l p was d i r e c t e d of the electric to the drying plant (50% i n 1986).

A r e v i e w was a l s o machines in the to

undertaken

d r i v e s and all the

electrically-driven c o n v e y o r s were energy-efficient flow machinery speed control, of

entire

factory.

For example,

trough

investigated belt

identify

those that

c o u l d be r e p l a c e d b y more attention throttling was p a i d t o control the

c o n v e y o r s . However, p a r t i c u l a r of replacing

and t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s or introducing

by v a r i a b l e

intermittent

instead of

continuous a.c.

operation.

Taking advantage

falling

prices of in

frequency-controlled

d r i v e s , v a r i a b l e - s p e e d d r i v e s were as i n p u l p p r e s s e s .

implemented

b e e t pumps and k i l n - g a s

c o m p r e s s o r s , as w e l l

328

TABLE 8.12 18). 1984 1985 1986

Power consumed and power supplied to the Appeldorn sugar factory, in kWh/100 kg b (after ref. 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

Beet storage yards 0.272 0.261 0.276 0.294 0.264 0.290 0.233 0.164 0.140 0.160 Beet house 0.870 0.860 0.856 0.843 1.018 0.980 0.963 0.945 0.922 0.830 Sugar house 0.614 0.610 0.612 0.633 0.609 0.584 0.554 0.642 0.630 0.670 Pulp-drying plant 0.338 0.334 0.350 0.343 0.330 0.334 0.271 0.260 0.210 0.280 Power house 0.155 0.157 0.160 0.154 0.142 0.154 0.159 0.158 0.160 0.173 Water circuits and compressed-air supply 0 . 1 5 5 0.157 0.176 0.156 0.162 0.149 0.160 0.157 0.130 Waste-water treatment 0.133 0.201 0.228 0.260 0.251 0.263 0.178 0.200 0.110 0.110 Vapour compressor 0.390 0.410 0.380 0.290 0.240 0.330 2.506 0.074 2.580 2.612 0.046 2.658 2.642 0.041 2.683 3.022 0.144 3.166 3.012 0.152 3.164 2.752 0.146 2.898 2.640 0.176 2.816 2.414 0.128 2.542 2.534 0.159 2.693

0.140

Power generated Power purchased Total power supplied

2.473 0.064 2.537

TABLE 8.13 18). 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986"

Power consumed and power supplied to the Appeldorn sugar factory, in kWh/t sugar (after ref. 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

Beet storage yards 20.89 18.63 19.28 21.73 18.80 20.94 16.54 11.63 9.49 10.70 66.79 61.49 59.84 62.23 73.34 71.94 69.88 67.76 65.48 53.30 Beet house Sugar house 47.14 43.62 42.80 46.71 43.30 42.16 39.47 45.57 43.70 42.90 Pulp-drying plant 25.94 23.85 24.47 25.34 23.48 24.08 19.31 18.30 14.81 18.20 Power house 11.90 11.19 11.20 11.41 10.07 11.10 11.30 11.24 10.94 11.20 Water circuits and compressed-air supply 11.90 11.19 12.07 11.52 11.49 10.76 11.40 11.15 9.27 Waste-water treatment 10.18 14.17 15.95 19.21 17.52 19.03 12.70 14.25 7.70 8.70 Vapour compressor 26.60 28.40 25.80 19.80 16.20 20.50

8.80

Power generated Power purchased Total power supplied

189.82 179.12 182.42 195.14 214.39 2 1 7 . 4 2 195.96 187.30 168.65 164.00 4.92 5.32 3.19 3.01 10.21 10.99 10.44 12.40 8.94 10.30 194.74 184.44 185.61 198.15 224.60 228.41 206.40 199.70 177.59 174.30

329

As a r e s u l t ,

the

total

installed

power o f

the

d.c. a.c.

drives drives

reached a l e v e l 1900 the the kW, w i t h

of the

3200 kW, and t h a t o f variable speed d r i v e s equipment out

the

frequency-controlled the the beet

dominating in installed that the in

h o u s e and i n

s u g a r h o u s e . As pulp-drying small to justify

regards the plant, the it

power h o u s e and i n

turned

potential

energy savings are too drives in there. seven s e c t i o n s of

investment

costs of of the

variable-speed

The e v o l u t i o n the the vapour

power c o n s u m p t i o n is illustrated the beet in

the

factory

(and

compressor)

T a b l e s 8.12

and 8 . 1 3 .

As can be by t h e

seen,

power c o n s u m p t i o n in

of

vapour compressor storage yards,

has been o f f - s e t

power water see

savings attained

the

beet It

house, p u l p - d r y i n g is also per

plant, to has

s u p p l y s y s t e m and w a s t e - w a t e r that in the sugar house, while the

treatment plant. the of

interesting 100 kg b e e t

power c o n s u m p t i o n the

i n c r e a s e d due t o the

extensions per 1 t

crystallization achieved. g i v e n on t h e increases heat

scheme,

a reduction

of

power c o n s u m p t i o n I n T a b l e s 8.12

s u g a r was

and 8 . 1 3 ,

data

are also

power s u p p l i e d of

to

the and

factory.

It

can be c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e took place in 1981

steep the

power g e n e r a t e d in the

purchased which preceding It

that the

saving mentioned increased the power

S e c t i o n was a t t a i n e d a t be s e e n t h a t

expense o f taken to

consumption. to

can a l s o

the measures

adjust

power g e n e r a t i o n the power

changing does n o t

p o w e r demand w e r e q u i t e e x c e e d 5-6% of the total

effective, power

as a t

present,

purchased

supplied.

REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 L. S z y d l o , W. L e k a w s k i and K. U r b a n i e c , M o d e r n i z a c j a g o s p o d a r k i cieplnej C u k r o w n i K l e c i n a , G a z . C u k r o w . , 9 3 ( 7 - 8 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 134. N . K . P o l i s h c h u k , I s p o l z o v a n i e e n e r g o r e s u r s o v na E r k e n - S h a k h a r s k o m s a k h a r n o m z a v o d e , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 6 ) (1986) 39-40. K. U r b a n i e c , Ocena p r a k t y c z n y c h m o z l i w o s c i o s z c z e d z a n i a p a l i w a w g o s p o d a r c e e n e r g e t y c z n e j c u k r o w n i , G a z . C u k r o w . , 89(4) (1981) 80-81. Y u . D . G o l o v n y a k and L . G . B e l o s t o t s k i i , S h i r o k o v n e d r y a t n a u c h n y e r a z r a b o t k i d l y a s n i z h e n i y a raskhoda t o p l i v a , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 8 ) (1981) 21-24. K. U r b a n i e c , R a c j o n a l i z a c j a g o s p o d a r k i c i e p l n e j w c u k r o w n i a c h , G a z . C u k r o w . , 92(2) (1984) 27-28. C . H . I v e r s o n , W i t h e r g o e s t t h o u , oh BTU ? , S u g a r J . , 4 5 ( 1 1 ) ( 1 9 8 3 ) 1 7 - 2 2 . J . B o z e c , E v o l u t i o n de l a c o n s o m m a t i o n t h e r m i q u e dans 1 ' i n d u s t r i e s u c r i e r e , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 100(7-8) (1983) 477-480. Anonymous, E n e r g y program a t I m p e r i a l S u g a r , Sugar J . , 4 7 ( 1 ) (1984) 20. B. K a r r e n , E x p e r i e n c e o f e n e r g y s a v i n g i n t h e C a n a d i a n s u g a r i n d u s t r y , in: F . O . L i c h t s G u i d e t o t h e S u g a r F a c t o r y M a c h i n e I n d u s t r y , F . O . L i c h t GmbH, R a t z e b u r g , 1984, p p . A 7 5 - A 8 8 . L . L . N e v i l l e , H o l l y Sugar C o r p o r a t i o n ' s c a p i t a l improvement program, Sugar y A z c a r , 80(2) (1985) 4 9 , 5 2 . G . K o w a l s k a , P o r z a d k o w a n i e g o s p o d a r k i c i e p l n e j na p r z y k l a d z i e c u k r o w n i w i e l k o p o l s k i c h , G a z . C u k r o w . , 94(4) (1986) 52-53. W. L e k a w s k i , M o d e r n i z a c j a G o s p o d a r k i C i e p l n e j C u k r o w n i , S T C , W a r s z a w a , 1986. E . V . M l o d z y a n o w s k i i , V . S . B e r e z y u k and K . N . S a v c h u k , Ekonomnoe i s p o l z o v a n y e e n e r g o r e s u r s o v , Sakh. P r o m . , ( 7 ) (1981) 22-27. E . K r u p k a and J . S z a d k o w s k i , G o s p o d a r k a c i e p l n a w C u k r o w n i G o s l a w i c e , G a z . C u k r o w . , 89(1) (1981) 2-5.

10 11 12 13 14

330

15 16

17 18 19

20

A . I . Khomenko, Ekonomya t o p i i v n o - e n e r g e t i c h e s k i k h r e s u r s o v - i t o g i i z a d a c h i , S a k h . P r o m . , (2) (1983) 35-39. L . P . I g n a t e v ( e t a l . ) , O p y t r a b o t y po s n i z h e n i y u r a s k h o d a t o p i i v n o e n e r g e t i c h e s k i k h r e s u r s o v na A l e k s a n d r i i s k o m sakharnom z a v o d e , S a k h . P r o m . , (10) (1985) 32-34. G. F e l t b o r g , p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n . H. W e i d n e r , D i e B r d e n k o m p r e s s i o n i n e i n e r R o h z u c k e r f a b r i k , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(8) (1983) 736-742. . C u r d t s , E i n Weg z u r V e r b e s s e r u n g d e r W r m e w i r t s c h a f t e i n e r R o h z u c k e r f a b r i k - am B e i s p i e l d e r Z u c k e r f a b r i k A p p e l d o r n , P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference "Improvement o f Beet Sugar P r o d u c t i o n " , Warszawa, May 1987. A . Colsman, personal communication.

331

Chapter 9

DESIGN OF MODERNIZED

OR NEW ENERGY SYSTEMS

9.1

THE MODERNIZATION Contrary to

OF ENERGY SYSTEMS the preceding Chapter, introduced

the s t e p - b y - s t e p approach c o n s i d e r e d i n of a sugar f a c t o r y

modernization either all at

i n v o l v e s e x t e n s i v e changes t h a t a r e

once o r i n a few s t e p s p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g is

consecutive off-season very s e l d o m aimed objectives, role the it may be find and

periods. solely

Typically, this

a s e r i o u s and c o s t l y u n d e r t a k i n g , there are several

a t e n e r g y s a v i n g s . Most o f t e n

technological has a l e a d i n g c o s t s . As

among w h i c h an e x t e n s i o n o f

the processing c a p a b i l i t y

t h e o t h e r s s e r v e t h e p u r p o s e o f c u t t i n g down m a n u f a c t u r i n g undertaking difficult has t o be c o m p l e t e d w i t h i n a d e f i n i t e an i n i t i a l cost/time

framework,

to a r r i v e at

problem f o r m u l a t i o n ,

and e v e n more s o t o the

the s o u g h t - a f t e r

solution.

Therefore, modernization

usually requires

e x p e r t i s e o f s p e c i a l i z e d e n g i n e e r i n g companies. Publications factories how of related to the methodological problems o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f r e g a r d e d as a p a r t o f t h e c a n be f o u n d sugar know-

are rather

s c a r c e , as t h i s

subject is

t h e companies i n v o l v e d .

A book and a f e w a r t i c l e s

reviewing

the general

d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s , as w e l l (refs. 1-3).

as t h e s p e c i a l i z e d q u e s t i o n s o f e n e r g y

economy i m p r o v e m e n t s The investigation

o f modernization requirements factory

b e g i n s w i t h d r a w i n g up an subsystems typically and control of

inventory of existing defined is 25-30.

s u b s y s t e m s . T h e number o f

For every subsystem, c r u c i a l

d a t a on p r o c e s s a p p a r a t u s equipment,

m a c h i n e s a r e r e g i s t e r e d , as w e l l circuitry essential and m e a s u r i n g factory

as on a s s o c i a t e d e l e c t r i c a l

instruments.

Drawings are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y plan.

prepared

buildings,

together with a site

The i n f o r m a t i o n

thus the

a c q u i r e d makes i t state o f the

p o s s i b l e to evaluate the f a c t o r y ' s

technological

b a s e and

buildings. particularly the c o s t importance and

The n e x t s t e p u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s o f d i s c u s s i n g t h e d a t a w h i c h a r e important to determination constraints of of t h e o b j e c t i v e s and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of

time-related are as

the modernization.

The data o f c r u c i a l

follows: polarization; the manufacturing process, including their distribution loss;

beet

sugar losses in

between e x t r a c t i o n , c a r b o n a t a t i o n purities of raw j u i c e , of thick

s l u d g e , m o l a s s e s and u n d e f i n e d and m o l a s s e s ; scheme, i n c l u d i n g

juice

t h e main f e a t u r e s

the j u i c e

purification

temperatures

of

essential -

process s t e p s ; and main f e a t u r e s of the lime-slaking process;

CaO r a t e s

332

t h e main f e a t u r e s t h e main f e a t u r e s

o f t h e p u l p - p r e s s i n g and p u l p - d r y i n g o f the sugar c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n

processes; boiling

scheme and s u g a r

process; automation requirements; protection requirements; of fuel demand i n t h e p o w e r h o u s e and in

environmental the fuel

t y p e and t h e e x p e c t e d l e v e l plant; requirements.

the -

pulp-drying

power c o n s u m p t i o n

Having a c q u i r e d n e c e s s a r y knowledge o f t h e c o n d i t i o n priorities

of

the f a c t o r y

and

the

o f t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s , t h e d e s i g n e n g i n e e r s s h o u l d be a b l e and p r e p a r e s k e t c h e s o f sections. reconstruction proposals f o r conditions, the the most

to c a l c u l a t e important

factory

D e p e n d i n g on s p e c i f i c

following

m a t e r i a l may be r e q u i r e d : scheme o f b e e t r e c e p t i o n , unloading, transport and s t o r a g e ; e v a p o r a t i o n and s u g a r

- mass b a l a n c e s o f e x t r a c t i o n , j u i c e crystallization; heat balance o f the thermal system;

purification,

heat balance o f the p u l p - d r y i n g verification of rating of

plant; equipment and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s on the

the e x i s t i n g units;

selection of -

new e q u i p m e n t

e n e r g y ( h e a t and p o w e r ) b a l a n c e o f Completion o f this s t e p makes it

t h e power h o u s e . p o s s i b l e to determine as w e l l as t o the scope o f plan dismantling and of

equipment

p u r c h a s e s and c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k , equipment, of construction work, electrical

the e x i s t i n g piping,

a s s e m b l i n g o f new e q u i p m e n t circuitry,

installation

e q u i p m e n t and c o n t r o l

etc.

The s o l u t i o n s

are u s u a l l y prepared in

a number o f v e r s i o n s and d e s c r i b e d i n a and on

r e p o r t on p o s s i b l e and recommended c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n , c o s t p r o j e c t i o n s preliminary time-schedules. This constitutes a basis for

decision-making

detailed modernization designs. The d e c i s i o n s t e p d e s e r v e s most a t t e n t i o n as i t extent, the economic r e s u l t s of the e n t i r e determines, to a great of

undertaking.

The c o s t s t r u c t u r e equal

a typical

modernization case i s of the f o l l o w i n g

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o s t components: work; equipment; and

contributions the c o s t o f the c o s t o f

the c o n s t r u c t i o n

p u r c h a s i n g and a s s e m b l i n g t h e main electrical equipment, etc.

the c o s t o f p i p i n g ,

control

instrumentation

circuitry, Prior

engineering services,

t o making t h e d e c i s i o n s , one c a n a l s o c o n s i d e r t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n c o s t s

as

a sum o f t w o c o m p o n e n t s : (i) the c o s t o f the increase of processing capability;

333

(ii) It the

the c o s t o f

the o p t i m i z a t i o n t h a t component the

of

detailed is

solutions. of the order of 15-20% o f the

c a n be e s t i m a t e d total cost. results

(ii)

typically

By o p t i m i z i n g

solutions,

h o w e v e r , o n e may i n f l u e n c e that is

economic

o f the modernization the

to a degree comparable w i t h increase. Actually, It is this

associated with importance these of

processing-capability of

where

the

improvements

t h e e n e r g y economy l i e s .

not unusual

that

improvements of

are d e c i s i v e in optimizing

the modernization

solutions. is a solutions,

Optimization decision

t h e e n e r g y economy o f a m o d e r n i z e d s u g a r f a c t o r y Within the field of feasible

p r o b l e m u n d e r many c o n s t r a i n t s . of

each e n e r g y - s a v i n g t e c h n i q u e systematized in techniques constitutes It report S e c t i o n 8.1

those considered in

Chapters 3 to

7 and of results

c a n be c o n s i d e r e d f o r

application. the 9.4). that it is the

The s e t

satisfying the

the c o n s t r a i n t s

and p r o m i s i n g

b e s t economic

desired solution

(see also Section above i n t r o d u c t i o n

c a n be c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e a modernization

difficult

to

example i n g r e a t d e t a i l . if

As a r u l e ,

presentations are given the 9.2

p u b l i s h e d a r e v e r y c o n c i s e and f e w , (refs. 4-7). T r y i n g t o change t h i s in the

any, technical

details

situation

a l i t t l e without

exceeding Sections poor

space a v a i l a b l e and 9 . 3 initial decent.

present book, cases:

summaries

are presented in

o f two r e a l - l i f e

one f a c t o r y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y r a t h e r

energy u t i l i z a t i o n Both m o d e r n i z a t i o n s this

and a n o t h e r

i n w h i c h t h e e n e r g y economy was aimed a t extensions of the

quite

were u l t i m a t e l y

processing c a p a b i l i t y , e n e r g y economy.

b e i n g v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on i m p r o v e m e n t s into consideration. parts of the the

of

the

P u l p d r y i n g was n o t t a k e n concentrate

The p r e s e n t a t i o n s concepts, thermal

on t h e m o s t r e l e v a n t

modernization

namely t h o s e c o n c e r n e d w i t h

possible versions of It is noteworthy, focus.

reconstructed the example, the It is the

s y s t e m s and t h e i r of the

heat balances.

however, that In the first

importance

p o w e r b a l a n c e s has a l s o come i n t o owing t o to sell a relatively

presented in factory is

Section 9.2,

large net

h e a t demand, grid.

generally able

a power s u r p l u s t o the thermal

the external

o n l y t h e most e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t steam f l o w through the turbine

version of

system which reduces required is for

to a value l e s s than

that

electrical with

self-sufficiency.

The second example p r e s e n t e d i n S e c t i o n 9.3

concerned

an e n e r g y s y s t e m i n w h i c h p o s s i b l e s i g n i f i c a n t a widening power d e f i c i t . In t h i s part situation,

heat s a v i n g s a r e accompanied by reduce the power of

measures t o

demand become an i m p o r t a n t complementary evaluation

o f the modernization, external grid

and t h e m a g n i t u d e takes a place in

power p u r c h a s e s f r o m t h e versions.

the

of modernization

Concluding this 9.4 of principles

C h a p t e r and t h e e n t i r e of

b o o k , a summary i s

given in methods.

Section

energy-system design using optimization

334

9.2 9.2.1

FACTORY CHARACTERIZED BY POOR I N I T I A L Introductory remarks

ENERGY

UTILIZATION

The f a c t o r y was e r e c t e d a t 1940s s a t e l l i t e distillery, extensions 3000 t / d

the beginning o f t h i s were b u i l t ,

century.

In the

1930s and

production f a c i l i t i e s

including

an a l c o h o l numerous of with

a carbon d i o x i d e p l a n t

and a m a c h i n e - s h o p . A f t e r sugar f a c t o r y , By c o m b i n i n g the

and m o d e r n i z a t i o n s o f t h e in the 1960s.

a processing capability s t e p - b y - s t e p approach

was a t t a i n e d

two l i m i t e d - s c a l e in the 1970s,

modernizations

during

a period o f several years ending

late

the bulk

o f t h e o l d p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t was r e p l a c e d b y new was t h e n increased to station 3900 t o n s at per day,

machinery. with 5000 As

The p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y

t h e maximum t h r o u g h p u t o f t/d. t h e r e were o n l y minimal

the e x t r a c t i o n

estimated

about

investments

in

the thermal

system during installed

the

most

recent period of factory c a p a c i t y became v i s i b l e aware o f

improvements, at this

symptoms o f

inadequate

boiler was

processing c a p a b i l i t y .

The managing s t a f f factory

t h e o u t d a t e d h e a t economy and t h e f a c t thermal

t h a t no f u r t h e r

e x t e n s i o n s c a n be p l a n n e d u n l e s s t h e As a m a t t e r of fact, this situation

system i s

thoroughly modernized. was deliberately for two old

was n o t u n e x p e c t e d . I t of

allowed to coincide with evaporator bodies in

the necessary i n s t a l l a t i o n their

replacements

t h e 2nd e f f e c t ,

certificates

of pressure-vessel

o p e r a t i o n a b o v e 2 b a r b e i n g due t o e x p i r e . C o n s e q u e n t l y , an e n g i n e e r i n g company was hired to d e s i g n the n e c e s s a r y r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the thermal and a s s u m p t i o n s w e r e f o r m u l a t e d in system. the

A number o f c o n s t r a i n t s managing s t a f f of the

advance by

factory: possible to increase the processing process equipment

t h e e n e r g y s a v i n g s s h o u l d make i t to 5000 t / d , but

capability will -

the n e s e s s a r y e x t e n s i o n s o f the date;

be c o n s i d e r e d a t a l a t e r

no i n v e s t m e n t f u n d s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f t h e

power house

equipment; the factory has t o be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t the w i n t e r in p o w e r , as t h e e x t e r n a l peak loads; outside the sugar f a c t o r y is grid is not

reliable -

enough d u r i n g

period of

steam c o n s u m p t i o n i n under c o n t r o l

the p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s

well in

and n e e d n o t be a n a l y s e d ; the j u i c e draft s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d and t h e sugar output; filtration equipment, crystalliz-

the sugar f a c t o r y ,

ation -

scheme s h o u l d be a d j u s t e d t o the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s concentration

increase the

due t o

o f the e x i s t i n g

thick-juice

thick-juice

s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 65% D S . task o f t h e d e s i g n e r s was l e s s It complicated limit the

Under such c i r c u m s t a n c e s , the than in a typical case o f

factory modernization.

was p o s s i b l e t o

335

extent of essential thermal

the

i n v e n t o r y o f the e x i s t i n g

factory

subsystems t o

the c o l l e c t i o n the

of

data r e q u i r e d f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s

o f t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f and heaters

system. Only f o r the

the case o f the e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n

(together with

associated piping

and a u x i l i a r y e q u i p m e n t )

were

detailed supporting

schemes and l a y o u t d r a w i n g s p r e p a r e d . An i n v e n t o r y o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s was a l s o drawn u p , and a s e p a r a t e e x a m i n a t i o n instruments 9.2.2 and c o n t r o l data 3900 t/d. 14.0-14.5%. extractors. circuits was u n d e r t a k e n .

relevant of the

measuring

Basic factory

Processing c a p a b i l i t y :

Polarization of cossettes: Extraction station: Juice draft: 108%.

two t r o u g h - t y p e

Raw-juice concentration Pulp pressed t o : respectively; a dryer). Kiln Juice g a s : 26.8% CO2 v o l . the

and p u r i t y :

15.29% D S , 88.5%. and 1/5 of the wet-pulp latter flow, to

10.5% DS and 15.0% DS ( 4 / 5 former part is sold to

farmers

and t h e

directed

purification at

according to

the c l a s s i c a l

scheme, c o m p r i s i n g : b;

hot pre-liming

50C, CaO r a t e 0.22 1.30

k g / 1 0 0 kg b;

- main l i m i n g a t 8 6 ^ C , CaO r a t e 1st carbonatation at decanting and 82C;

k g / 1 0 0 kg

filtration; at 9 4 C , CaO r a t e 0.10 k g / 1 0 0 kg b;

2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n d o u b l e - s t a g e 2nd

filtration. 13.42% D S , 92.40%.

Thin-juice Evaporator: Thick-juice

c o n c e n t r a t i o n and p u r i t y : quadruple-effect,

Robert-type bodies.

c o n c e n t r a t i o n : 60-62.5% D S .

Sugar house: standard-liquor based t h r e e - b o i l i n g C sugar melted scheme w i t h in thin the a f f i n a t i o n of C sugar;

s u g a r and a f f i n e d standard l i q u o r

juice; and remelt.

prepared from t h i c k k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

juice

Sugar o u t p u t : Power h o u s e : - coal-fired

10.89

boilers,

two u n i t s 60%; 22 b a r ,

rated

30 t / h

and t h r e e u n i t s

r a t e d 20

t/h,

average e f f i c i e n c y -

about

l i v e steam parameters

320C; 3.3 M W each, steam r a t e s about 11 kg/kWh;

two b a c k - p r e s s u r e t u r b i n e s b a c k - p r e s s u r e 3.2 sells bar.

rated

The f a c t o r y

a power s u r p l u s t o

the e x t e r n a l

grid.

336

I coc VCI 3

Fig. 9 . 1 . Scheme of the thermal system and mass and heat balance data, for factory before modernization (thickjuice concentration 60% D S ) . Condensates obtained from vapour streams marked * are discharged to the sewer system.

337

Steam s u p p l y t o live

the sugar manufacturing to 6 bar to

process: and v a c u u m - p a n live steam) to steaming; the

steam t h r o t t l e d s t e a m 3.2 receivers.

the c e n t r i f u g a l s

heating

b a r ( e x h a u s t s t e a m and t h r o t t l e d

remaining

Steam c o n s u m p t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o m e a s u r e m e n t s : 4 4 . 5 - 4 8 . 6 k g / 1 0 0 kg Power c o n s u m p t i o n : e s t i m a t e d Normal It the fuel at a b o u t 2.5 kWh/100 b. the kg b.

b.

c o n s u m p t i o n : 6 . 2 0 - 7 . 0 0 k g / 1 0 0 kg in parallel

s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t

to supplying energy to the following

sugar

factory, facilities:

p o w e r h o u s e s u p p l i e s p o w e r and steam t o distillery; plant;

production

alcohol

- carbon-dioxide machine-shop.

The c o m b i n e d p o w e r demand o f t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s heating steam demand i s small. o f the o r d e r o f 6 t/h.

does n o t e x c e e d 0.8

MW, and

the is

T h e demand on 6 b a r steam

negligibly

The scheme o f v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n , mass and h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s b e f o r e m o d e r n i z a t i o n , a r e shown i n that of the thermal It

and t h e main r e s u l t s sugar

of

the

system o f the

factory

F i g . 9.1.

can i m m e d i a t e l y s h o u l d be

be r e c o g n i z e d

t h e r e a r e a few q u e s t i o n a b l e d e t a i l s evaporator is

that

eliminated: one

the q u a d r u p l e - e f f e c t is

e s s e n t i a l l y o p e r a t e d as a t r i p l e - e f f e c t vapour; to the atmosphere;

because t h e r e the 1st-

no h e a t i n g w i t h

last-stage

and 2 n d - e f f e c t part

condensates are flashed wasted;

a significant the flow

o f the condensates i s the

o f condensate returned to supply.

power house i s

too small

t o e n s u r e an

adequate f e e d - w a t e r Actually, belongs to

vacuum-pan steaming w i t h this list. that

6 b a r steam - as m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r

also

Another observation is than the consumption

t h e c a l c u l a t e d demand on h e a t i n g the measurements.

steam i s this

lower

found i n identified:

Two main r e a s o n s f o r

d i s c r e p a n c y c a n be in vapour leaks

through f l o a t - t y p e

steam t r a p s

in

the condensate d r a i n a g e

lines

the e v a p o r a t o r a r e a ; frequent of parameter the instabilities, caused by inadequate station t h r o u g h p u t and 3.2 bar unstable

controls It Fig.

throttling-desuperheating the f o l l o w i n g

delivering

steam. in

s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t 9.1,

questionable d e t a i l s , scheme:

n o t shown

were a l s o found i n heating

the vapour d i s t r i b u t i o n vapour o n l y ; this

- extractor that it

by I s t - e f f e c t

was m o t i v a t e d

by the

fact thus

helped to

provide a high temperature a very

o f the e x t r a c t i o n mixture, draft;

making i t

possible to maintain heating of

low j u i c e juice

- multiple-stage

pre-limed

and t h i n j u i c e w h e r e v a p o u r s

at

338

the temperatures stages; 9.2.3 this

required

in to

the f i n a l

stages were a l s o used i n of

the

preceding vapours.

contributed solutions

inadequate u t i l i z a t i o n

low-temperature

Field of

The e n g i n e e r i n g team p r o p o s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g implemented (i) in two s t e p s .

strategy o f modernization, to

be

While i n s t a l l i n g thermal

the necessary replacements o f the e v a p o r a t o r bodies i n s y s t e m c o r r e c t i o n s c a n be i n t r o d u c e d t o reduce the net draft

the heat and

2nd e f f e c t ,

demand and make i t increased sugar (ii)

p o s s i b l e to operate the f a c t o r y

at a higher j u i c e

output. scheme c a n be r e c o n s t r u c t e d s y s t e m and t h u s reduce the to

T h e e v a p o r a t o r and t h e v a p o u r d i s t r i b u t i o n ratio o f the thermal

improve the e f f e c t i v e n e s s h e a t demand e v e n further.

net

When a n a l y s i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e e x t r a c t i o n draft, of it was c o n c l u d e d t h a t b o t h t h e f l o w

station

at a higher

juice flow

of extraction

f e e d - w a t e r and t h e

p r e s s w a t e r c a n be i n c r e a s e d . T h e d r y s u b s t a n c e c o n t e n t 11.2% DS and 15.6% DS ( 4 / 5 being well within and 1/5

o f the pressed pulp flow, pulp

can be i n c r e a s e d t o respectively), presses. savings it this

o f the wet-pulp

the o p e r a t i n g is

range o f the e x i s t i n g energy

In t h i s in

w a y , more p r e s s w a t e r

o b t a i n e d and a d d i t i o n a l

p u l p d r y i n g become p o s s i b l e . C o n c e r n i n g t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n requires a larger

scheme,

t u r n e d o u t t h a t an i n c r e a s e d s u g a r o u t p u t this

massecuite process

circulation,

making an i n c r e a s e d h e a t demand o f t h e thick-juice concentration

sugar b o i l i n g

u n a v o i d a b l e even a t prior to the

o f 65% DS ( a s c o m p a r e d t o 60% DS

modernization). system v e r s i o n s were proposed f o r step (i) and t h r e e versions 82, for

Two t h e r m a l step (ii).

In the f o l l o w i n g , the

t h e s e v e r s i o n s a r e d e n o t e d A l , A2 and 8 1 , following changes are i n t r o d u c e d t o the

83.

Each o f them assumes t h a t system: vacuum-pan steaming c o n d e n s a t e s from a l l (this is

thermal

performed using 2 n d - e f f e c t

vapour; the condensate ones

important

vapour r e c e i v e r s are returned to new t a n k s ,

tanks

requires installing

as t h e v o l u m e s o f t h e e x i s t i n g

are too small

t o accommodate i n c r e a s e d c o n d e n s a t e f l o w s ) ; o f condensates i s applied; vapour; different (in some v e r s i o n s , the

- cascade f l a s h i n g -

e x t r a c t o r s are heated by 1 s t juice heating from the

and 3 r d - e f f e c t is

- multiple-stage temperatures, this

performed using vapours o f

starting

lowest p o s s i b l e temperature heating reduced

may r e q u i r e

installing

new h e a t e r s , as t h e when u t i l i z e d at

surface areas o f temperature

existing

o n e s may be t o o s m a l l

differences); l e v e l - c o n t r o l l e d hydraulic seals are applied lb; in the condensate drainage lines

c o n n e c t e d t o e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s l a and

339

a new t h r o t t l i n g - d e s u p e r h e a t i n g an a u t o m a t i c

station

to

s u p p l y 3.2

b a r steam i s

installed

and e q u i p p e d w i t h pressure.

control

circuit

stabilizing

exhaust-steam

The c o n f i g u r a t i o n s versions versions Al.

o f the e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n

employed i n of

the

different individual

are presented i n T a b l e 9.1. are reviewed below.

T h e main f e a t u r e s

the

Quadruple-effect evaporator with and t h e following in

increased heating o f the

surface areas thermal system:

in

the

2nd

and 3 r d e f f e c t s , 4th-effect

adjustments raw-juice

vapour i s

utilized in

heating

and i n

direct

heating

of

extraction -

feed-water

a precondenser; is installed to c o l l e c t the condensate drained

an a d d i t i o n a l

condensate tank effect;

from the -

3rd e v a p o r a t o r level

automatic to

controllers

are

installed seals in

i n 2 n d - and 3 r d - e f f e c t r e s p e c t i v e condensate

condensate drainage

tanks lines.

ensure e f f e c t i v e

hydraulic

The d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s , a n d t h e r e s u l t s a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 2 . included in In a d d i t i o n to

o f mass and

heat

balance c a l c u l a t i o n s , bodies (which are also installing

two new e v a p o r a t o r version

other modernization tanks.

versions), this

requires

four

new c o n d e n s a t e

TABLE

9.1 in different modernization 2 versions.

Evaporator configurations

Body No. la lb 2a 2b 3a 3b 4 5 Existing 1500 1500 1460 1460 1320 900 Al 1500 1500^ 1800^ 1800^ 1320 1460 900

Heating A2

surface area Bl 1500 1500^ 1800^ 1800^ 1320 1460 900

(m ) B2 1500 1500^ 1800f 1800^ 1460 1460 1320 900 B3 1500 1500^ 1800^ 1800^ 1460 1460 1320 900

1500 1500^ 1800? 1800^ 1460 1460 1320

new b o d i e s

'

A2.

Quadruple-effect evaporator with effects; and t h e

increased heating adjustments

surface areas thermal

in

the

2nd,

3 r d and 4 t h 4th-effect other

following in

o f the

system:

vapour is

utilized

raw-juice to

and 1 i m e d - j u i c e those of

heating;

details

are e s s e n t i a l l y

identical It is

version A l . install four new

F o r more i n f o r m a t i o n , condensate tanks in

see F i g . 9 . 3 . version.

necessary to

this

340

!3

>

o
O

CO

5
8V8 6-U 9 O'Z
'!

Fig. 9.2. Scheme of the modernized thermal system, version A l .

1000

-e
^1

TI
en

341

i2

.1

1
en

L.
'9

I
1 . ^

17
CO

]^ I'll

ir?"

r _ . _

Lr2j
Fig. 9.3. Scheme of the modernized thermal system, version A 2 .

t
<>

LJ

SI

-5h

~Mm

LA
IDOO

mi

342

Bl.

Quadruple-effect

evaporator

with vapour c o m p r e s s i o n , a n d : Al; heating; to that of version Al,

- a heating

scheme s i m i l a r t o

that of version in r a w - j u i c e

- vacuum-pan v a p o u r i s u t i l i z e d i n a d d i t i o n to the

b a s i c condensate subsystem i d e n t i c a l i s i n s t a l l e d in

an a u t o m a t i c l e v e l c o n t r o l l e r a condensate tank f l a s h e d the c o n d e n s a t e t a n k - compression of chain;

the 4 t h - e f f e c t c o n d e n s a t e t a n k and i n s t a l l e d as a f i n a l link in

to 4 t h - e f f e c t v a p o u r i s

I s t - e f f e c t vapour i s

performed u s i n g j e t - t y p e c o m p r e s s o r s ; chamber o f body lb; la;

- c o m p r e s s e d v a p o u r i s d i r e c t e d to - e x h a u s t steam i s d i r e c t e d to in order the

the h e a t i n g heating

chamber o f body

to reduce compression work, a c r o s s the is heating 10 K; surface

a temperature d i f f e r e n c e of 6 i s i n body l a , w h i l e the corresponding

maintained

f i g u r e i n body l b

- s e p a r a t e c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s a r e i n s t a l l e d t o c o l l e c t c o n d e n s a t e s from b o d i e s and lb. v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s and e x c e r p t s f r o m the

la

The d i s t r i b u t i o n scheme f o r

mass

and h e a t b a l a n c e d a t a a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 4 . s i x new c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s and one new h e a t e r . B2. Quintuple-effect evaporator, and:

This version requires

installing

- condensate tank c o l l e c t i n g 5 t h - e f f e c t condensate i s not connected condensate tank - condensate i s sugar dryer, and room chain; u t i l i z e d in heating heating pre-limed j u i c e , preheating air

to

the

before

the tanks,

kiln-gas

and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n b e f o r e the

carbonatation

heating; raw-juice heating; but vacuum p a n s and C by t o be 3rdtoo

- vacuum-pan v a p o u r s a r e u t i l i z e d i n - vacuum pans A a r e h e a t e d e f f e c t vapour small, (the heating

by 2 n d - e f f e c t v a p o u r , surface areas in

vacuum pans A t u r n e d o u t temperature);

precluding

the

use o f vapour at a lower i n the final

- t h i n - j u i c e heating

s t a g e i s performed u s i n g exhaust It i s n e c e s s a r y to in this version. install

steam.

F o r more i n f o r m a t i o n , s e e F i g . 9 . 5 .

f i v e new

c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s and t h r e e new h e a t e r s B3. Quintuple-effect evaporator scheme e s s e n t i a l l y

with vapour c o m p r e s s i o n , and: the same a s i n version B2; between the 2nd and 5th

- a heating

- a continuous evaporator

chain of condensate tanks applied

effects; the s u g a r h o u s e where

- t h i c k j u i c e a f t e r the 4 t h e f f e c t i s d i r e c t e d t o standard liquor is prepared; returned to the

- standard

liquor is

5 t h e f f e c t and t h i c k e n e d

to

11% D S ;

- compression of mechanical

I s t - e f f e c t v a p o u r i s p e r f o r m e d u s i n g an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n

compressor;

Fig. 9 . 4 . Scheme of the modernized thermal system, version Bl. Not shown: raw-juice heating using vacuum-pan vapour.

343

344

Q.

S
c o
D

3
)

Ol

>

CO

in

S
IT)

Fig. 9.5. Scheme of the modernized thermal system, version B2. Not shown: raw-juice heating using vacuum-pan vapour.

. t 5
o
CM ? ^ CM

t
o"

t
CO

09

9-91

61

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Fig. 9.6. Scheme of the modernized thermal system, version B3. Not shown: raw-juice heating using vacuum-pan vapour.

C D
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T4

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345

346

- compressed vapour i s d i r e c t e d - e x h a u s t steam i s d i r e c t e d -

t o t h e h e a t i n g chamber o f body l a ; lb; difference of 6 while

t o the h e a t i n g chamber o f body

i n o r d e r t o r e d u c e c o m p r e s s o r power demand, a t e m p e r a t u r e

i s m a i n t a i n e d between the h e a t i n g chamber and v a p o u r chamber i n body l a , the c o r r e s p o n d i n g f i g u r e i n body l b i s 10 K; to c o l l e c t

- separate condensate tanks are i n s t a l l e d and lb. scheme f o r

c o n d e n s a t e s from b o d i e s

la

The d i s t r i b u t i o n

v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s , and s e l e c t e d r e s u l t s

of

mass and h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s , a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 6 . T h i s v e r s i o n r e q u i r e s installing s i x new c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s and f i v e new h e a t e r s . solutions i n the p r e c e d i n g Sections, of

9 . 2 . 4 Comparison o f

When a n a l y s i n g the m o d e r n i z a t i o n s t r a t e g y o u t l i n e d each v e r s i o n o f the m o d e r n i z e d f a c t o r y

c a n be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a v e c t o r

a t t r i b u t e s comprising investment c o s t , fuel U s i n g the a c t u a l

s a v i n g and power demand i n c r e a s e . modernization

p r i c e s o f f u e l and p o w e r , the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f

can t h u s be e x p r e s s e d i n economic t e r m s . The economic d a t a can a l s o be combined i n t o some s y n t h e t i c it i n d e x , l i k e the p e r i o d o f r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t . T h i s makes

p o s s i b l e to compare the s o l u t i o n s and to s e l e c t the most f e a s i b l e one o f

v e r s i o n s B l , B2 and B 3 . The I n v e s t m e n t c o s t was c a l c u l a t e d on the b a s i s o f p r i c e s q u o t e d by the

s u p p l i e r s o f the m a i n e q u i p m e n t ( e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s , j u i c e h e a t e r s , c o n d e n s a t e t a n k s , pumps and v a p o u r c o m p r e s s o r s ) . e s t i m a t e d c o s t components were a d d e d : - p i p i n g and a u x i l i a r y equipment; circuits; To t h e e q u i p m e n t p r i c e s , the following

- m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e s and c o n t r o l - thermal insulation;

- design documentation; - construction work; instrumentation. taken

- a s s e m b l i n g o f e q u i p m e n t , p i p i n g and

E s t i m a t e d v a l u e s o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n v e r s i o n s were from r e s u l t s o f the d e s i g n a n a l y s i s summarized i n the p r e v i o u s S e c t i o n . It was a g r e e d w i t h the f a c t o r y m a n a g e r s t h a t no d e t a i l e d

economic a n a l y s i s

is

r e q u i r e d , b e c a u s e the i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n l i e s m a i n l y i n making i t this will complexity

o f t h e thermal

system however, the

p o s s i b l e to extend the p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y ; In order to reduce

be d e s i g n e d and a n a l y s e d a t a l a t e r d a t e .

o f the c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e v a r i o u s v e r s i o n s , a p p r o x i m a t e v a l u e s influence of capital c o s t ) o f the p e r i o d o f r e t u r n on formula (9.1) i n v e s t m e n t c o s t and A i s t h e a n n u a l saving.

( n e g l e c t i n g the

i n v e s t m e n t , i n y e a r s , were c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e = I/A where I i s t h e

347

The r e s u l t s fluctuations it in of

of

the c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 9 . 2 . Due t o i n the international market,

p r i c e s and c u r r e n c y e x c h a n g e r a t e s sense to quote the

w o u l d make l i t t l e the o r i g i n a l

absolute level publication

o f the economic e s t i m a t e s o f the present book,

currency.

A t t h e moment o f

a couple of y e a r s a f t e r historical the value only.

the

a n a l y s i s was c o m p l e t e d , the c o s t s

t h e s e d a t a w o u l d be o f to is

Therefore,

and s a v i n g s a r e g i v e n r e l a t i v e v e r s i o n Al (this cost

investment c o s t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the m o d e r n i z a t i o n ^00%),

taken as

TABLE 9 . 2 Comparison o f main t e c h n i c a l versions. Thermal system v e r s i o n and e c o n o m i c p a r a m e t e r s o f different modernization

Existing 42.4 2.5 6.00

Al 41.2 1.0 5.62

A2 40.3 1.0 5.50

Bl 37.7 1.0 5.12 6.10

B2 36.8 1.0 4.60

B3 31.9 1.0 3.07

H e a t i n g - s t e a m demand ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b) 6 b a r steam demand ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b) N o r m a l - f u e l demand ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b ) L i v e - s t e a m demand i n v a p o u r compression ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b) Power demand i n v a p o u r compression ( k W h / 1 0 0 kg b) C o n d e n s a t e f l o w to the b o i l e r h o u s e ( k g / 1 0 0 kg b) Total heating s u r f a c e area in the^ evaporator (m ) R e l a t i v e investment c o s t (%) Value o f coal saved per season {7o) A p p r o x i m a t e p e r i o d o f r e t u r n on investment (years)

40.5 8140

46.5 10280 100 58 1.73

45.2 10420 111 70 1.59

41.5 11740 148 157 0.94

0.32 35.7 11740 234 205 1.14

47.0 10280 116 107 1.08

As can be s e e n i n T a b l e 9 . 2 , v e r s i o n s B l , B2 and B3 a r e e c o n o m i c a l l y more attractive t h a n Al and A 2 . T h i s i n d i c a t e s the that after the f i r s t modernization

s t e p h a s been c o m p l e t e d , Among t h e v e r s i o n s , cost; B3 o f f e r s the it

s e c o n d s t e p s h o u l d be t a k e n a s s o o n a s p o s s i b l e . that i s characterized saving, saving. the total the power demand ( v a p o u r processing capability of by the lowest investment trade-off

i s Bl

largest

fuel

and B2 seems t o

provide a

between i n v e s t m e n t From the

c o s t and f u e l

data g i v e n in S e c t i o n 9 . 2 . 2 , the

compression excluded) of 5000 t / d , plus other

sugar factory at facilities,

production

c a n be e s t i m a t e d a t 6 . 0 MW. A d d i n g equal the r a t i n g o f the turbines. is

a 10% s a f e t y m a r g i n , the To g e n e r a t e 6 . 6 MW i n required. the

power demand w i l l turbo-generators,

a steam flow o f the

a b o u t 73 t / h a minimum

Subtracting 6 t/h

consumed o u t s i d e

sugar factory,

h e a t i n g - s t e a m demand o f 67 t / h , the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

o r 3 2 . 2 k g / 1 0 0 kg b ,

is obtained. total

L o o k i n g now a t power demand,

version B3, it

can be s e e n t h a t t h e

v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n i n c l u d e d , amounts t o 6 . 7 MW and t h e h e a t i n g - s t e a m demand i s

348 a little l e s s t h a n the minimum v a l u e . T h i s e x c l u d e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y v e r s i o n B3 w i t h o u t p u r c h a s i n g power from the e x t e r n a l Therefore, 9.2.1. v e r s i o n B3 d o e s n o t s a t i s f y of grid, the or

implementing

m o d e r n i z i n g the power h o u s e . constraints 9.3 9.3.1 The l i s t e d in Section

FACTORY CHARACTERIZED BY GOOD I N I T I A L ENERGY U T I L I Z A T I O N Introductory remarks i n the e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s w i t h an i n i t i a l processing

f a c t o r y was b u i l t

capability normal fuel

o f 4 0 0 0 t o n s p e r d a y . The i n i t i a l per 100 kg b e e t .

f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n was a b o u t 5 . 3 kg relying to mostly

D u r i n g a p e r i o d o f a b o u t ten y e a r s ,

on the s t e p - b y - s t e p a p p r o a c h , the p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y 5900 t / d . T h i s was a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n the f u e l

was i n c r e a s e d

o f the sugar

manufacturing the two

process with r e s p e c t to

demand, and numerous improvements o f

t h e r m a l s y s t e m . Among o t h e r s , the u t i l i z a t i o n o f vacuum-pan v a p o u r s i n tubular r a w - j u i c e h e a t e r s was i n t r o d u c e d , low-temperature primary a l o n g w i t h improvements o f

the result,

u t i l i z a t i o n of normal-fuel

v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e . A s a

c o n s u m p t i o n d e c r e a s e d t o 3 . 5 - 3 . 7 k g / 1 0 0 kg b . o f 5900 t / d was a t t a i n e d , difficulties arose of thick in

When a p r o c e s s i n g c a p a b i l i t y maintaining

proper values of c r u c i a l

p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s . The t e m p e r a t u r e s of

e x t r a c t i o n and main l i m i n g tended t o be t o o l o w , and t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n j u i c e d e c r e a s e d . T h i s was a c c o m p a n i e d by v a c u u m - l e v e l the s u g a r b o i l i n g evaporator process. An e v a l u a t i o n instabilities

disturbing the

o f t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f

indicated

a l s o a l a r g e flow of l a s t - e f f e c t vapour to

the c o n d e n s e r . the that

A f t e r the r e s u l t s o f the s e a s o n had been r e v i e w e d , i t operational difficulties caused too h i g h s u g a r l o s s e s .

was c o n c l u d e d t h a t It

a l s o became c l e a r

no f u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n

o f the energy consumption i s p o s s i b l e u n l e s s the

existing

p r o c e s s e q u i p m e n t and t h e r m a l s y s t e m a r e m o d e r n i z e d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , an e n g i n e e r i n g team was c a l l e d necessary modifications. inventory o f 12 f a c t o r y s u b s y s t e m s i n the s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g from the b e e t w a s h i n g s t a t i o n and e n d i n g a t t h e C s u b s y s t e m s was line i n t o a n a l y s e the s i t u a t i o n and t o d e s i g n the

A detailed was

prepared, starting

massecuite s t a t i o n . also carried out.

A r e v i e w o f i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r s o f 15 o t h e r

W h i l e most o f t h e d a t a needed t o it

i n i t i a t e a modernization the that that

s t u d y i n the h e a t economy a r e a were o b t a i n e d , factory's power b a l a n c e were n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y

was f o u n d t h a t the d a t a on Taking i n t o account became c l e a r

detailed.

the m o d e r n i z e d f a c t o r y c a n n o t be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t ways t o r e d u c e t h e power demand i n a l l relevant It

i n power, i t

f a c t o r y s u b s y s t e m s s h o u l d be was t h e r e f o r e recommended t h a t : power r e c e i v e r s during

s t u d i e d and p r o p e r m e a s u r e s s h o u l d be t a k e n .

- measurements be made o f t h e power c o n s u m p t i o n i n m a j o r

t h e n e x t s e a s o n , t o a n a l y s e t h e r a t i n g o f m o t o r s and t r a n s f o r m e r s ; a detailed s t u d y be u n d e r t a k e n o f the w a t e r - s u p p l y and w a s t e - w a t e r treatment

349

Subsystems, with the aim o f reducing the power demand;

- a d e t a i l e d s t u d y be u n d e r t a k e n manufacturing better energy p r o c e s s , w i t h the utilization. balance of flow control requirements the control in the sugar for aim o f m o d e r n i z i n g systems

9 . 3 . 2 B a s i c f a c t o r y d a t a and h e a t Processing capability: Polarization Extraction 5900 t/d. 15.7%.

of c o s s e t t e s :

station:

two t h r o u g h - t y p e

extractors.

J u i c e d r a f t : 115%. Raw-juice concentration Pulp pressed t o : Kiln and p u r i t y : 1 5 . 0 % DS and 8 8 . 4 % .

27.6% D S .

g a s : 35% CO^ v o l . to the c l a s s i c a l scheme, c o m p r i s i n g :

Juice p u r i f i c a t i o n according - hot p r e - l i m i n g at 4 5 - 5 0 C ; - main l i m i n g a t -

79-80C (required temperature: at

82-85C); 80-82C);

1st carbonatation 1st

77C ( r e q u i r e d t e m p e r a t u r e :

- double-stage

filtration; at 96C; filtration.

- 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n - d o u b l e - s t a g e 2nd Decalcification

o f t h i n j u i c e by i o n e x c h a n g e . and p u r i t y : 1 5 . 4 % DS and 9 1 . 8 % . b o d i e s ; N i e s s n e r columns a p p l i e d in

Thin-juice concentration Evaporator:

quadruple-effect,

Robert-type

the c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e s u b s y s t e m . Thick-juice concentration: Sugar house: t h r e e - b o i l i n g scheme w i t h the a f f i n a t i o n of unit. C sugar; 6 1 . 9 % DS ( r e q u i r e d v a l u e : 65% D S ) .

- 60% o f s y r u p p r o c e s s e d i n a Q u e n t i n Power h o u s e : - oil-fired boilers, -

average e f f i c i e n c y 92%; 430^0;

l i v e steam p a r a m e t e r s 40 b a r , bar;

- back-pressure 2.9

- f e e d - w a t e r pump d r i v e n Steam s u p p l y t o -

by a steam t u r b i n e . process: centrifugals; to the

the s u g a r m a n u f a c t u r i n g the

l i v e steam t h r o t t l e d t o 8 b a r t o steam 2 . 9 b a r receivers.

- heating remaining Heating

( e x h a u s t steam and t h r o t t l e d l i v e steam)

steam c o n s u m p t i o n : 3 5 . 5 k g / 1 0 0 kg b.

Power c o n s u m p t i o n : 2 . 8 5 k W h / 1 0 0 kg b. Normal f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n : 3 . 6 8 k g / 1 0 0 kg b. The s i m p l i f i e d scheme o f v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e d i s t r i b u t i o n , and the results

350

) irS
Q;

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CO

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tn

o CN LO CM

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69 W l _ r I cnjI
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Fig. 9.7. Scheme of the thermal system and mass and heat balance data, for factory before modernization.

351

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352 o f mass and h e a t b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 7 . No d e t a i l s o f the thermal system before modernization in

o f the v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e c o n n e c t i o n s correct.

the p r o c e s s h e a t i n g a r e a a r e g i v e n , a s t h e s e were f o u n d e n t i r e l y 9 . 3 . 3 Field of solutions

The e n g i n e e r i n g team p r o p o s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g implemented (i) in four steps.

s t r a t e g y o f m o d e r n i z a t i o n , to be

I n t r o d u c e equipment m o d i f i c a t i o n s

and m i n o r thermal

system c o r r e c t i o n s , unnecessary energy

aimed a t s e c u r i n g p r o p e r p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s and e l i m i n a t i n g losses. (ii) C o n v e r t the e x i s t i n g e v a p o r a t o r i n t o a q u i n t u p l e - e f f e c t o f t h i c k j u i c e and t o

one, in order

to

attain a high concentration r a t i o o f t h e thermal (iii) system.

i n c r e a s e the

effectiveness

I n c r e a s e the h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a i n the f i r s t e f f e c t

(two

alternative 2

s o l u t i o n s can be c o n s i d e r e d : the e x i s t i n g

R o b e r t - t y p e body w i t h 1800 m or only temporarily

h e a t i n g - s u r f a c e a r e a can be e i t h e r removed from t h e f a c t o r y , disconnected). (iv) I n t r o d u c e a v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n c i r c u i t and a d d i t i o n a l l y

i n c r e a s e the low-

e f f e c t i v e n e s s r a t i o o f t h e thermal temperature vapours

system through improved u t i l i z a t i o n of

( e a c h s o l u t i o n c o n s i d e r e d i n the p r e c e d i n g s t e p g e n e r a t e s

two p o s s i b l e v e r s i o n s ) . The p r o p o s a l can be c o n v e n i e n t l y o f two i n t e r m e d i a t e and ( i i ) , r e v i e w e d by s u m m a r i z i n g the main from the c o m p l e t i o n features (i)

s o l u t i o n s t h a t may r e s u l t

of steps

as well as four

p o s s i b l e v e r s i o n s among w h i c h a c h o i c e must be made and ( i v ) . versions, T a b l e 9 . 3 shows c o n f i g u r a t i o n s together w i t h d a t a on the juice of the

when e x e c u t i n g s t e p s ( i i i ) evaporator station concentrations. Al. An i n t e r m e d i a t e for all

solution

resulting

from s t e p

(i): v a p o u r s , and but note

- steam j a c k e t s 2nd-effect

of the e x t r a c t o r s

a r e h e a t e d by 2 n d - and 3 r d - e f f e c t i n j e c t e d i n t o the e x t r a c t i o n

vapour i s a d d i t i o n a l l y

mixture,

t h a t v a p o u r i n j e c t i o n may a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s primarily process; - the b u f f e r t a n k between p r e - l i m i n g i n w h i c h c o l d main l i m i n g and h o t main l i m i n g aimed a t s e c u r i n g a c o r r e c t temperature distribution

ratio,

being extraction

i n the

i s converted to a l i m e r

can be p e r f o r m e d ; raw-juice h e a t i n g w i t h vacuum-pan vapour with (the last-effect flow of correct

- one o f the h e a t e r s used h i t h e r t o f o r i s c o n v e r t e d to limed-juice heating

(prior

to h o t main l i m i n g ) ratio

v a p o u r , a c h a n g e w h i c h does n o t a f f e c t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s l a s t - e f f e c t v a p o u r t o the c o n d e n s e r was anyway t o o l a r g e ) temperature i n the h o t main liming; apparatus i s

but secures a

- k i l n - g a s h e a t i n g and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n

installed

before the

1st

353

carbonatation; - a new b u f f e r t a n k is installed a f t e r t h e 2nd c a r b o n a t a t i o n to s e c u r e an

a d e q u a t e j u i c e r e t e n t i o n time needed t o s t a b i l i z e i m p r o v e d steam t r a p s a r e i n s t a l l e d level control

CaCO^ c r y s t a l s ;

i n c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e l i n e s o f vacuum pans collecting

A , and a u t o m a t i c

i s a t t a c h e d to the condensate tank

c o n d e n s a t e s from t h e h e a t i n g chambers o f t h e vacuum p a n s ; i m p r o v e d v e n t i n g o f t h e h e a t i n g chambers o f t h e vacuum pans i s implemented;

i m p r o v e d v e n t i n g o f the h e a t i n g chambers o f t h e 2nd e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t and o f vapours i s implemented; the

the j u i c e h e a t e r s h e a t e d w i t h 1 s t - and 2 n d - e f f e c t - pipes of i n c r e a s e d diameters are i n s t a l l e d

i n t h e c o n n e c t i o n s between

vacuum pans and t h e c o n d e n s e r , a s w e l l a s between t h e l a s t e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t and the c o n d e n s e r ; - the C m a s s e c u i t e s t a t i o n i s e x t e n d e d by i n s t a l l i n g two vertical-type

c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s w i t h a c a p a c i t y o f 150 m^ e a c h . I n s p i t e o f a number o f measures l i s t e d improvements i n t r o d u c e d to the thermal system, the

a b o v e c a n n o t be e x p e c t e d t o r e d u c e t h e f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n . h e a t demand i s

A c t u a l l y , when b r i n g i n g p r o c e s s h e a t i n g back t o n o r m a l , the t o t a l increased. step. C o n c e r n i n g the power demand, two m i n o r i m p r o v e m e n t s were - a thyristor-controlled w a s h e r ( t o make b e e t - f l o w - a thyristor-controlled carbonatation d.c. drive installed Heat s a v i n g s can o n l y be o b t a i n e d by t a k i n g the next

modernization

proposed: beet

i n the o u t l e t s e c t i o n o f the

control d.c.

p o s s i b l e , and t o s a v e p o w e r ) ; i n t h e j u i c e pump a f t e r 1st of deposits

drive applied

( t o m i n i m i z e the i n f l u e n c e and t o s a v e p o w e r ) . It

o f pumping on t h e s t r u c t u r e

to be f i l t e r e d ,

s h o u l d be o b s e r v e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t an the i n s t a l l a t i o n of

i n c r e a s e o f the t o t a l a stirred

power demand can be e x p e c t e d f o l l o w i n g

c o l d main l i m e r and two C m a s s e c u i t e c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s . solution, resulting from s t e p (ii):

A2. Another intermediate - the e v a p o r a t o r s t a t i o n heating surface areas of effects, respectively;

i s e x t e n d e d by i n s t a l l i n g 1400 m

two f a l l i n g - f i l m b o d i e s w i t h

and 1000 m , t o be u s e d a s t h e 4 t h and 5 t h

- no c h a n g e s a r e i n t r o d u c e d effect effect;

to the

1 s t and 2nd e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t s ,

but the 4th

3rd

i s e x t e n d e d by a d d i n g a R o b e r t - t y p e body p r e v i o u s l y u s e d i n t h e

- t h e c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n a g e s u b s y s t e m i s e x t e n d e d by i n s t a l l i n g t a n k s a t t a c h e d t o new e v a p o r a t o r b o d i e s ; - a thick-juice conditioner o u t l e t to s t a b i l i z e o f t h e vacuum t y p e i s concentration intake, installed at

two c o n d e n s a t e

the

evaporator of

the f i n a l

o f the t h i c k j u i c e , o f 70% D S .

by means

self-evaporation or thin-juice The d i s t r i b u t i o n

at a level

o f v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s and t h e r e s u l t s o f mass and h e a t

354

1
(NJ'

o o

9*1

- -

'"

7
'

03 1!0 ^

rl,

^!

gl

Fig. 9.8. Scheme of the modernized thermal system, version IKZ.

Ji

1
00
CD,

1-

liJ

9 6 1!0 ^ 355

Fig. 9.9. Scheme of the modernized thermal system, version Bl.

356

body ?a!;esp1ctiveyK' modernized thermal system, versions B2 and CI

9 6 1!0 ^ (falling-film or Robert-type unit installed as

357

balance c a l c u l a t i o n s o f the modernized thermal In o r d e r to s t a b i l i z e the e x t r a c t i o n

s y s t e m a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 8 . concentration, it

parameters and t h i c k - j u i c e

as w e l l a s t o m i n i m i z e h e a t l o s s e s was a l s o p r o p o s e d t o - automatic control install

c a u s e d by t h e v e n t i n g o f n o n c o n d e n s a b l e s , control equipment:

some a d d i t i o n a l

o f the temperature d i f f e r e n c e

between raw j u i c e and i n c o m i n g extraction

c o s s e t t e s , by means o f a v a r i a b l e f l o w o f v a p o u r i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e mixture; - automatic control juice conditioner; o f t h e v e n t i n g o f t h e vacuum p a n s ; o f the v e n t i n g o f the c l e a r - j u i c e heater

o f the t h i c k - j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n at the o u t l e t o f the

thick

- automatic control - automatic control effect vapour). Bl.

( h e a t e d by 2 n d -

Compression of 2 n d - e f f e c t In addition

vapour.

t o t h e c h a n g e s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , a f a l l i n g - f i l m body w i t h a 2 is installed as the 1 s t e v a p o r a t o r effect

h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a o f 2400 m

( r e p l a c i n g the o l d R o b e r t - t y p e b o d y ) . I n the vapour c o m p r e s s i o n c i r c u i t , 2 n d e f f e c t v a p o u r i s r e c y c l e d t o t h e h e a t i n g chamber o f t h e I s t - e f f e c t electrically-driven u s i n g an

mechanical compressor. Other changes are as f o l l o w s : 74% D S ; h e a t e r u s i n g hot water from a "hot c o n d e n s e r " i n

thick-juice concentration raw-juice

heating in a spiral

which vacuum-pan vapours a r e c o n d e n s e d ; - pre-limed juice heating with last-effect p r e v i o u s l y u s e d a s raw j u i c e h e a t e r s ; - thin-juice heating in four stages; pump r e p l a c e d by an electrically-driven v a p o u r i n two t u b u l a r heat exchangers

- the s t e a m - t u r b i n e d r i v e n f e e d - w a t e r one. The d i s t r i b u t i o n

o f v a p o u r s and c o n d e n s a t e s and t h e r e s u l t s o f mass and h e a t v e r s i o n a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 9 . I t c a n be f u r t h e r feed-

balance c a l c u l a t i o n s of t h i s

e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e combined power demand o f t h e v a p o u r c o m p r e s s o r and t h e w a t e r pump i s a b o u t 920 kW. Owing t o

r e d u c e d h e a t demand, t h e power demand o f pumps can s i m u l t a n e o u s l y be

t h e c o m b u s t i o n - a i r f a n s and t h e b a r o m e t r i c - w a t e r r e d u c e d by a b o u t 300 kW. B2. Compression of I s t - e f f e c t

vapour to a f a l l i n g - f i l m body. and 2 4 0 0 m^ ( l b ) , are i n s t a l l e d in the

Two f a l l i n g - f i l m b o d i e s , 1 5 0 0 m^ ( l a ) 1 s t e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t and I s t - e f f e c t

v a p o u r i s r e c y c l e d t o t h e h e a t i n g chamber m e c h a n i c a l c o m p r e s s o r . A new t a n k Other d e t a i l s is

o f body l a u s i n g an e l e c t r i c a l l y - d r i v e n installed to c o l l e c t

t h e c o n d e n s a t e d r a i n e d f r o m body l a .

remain

t h e same a s i n t h e p r e c e d i n g v e r s i o n , e x c e p t t h a t t h e e x h a u s t - s t e a m t e m p e r a t u r e is 3 lower, resulting i n a l o w e r b a c k - p r e s s u r e and t h u s more power g e n e r a t e d F o r d a t a on mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s , s e e F i g . 9 . 1 0 .

i n the t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r .

358

The combined power demand o f t h e

v a p o u r c o m p r e s s o r and the f e e d - w a t e r pump i s

a b o u t 660 kW. The power demand r e d u c t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m r e d u c e d h e a t demand i s the same a s i n v e r s i o n CI. Compression of Bl. vapour to a R o b e r t - t y p e body. Robert-type body in to

Ist-effect

A f a l l i n g - f i l m b o d y , 2 4 0 0 m^, i s added t o the 1st evaporator effect.

the e x i s t i n g

The v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n c i r c u i t r e m a i n s i d e n t i c a l the c o m p r e s s e d v a p o u r i s heating recycled to the

that of heating is

the p r e c e d i n g

v e r s i o n , but As t h e

chamber o f body l b . than t h a t o f the

s u r f a c e area o f the

Robert-type

body between

larger

f a l l i n g - f i l m body, the

temperature d i f f e r e n c e

h e a t i n g - s t e a m and v a p o u r can be r e d u c e d , r e s u l t i n g i n a r e d u c e d power demand by the c o m p r e s s o r . The mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s a r e n e a r l y v e r s i o n . The combined power demand o f t h e the same a s i n the feed-

preceding

c o m p r e s s o r and the

w a t e r pump i s a b o u t 600 kW. equipment is identical

The power-demand r e d u c t i o n i n the

remaining

t o t h a t i n v e r s i o n s Bl and B 2 . Ist-effect vapour. to t h a t o f the p r e c e d i n g v e r s i o n but the

C2. Thermocompression o f The e v a p o r a t o r

station is

identical

I s t - e f f e c t v a p o u r i s c o m p r e s s e d u s i n g j e t - t y p e c o m p r e s s o r s . W h i l e t h e mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f the to t h e r m a l s y s t e m i n the p r o c e s s - h e a t i n g a r e a r e m a i n identical

t h o s e o f v e r s i o n s B2 and C I , t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f t h e 1st evaporator

power h o u s e

and t h e

e f f e c t a r e c h a n g e d a s shown i n F i g . 9 . 1 1 . The power equal to the power-demand power demand i s equal

demand o f t h e

f e e d - w a t e r pump i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y

r e d u c t i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m r e d u c e d h e a t demand, s o t h e t o t a l to that of v e r s i o n s A l , A2 and B l .

l o s s e s 0.5

F i g . 9 . 1 1 . E x c e r p t s f r o m mass and h e a t b a l a n c e s o f t h e m o d e r n i z e d system, version C2.

thermal

359

9 . 3 . 4 Comparison o f

solutions the m o d e r n i z a t i o n p r o p o s a l was p r e p a r e d , feasible Section

An a p p r o x i m a t e e c o n o m i c a n a l y s i s o f t o compare t h e s o l u t i o n s version.

( B l , B 2 , C I and C 2 ) and t o

s e l e c t t h e most

The g e n e r a l a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d was s i m i l a r

to t h a t presented i n

9 . 2 . 4 , w i t h the f o l l o w i n g e x t e n s i o n s : - the v e c t o r o f a t t r i b u t e s - when a n a l y s i n g t h e certain includes additional cost, it sugar production; a

investment

s h o u l d be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t i f can be

equipment u n i t i s removed from t h e f a c t o r y i n q u e s t i o n , i t application in other sugar factories

considered for

o f t h e same c o m p a n y ; allowed

- the p o s s i b i l i t y for; - when c a l c u l a t i n g

o f f u t u r e changes i n fuel

and power p r i c e s s h o u l d be

the p e r i o d o f

r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t , for.

capital

c o s t and

i n c r e a s e d m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s h o u l d be a c c o u n t e d I n v e r s i o n s Bl and B 2 , removal o f t h e e x i s t i n g e v a p o r a t o r e f f e c t was a s s u m e d . As i t the v a l u e o f t h i s versions. The e s t i m a t e d r e s u l t s o f the m o d e r n i z a t i o n ,

R o b e r t - t y p e body f r o m t h e in another sugar investment

1st

can be a p p l i e d

factory, these

e q u i p m e n t u n i t was d e d u c t e d f r o m t h e

costs of

t h a t i s , the f u e l

saving,

power

demand i n c r e a s e and a d d i t i o n a l

s u g a r p r o d u c t i o n , were t a k e n f r o m t h e d e s i g n were

a n a l y s i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s S e c t i o n . Two e c o n o m i c e s t i m a t e s determined 1. 2. for fuel s a v i n g s and power demand i n c r e a s e s : prices of fuel oil and p o w e r ; the initial

u s i n g the a c t u a l

u s i n g the f o r e c a s t average p r i c e s f o r

seasons with the price

modernized

factory; e.g. for power p r i c e

a period of three y e a r s ,

a fuel oil

i n c r e a s e d by 50% and

by 35%. c o s t and i n c r e a s e d m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t were j o i n t l y e s t i m a t e d , i n t e r e s t r a t e o f 0 . 1 3 . As a f i r s t i n y e a r s , was c a l c u l a t e d approximation, u s i n g the the p e r i o d using of

The c a p i t a l an e q u i v a l e n t

r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t , = I/(A - rl) where I i s t h e interest rate.

formula (9.2)

investment

c o s t , A i s t h e a n n u a l s a v i n g , and r i s t h e

equivalent

The r e s u l t s o f t h e c o m p a r a t i v e a n a l y s i s a r e shown i n T a b l e 9 . 4 . As i n 9.2 in Section 9 . 2 . 4 , a selected version. It modernization step (i) the c o s t s are g i v e n r e l a t i v e to the h a s been assumed t h a t t h e i s 100%. follows: attractive; investment cost

Table of

investment cost a s s o c i a t e d with

The c o n t e n t s o f T a b l e 9 . 4 can be s u m m a r i z e d a s the i n t e r m e d i a t e

s o l u t i o n s are economically h i g h l y

- the economic r e s u l t s o f f u r t h e r i n v e s t m e n t s d e p e n d e n t on d e v e l o p m e n t s i n the f u e l market;

i n t h e e n e r g y economy a r e

360

TABLE 9.4

Comparison of main technical and economic parameters of different modernization versions. Existing 5900 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 6000 Al A2 C Bl B2 CI C2 6000

Version

Processing capability

Fuel-oil demand (kg/100 kg b) 2.68 2.75 2.30 2.30 2.30 1.95 1.95 1.95 2.09 Fuel-oil saving relative to earlier version (kg/100 kg b) -0.07 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.21 Power demand (kWh/100 kg b) 2.85 2.85 2.85 2.85 2.85 3.03 2.95 2.94 2.85 Power-demand increase (kW) 620 360 300 Sugar-output increase (kg/100 kg b 0.42 Total evaporator heating surface area (m2 7200 7200 9600 10200 10200 10200 11700 12000 12000 (%) (%) - 5 . 3 34 34 34 26 26 26 38 45 45 16 42 42 6 14 7 10 8 42 5 25 TOO 42 69^ 76^ 32 57 39 22

Investment cost Value of fuel oil saved per season

- at actual price - at forecast price Cost of additional power purchased per season {%) - at actual price - at forecast price Value of additional sugar produced per season W - 199 (years) - at actual prices - at forecast prices -

Period of return on investment

0.54 1.5 1.3

2.8 1.9

3.1 2.2

2.7 1.3

4.4 2.1

2.4 1.3

1.7 1.0

^/ including the cost of version A2

361
- among the v e r s i o n s c o n s i d e r e d , C I and C2 a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d periods of 9.4 r e t u r n on investment. by t h e shortest

O P T I M I Z A T I O N OF ENERGY SYSTEMS meaning o f d e s i g n o p t i m i z a t i o n improvements a r e i n t r o d u c e d a p p r o a c h . When e v a l u a t i n g to the energy results from

9.4.1 Practical

W i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l d e s i g n m e t h o d s , systems u s i n g the learning-by-experience

o b t a i n e d from s u g a r f a c t o r y o p a r a t i o n ,

the o p e r a t o r s

and d e s i g n e r s l e a r n one i s

t h e i r m i s t a k e s . As a new f a c t o r y i s e r e c t e d a t t e m p t s a r e made t o solutions.

o r an e x i s t i n g

modernized,

i m p r o v e the e n e r g y economy i n

r e l a t i o n to

earlier

The r e s u l t s

a r e v e r y much d e p e n d e n t on t h e e n g i n e e r ' s i n t u i t i o n and j u s t how c l o s e a d e s i g n i s is increasingly often investments to

e x p e r i e n c e , and i t the

may be i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e

r e a l minimum e n e r g y demand. On t h e o t h e r

hand, it

required

t h a t e n e r g y - c o s t s a v i n g s s h o u l d be b a l a n c e d a g a i n s t c a p i t a l constraints to i d e n t i f y t h e most

and economic and o p e r a t i n g

cost-effective e n g i n e e r s to use

d e s i g n i n any g i v e n s i t u a t i o n . this

I n o r d e r t o make i t

possible for

a p p r o a c h , new c o m p u t e r - a i d e d

methods have been p r o p o s e d f o r

energy-system

design. I n the f o l l o w i n g , short reviews are g i v e n o f the underlying principles of

s y s t e m s y n t h e s i s by m a t h e m a t i c a l technique.

programming and t h e p r o c e s s i n t e g r a t i o n from the needs o f g e n e r a l process engineering, complex and o f t e n use

B o t h methods o r i g i n a t e d

and p a r t i c u l a r l y f r o m t h e n e c e s s i t y t o e n t i r e l y new c h e m i c a l the e v o l u t i o n a r y

shape energy systems o f

p r o c e s s e s r a t i o n a l l y , where i t

may be i m p o s s i b l e t o is

a p p r o a c h . I n the s u g a r i n d u s t r y ,

the s i t u a t i o n

different

because the p r o c e s s has changed r e l a t i v e l y applied t o an e x i s t i n g

l i t t l e o v e r many d e c a d e s . When indicate that can

s u g a r f a c t o r y , t h e new methods m i g h t j u s t

the p r o c e s s i s o p e r a t i n g

c l o s e t o minimum e n e r g y demand and any improvement new u n i t o p e r a t i o n s and e q u i p m e n t . When new in

be a c h i e v e d o n l y by i n t r o d u c i n g solutions

a r e c o n s i d e r e d , h o w e v e r , t h e new methods may p r o v e u s e f u l and m a x i m i z i n g p o s s i b l e profits.

studying

their energy-saving potential

9 . 4 . 2 E n e r g y - s y s t e m s y n t h e s i s u s i n g mathematical "Mathematical techniques (called

p r o g r a m m i n g methods mathematical

p r o g r a m m i n g " i s t h e common name o f s e v e r a l

t h a t a t t e m p t t o s o l v e p r o b l e m s by m i n i m i z i n g independent

or maximizing a function variables. Typical of resources or to

the o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n ) o f s e v e r a l applications include determining

industrial (i.e.,

t h e optimum a l l o c a t i o n

capital,

raw m a t e r i a l s ,

manpower, e t c . )

t o o b t a i n maximum p r o f i t

minimum c o s t f o r

the p r o j e c t , c h o o s i n g t h e optimum v a l u e s o f d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s o f the equipment unit, etc. Optimal

o b t a i n minimum c o s t o r maximum t h r o u g h p u t allocation of resources or optimal

values of

d e s i g n v a r i a b l e s must be

determined

under c o n d i t i o n s

where t h e r e a r e a l t e r n a t i v e u s e s o f r e s o u r c e s o r

alternative

362

d e s i g n s , and where p h y s i c a l , economic and o t h e r c o n s t r a i n t s constraints t a k e the form o f e q u a t i o n s

must be met.

The

or i n e q u a l i t i e s containing function.

t h e same

problem v a r i a b l e s Restricting state that for

as appear i n the o b j e c t i v e

o u r a t t e n t i o n to

the e n e r g y economy o f s u g a r f a c t o r i e s , o f the s u g a r

we can

a g i v e n scheme and known p a r a m e t e r s

manufacturing is

p r o c e s s , a l t e r n a t i v e e n e r g y - s y s t e m d e s i g n s can be c o n s i d e r e d . defined by: - a system s t r u c t u r e - parameters (i.e. a s e t o f components and t h e i r

Each d e s i g n

connections);

o f the e n e r g y c o n v e r s i o n , d i s t r i b u t i o n and u t i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s e s media, temperatures, etc.). i s l i m i t e d to a few

(flows of energy-carrying

L e t us assume t h a t the s e t o f p o s s i b l e s y s t e m s t r u c t u r e s

v e r s i o n s and the p r o b l e m c o n s i s t s o f d e t e r m i n i n g the v a l u e s o f unknown variables 2, .., x^ c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the components and t h e e n e r g y p r o c e s s e s

o f each v e r s i o n . The c o n s t r a i n t s e t t h a t d e s c r i b e s a t y p i c a l e n e r g y s y s t e m consists largely (i) Equations for o f the following relationships. process units and equipment extractor,

t h e mass and e n e r g y b a l a n c e s f o r

items

considered, including etc.

multiple-effect evaporator,

juice heaters,

turbine, (ii) (iii) (iv)

Equations for

h e a t and power demand. the independent variables.

Upper and l o w e r bounds f o r

E q u a t i o n s and i n e q u a l i t i e s t h a t a r e

factory-dependent. form o f the

U s i n g the n o t a t i o n = (X],X2>..fXp)5 c o n s t r a i n t set as

we may w r i t e down t h e g e n e r a l

fT (x)
^j(x)

=0 < 0

i j

= 1 , 2, .., = 1 , 2, ..,

(9.3) (9.3) to

The o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n f o r q u i t e complex. e x a m p l e , the The s i m p l e s t

an e n e r g y s y s t e m can r a n g e f r o m v e r y s i m p l e representing, for

consist of a s i n g l e variable total fuel

l i v e steam demand, o r t h e minimized.

demand. I n e i t h e r c a s e ,

the

objective function is

A c o m p r e h e n s i v e o b j e c t i v e can be d e f i n e d a s the ( i n c l u d i n g f u e l , e l e c t r i c power, the c o s t ^ f capital recovery,

sum o f o p e r a t i n g

expenses and

f e e d - w a t e r make-up f o r

the b o i l e r , e t c . ) f o r major

p l u s a r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t

equipment. at the the

F o r a new e n e r g y s y s t e m ( i n

a m o d e r n i z e d o r an e n t i r e l y new f a c t o r y ) the total variable

design stage, this objective function represents s y s t e m and i s a l s o minimized.

cost of

Between the two t y p e s o f o b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n m e n t i o n e d i n t e r m e d i a t e c o m p l e x i t y can be i m a g i n e d . f u n c t i o n , to

above, functions

of

Selection of a particular

objective is may be the

r e f l e c t the w i s h e s and e x p e c t a t i o n s

o f the d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s ,

o f t e n t r e a t e d as a p a r t o f the d e s i g n s t u d y . s u f f i c i e n t to minimize

In a preliminary d e s i g n , it

t h e t o t a l steam o r f u e l demand. I n a d e t a i l e d d e s i g n ,

363

objective

function

should include all operation.

the e s s e n t i a l

factors

that affect

the

economic r e s u l t s o f f a c t o r y

Having s p e c i f i e d the o b j e c t i v e mathematical

function

F ( x ^ ) , we c a n f o r m u l a t e

the of the

p r o g r a m m i n g p r o b l e m w h i c h i s an a b s t r a c t s y n t h e s i s o f the energy s y s t e m . x ,X2>.. 2<^)

representation

problem o f optimal

Among a l l

t h e p o s s i b l e x ' s we function attains

a r e s e e k i n g s u c h an xP ( i . e . , its minimum = mjn F ( x )

t h a t the o b j e c t i v e

F(x)

(9.5) if it s a t i s f i e s the c o n s t r a i n t s ( 9 . 3 ) and

Of c o u r s e , (9.4).

x can be a c c e p t e d o n l y

From t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l (9.3)-(9.5), functions each o f at

point

of

view the p r o b l e m , c o n s i s t i n g o f or nonlinear. I n the former

conditions the express If is

c a n be e i t h e r

linear

case,

F, f,

and f . must be l i n e a r , ' J

that i s , it a2 . . j

s h o u l d be p o s s i b l e t o

them i n t h e

f o r m ^E ^aj ^Xj^, where a p involved is

a r e known c o n s t a n t s . then the e n t i r e problem different mathematical

l e a s t one o f

the f u n c t i o n s

nonlinear,

s a i d to

be n o n l i n e a r .

D e p e n d i n g on t h e p r o b l e m t y p e , find a solution. of

p r o c e d u r e s must be a p p l i e d t o It i s an i n h e r e n t property

the problems o f e n e r g y - s y s t e m o p t i m i z a t i o n (ii) and ( i v ) are n o n l i n e a r . into linear

that In

some o f

the r e l a t i o n s h i p s mentioned under ( i ) , it may be p o s s i b l e t o

principle,

transform such r e l a t i o n s h i p s linear

ones

and t o a p p l y w e l l (ref. 8). It

proven, reliable

p r o g r a m m i n g methods t o

find a

solution

h a s a l s o been d e m o n s t r a t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t n o n l i n e a r p r o b l e m s c a n be solved using appropriate numerical methods ( r e f s . a 9,10). For

effectively

example, optimal

s y n t h e s i s o f a thermal

system f e a t u r i n g

quadruple-effect

e v a p o r a t o r h a s been f o r m u l a t e d

and s o l v e d as a n o n l i n e a r programming problem

w i t h 2 4 - 2 6 v a r i a b l e s and 1 9 - 2 4 c o n s t r a i n t s , t h e e x a c t number o f v a r i a b l e s and c o n s t r a i n t s d e p e n d i n g on t h e s y s t e m s t r u c t u r e It i s worth noting t h a t the f i r s t considered (ref. attempts to 11). the the in

successful to

introduce

methods o f o p t i m a l b e g i n n i n g o f the the literature,

system s y n t h e s i s

the s u g a r i n d u s t r y

took new.

place at It

1 9 7 0 s , when t h i s

a p p r o a c h was r e l a t i v e l y interest in

c a n be s e e n of later (refs. is the

however, that a wider the

the a p p l i c a t i o n

optimization 12,13).

methods t o

food i n d u s t r i e s

began some t e n y e a r s

Taking advantage o f

the development o f mathematical

techniques, it

now p o s s i b l e t o o p t i m i z e components and p r o c e s s e s .

the system s t r u c t u r e

a l o n g w i t h the parameters o f

9 . 4 . 3 E n e r g y - s y s t e m d e s i g n u s i n g the A d i s a d v a n t a g e o f the optimal S e c t i o n i s t h a t the t r a n s l a t i o n mathematical formulae

technique of

process

integration preceding

synthesis of

approach d i s c u s s e d i n the d e s i g n problems to

real-life

abstract computer

i s both d i f f i c u l t

and t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . Even w i t h

364

p r o g r a m s t h a t automate t h e m i n i m u m - s e e k i n g c o m p u t a t i o n s , a l o t

o f e f f o r t must be formulation,

s p e n t on t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c o n s t r a i n t s and t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c a l preparation of input etc. data i n accordance w i t h the mathematical

convention assumed,

Once the o p t i m i z a t i o n

r e s u l t s have been o b t a i n e d , h o w e v e r , t h e d e s i g n e r s to

t e n d to t r e a t the f i g u r e s w i t h some s u s p i c i o n b e c a u s e t h e y a r e u s u a l l y u n a b l e control i n t u i t i v e l y the p r o c e s s o f a r r i v i n g

at a s o l u t i o n . A b e t t e r i n s i g h t can computations to capital barrier,

o n l y be g a i n e d i n an i n d i r e c t m a n n e r , by r e p e a t i n g t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n for multiple sets of input input

d a t a and a n a l y s i n g t h e s o l u t i o n ' s s e n s i t i v i t y p a r a m e t e r s ( l i k e t h e p r i c e s o f f u e l and p o w e r ,

changes o f important cost rate, this etc.).

Owing t o t h e a s s o c i a t e d w o r k l o a d and t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l to adopt as a p a r t o f the e n g i n e e r i n g

a p p r o a c h may be d i f f i c u l t

activities.

Process integration

i s a t e c h n i q u e to f a c i l i t a t e s y s t e m a t i c thermodynamic O r i g i n a t i n g from t h e work on mathematical it can

a n a l y s i s of complicated energy systems. tools to s y n t h e s i z e e n e r g y - o p t i m a l

heat exchanger networks ( r e f s .

14,15),

h e l p t h e u s e r t o u n d e r s t a n d how and where a v a i l a b l e e n e r g y can b e s t be s u p p l i e d and r e - u s e d w i t h i n the p r o c e s s , and a t what t e m p e r a t u r e f r o m the p r o c e s s An i n t r o d u c t i o n (refs. 16,17). of process integration can be heat it s h o u l d be r e j e c t e d

to the r e a s o n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

g i v e n by u s i n g t h e s o - c a l l e d c o m p o s i t e c u r v e s i n a g r a p h s h o w i n g c u m u l a t i v e loads as functions of temperature.

The g r a p h can be c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m mass and heat, supply

h e a t b a l a n c e d a t a c o n s i s t i n g o f the mass f l o w , e n t h a l p y o r s p e c i f i c temperature and r e q u i r e d (target) temperature for

each p r o c e s s s t r e a m . various

The h o t c o m p o s i t e r e p r e s e n t s t h e amount o f h e a t a v a i l a b l e a t

t e m p e r a t u r e s o f the h o t p r o c e s s media ( e x h a u s t s t e a m , h e a t i n g v a p o u r s , c o n d e n s a t e condensate, e t c . ) . T h i s h e a t must be removed t o d e c r e a s e t h e e n t h a l p i e s o f the

h o t m e d i a , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e assumed methods o f t h e i r u t i l i z a t i o n .

The c o l d the

c o m p o s i t e r e p r e s e n t s t h e amount o f h e a t r e q u i r e d a t v a r i o u s t e m p e r a t u r e s o f c o l d p r o c e s s media ( c o s s e t t e s , p r e s s w a t e r , process, syrups, etc.). juice in various stages of i n c r e a s e the the

T h i s h e a t must be s u p p l i e d t o

temperatures needs.

o f t h e c o l d media t o t h e i r r e q u i r e d v a l u e s , a s d e f i n e d by t h e p r o c e s s Assuming a hypothetical system, it situation that there

i s no h e a t r e c o v e r y i n t h e e n e r g y

w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p l y t h e e n t i r e h e a t amount r e p r e s e n t e d by fuel. S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , the h e a t amount a v a i l a b l e water. hot

t h e c o l d c o m p o s i t e i n the b o i l e r

i n the h o t media w o u l d need t o be removed f r o m t h e p r o c e s s u s i n g c o o l i n g Using heat r e c o v e r y , that i s , a l l o w i n g f o r some o f t h e h e a t a v a i l a b l e

i n the

s t r e a m s t o c o v e r t h e h e a t demand o f t h e c o l d s t r e a m s , i t r e d u c e t h e f u e l demand. T h i s can be done i n a v a r i e t y

becomes p o s s i b l e t o

o f w a y s , and e x p e r i e n c e to others. process

p r o v e s t h a t some o f t h e h e a t - r e c o v e r y s o l u t i o n s may be p r e f e r a b l e The p o t e n t i a l for

h e a t r e c o v e r y by h e a t e x c h a n g e between h o t and c o l d

media can be i n v e s t i g a t e d by f i x i n g t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e h o t and c o l d

365

100

150

200

150 Heat load (MW)

Heat load (MW)

F i g . 9 . 1 2 . Examples o f c u m u l a t i v e h e a t l o a d s a s f u n c t i o n s o f t e m p e r a t u r e . 1 h o t c o m p o s i t e , 2 - c o l d c o m p o s i t e , 3 - p i n c h p o i n t , 4 - minimum h e a t s u p p l y , 5 - minimum h e a t r e j e c t i o n .

c o m p o s i t e c u r v e s , a s shown i n F i g . 9 . 1 2 . The d i s t a n c e between them i n t h e direction o f the temperature a x i s must be g r e a t e r characteristic difference t h a n , o r e q u a l t o , t h e minimum o f the h e a t - e x c h a n g e equipment reflects the a t t a i n a b l e overall

acceptable temperature available

difference

( i n a way, t h i s coefficient,

temperature

heat t r a n s f e r difference

see Section 3 . 3 . 2 ) .

Once t h e minimum

temperature

h a s been d e f i n e d , t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s o f b o t h c u r v e s become f i x e d

and t h e amounts o f h e a t t o be s u p p l i e d , e x c h a n g e d a n d r e j e c t e d c a n be d e t e r m i n e d . I t a l s o becomes p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e p i n c h p o i n t , that i s , the point temperature on t h e

g r a p h where t h e c o m p o s i t e c u r v e s a r e s e p a r a t e d by t h e minimum difference. The p i n c h p o i n t s e p a r a t e s two d i s t i n c t

r e g i o n s o f the p r o c e s s . At all the heat a v a i l a b l e i n the

temperatures above the p i n c h - p o i n t h o t media c a n be t r a n s f e r r e d b a l a n c e d by s u p p l y i n g f u e l .

temperature,

t o t h e c o l d m e d i a , and t h e h e a t d e f i c i t must be Below t h e p i n c h - p o i n t temperature, all the heating i n the hot

needs o f t h e c o l d media c a n be s a t i s f i e d

u s i n g the heat a v a i l a b l e

m e d i a , a n d t h e s u r p l u s h e a t must f i n a l l y be r e j e c t e d . that there

I t c a n t h u s be c o n c l u d e d

s h o u l d be no h e a t t r a n s f e r a c r o s s t h e p i n c h , a s a n y h e a t amount i n c r e a s e the d e f i c i t i n the upper r e g i o n ; t h i s will lead to really

transferred will increased fuel needed. design.

demand, and more i n s t a l l e d

h e a t i n g s u r f a c e area than

Heat t r a n s f e r

a c r o s s the pinch s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e

be a v o i d e d i n a new factory, the

When i n v e s t i g a t i n g

p o s s i b l e i m p r o v e m e n t s i n an e x i s t i n g

366

p i n c h - p o i n t t e m p e r a t u r e s h o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d and the c a s e s o f s h o u l d be It identified.

incorrect

heating

s h o u l d be p o i n t e d o u t t h a t the a b o v e c o n c l u s i o n s r e l a t i n g t o

the

energy design

t a r g e t s and h e a t t r a n s f e r a r r a n g e m e n t s work, and the if i n f o r m a t i o n thus acquired

can be drawn b e f o r e i n i t i a t i n g can be t r e a t e d a s a d e s i g n known, then a d d i t i o n a l For example, if it

guideline. information it s h o u l d be the pinch it

Actually,

the p i n c h - p o i n t t e m p e r a t u r e i s regarding

can be o b t a i n e d clear heat

other energy processes too.

t h a t a v a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n c i r c u i t can s a v e e n e r g y o n l y from below the p i n c h and s u p p l i e s it

takes

to a temperature l e v e l

above the

p o i n t where t h e r e i s a h e a t d e f i c i t . p o s s i b l e to

T h i s i s an u n a m b i g u o u s c r i t e r i o n m a k i n g of vapour c o m p r e s s i o n . temperature also heat

i d e n t i f y economic a p p l i c a t i o n s

As can be s e e n i n F i g . 9 . 1 2 , w h i l e the minimum a c c e p t a b l e difference affects determines the relative positions the o f the composite

curves, it possible

the w i d t h o f

region of overlap the region

representing

e x c h a n g e , and the w i d t h o f i n t o a c c o u n t the computer-aided

representing

n e c e s s a r y heat s u p p l y . applying most design

Taking

costs of heat-exchanger

s u r f a c e s and e n e r g y and becomes p o s s i b l e t o

o p t i m i z a t i o n methods, i t

f i n d the

economic v a l u e o f guidelines

the minimum t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e .

The r e s u l t i n g to o v e r a l l

can t h e n be t r e a t e d a s o p t i m a l w i t h r e s p e c t

factory to be

economy. U s i n g t h e s e g u i d e l i n e s , c o n s i d e r e d i n the REFERENCES 1 2 3 4

the most e c o n o m i c e n e r g y - s y s t e m o p t i o n s identified.

d e t a i l e d d e s i g n are e a s i l y

/ 8

9 10

11

N . P . Romenskii ( E d . ) , R e k o n s t r u k t s i y a i Tekhnicheskoe Perevooruzhenie Sakharnykh Zavodov, Tekhnika, K i e v , 1985. H. W u n s c h , E r k e n t n i s s e und E r f a h r u n g e n b e i d e r P l a n u n g von K a p a z i t t s erweiterungen in Zuckerfabriken, Z u c k e r i n d . , 107(10) (1982) 932-934. W. L e k a w s k i and K. U r b a n i e c , M o d e r n i s i e r u n g d e r W r m e w i r t s c h a f t i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 108(4) (1983) 338-343. R. M i c h e l , P h . T e r n y n c k and P h . B o n n e n f a n t , R e a l i s a t i o n du p o s t e d ' e v a p o r a t i o n dans une u s i n e de 1 2 0 0 0 t / j de b e t t e r a v e s s t o c k a n t 60% du s i r o p p r o d u i t en c a m p a g n e , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 9 4 ( 7 - 8 ) ( 1 9 7 7 ) 7 0 1 - 7 0 5 . . C y r k l a f f ( e t a l . ) , M o d e r n i z a c j a g o s p o d a r k i c i e p l n e j c u k r o w n i C h e l m z a , Gaz. Cukrow., 9 2 ( 7 - 8 (1984) 1 5 6 - 1 5 7 . H.R. Brunner (et a l . , Die Verdampfstation der Zuckerfabrik+Raffinerie A a r b e r g AG und das M u l t i - E n e r g i e - S c h e m a , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 1 0 ( 5 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 3 9 3 - 3 9 8 . P . H o f f m a n , Optimal i z a c e e n e r g e t i c k e h o h o s p o d a r s t v i c u k r o v a r u L o v o s i c e , L i s t y C u k r . , 102(7) (1986) 1 5 5 - 1 6 1 . J . K . C l a r k and N . E . H e i m i c k , How t o o p t i m i z e the d e s i g n o f s t e a m s y s t e m s , i n : R. Greene ( E d . ) , P r o c e s s E n e r g y C o n s e r v a t i o n , M c G r a w - H i l l , New Y o r k , 1982, pp. 1 5 3 - 1 6 4 . A. Kubasiewicz (et a l . ) , Optymalizacja g o s p o d a r k i c i e p l n e j cukrowni za pomoca maszyny m a t e m a t y c z n e j , G a z . C u k r o w . , 8 3 ( 7 ) ( 1 9 7 5 ) 1 6 5 - 1 6 7 . A . K u b a s i e w i c z ( e t a l . ) . Optimum d e s i g n o f t h e r m a l s y s t e m s o f s u g a r p l a n t s . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t V I I I I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on I n d u s t r i a l E n e r g e t i c s , G d a n s k , September 1 9 7 5 . A . K u b a s i e w i c z ( e t a l . ) . Some a s p e c t s o f c o m p u t e r i z e d d e s i g n o f t h e r m a l s y s t e m s o f b e e t s u g a r p l a n t s , i n : P r o c . Symp. Computers i n t h e D e s i g n and E r e c t i o n o f Chemical P l a n t s , K a r l o v y V a r y , September 1 9 7 5 , p p . 5 9 9 - 6 0 7 .

367

12 13 14 15 16 17

I . S a g u y , O p t i m i z a t i o n t h e o r y , t e c h n i q u e s , and t h e i r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n i n the f o o d i n d u s t r y : i n t r o d u c t i o n . Food T e c h n . , ( 1 9 8 2 ) ( 7 ) 8 7 . D. Depeyre and P h . L u c a s , S y n t h e s e de p r o c e d e s e t a m e l i o r a t i o n e n e r g e t i q u e du p r o c e d e s u c r i e r , I n d . A l i m . A g r i e , 1 0 2 ( 7 - 8 ) ( 1 9 8 5 ) 7 4 3 - 7 4 8 . . L i n n h o f f and J . R . F l o w e r , S y n t h e s i s o f h e a t e x c h a n g e r n e t w o r k s , A I C h E J . , 24(4) (1978) 633-654. D. B o l a n d and B . L i n n h o f f , The p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n o f n e t w o r k s f o r h e a t e x c h a n g e by s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d s , Chem. E n g i n e e r , ( 1 9 7 9 ) ( 4 ) 2 2 2 - 2 2 8 . B . Goublomme, Comment a b o r d e r l e p r o b l e m e de l a r e d u c t i o n d e s c o u t s e n e r g e t i q u e s d a n s l e s s u c r e r i e s , S u c r . B e i g e , 103 ( 1 9 8 5 ) 2 7 - 3 0 . N . R . T w a i t e , H . J . D a v e n p o r t and E . K . M a c d o n a l d , E n e r g y r e d u c t i o n and p r o c e s s i n t e g r a t i o n . I n t . Sugar J . , 88 ( 1 9 8 6 ) , P a r t I : (1055) 2 1 7 - 2 1 9 , Part I I : (1056) 230-236.

368 Appendix 1

NUMERICAL APPROXIMATIONS OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF WATER AND STEAM

Data on the thermodynamic p r o p e r t i e s to e n g i n e e r i n g c a l c u l a t i o n s

of water

and steam a r e i n d i s p e n s a b l e factories. saturated of

r e l a t e d to the e n e r g y economy o f s u g a r o f s a t u r a t e d water

M o s t o f t e n used a r e d a t a on the p r o p e r t i e s

and d r y

s t e a m , a s w e l l a s s u p e r h e a t e d s t e a m . They can be f o u n d i n g e n e r a l the p r o p e r t i e s and o f water and steam ( r e f .

tables

1 ) , or in s p e c i a l i z e d t a b l e s , diagrams the needs o f

nomographs where the (ref.

r a n g e s o f the p a r a m e t e r s a r e a d a p t e d to 2).

the s u g a r i n d u s t r y

In computerized c a l c u l a t i o n s , calculators t o automate

o r when u s i n g h a n d - h e l d programmable procedures, tables or diagrams functional of

p a r t s o f the c a l c u l a t i o n should preferably

o f thermodynamic p r o p e r t i e s relationships.

be r e p l a c e d by s u i t a b l e

This requirement

i s nowadays r e c o g n i z e d by the p u b l i s h e r s of water

i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y known t a b l e s o f thermodynamic p r o p e r t i e s where m a t h e m a t i c a l (ref. formulae

and s t e a m , functions

a r e a l s o g i v e n f o r most thermodynamic

1 ) . These f o r m u l a e

are i n t e n d e d ,

h o w e v e r , to combine thermodynamic v a l u e s . To s a t i s f y

c o n s i s t e n c y w i t h h i g h a c c u r a c y over broad ranges o f parameter this condition, the m a t h e m a t i c a l

e x p r e s s i o n s c o n s i s t o f many terms and the a c c u r a c y . Such f o r m u l a e may be on s m a l l - m e m o r y c o m p u t i n g hardware. are not

coefficients inconvenient However, i f

are g i v e n with s e v e r a l - d i g i t

t o u s e , e s p e c i a l l y when r e l y i n g the p a r a m e t e r then the

r a n g e s a r e n a r r o w and the a c c u r a c y c o n d i t i o n s

very s t r i n g e n t , ones.

l e n g t h y e x p r e s s i o n s can be r e p l a c e d by more c o n c i s e use w i t h i n d e f i n i t e i n t e r v a l s of

Numerous s i m p l e f o r m u l a e d e s i g n e d f o r v a l u e s can be f o u n d i n the to s a t i s f y

parameter elaborated

l i t e r a t u r e , and some o f them have been industry. Unless with

the n e e d s o f t h e s u g a r

The most i m p o r t a n t a p p r o x i m a t i o n otherwise stated,

formulae are given in Table A l .

t h e i r r a n g e s o f v a l i d i t y s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d to c o i n c i d e

the r a n g e s o f p a r a m e t e r s n o r m a l l y e n c o u n t e r e d i n the s u g a r i n d u s t r y . relative difference between the t a b u l a t e d

The maximum not

d a t a and t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s d o e s

exceed 0 . 3 % and the a v e r a g e e r r o r REFERENCES 1 2 3 4. 5

i s t y p i c a l l y l e s s than 0 . 1 % .

U. G r i g u l l ( E d . ) , P r o p e r t i e s o f Water and Steam i n S l - u n i t s , 2nd e d n . , S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , Berlin-Heidelberg-New York, 1979. T. B a l o h , Wrmeatlas f r die Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Schaper V e r l a g , Hannover, 1 9 7 5 . A . I l l y e s , Anwendung von N h e r u n g s g l e i c h u n g e n i n d e r W r m e t e c h n i k , . Z u c k e r i n d . , 26(12) (1976) 763-765. G , B a t o r and . U r b a n i e c , P r o j e k t i e r u n g von V e r d a m p f a n l a g e n i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n m i t H i l f e von C o m p u t e r n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 3 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 9 7 8 ) 1 0 3 5 - 1 0 4 2 . W. R e e d , The s m a l l programmable c a l c u l a t o r i n a s u g a r r e f i n e r y . S u g a r J . , Part I : January 1979, 1 3 - 2 0 , Part I I : February 1979, 13-20.

TABLE Al pressure in bar, enthalpy in

Approximation formulae for thermodynamic functions of water and steam (temperature in

kJ/kg, specific volume in m ^ / k g ) .

Specification validity 0 . 2 5 - 6 . 0 bar t^^^ = (585.43 + 2 0 2 . 2 log p ) / ( 4 . 9 8 7 - log p) 65-160C p,,.

sat

^^"^^^^

Reference

Saturation temperature as - 17.78

t^^^ = 159.52 ^ " " ^ ^ ^ - 59.96 5^ 3 - 2.6744) 5^ 4 4 3 3

a function of pressure p^^^ = ( ( t + 5 9 . 9 6 ) / 1 5 9 . 5 2 ) ^ ' ^ ^ ^ = exp(2.3026(11.066 t - 4 3 4 ) / ( 1 . 8 t + 396) = 1.543 . 4.1220 t . 0.54494(t2/1000) t^ - 0.01104 t^)/1000

Saturation pressure as

a function of temperature 20-160C 20-160C 65-160C ^.^^ o^ ^, h" = 2500 + 1.813 t + (0.471 h'

afS1SL?ioroTSeraf"e

Enthalpy of dry saturated steam

as a function of temperature

h" = 1309.1 + 5 4 6 . 3 5 ( t + 59.96)^^^ ^ y^^^^^ _ ^^^^ ^ _ 0 0 0 3 5 3 ^ 2 ^ ^ ^ v " = 1/(0.105 + 0.6105 - 0.0303 p^) v" = 1 / ( 0 . 0 5 3 + 0.5462 - 0.004553 p^) + 0.77458 t + 0.000137 t^ -

Specific volume of saturated water as a function of temperature 0 . 2 5 - 1 . 2 bar 1.2-6.0 bar h = 1077.81

Specific volume of dry saturated

3 3 ^a

steam as a function of pressure

Enthalpy of superheated steam as

Srlssuie"""

^^"^P^^^^^^^

- 1 3 0 . 5 3 ( p + 0 . 6 8 9 ) ( l o g + 1 . 1 6 1 5 ) / ( 1 . 8 t - 218)

'

British

units used in this reference 369

370

Appendix 2

NUMERICAL APPROXIMATIONS OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF SUGAR SOLUTIONS

Data on the thermodynamic the t a b l e s

properties

of

sugar solutions sources.

can be f o u n d A s i n the

in

and d i a g r a m s g i v e n i n r e f .

1 and o t h e r

properties should published

o f w a t e r and s t e a m , when c a l c u l a t i n g preferably be a v a i l a b l e i n the

the energy b a l a n c e s , these data relationships. Most

form o f f u n c t i o n a l

relationships

a r e b a s e d on d a t a measured f o r v a l u e s when u s e d f o r

pure s u c r o s e s o l u t i o n s technical

and t h u s However,

y i e l d only approximate in

sugar solutions.

typical engineering calculations, high. formulae

t h e i r a c c u r a c y can be r e g a r d e d a s

sufficiently A few the

approximation

are given in Table A 2 . Unless otherwise

stated,

r a n g e s o f v a l i d i t y s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d to c o i n c i d e w i t h the encountered i n the s u g a r i n d u s t r y .

ranges of

parameters normally

The maximum r e l a t i v e does n o t e x c e e d is

d i f f e r e n c e between the t a b u l a t e d d a t a and the a p p r o x i m a t i o n s 0.5% e x c e p t f o r a b o u t 2%. REFERENCES 1 2 3 4 the s e c o n d d e n s i t y formula,

the maximum e r r o r o f w h i c h

T. B a l o h , Wrmeatlas f r d i e Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e , Schaper V e r l a g , Hannover, 1 9 7 5 . A . I l l y e s , Anwendung von N h e r u n g s g l e i c h u n g e n i n d e r W r m e t e c h n i k , . Z u c k e r i n d . , 26(12) (1976) 763-765. G . B a t o r and . U r b a n i e c , P r o j e k t i e r u n g von V e r d a m p f a n l a g e n i n Z u c k e r f a b r i k e n m i t H i l f e von C o m p u t e r n , Z u c k e r i n d . , 1 0 3 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 9 7 8 ) 1 0 3 5 - 1 0 4 2 . W. R e e d , The s m a l l programmable c a l c u l a t o r i n a s u g a r r e f i n e r y . S u g a r J . , Part I : January 1979, 1 3 - 2 0 , Part I I : February 1979, 1 3 - 2 0 .

TABLE A2 in K, concentration

Approximation formulae for thermodynamic functions of sugar solutions (temperature in C, b.p.e.

in % DS, purity in %, enthalpy in kJ/kg, specific heat in k J / ( k g K ) , density in kg/m^).

Specification

Sidit

Reference

Boiling-point elevation, as a function of concentration and water saturation temperature ^ = e x p ( - 1 . 5 2 5 4 + 0.022962 b + 0.0002163 b ) f2 = exp(-3.2021 + 0.0066743 b - 0.0001161 - 0.2

20-140C 10-90% DS f-j

= f,

+ (t/100)fp + (t/100)^f-.

b^) - 0.15

f3 = e x p ( - 1 . 4 2 7 8 - 0.024382 b + 0.0006047 b^) C = 4.194 + t(t - 72)/108155 _ ( b / 1 0 0 ) ( 2 . 7 2 2 - 0.0075 t . 0.0046(100 - r)) ^

Specific heat as a function of

temperature, concentration and

Specific heat as a function of C = 4.1868 - 0.0255814 b + 0.00007536 bt

temperature and concentration (purity about 90%) Enthalpy as a function of temperature and concentration (purity about 90%)

^n, T/inOr o in ano/ nc h = 1.5 + (4.122 - 0.02512 b)t + ( 5 . 5 + 0.375 b)(t/100)'^ '"'^"/^

Spitrr/ar^co^nation

= ^ ^ ^ - ^ " 0-0^383 t - 0.00384

. ( b t ) / ( 0 . 2 4 6 t - 0.268)

Density as a function of concentration (temperature 70-130OC)

10-70% DS = 1022.53 b ^ ' ^ ^ - ^ ' ^ ^ ^ e x p ( 0 . 0 0 5 5 5 3 b)

371

372 Appendix 3

CALCULATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER PHENOMENA

It

was assumed t h r o u g h o u t

C h a p t e r 2 and o t h e r properties

relevant

p a r t s o f the

present

book t h a t d a t a on the thermal

o f e q u i p m e n t a r e a v a i l a b l e whenever subsystems. In practice,

needed i n the c a l c u l a t i o n s o f e n e r g y b a l a n c e s o f f a c t o r y s u c h d a t a a r e o f t e n unknown f o r the b a l a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s of this specific

equipment u n i t s , and i n o r d e r to make a s s u m p t i o n s may be r e q u i r e d . w h i c h can p r o v e h e l p f u l o f thermal equipment. environment within different the The aim

possible, certain

Appendix i s to s y n t h e s i z e information

in making

realistic In

a s s u m p t i o n s about the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

the e n e r g y b a l a n c e o f an equipment u n i t , by m u l t i p l y i n g

h e a t l o s s e s t o the

are accounted f o r

the h e a t e f f e c t i v e l y t r a n s f e r r e d It s h o u l d be e m p h a s i z e d t h a t

u n i t by the h e a t l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t . definitions actual o f such c o e f f i c i e n t s

can be f o u n d i n the l i t e r a t u r e , and t h e i r the e f f i c i e n c y of thermal of a particular loss

v a l u e s may depend on equipment d e s i g n , and l o c a l conditions (for

insulation unit).

example, outdoor location

I n the f o r m u l a e g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 2 , the f o l l o w i n g can be u s e d : 0.03-0.05;

v a l u e s of heat

coefficients

- juice heaters - extractors vacuum pans syrup tanks

0.05-0.10; 0.03-0.12; 0.03-0.05. work h a s been r e p o r t e d on the 1) found

As r e g a r d s the e v a p o r a t o r s , e x p e r i m e n t a l determination of heat l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t s .

Z a g r o d z k i and S o k o l o w s k i ( r e f .

t h a t the h e a t l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t o f a R o b e r t - t y p e e v a p o r a t o r body i n the effect of a quadruple-effect insulation layer, e v a p o r a t o r was 0 . 0 0 1 5 ; w i t h an additional

second

the c o e f f i c i e n t was r e d u c e d to 0 . 0 0 0 9 .

These r e s u l t s a r e (ref.

in

good agreement w i t h the v a l u e o f 0 . 0 0 1 1 m e a s u r e d by Hogg e t a l . i n t o a c c o u n t h e a t d i s s i p a t i o n from j u i c e ,

2 ) . Taking

v a p o u r and c o n d e n s a t e p i p e l i n e s , latter authors, while 3). in

a c o e f f i c i e n t v a l u e o f 0 . 0 0 2 5 was recommended by the o l d e r s o u r c e s , v a l u e s o f up to 0 . 0 3 can be f o u n d ( r e f . It seems t h a t f o r

most e v a p o r a t o r s , a h e a t l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t between 0 . 0 0 2 5 algorithm presented in

and 0 . 0 1 can be a s s u m e d . When u s i n g the c a l c u l a t i o n Chapter 2 , i d e n t i c a l and

v a l u e s can u s u a l l y be assumed f o r

b o t h the e v a p o r a t o r body

the c o n d e n s a t e t a n k . The values of overall o f thermal heat t r a n s f e r coefficients u s e d i n the design of

calculations

systems are d e c i s i v e in e n s u r i n g a proper choice As the p r a c t i c a l

the a r e a s o f h e a t i n g s u r f a c e s i n e q u i p m e n t u n i t s . heat t r a n s f e r coefficients may v a r y w i t h t i m e ,

values of

d e p e n d i n g on s c a l e b u i l d - u p .

373 it is difficult to c o r r e l a t e d e s i g n d a t a and r e a l i t y . characterizing A l t h o u g h the film

coefficients calculated transfer

of heat t r a n s f e r

c l e a n h e a t i n g s u r f a c e s c a n be known from the t h e o r y o f it i s common t o r e l y heat

using dimensionless relationships c i t e d i n the literature,

and w i d e l y

i n s t e a d on

practically

verified figures.

C a r e s h o u l d be t a k e n , h o w e v e r , o f

the across

compatibility of all the h e a t i n g Q = k F At surface

d a t a u s e d i n the e q u a t i o n g o v e r n i n g h e a t t r a n s f e r

where Q i s t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d coefficient, difference. I n the j u i c e h e a t e r s , i t

in unit time,

k i s the o v e r a l l

heat

transfer

F i s t h e h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a , and At i s the mean

temperature

is essential

t h a t t h e v a l u e o f k be d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g actual is may d i f f e r

the same d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a a s assumed i n the calculation. For t u b u l a r h e a t e r s , the inner surface area of and w a l l

the t u b e s

t y p i c a l l y used. by up to

D e p e n d i n g on the tube d i a m e t e r

thickness, it

12-15% from the o u t e r

s u r f a c e area o f the

tubes. v a l u e s o f the juice

For vapour-heated tubular flow v e l o c i t y , the o v e r a l l

heaters operated at correct coefficients

heat t r a n s f e r

d e f i n e d a t the

inner

s u r f a c e a r e a o f the t u b e s can u s u a l l y be assumed a s f o l l o w s : - raw j u i c e 6 0 0 - 8 0 0 W / ( m ^ K ) ; - c l e a r j u i c e 700-1000 W/(m^K); - thin juice 900-1200 W/(m^K); - t h i c k j u i c e and s y r u p s 4 0 0 - 6 0 0 W / ( m ^ K ) . These v a l u e s can be t r e a t e d a s r o u g h e s t i m a t e s o n l y c i t e d i n C h a p t e r 8 ) . As r e g a r d s p l a t e and s p i r a l practical rely v a l u e s of heat t r a n s f e r coefficients (cf. experimental values of

h e a t e r s , the s c a t t e r

i s s o l a r g e t h a t one can o n l y

on the d a t a s u p p l i e d by the e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s . o f b o t h t h e h e a t i n g s u r f a c e a r e a and difference, used in the

I n the c a s e o f e v a p o r a t o r s , d e f i n i t i o n s the e f f e c t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e difference

a r e e s s e n t i a l . The t e m p e r a t u r e

a c c o r d i n g t o the d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n i n C h a p t e r 2 and most f r e q u e n t l y literature, At = t^ where t^ (t^ is + )

i s the t e m p e r a t u r e

o f the h e a t i n g steam ( v a p o u r ) c o n d e n s i n g i n

the

h e a t i n g c h a m b e r , t^

i s the t e m p e r a t u r e point as elevation.

o f s a t u r a t e d v a p o u r i n the v a p o u r chamber H o w e v e r , some a u t h o r s t a k e the effective

and AT i s t h e b o i l i n g temperature At = t^ ^ t^ difference

Adopting t h i s calculated for

definition,

the v a l u e s o f t h e o v e r a l l

heat t r a n s f e r

coefficient

evaporator effects

operated at higher j u i c e

concentrations the

( 5 0 - 7 0 % D S ) may be up to 50-60% g r e a t e r

t h a n t h o s e c o r r e s p o n d i n g to

374 d e f i n i t i o n o f At adopted i n the p r e s e n t b o o k . F o r a p r o p e r l y d i m e n s i o n e d and c o r r e c t l y the o v e r a l l (ref. 3) + b^^^ + 8 0 0 ) heat t r a n s f e r operated Robert-type evaporator, formula

c o e f f i c i e n t can be c a l c u l a t e d

from B a l o h ' s

k = 5.23-10^(b2^

(W{mh))
(in % DS) at i n l e t and o u t l e t , heat

where b^.^ and b^^^ a r e j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s respectively. transfer This formula

i s known t o g i v e somewhat t o o h i g h v a l u e s o f t h e concentrations. coefficient

c o e f f i c i e n t a t the h i g h e s t j u i c e

A p p r o x i m a t e v a l u e s o f the o v e r a l l t y p e and f a l l i n g - f i l m concentration, REFERENCES 1 2 3

heat t r a n s f e r

i n both R o b e r t o f mean j u i c e

evaporators are a l s o g i v e n , as f u n c t i o n s

in F i g . 5 . 5 .

S . Z a g r o d z k i and A . S o k o l o w s k i , P o m i a r y s t r a t Gaz. C u k r o w . , 8 1 ( 4 ) ( 1 9 7 3 ) 8 1 - 8 5 . J . S . Hogg ( e t a l . ) . The r o l e o f t h e r m o g r a p h i c conservation. I n t . Sugar J . , 85(1011) (1983) T. B a l o h , W r m e a t l a s f r d i e Z u c k e r i n d u s t r i e ,

cieplnych w aparatach wyparnych, s u r v e y i n g in energy 67-71. Schaper V e r l a g , Hannover, 1975.

375 Appendix 4

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

The S I s y s t e m o f u n i t s u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s units: - mass i n k i l o g r a m s ( k g ) ; length in metres (m); (s).

book i s b a s e d on the

following

- time i n s e c o n d s The t e m p e r a t u r e

i s measured i n d e g r e e s C e l s i u s

( C ) , and the a b s o l u t e i s e x p r e s s e d i n K. system) i s b a s e d on

temperature i n K e l v i n s The m e t r i c the f o l l o w i n g - force -

( K ) . The t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e

system of u n i t s units:

( a l s o known a s t h e t e c h n i c a l

in kilograms f o r c e , or kiloponds (kgf or

kp);

l e n g t h i n m;

- time i n s . The mass i s measured i n k g . The t e m p e r a t u r e temperature in degrees K e l v i n ( K ) . i n C o r \ . ( a l s o known a s p o u n d - s e c o n d - f o o t s y s t e m ) is i s measured i n ^ C , and t h e a b s o l u t e can be e x p r e s s e d

The t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e

The B r i t i s h s y s t e m o f u n i t s based on the f o l l o w i n g - mass i n pounds length in feet (lb.); (ft.); units:

- time i n s e c o n d s

(denoted s e c ) . (Ibf.). The t e m p e r a t u r e i s m e a s u r e d in

The f o r c e i s e x p r e s s e d i n pounds f o r c e

d e g r e e s F a h r e n h e i t ( ^ F ) . The t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e

i s a l s o expressed in ^ F . using

The c o n v e r s i o n from S I t o m e t r i c o r B r i t i s h u n i t s can be p e r f o r m e d the c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r s g i v e n i n T a b l e A 4 . The c o n v e r s i o n f o r m u l a f o r t e m p e r a t u r e t^ i n C i s c a l c u l a t i o n o f the temperature

i n F from a g i v e n

t p = 1 . 8 t(. + 32 and from g i v e n tj^ in + 32 .

tp = 1.8(t,^ - 2 7 3 . 1 5 )

376

TABLE A4

Conversion table - SI to metric and British units. Metric equivalent 1 kg 1 m = 100 cm 1 m^ = 10^ cm^ 1 m"^ 1 kg/m^ 0.101972 kgf 1.01972-10"^ kgf/cm^ 1.01972 kgf/cm^ 0.101972 kgf m 101.972 kgf m 2.38846-10"^ kcal 0.238846 kcal 0.101972 kgf m/s 101.972 kgf m/s 0.238846 kcal/kg 1C 1.8F 0.238846 kcal/(kgC) 0.238846 BTU/(lb.F) 0.577816 BTU/(ft.hF) 0.176110 BTU/(sq.ft.hF) 0.046254 Ibf. 0.0208855 I b f . / s q . f t . = 1.45038-10"^ p . s . i . 2088.55 Ibf./sq.ft. = 14.5038 p . s . i . 0.737562 ft.-Ibf. 7 3 7 . 5 6 2 ft.-Ibf 9.47817-10"^ BTU 0.947817 BTU 0.737562 f t . - I b f . / s e c . 737.562 ft.-Ibf./sec. 0.429923 BTU/lb. 0.062428 l b . / c u . f t . 35.3147 cu.ft. = 61024 c u . i n . 10.764 s q . f t . = 1550 sq.in. 3.280284 ft. = 39.37 in. 2.204622 lb. British equivalent

Quantity

SI unit

Mass

kg

Length

1 m

Area

1 m^

Volume

1 m^

Density

kg/m^

Force

kg m/s^ = 1

Pressure

1 N/m^ = 1 Pa

1 bar = 10^ Pa

Work, energy

1 m = 1 J

kJ = 10^ J

Heat

1 J

kJ

Power

1 J/s = 1 W

1 kW = 10^ W

Heating value

kJ/kg

Temperature difference I K

Specific heat

k J / ( k g K)

Thermal conductivity 0.860 kcal/(m^hC)

1 W / ( m K) 0.860 k c a l / ( m h^C)

Heat transfer coefficient 1 W/(m^K)

377

INDEX

Air preheating, 157, A l k a l i n i t y of water, A p p a r e n t power, 38 Appearance of water, Ash content of c o a l ,

342 2 3 8 , 2 4 3 , 245 2 4 0 , 244 247

Barometric c o n d e n s e r , see condenser B a r o m e t r i c w a t e r , 2 , 1 0 , 1 6 , 2 2 , 6 5 , 2 7 7 , 357 B a t c h c e n t r i f u g a l , 3 3 , 2 0 6 , 228 B a t c h vacuum p a n , 7 4 , 1 1 0 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 6 7 , 2 0 1 , 2 2 5 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 5 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 7 , 280 B i o g a s p r o d u c t i o n , 175 B o i l e r blowdown, 2 4 1 , 2 4 3 , 2 5 5 , 313 B o i l e r c h e c k , 253 B o i l e r e f f i c i e n c y , 2 6 , 1 4 8 , 2 5 1 , 2 5 8 , 2 9 2 , 3 1 0 , 3 3 5 , 349 Boiler loss: a s h , 255 c h i m n e y , 254 i n c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n , 255 r a d i a t i o n , 256 B o i l e r w a t e r q u a l i t y , 241 B o i l i n g p o i n t e l e v a t i o n , 7 8 , 1 2 3 , 2 6 5 , 3 7 0 , 373 Bomb c a l o r i m e t e r , 248 B o u n d a r y o f thermodynamic s y s t e m , 3 , 6 , 5 7 , 234 B . p . e . , see b o i l i n g p o i n t e l e v a t i o n C a r b o n a t a t i o n , 5 , 2 9 , 6 1 , 6 3 , 6 6 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 9 , 2 9 6 , 2 9 8 , 3 0 2 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 1 , 318 C a r b o n a t a t i o n g a s , 2 , 9 , 1 5 , 2 2 , 5 3 , 6 5 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 7 , 178 C e n t r i f u g a l d r i v e , 3 9 , 4 1 , 2 0 7 , 209 Chemical c l e a n i n g o f t u b e s , 117 C l o s e d thermodynamic s y s t e m , 57 C o l o u r b u i l d - u p , 3 4 , 1 6 3 , 166 Combined g e n e r a t i o n o f h e a t and e l e c t r i c i t y , 1 0 , 4 3 , 262 Combustible matter: i n a s h , 2 5 2 , 255 i n c o a l , 247 C o m p o s i t e c u r v e , 364 C o m p r e s s i o n r a t i o , 1 8 , 1 4 0 , 150 Condensate: drainage, 15, 97, 99, 103, 105, 109, 1 1 1 , 118, 264, 270, 272, 278, 290, 293, 3 0 2 , 3 3 2 , 338 f l a s h i n g ( f l a s h - e v a p o r a t i o n ) , 1 5 , 7 6 , 7 9 , 8 2 , 119 p o l l u t i o n , 1 0 1 , 144 q u a l i t y , 1 0 0 , 1 1 7 , 2 3 9 , 290 Condensate t a n k , 2 , 7, 3 1 , 7 6 , 7 9 , 8 1 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 8 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 0 , 144, 2 3 9 , 2 7 3 , 2 9 4 , 3 0 5 , 3 3 8 , 3 4 2 , 3 4 6 , 353 Condenser, 3 , 7, 10, 14, 17, 3 1 , 4 6 , 4 8 , 6 5 , 77, 7 9 , 8 3 , 9 7 , 102, 104, 113, 1 2 1 , 1 2 6 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 0 , 1 3 4 , 2 2 3 , 2 7 7 , 2 8 7 , 3 4 8 , 352 C o n t i n u o u s c e n t r i f u g a l , 2 0 6 , 2 0 9 , 2 9 3 , 294 C o n t i n u o u s vacuum p a n , 1 2 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , 1 6 6 , 2 0 3 C o n t r o l s u r f a c e , 57 C o n t r o l v o l u m e , 57 C o o l i n g - c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n t o w e r , 165 C o s s e t t e s m i x e r , 189 C r y s t a l f o o t i n g , 3 6 , 1 6 6 , 2 0 4 , 324

378

Crystal 1ization: c o o l i n g , 1 6 3 , 167 e v a p o r a t i n g , 1 6 3 , 1 6 7 , 173 f r e e z e , 173 under vacuum, 165 C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n scheme: D a n i s h , 161 s i n g l e b o i l i n g , 323 t h r e e - b o i l i n g , 3 4 , 6 1 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 5 , 2 9 2 , 2 9 6 , 3 1 0 , 3 3 5 , 349 t w o - a n d - a - h a l f - b o i l i n g , 324 t w o - b o i l i n g , 166 w i t h c r y s t a l f o o t i n g , 1 6 6 , 168 w i t h two j u i c e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , 36 C r y s t a l l i z a t i o n t o w e r , 2 0 3 , 206 D e c o m p o s i t i o n o f a s y s t e m , 3 , 10 D u l o n g ' s f o r m u l a , 249 E f f e c t i v e p o w e r , 38 E f f e c t i v e n e s s r a t i o , 9 , 2 3 , 9 5 , 1 2 1 , 1 8 7 , 2 1 3 , 2 9 1 , 3 1 0 , 3 3 8 , 352 E l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f w a t e r , 243 E l e c t r i c a l d e s c a l e r , 118 Energy b a l a n c e , 5 , 8 , 5 7 , 6 0 , 6 5 , 8 4 , 8 7 , 9 6 , 1 0 3 , 1 5 5 , 2 3 4 , 2 5 3 , 2 5 7 , 2 6 1 , 2 6 9 , 2 7 8 , 2 9 6 , 382 E n e r g y s y s t e m , 5 , 1 7 4 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 3 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 5 , 3 2 2 , 3 3 3 , 3 6 2 , 364 E n t h a l p y b a l a n c e , 88 E n t r a i n m e n t s e p a r a t o r , 1 0 1 , 1 3 0 , 194 E u l e r ' s e q u a t i o n , 219 E v a p o r a t i o n , 6 , 1 2 , 2 4 , 3 5 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 7 , 2 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 2 2 1 , 2 2 6 , 2 6 4 , 2 8 7 , 307 E v a p o r a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , 121 Evaporator: c l i m b i n g - f i l m , 222 d o u b l e - e f f e c t , 195 f a l l i n g - f i l m , 1 9 1 , 2 2 2 , 2 6 3 , 3 1 0 , 3 1 4 , 3 1 6 , 3 2 3 , 3 5 3 , 3 5 7 , 374 m u l t i p l e - e f f e c t , 8 , 1 2 , 1 5 , 3 4 , 7 6 , 8 3 , 1 2 1 , 1 9 0 , 2 2 1 , 2 6 3 , 3 2 3 , 349 q u a d r u p l e - e f f e c t , 1 7 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 6 , 2 9 6 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 9 , 342 quintuple-effect, 1 4 , 8 3 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 5 , 2 9 2 , 3 1 0 , 3 2 3 , 342 Robert-type, 106, 1 9 1 , 222, 263, 296, 310, 314, 316, 323, 335, 349, 352, 357, 3 5 9 , 3 7 2 , 374 s e x t u p l e - e f f e c t , 1 2 7 , 224 t r i p l e - e f f e c t , 1 2 6 , 2 9 7 , 337 t h i n - f i l m , 1 9 1 , 222 E v a p o r a t o r c h e c k , 2 6 4 , 266 E v a p o r a t o r - r e c e i v e r a p p r o a c h , 8 4 , 1 0 3 , 301 E x e r g y , 8 9 , 90 E x t e r n a l e n e r g y b a l a n c e , 6 5 , 8 4 , 1 0 1 , 103 Extractor: b e l t t y p e , see moving-bed type drum t y p e , 1 8 8 , 2 2 0 , m o v i n g - b e d t y p e , 1 8 8 , 220 s c r o l l t y p e , see trough type tower t y p e , 3 1 , 7 3 , 1 8 8 , 2 2 0 , 2 9 2 , 3 2 3 t r o u g h t y p e , 3 1 , 6 1 , 7 3 , 1 3 5 , 1 8 8 , 2 2 0 , 2 6 7 , 2 9 6 , 3 0 9 , 3 3 5 , 349 E x t r a c t o r c h e c k , 269 F e e d - w a t e r q u a l i t y , 238 F i l m c o e f f i c i e n t of heat t r a n s f e r , 1 6 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 6 , 373 F l o a t - t y p e steam t r a p , 1 0 6 , 1 1 1 , 2 9 7 , 337

379

Flow c o n t r o l : by p o s i t i o n i n g o f i n l e t g u i d e v a n e s , 219 by t h r o t t l i n g , 4 2 , 2 1 7 , 219 b y - p a s s , 4 2 , 1 5 5 , 2 1 7 , 219 v a r i a b l e s p e e d , 4 2 , 1 4 5 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 8 , 327 Frequency-converter (-controlled) a . c . d r i v e , Fuel s t o r a g e , 2 3 3 , 250 Gas t u r b i n e , 2 1 , 5 0 , 184 Grassmann d i a g r a m , 89

2 0 8 , 3 2 7 , 329

H a r d n e s s o f w a t e r , 2 3 8 , 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 , 245 Heat b a l a n c e , 6 , 8 , 1 8 , 6 8 , 7 3 , 7 6 , 8 4 , 9 6 , 1 0 4 , 2 6 8 , 2 7 0 , 2 8 1 , 2 8 3 , 2 8 7 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 6 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 4 , 3 2 0 , 3 2 4 , 3 2 7 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 6 , 3 3 9 , 3 4 2 , 3 4 6 , 3 4 9 , 352 Heat l o s s : by d i s s i p a t i o n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , 2 4 , 2 6 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 3 , 1 5 5 , 2 8 4 , 2 9 1 , 301 by f r e e c o n v e c t i o n , 28 by r a d i a t i o n , 28 Heat l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t , 6 0 , 6 9 , 7 3 , 7 5 , 7 8 , 8 9 , 2 6 6 , 2 7 1 , 372 Heat o f c a r b o n a t a t i o n r e a c t i o n , 6 6 , 155 Heat o f c o m b u s t i o n , 248 Heat o f c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n o f s u g a r , 5 9 , 6 6 , 7 5 , 2 3 6 Heat pump, 1 7 , 25 Heater, see j u i c e heater H e a t i n g and h u m i d i f i c a t i o n o f k i l n g a s , 1 5 8 , 3 4 2 , 352 H e a t i n g v a l u e o f f u e l , 1 4 8 , 2 4 6 , 2 5 2 , 257 Hot c o n d e n s e r , 1 3 4 , 357 H y d r o g e n i o n c o n t e n t , s e e pH H y p e r f i l t r a t i o n , 171 J u i c e c a r r y o v e r , 1 0 1 , 1 4 4 , 194 Juice d r a f t , 24, 30, 6 1 , 66, 9 8 , 187, 219, 2 2 1 , 268, 292, 296, 309, 323, 334, 3 3 8 , 349 Juice heater: c o n d e n s a t e - h e a t e d , 6 9 , 1 1 9 , 2 7 1 , 293 d i r e c t - c o n t a c t , 1 3 0 , 133 p l a t e , 1 9 8 , 2 9 3 , 3 1 4 , 3 1 7 , 373 s e g m e n t e d , 200 s p i r a l , 1 3 1 , 1 9 9 , 2 9 4 , 3 5 7 , 373 t u b u l a r , 1 0 6 , 1 3 1 , 1 9 9 , 2 9 3 , 373 v a p o u r - h e a t e d , 6 9 , 1 2 2 , 271 J u i c e h e a t e r c h e c k , 271 Juice p u r i f i c a t i o n , 2 , 23, 29, 4 1 , 6 1 , 116, 135, 153, 163, 169, 1 7 1 , 213, 216, 2 9 2 , 2 9 6 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 1 , 3 2 3 , 3 3 1 , 3 3 5 , 349 J u i c e s e p a r a t i o n , 169 K i l n g a s , 9 , 6 2 , 6 7 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 7 , 1 5 9 , 2 9 6 , 3 0 9 , 3 3 5 , 349 Law o f mass c o n s e r v a t i o n , 57 Law o f t h e r m o d y n a m i c s : f i r s t , 5 7 , 8 8 , 2 3 4 , 261 s e c o n d , 88 L e v e l - c o n t r o l l e d h y d r a u l i c (water) s e a l , L i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g , 363

1 0 6 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 2 , 2 9 3 , 2 9 4 , 3 3 8 , 342

Mass b a l a n c e , 5 7 , 6 1 , 6 3 , 6 7 , 7 4 , 7 9 , 8 3 , 9 4 , 1 0 1 , 2 3 5 , 2 8 1 , 2 8 3 , 2 8 7 , 2 9 6 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 4 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 7 , 3 3 9 , 352 Mean l o g a r i t h m i c t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e , 69 Membrane f i l t r a t i o n , 171 Minimum t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e , 1 2 1 , 3 6 5 M o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f c o a l , 247 M o t o r s l i p , 207

380

Net h e a t demand, 8 , 2 2 , 2 5 , 6 6 , 9 5 , 1 2 1 , 1 4 9 , 1 5 3 , 1 6 0 , 1 8 7 , 2 0 3 , 3 3 3 , 3 3 8 N i e s s n e r c o l u m n , 1 0 6 , 1 0 8 , 349 N o n c o n d e n s a b l e s , 9 7 , 1 1 2 , 1 1 5 , 1 2 8 , 1 3 0 , 2 6 4 , 2 7 0 , 2 8 0 , 2 9 0 , 3 0 0 , 3 0 2 , 3 0 9 , 314 N o n l i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g , 363 Normal f u e l , 4 3 , 53 Normal steam p a r a m e t e r s , 43 N o z z l e - t y p e steam t r a p , 1 0 6 , 279 Number o f mass t r a n s f e r u n i t s , 189 O b j e c t i v e f u n c t i o n , 362 Open thermodynamic s y s t e m , 3 , 5 7 , 65 Optimal s y n t h e s i s , 3 6 3 Overall heat t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t , 6 0 , 6 9 , 8 1 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 4 , 1 4 4 , 1 9 3 , 1 9 8 , 2 0 1 , 2 6 4 , 2 6 6 , 2 7 0 , 3 1 5 , 3 6 5 , 372 O v e r a l l t u r b o - g e n e r a t o r e f f i c i e n c y , 2 5 9 , 262 Oxygen c o n s u m p t i o n o f w a t e r , 2 3 9 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 5 Oxygen c o n t e n t o f w a t e r , 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 , 246 pH, 2 3 9 , 2 4 2 , 245 P e r i o d o f r e t u r n on i n v e s t m e n t , 3 4 6 , 359 P i n c h p o i n t , 365 P o l e - c h a n g e a . c . m o t o r , 207 Power c a p a c i t o r , 3 9 , 4 3 Power demand, 1 3 , 1 8 , 3 7 , 4 0 , 4 5 , 1 5 3 , 1 6 0 , 1 7 0 , 1 7 9 , 1 8 2 , 1 8 7 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 3 , 3 2 7 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 4 , 3 3 7 , 3 4 6 , 3 5 3 , 357 Power f a c t o r , 3 8 , 4 3 , 2 0 8 , 2 9 0 Power h o u s e , 1 , 6 , 1 0 , 3 9 , 4 3 , 4 5 , 4 9 , 5 2 , 1 4 9 , 2 3 3 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 7 , 3 0 0 , 3 1 0 , 3 1 4 , 3 2 4 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 7 , 348 Power n e t w o r k , 37 P r e s s i n g a i d s , 177 P u l p d e h y d r a t i o n , 1 9 , 1 5 3 , 174 Pulp d r y e r : drum t y p e , 2 1 , 8 9 , 2 2 9 , 2 8 1 , 285 f l u i d i z e d - b e d t y p e , 183 l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e , 2 2 , 5 3 , 179 s t e a m , 2 2 , 182 t r a v e l l i n g - s c r e e n t y p e , 1 7 9 , 182 P u l p d r y e r c h e c k , 282 Pulp dryer e f f i c i e n c y , 2 8 1 , 2 8 3 , 285 Pulp d r y i n g : h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e , 2 2 , 179 l o w - t e m p e r a t u r e , 1 6 , 2 2 , 1 7 6 , 178 m e d i u m - t e m p e r a t u r e , 2 2 , 178 s t e a m , 2 2 , 181 P u l p e n s i l a g e , 175 P u l p f e r m e n t a t i o n , 175 P u l p p r e s s i n g , 1 9 , 1 7 6 , 178 Quentin u n i t , 1 9 8 , 3 2 3 , 349

R e a c t i v e p o w e r , 3 8 , 43 Reverse o s m o s i s , see h y p e r f i l t r a t i o n Sampling: f u e l , 246 j u i c e , 265 s t e a m , 244 w a t e r , 243 Sankey d i a g r a m , 8 , 4 4 , 5 0 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 1 5 8 , 283 S c a l e , 1 0 5 , 1 1 6 , 1 9 3 , 1 9 8 , 2 4 1 , 2 4 5 , 2 6 4 , 2 7 0 , 3 0 9 , 3 1 6 , 372 S e c a n t m e t h o d , 8 0 , 82 Seed magma, 1 6 7 , 204 S i e g e r t ' s f o r m u l a , 254

381

S i l i n ' s f o r m u l a , 221 S i m u l a t i o n , 6 1 , 91 S l u d g e s w e e t e n i n g - o f f , 3 2 , 302 S o l u b i l i t y o f s u c r o s e , 1 6 3 , 1 6 6 , 227 S t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s , 5 8 , 9 1 , 235 Steam demand, 1 6 , 4 3 , 4 6 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 9 , 3 0 1 , 3 3 7 , 3 4 7 , 3 6 2 Steam q u a l i t y , 2 3 7 , 243 Steam r a t e , 4 6 , 4 9 , 1 3 7 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 8 , 2 5 8 , 2 6 3 , 3 3 5 Steam t r a p , 6 , 5 9 , 1 0 3 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 1 , 2 7 8 , 2 9 3 , 3 0 0 , 3 5 3 Steam t u r b i n e : b a c k - p r e s s u r e , 1 3 , 4 4 , 4 7 , 2 6 0 , 2 9 7 , 3 1 0 , 324 b a c k - p r e s s u r e / e x t r a c t i o n , 48 c o n d e n s i n g , 48 c o n d e n s i n g / e x t r a c t i o n , 46 t o p p i n g , 46 Sugar b o i l i n g : c o n t r o l , 3 3 , 2 0 3 , 2 2 6 , 293 p r o c e s s , 1 5 , 3 2 , 3 5 , 1 1 1 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 7 , 1 6 7 , 2 0 1 , 2 0 3 , 2 2 5 , 2 2 7 , 2 7 1 , 332 Sugar l o s s : i n e x h a u s t e d c o s s e t t e s , 3 1 , 1 8 9 , 221 i n s l u d g e , 32 S u r r o u n d i n g s o f thermodynamic s y s t e m , 5 7 , 88 Temperature p i n c h , s e e minimum t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e Thermal decay o f s u c r o s e , 1 4 , 3 0 , 3 4 , 100 Thermal d e g r a d a t i o n o f e n e r g y , 88 Thermal i n s u l a t i o n , 2 5 , 2 7 , 7 8 , 9 9 , 1 0 3 , 2 7 9 , 2 9 3 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 5 , 3 4 4 , 372 Thermal s y s t e m , 6 , 1 0 , 1 6 , 2 3 , 6 0 , 6 5 , 6 8 , 8 4 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 9 4 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 3 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 7 , 1 3 1 , 136, 145, 153, 187, 213, 2 2 1 , 2 5 1 , 275, 277, 279, 287, 297, 3 0 0 , 3 0 5 , 3 1 0 , 3 2 0 , 3 2 3 , 3 3 2 , 3 3 4 , 3 4 0 , 3 4 3 , 3 4 8 , 3 5 4 , 373 Thermodynamic f u n c t i o n s , 6 0 , 7 8 , 8 4 , 8 9 , 2 3 4 , 3 6 8 , 370 Thermodynamic s y s t e m , 3 , 6 , 5 7 , 6 0 , 6 7 , 8 8 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 5 T h e r m o g r a p h i c s u r v e y i n g , 100 Throttling-desuperheating s t a t i o n , 4 7 , 9 7 , 1 3 8 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 9 , 2 5 7 , 2 7 5 , 324 T h y r i s t o r - c o n t r o l l e d d . c . d r i v e , 2 0 8 , 3 2 7 , 353 T o t a l h e a t demand, 8 , 1 2 , 2 2 , 6 8 , 9 5 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 5 , 3 0 2 , 3 0 5 , 3 2 3 , 3 5 3 Turbine e f f i c i e n c y : i n t e r n a l , 262 m e c h a n i c a l , 262 T u r b o - g e n e r a t o r c h e c k , 258 Turbo-generator Ultrafiltration, efficiency, 171 see o v e r a l l t.-g. e.

Vacuum-pan c h e c k , 272 Vacuum-pan s t e a m i n g - o u t , 3 3 , 2 0 3 , 2 7 5 , 3 0 8 , 3 1 9 , 337 Vacuum-pan s t i r r e r , 1 2 2 , 1 2 5 , 2 0 2 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 6 Vapour c o m p r e s s i o n , 1 1 , 1 6 , 1 2 6 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , 1 8 4 , 1 9 5 , 3 2 4 , 3 4 2 , 3 4 7 , 3 5 7 , 3 6 0 , 366 Vapour c o m p r e s s o r : e l e c t r i c a l l y d r i v e n , 1 3 8 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , 3 2 4 , 3 4 2 , 357 j e t t y p e , 1 8 , 1 4 0 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 9 , 3 2 4 , 3 4 2 , 358 m e c h a n i c a l , 1 8 , 1 3 8 , 1 4 2 , 1 4 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , 3 2 7 , 3 4 2 , 357 t u r b i n e d r i v e n , 1 3 9 , 142 Venting (of noncondensables), 112, 115, 264, 270, 2 7 2 , 280, 290, 300, 3 0 3 , 314, 3 5 3 , 357 Waste h e a t , 1 4 , 2 1 , 2 5 , 5 3 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 9 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 0 , 185

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Water to to to to to

intake: j u i c e p u r i f i c a t i o n s t a t i o n , 32 C m a s s e c u i t e c r y s t a l 1 i z e r s , 33 p r o c e s s , 3 0 , 2 9 1 , 3 1 0 , 323 s u g a r h o u s e , 3 2 , 3 4 , 2 9 1 , 3 0 2 , 305 vacuum p a n s , 3 2 , 6 6 , 1 0 1 , 2 2 5 , 2 2 8 ,

271