League of Nations

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Socit des Nations (French) Sociedad de Naciones (Spanish) League of Nations (English)
International organization 19191946
19 9!19"1 semi#official em$lem
%nachronous &orld map in 19'(!19"), sho&ing the *eague of +ations and the &orld

Capital Language(s) olitical structure Secretar!"general # 19'(!19 # 19 !19"(

,eneva -nglish, French and .panish International organization

.ir James -ric /rummond Joseph %venol .e1n *ester Inter&ar period '5 June 1919 10 January 19'( '( %pril 19"0

# 19"(!19"0 #istorical era # 2reaty 3f 4ersailles # First meeting # *i6uidat

7 2he head6uarters &ere $ased at the 8alais des +ations, ,eneva .&itzerland

2he League of Nations 9*o+: &as an inter#governmental organization founded as a result of the 2reaty of 4ersailles in 1919!19'(; %t its greatest e<tent from '5 .eptem$er 19 " to ' Fe$ruary 19 ), it had )5 mem$ers; 2he *eague=s goals included upholding the ne& found >ights of ?an such as right of non &hites, rights of &omen, rights of soldiers, disarmament, preventing &ar through collective security, settling disputes $et&een countries through negotiation, diplomacy and improving glo$al 6uality of life; 2he diplomatic philosophy $ehind the *eague

represented a fundamental shift in thought from the preceding hundred years; 2he *eague lacked its o&n armed force and so depended on the ,reat 8o&ers to enforce its resolutions, keep to economic sanctions &hich the *eague ordered, or provide an army, &hen needed, for the *eague to use; @o&ever, they &ere often reluctant to do so; .anctions could also hurt the *eague mem$ers, so they &ere reluctant to comply &ith them; When during the .econd Italo#%$yssinian War, the *eague accused Aenito ?ussolini=s soldiers of targeting >ed Bross medical tents, ?ussolini responded that -thiopians &ere not fully human, therefore the human rights la&s did not apply; Aenito ?ussolini stated that C2he *eague is very &ell &hen sparro&s shout, $ut no good at all &hen eagles fall out;C D1E %fter a num$er of nota$le successes and some early failures in the 19'(s, the *eague ultimately proved incapa$le of preventing aggression $y the %<is po&ers in the 19 (s; In ?ay 19 the *eague &as po&erless to convince @itler that Franz Aernheim, a Je&, &as protected under the minority clauses esta$lished $y the *eague in 1919 9that all minorities &ere fully human and held e6ual rights among all men:; @itler claimed these clauses violated ,ermany=s sovereignty; ,ermany &ithdre& from the *eague soon to $e follo&ed $y many other totalitarian and militaristic nations; 2he onset of World War II sho&ed that the *eague had failed its primary purpose, &hich &as to avoid any future &orld &ar; 2he Fnited +ations replaced it after the end of the &ar and inherited a num$er of agencies and organizations founded $y the *eague;

Contents
DhideE

1 3rigins ' *anguages and sym$ols 8rincipal organs o ;1 .ecretariat and %ssem$ly o ;' Bouncil o ; 3ther $odies ; ;1 @ealth 3rganization ; ;' International *a$our 3rganization ; ; 8ermanent Bentral 3pium Aoard ; ;" .lavery Bommission ; ;) Bommission for >efugees ; ;0 Bommittee for the .tudy of the *egal .tatus of Women " ?em$ers ) ?andates o );1 C%C ?andates o );' CAC ?andates o ); CBC ?andates o );" ?andatory 8o&ers 0 >esolving territorial disputes o 0;1 Fpper .ilesia o 0;' %l$ania o 0; Gland Islands o 0;" ?emel o 0;) ?osul o 0;0 4ilnius o 0;H Bolom$ia and 8eru o 0;5 .aar H 8eace and security o H;1 ,reece and Aulgaria o H;' *i$eria o H; ?ukden Incident

H;" Bhaco War H;) Italian invasion of %$yssinia H;0 .panish Bivil War H;H .econd .ino#Japanese War 5 /isarmament and failures en route to World War II 9 ,eneral &eaknesses o 9;1 3rigins and structure o 9;' ,lo$al representation o 9; Bollective security o 9;" 8acifism and disarmament 1( /emise and legacy 11 .ee also 1' +otes 1 >eferences 1" Further reading
o o o o

1) -<ternal links

$edit% &rigins
A commemorative card depicting President of the United States Woodrow Wilson and the "Origin of the League of Nations" 2he concept of a peaceful community of nations had $een outlined as far $ack as 1H9), &hen Immanuel IantJs Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical SketchD'E outlined the idea of a league of nations that &ould control conflict and promote peace $et&een states;D E 2here, Iant argues for esta$lishment of a peaceful &orld community not in a sense that there $e a glo$al government $ut in the hope that each state &ould declare itself as a free state that respects its citizens and &elcomes foreign visitors as fello& rational $eings; It is in this rationalization that a union of free states &ould promote peaceful society &orld&ide, therefore there can $e a perpetual peace $inded $y the international community; D"E International co#operation to promote collective security originated in the Boncert of -urope that developed after the +apoleonic Wars in the nineteenth century in an attempt to maintain the status 6uo $et&een -uropean states and so avoid &ar;D)ED0E 2his period also sa& the development of international la& &ith the first ,eneva conventions esta$lishing la&s a$out humanitarian relief during &ar and the international @ague Bonventions of 1599 and 19(H governing rules of &ar and the peaceful settlement of international disputes;DHED5E 2he forerunner of the *eague of +ations, the Inter#8arliamentary Fnion 9I8F:, &as formed $y peace activists William >andal Bremer and Frederic 8assy in 1559; 2he organization &as international in scope &ith a third of the mem$ers of parliament, in the '" countries &ith parliaments, serving as mem$ers of the I8F $y 191 ; Its aims &ere to encourage governments to solve international disputes $y peaceful means and ar$itration and annual conferences &ere held to help governments refine the process of international ar$itration; 2he I8F=s structure consisted of a Bouncil headed $y a 8resident &hich &ould later $e reflected in the structure of the *eague;D9E %t the start of the t&entieth century t&o po&er $locs emerged through alliances $et&een the -uropean ,reat 8o&ers; It &as these alliances that came into effect at the start of the First World War in 191", dra&ing all the maKor -uropean po&ers into the &ar; 2his &as the first maKor &ar in -urope $et&een industrialized countries and the first time in Western -urope the results of industrialization 9for e<ample mass production: had $een dedicated to &ar; 2he result of this industrial &arfare &as an unprecedented casualty level &ith eight and a half million mem$ers of armed services dead, an estimated '1 million &ounded, and appro<imately 1( million civilian deaths; D1(ED11E Ay the time the fighting ended in +ovem$er 1915, the &ar had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of -urope and inflicting psychological and physical damage on the continent;D1'E %nti#&ar sentiment rose across the &orldL the First World War &as descri$ed as Cthe &ar to end all &arsC,D1 ED1"E and

its possi$le causes &ere vigorously investigated; 2he causes identified included arms races, alliances, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into &ar for their o&n $enefit; 2he perceived remedies to these &ere seen as the creation of an international organisation &hose aim &as to prevent future &ar through disarmament, open diplomacy, international co#operation, restrictions on the right to &age &ars, and penalties that made &ar unattractive to nations;D1)E While the First World War &as still under&ay, a num$er of governments and groups had already started developing plans to change the &ay international relations &ere carried out in order to prevent a repetition of the &ar;D1 E Fnited .tates 8resident Woodro& Wilson and his advisor Bolonel -d&ard ?; @ouse enthusiastically promoted the idea of the *eague as a means of avoiding any repetition of the $loodshed seen in World War I, and the creation of the *eague &as a centerpiece of Wilson=s Fourteen 8oints for 8eace;D10E .pecifically the final point provided: C% general association of nations must $e formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike;CD1HE Aefore drafting the specific terms of his peace deal, Wilson recruited a team led $y Bolonel @ouse to compile &hatever information deemed pertinent in assessing -uropeJs geo#political situation; In early January, 1915, Wilson summoned @ouse to Washington and the t&o $egan hammering out, in complete secrecy, the 8residentJs first address on the *eague of +ations &hich &as delivered to an unsuspecting Bongress on January 5, 1915;D15E Wilson=s final plans for the *eague &ere strongly influenced $y the .outh %frican 8rime ?inister, Jan Bhristiaan .muts; In 1915 .muts had pu$lished a treatise entitled he League of Nations: A Practical Suggestion; %ccording to F;.; Brafford=s $iography on .muts, Wilson adopted C$oth the ideas and the styleC of .muts;D19E 3n July 5, 1919, Woodro& Wilson returned to the Fnited .tates and em$arked on a nation#&ide campaign to secure the support of the %merican people for their countryJs entry into the *eague; 3n July 1(, Wilson addressed the .enate declaring that Ma ne& role and a ne& responsi$ility have come to this great nation that &e honour and &hich &e &ould all &ish to lift to yet higher levels of service and achievement;N 8ositive reception, particularly from >epu$licans, &as scarce at $est;D'(E 2he 8aris 8eace Bonference, convened to $uild a lasting peace after World War I, approved the proposal to create the *eague of +ations 9French: Soci!t! des Nations, ,erman: "#lker$und: on ') January 1919;D'1E 2he Bovenant of the *eague of +ations &as drafted $y a special commission, and the *eague &as esta$lished $y 8art I of the 2reaty of 4ersailles; 3n '5 June 1919,D''ED' E "" states signed the Bovenant, including 1 states &hich had taken part in the &ar on the side of the 2riple -ntente or Koined it during the conflict; /espite Wilson=s efforts to esta$lish and promote the *eague, for &hich he &as a&arded the +o$el 8eace 8rize in 3cto$er 1919,D'"E the Fnited .tates did not Koin the *eague; 3pposition in the F;.; .enate, particularly from >epu$lican politicians @enry Ba$ot *odge and William -; Aorah, together &ith Wilson=s refusal to compromise, ensured that the Fnited .tates &ould not ratify the Bovenant; 2he *eague held its first council meeting in 8aris on 10 January 19'(, si< days after the 4ersailles 2reaty came into force;D')E In +ovem$er, the head6uarters of the *eague moved to ,eneva, &here the first ,eneral %ssem$ly &as held on 1) +ovem$er 19'(D'0E &ith representatives from "1 nations in attendance;

$edit% Languages and s!'(ols

2he official languages of the *eague of +ations &ere French, -nglishD'HE and .panish 9from 19'(:; 2he *eague considered adopting -speranto as their &orking language and actively encouraging its use $ut neither option &as ever adopted;D'5E In 19'1, there &as a proposal $y *ord >o$ert Becil to introduce -speranto into state schools of mem$er nations and a report &as commissioned to investigate this;D'9E When the report &as presented t&o years later it recommended the teaching of -speranto in schools, a proposal that 11 delegates accepted;D'5E 2he strongest opposition came from the French delegate, ,a$riel @anotau<, partially in order to protect the French *anguage

&hich he argued &as already the international language;D (E 2his opposition meant the report &as accepted apart from the section that approved -speranto in schools;D 1E 2he *eague of +ations had neither an official flag nor logo; 8roposals for adopting an official sym$ol &ere made during the *eague=s $eginning in 19'(, $ut the mem$er states never reached agreement; @o&ever, *eague of +ations organizations used varying logos and flags 9or none at all: in their o&n operations; %n international contest &as held in 19'9 to find a design, &hich again failed to produce a sym$ol;D 'E 3ne of the reasons for this failure may have $een the fear $y the mem$er states that the po&er of the supranational organization might supersede their o&n; Finally, in 19 9, a semi#official em$lem emerged: t&o five#pointed stars &ithin a $lue pentagon; 2he pentagon and the five#pointed stars &ere supposed to sym$olize the five continents and the five races of mankind; In a $o& on top and at the $ottom, the flag had the names in -nglish 9League of Nations: and French 9Soci!t! des Nations:; 2his flag &as used on the $uilding of the +e& Oork World=s Fair in 19 9 and 19"(;D 'E

$edit% rincipal organs

8alace of +ations, ,eneva, the *eague=s head6uarters since 19 5 Further information: 8ermanent Bourt of International Justice, and *eaders of the *eague of +ations 2he *eague had four principal organs, a secretariat 9headed $y the ,eneral .ecretary and $ased in ,eneva:, a Bouncil, an %ssem$ly and a 8ermanent Bourt of International Justice;D E 2he *eague also had numerous agencies and commissions; %uthorization for any action re6uired $oth a unanimous vote $y the Bouncil and a maKority vote in the %ssem$ly;

$edit% Secretariat and )sse'(l!

2he staff of the *eague=s secretariat &as responsi$le for preparing the agenda for the Bouncil and %ssem$ly and pu$lishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the civil service for the *eague; 2he secretariat &as often considered to $e too small to handle all of the league administrative affairs; 2he *eague of +ations= %ssem$ly &as a meeting of all the mem$er states, &ith each state allo&ed up to three representatives and one vote;D "E 2he %ssem$ly met in ,eneva and, after its initial sessions in 19'(,D )E sessions &ere held once a year in .eptem$er;D "E

$edit% Council
2he *eague Bouncil acted as a type of e<ecutive $ody directing the %ssem$ly=s $usiness;D 0E 2he Bouncil $egan &ith four permanent mem$ers 9,reat Aritain, France, Italy, Japan: and four non#permanent mem$ers &hich &ere elected $y the %ssem$ly for a three year period;D HE 2he first four non#permanent mem$ers &ere Aelgium, Arazil, ,reece and .pain; 2he Fnited .tates &as meant to $e the fifth permanent mem$er, $ut the F. .enate voted on 19 ?arch 19'( against the ratification of the 2reaty of 4ersailles, thus preventing %merican participation in the *eague; 2he composition of the Bouncil &as su$se6uently changed a num$er of times; 2he num$er of non#permanent mem$ers &as first increased to si< on '' .eptem$er 19'', and then to nine on 5 .eptem$er 19'0; Werner /ank&ort of ,ermany pushed for his home country to Koin the league &hich they eventually did in 19'0; ,ermany

$ecame the fifth permanent mem$er of the Bouncil, giving the Bouncil a total of fifteen mem$ers; *ater, after ,ermany and Japan $oth left the *eague, the num$er of non#permanent seats &as increased from nine to eleven; 2he Bouncil met, on average, five times a year and in e<traordinary sessions &hen re6uired; In total, 1(H pu$lic sessions &ere held $et&een 19'( and 19 9;

$edit% &ther (odies

2he *eague oversa& the 8ermanent Bourt of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal &ith pressing international pro$lems; 2hese included the /isarmament Bommission, the @ealth 3rganization, the International *a$our 3rganization, the ?andates Bommission, the International Bommission on Intellectual Booperation 9precursor to F+-.B3:, the 8ermanent Bentral 3pium Aoard, the Bommission for >efugees, and the .lavery Bommission; .everal of these institutions &ere transferred to the Fnited +ations after the .econd World WarL the International *a$our 3rganization, the 8ermanent Bourt of International Justice 9as the International Bourt of Justice:, and the @ealth 3rganization 9restructured as the World @ealth 3rganization: all $ecame F+ institutions; $edit% #ealth &rgani*ation 2he *eague=s health organization had three $odies, a @ealth Aureau, containing permanent officials of the *eague, an e<ecutive section the ,eneral %dvisory Bouncil or Bonference consisting of medical e<perts, and a @ealth Bommittee; 2he Bommittee=s purpose &as to conduct in6uiries, oversee the operation of the *eague=s health &ork, and get &ork ready to $e presented to the Bouncil;D 5E 2his $ody focused on ending leprosy, malaria and yello& fever, the latter t&o $y starting an international campaign to e<terminate mos6uitoes; 2he @ealth 3rganization also &orked successfully &ith the government of the .oviet Fnion to prevent typhus epidemics including organising a large education campaign a$out the disease;D 9E

Bhild *a$our in Iamerun during 1919 $edit% +nternational La(our &rgani*ation ?ain article: International *a$our 3rganization In 1919, the International *a$our 3rganization 9I*3: &as created as part of the 4ersailles 2reaty and $ecame part of the *eague=s operations;D"(E Its first director &as %l$ert 2homas;D"1E 2he I*3 successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint,D"'E and convinced several countries to adopt an eight#hour &ork day and forty#eight hour &orking &eek; It also &orked to end child la$our, increase the rights of &omen in the &orkplace, and make shipo&ners lia$le for accidents involving seamen;D"(E 2he organization continued to e<ist after the end of the *eague, $ecoming an agency of the Fnited +ations in 19"0;D" E $edit% er'anent Central &piu' ,oard 2he *eague &anted to regulate the drug trade and esta$lished the 8ermanent Bentral 3pium Aoard to supervise the statistical control system introduced $y the second International 3pium Bonvention that mediated the production,

manufacture, trade and retail of opium and its $y#products; 2he Aoard also esta$lished a system of import certificates and e<port authorizations for the legal international trade in narcotics;D""E

% sample +ansen passport $edit% Sla-er! Co''ission 2he .lavery Bommission sought to eradicate slavery and slave trading across the &orld, and fought forced prostitution;D")E Its main success &as through pressing the governments &ho administered mandated countries to end slavery in those countries; 2he *eague secured a commitment from -thiopia to end slavery as a condition of mem$ership in 19'0, and &orked &ith *i$eria to a$olish forced la$our and inter#tri$al slavery;D")E It succeeded in gaining the emancipation of '((,((( slaves in .ierra *eone and organized raids against slave traders in its efforts to stop the practice of forced la$our in %frica;Dcitation neededE It also succeeded in reducing the death rate of &orkers constructing the 2anganyika rail&ay from ))P to "P; >ecords &ere kept to control slavery, prostitution, and the trafficking of &omen and children;D"0E $edit% Co''ission for .efugees *ed $y FridtKof +ansen, the Bommission for >efugees looked after the interests of refugees including overseeing their repatriation and, &hen necessary resettlement;D"HE %t the end of the First World War there &ere t&o to three million e<#prisoners of &ar dispersed throughout >ussia,D"HE &ithin t&o years of the commission=s foundation, in 19'(, it had helped "'),((( of them return home;D"5E It esta$lished camps in 2urkey in 19'' to aid the country &ith a refugee crisis it &as dealing &ith, helping to prevent disease and hunger; It also esta$lished the +ansen passport as a means of identification for stateless peoples;D"9E $edit% Co''ittee for the Stud! of the Legal Status of /o'en 2he Bommittee for the .tudy of the *egal .tatus of Women sought to make an in6uiry into the status of &omen all over the &orld; It &as formed in %pril 19 5, and dissolved in early 19 9; Bommittee mem$ers included ?me; 8; Aastid 9France:, ?; de >uelle 9Aelgium:, ?me; %nka ,odKevac 9Ougoslavia:, ?r; @; B; ,utteridge 9,reat Aritain:, ?lle; Ierstin @esselgren 9.&eden:,D)(E ?s; /orothy Ienyon 9Fnited .tates:, ?; 8aul .e$astyen 9@ungary: and .ecretariat ?r; @ugh ?cIinnon Wood 9,reat Aritain:;

$edit% 0e'(ers
.ee also: *eague of +ations mem$ers %n anachronous map of the &orld in the years 19'(!19"), &hich sho&s the *eague of +ations and the &orld;

3f the *eague=s "' founding mem$ers, ' 9or '", counting Free France: remained mem$ers until it &as dissolved in 19"0; In the founding year, si< other states Koined, only t&o of &hich remained mem$ers throughout the *eague=s e<istence; %n additional 1) countries Koined in later years; 2he largest num$er of mem$er states &as )5, $et&een '5 .eptem$er 19 " 9&hen -cuador Koined: and ' Fe$ruary 19 ) 9&hen 8araguay &ithdre&:; %t this time, only Bosta >ica 9'' January 19'):, Arazil 91" June 19'0:, the -mpire of Japan 9'H ?arch 19 :, and ,ermany 919 .eptem$er 19 : had &ithdra&n citing a diplomatic disadvantage due to inferior po&ers;-gypt Koined the league9on '0 ?ay 19 H:; 2he .oviet Fnion only $ecame a mem$er on 15 .eptem$er 19 ",D)1E &hen it Koined to antagonise ,ermany 9&hich had left the year $efore:,D)'E and &as e<pelled from the *eague on 1" /ecem$er 19 9D)1E for aggression against Finland;D)'E In e<pelling the .oviet Fnion, the *eague $roke its o&n normsL only H of 1) mem$ers of the Bouncil voted for the e<pulsion 9,reat Aritain, France, Aelgium, Aolivia, -gypt, .outh %frica, and the /ominican >epu$lic:, &hich &as not the maKority of votes re6uired $y the Bovenant to do so; 2hree of these mem$ers &ere chosen as mem$ers of the Bouncil the day $efore the voting 9.outh %frica, Aolivia, and -gypt:;D)'E 2his &as one of the *eague=s final acts $efore it practically ceased functioning;D) E o&ing to the .econd World War;D)"E -gypt &as the last state to Koin the *eague 9'0 ?ay 19 H:; 2he first mem$er to &ithdra& from the *eague after its founding &as Bosta >ica on '' January 19')L having Koined on 10 /ecem$er 19'(, this also makes it the mem$er to have most 6uickly &ithdra&n from the *eague after Koining; 2he last mem$er to &ithdra& from the *eague $efore its dissolution &as *u<em$ourg on ( %ugust 19"'; Arazil &as the first founding mem$er to leave 91" June 19'0: and @aiti &as the last 9%pril 19"':; Ira6, &hich Koined in 19 ', &as the first mem$er of the league that had previously $een a *eague of +ations ?andate;D))E

$edit% 0andates
?ain article: *eague of +ations ?andate *eague of +ations ?andates &ere esta$lished under %rticle '' of the Bovenant of the *eague of +ations; 2hese territories &ere former colonies of the ,erman -mpire and the 3ttoman -mpire that &ere placed under the supervision of the *eague follo&ing World War I; 2he 8ermanent ?andates Bommission supervised *eague of +ations mandates, and also organised ple$iscites in disputed territories so that residents could decide &hich country they &ould Koin; 2here &ere three ?andate classifications;

$edit% 1)1 0andates

2he C%C ?andates 9applied to parts of the old 3ttoman -mpire: &ere =certain communities= that had
;;;reached a stage of development &here their e<istence as independent nations can $e provisionally recognised su$Kect to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance $y a ?andatory until such time as they are a$le to stand alone; 2he &ishes of these communities must $e a principal consideration in the selection of the ?andatory; D)0E ! %rticle '', he %ovenant of the League of Nations

$edit% 1,1 0andates

2he CAC ?andates &ere applied to the former ,erman Bolonies that the *eague took responsi$ility for after the First World War; 2hese &ere descri$ed as =peoples= that the *eague said &ere

;;;at such a stage that the ?andatory must $e responsi$le for the administration of the territory under conditions &hich &ill guarantee freedom of conscience and religion, su$Kect only to the maintenance of pu$lic order and morals, the prohi$ition of a$uses such as the slave trade, the arms traffic and the li6uor traffic, and the prevention of the esta$lishment of fortifications or military and naval $ases and of military training of the natives for other than police purposes and the defence of territory, and &ill also secure e6ual opportunities for the trade and commerce of other ?em$ers of the *eague; D)0E ! %rticle '', he %ovenant of the League of Nations

$edit% 1C1 0andates

%reas in .outh#West %frica and certain of the .outh 8acific Islands &ere administrated $y *eague mem$ers under a B ?andate; 2hese &ere classified as =territories=
;;;&hich, o&ing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the ?andatory, and other circumstances, can $e $est administered under the la&s of the ?andatory as integral portions of its territory, su$Kect to the safeguards a$ove mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population;CD)0E ! %rticle '', he %ovenant of the League of Nations

$edit% 0andator! o2ers

2he territories &ere governed $y C?andatory 8o&ersC, such as the Fnited Iingdom in the case of the ?andate of 8alestine and the Fnion of .outh %frica in the case of .outh#West %frica, until the territories &ere deemed capa$le of self#government; 2here &ere fourteen mandate territories divided up among the si< ?andatory 8o&ers of the Fnited Iingdom, France, Aelgium, +e& Qealand, %ustralia and Japan; With the e<ception of Ira6, &hich Koined the *eague on 3cto$er 19 ', these territories did not $egin to gain their independence until after the .econd World War, a process that did not end until 199(; Follo&ing the demise of the *eague, most of the remaining mandates $ecame Fnited +ations 2rust 2erritories; In addition to the ?andates, the *eague itself governed the .aarland for 1) years, $efore it &as returned to ,ermany follo&ing a ple$iscite, and the free city of /anzig 9no& ,daRsk, 8oland: from 1) +ovem$er 19'( to 1 .eptem$er 19 9;

$edit% .esol-ing territorial disputes

2he aftermath of World War I left many issues to $e settled $et&een nations, including the e<act position of national $oundaries and &hich country particular regions &ould Koin; ?ost of these 6uestions &ere handled $y the victorious %llied 8o&ers in $odies such as the %llied .upreme Bouncil; 2he %llies tended to refer only particularly difficult matters to the *eague; 2his meant that, during the first three years of the 19'(s, the *eague played little part in resolving the turmoil that resulted from the &ar; 2he 6uestions the *eague considered in its early years included those designated $y the 8aris 8eace treaties;D)HE %s the *eague developed, its role e<panded, and $y the middle of the 19'(s, it $ecame the centre of international activity; 2his change can $e seen in the relationship $et&een the *eague and non#mem$ers; 2he Fnited .tates and >ussia, for e<ample, increasingly &orked &ith the *eague; /uring the second half of the 19'(s, France, Aritain and ,ermany &ere all using the *eague of +ations as the focus of their diplomatic activity and each of their foreign secretaries attended *eague meetings at ,eneva during this period; 2hey also used the *eague=s machinery to try to improve relations and settle their differences;D)5E

$edit% 3pper Silesia

8olish poster from the ple$iscite in Fpper .ilesia in 19'1 2he %llied 8o&ers referred the pro$lem of Fpper .ilesia to the *eague after they had $een una$le to resolve the territorial dispute;D)9E %fter the First World War, 8oland laid claim to Fpper .ilesia, &hich had $een part of 8russia; 2he 2reaty of 4ersailles had recommended a ple$iscite in Fpper .ilesia to determine &hether the territory should $e part of ,ermany or 8oland; Bomplaints a$out the attitude of the ,erman authorities led to rioting and eventually to the first t&o .ilesian Fprisings 91919 and 19'(:; % ple$iscite took place on '( ?arch 19'1 &ith )9;0P 9around )((,(((: of the votes cast in favour of Koining ,ermany, $ut 8oland claimed the conditions surrounding it had $een unfair; 2his result led to the 2hird .ilesian Fprising in 19'1;D0(E 3n 1' %ugust 19'1, the *eague &as asked to settle the matter, and the Bouncil created a commission &ith representatives from Aelgium, Arazil, Bhina and .pain to study the situation;D01E 2he committee recommended that Fpper .ilesia should $e divided $et&een 8oland and ,ermany according to the preferences sho&n in the ple$iscite and that the t&o sides should decide the details of the interaction $et&een the t&o areas; For e<ample, &hether goods should pass freely over the $order due to the economic and industrial interdependency of the t&o areas;D0'E In +ovem$er 19'1 a conference &as held in ,eneva to negotiate a convention $et&een ,ermany and 8oland; % final settlement &as reached, after five meetings, in &hich most of the area &as given to ,ermany $ut &ith the 8olish section containing the maKority of the region=s mineral resources and much of its industry; When this agreement $ecame pu$lic in ?ay 19'', $itter resentment &as e<pressed in ,ermany, $ut the treaty &as still ratified $y $oth countries; 2he settlement produced peace in the area lasting until the run up to the .econd World War;D01E

$edit% )l(ania
2he frontiers of %l$ania had not $een set during the 8aris 8eace Bonference in 1919, $eing left to the *eague to $e decided, $ut had not yet $een determined $y .eptem$er 19'1; 2his created an unsta$le situation &ith ,reek troops repeatedly crossing into %l$anian territory on military operations in the south and Ougoslavian forces engaged, after clashes &ith %l$anian tri$esmen, far into the northern part of the country; 2he *eague sent a commission of representatives from various po&ers to the region and in +ovem$er 19'1, the *eague decided that the frontiers of %l$ania should $e the same as they had $een in 191 &ith three minor changes that favoured Ougoslavia; Ougoslav forces &ithdre& a fe& &eeks later, al$eit under protest;D0 E 2he $orders of %l$ania again $ecome the cause of international conflict &hen Italian ,eneral -nrico 2ellini and four of his assistants &ere am$ushed and killed on '" %ugust 19' &hile marking out the ne& ne&ly decided $order $et&een ,reece and %l$ania; Italian leader Aenito ?ussolini &as incensed, and demanded that a commission should $e set up to investigate the incident and that its en6uires should $e completed &ithin five days; Whatever the results of the en6uiry, ?ussolini insisted that the ,reek government should pay Italy fifty million lira reparations; 2he ,reeks said they &ould not pay unless it &as proved that the crime &as committed $y ,reeks;D0"E ?ussolini sent a &arship to shell the ,reek island of Borfu and Italian forces occupied Borfu on 1 %ugust 19' ; 2his contravened the *eague=s covenant so ,reece appealed to the *eague to deal &ith the situation; 2he %llies, ho&ever, agreed 9under ?ussolini=s insistence: that the Bonference of %m$assadors should $e responsi$le for

resolving the dispute $ecause it &as the conference that had appointed ,eneral 2ellini; 2he *eague Bouncil e<amined the dispute $ut then passed their findings to the Bouncil of %m$assadors to make the final decision; 2he conference accepted most of the *eague=s recommendations forcing ,reece to pay fifty million lira to Italy even though those &ho committed the crime &ere never discovered;D0)E ?ussolini &as a$le to leave Borfu in triumph;

$edit% 4land +slands

?ain article: Gland crisis Gland is a collection of around 0,)(( islands mid&ay $et&een .&eden and Finland; 2he islands are e<clusively .&edish speaking, $ut in 15(9, .&eden had lost $oth Finland and the Gland Islands to Imperial >ussia; In /ecem$er 191H, during the turmoil of the >ussian 3cto$er >evolution, Finland declared independence, and most of the Glanders &ished the islands to $ecome part of .&eden againLD00E the Finnish government, ho&ever, felt that the islands &ere part of their ne& nation, as the >ussians had included Gland in the ,rand /uchy of Finland formed in 15(9; Ay 19'(, the dispute had escalated to such a level that there &as a danger of &ar; 2he Aritish government referred the pro$lem to the *eague=s Bouncil, $ut Finland did not let the *eague intervene as they considered it an internal matter; 2he *eague created a small panel to decide if the *eague should investigate the matter and, &ith an affirmative response, a neutral commission &as created;D00E In June 19'1, the *eague announced its decisionL the islands should remain a part of Finland $ut &ith guaranteed protection of the islanders, including demilitarization; With .&eden=s reluctant agreement, this $ecame the first -uropean international agreement concluded directly through the *eague;D0HE

$edit% 0e'el
?ain article: IlaipSda >evolt 2he port city of ?emel 9no& IlaipSda: and the surrounding area, &ith a predominantly ,erman population, &ere under %llied control after the end of the World War I; 2he area had $een a&arded to *ithuania $y %rticle 99 of the 2reaty of 4ersailles $ut the French and 8olish governments favoured turning ?emel into an international city; Ay 19' , control of the area had still not $een transferred to *ithuania, prompting *ithuanian forces to invade in January 19' and seize the port; %fter the %llies failed to reach an agreement &ith *ithuania, they referred the matter to the *eague of +ations; In /ecem$er 19' , the *eague Bouncil appointed a Bommission of In6uiry to investigate; 2he Bommission chose to cede ?emel to *ithuania and give the area autonomous rights; 2his decision &as approved $y the *eague Bouncil on 1" ?arch 19'" and then $y the %llied 8o&ers and *ithuania;D05E

$edit% 0osul
2he *eague resolved a dispute $et&een Ira6 and 2urkey over the control of the former 3ttoman province of ?osul in 19'0; %ccording to the Aritish, &ho &ere a&arded a *eague of +ations %#mandate over Ira6 in 19'( and therefore represented Ira6 in its foreign affairs, ?osul $elonged to Ira6L on the other hand, the ne& 2urkish repu$lic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland; % *eague of +ations= Bommission of In6uiry &ith Aelgian, @ungarian and .&edish mem$ers &as sent to the region in 19'" to study the case and found that the people of ?osul did not &ant to $e part of 2urkey or Ira6 $ut if they had to choose &ould pick Ira6;D09E In 19'), the commission recommended that the region stay part of Ira6, under the condition that the Aritish &ould hold the mandate over Ira6 for another ') years, to assure the autonomous rights of the Iurdish population; 2he *eague Bouncil adopted the recommendation and it decided on 10 /ecem$er 19') to a&ard ?osul to Ira6; %lthough 2urkey had accepted the *eague of +ations= ar$itration in the 2reaty of *ausanne in 19' , it reKected the *eague=s decision 6uestioning the Bouncil=s authority; 2he matter &as referred to the 8ermanent Bourt of International Justice &hich ruled that &hen the Bouncil made a unanimous decision it must $e accepted; +onetheless, Aritain, Ira6 and 2urkey ratified a separate treaty on ) June 19'0, that mostly follo&ed the decision of the *eague Bouncil and also assigned ?osul to Ira6; It &as agreed, ho&ever, that Ira6 could still apply for *eague mem$ership &ithin ') years and that the mandate &ould end upon its admittance;DH(EDH1E

$edit% 5ilnius
?ain article: Teligo&ski=s ?utiny %fter World War I, 8oland and *ithuania $oth regained their independence $ut there &as disagreement a$out the frontiers $et&een the countries;DH'E /uring the 8olish#.oviet War, *ithuania signed a peace treaty &ith the .oviet Fnion that laid out *ithuania=s frontiers; 2his agreement gave control of the city of 4ilnius 9*ithuanian: "ilnius, 8olish: Wilno:, the old *ithuanian capital, to *ithuania &hich $ecame the country=s seat of government;DH E 2his heightened tension $et&een *ithuania and 8oland led to fears that they &ould go to &ar, and on H 3cto$er 19'( the *eague negotiated a short#lived armisticeDH'E 2he maKority of the population of the city of 4ilnius during the inter# &ar era &ere 8olish and on 9 3cto$er 19'( ,eneral Qeligo&ski &ith a 8olish military force took the city and claimed that the ,overnment of Bentral *ithuania &as no& under their protection;DH'E *ithuania re6uested the *eague=s assistance and in response, the *eague Bouncil called for 8oland=s &ithdra&al from the area; 2he 8olish ,overnment indicated they &ould comply &ith the *eague, $ut rather than leaving, it reinforced the city &ith more 8olish troops;DH"E 2his prompted the *eague to decide that the future of 4ilnius should $e determined $y its residents in a ple$iscite and that the 8olish forces should &ithdra& and $e replaced $y an international force organised $y the *eague; .everal *eague nations, included France and Aritain, started preparing troops to $e sent to the area as part of the international force; %t the end of 19'(, hostilities $et&een 8oland and *ithuania increased again $ut early in 19'1, the 8olish government $egan to seek a peaceful settlement; It agreed to support the *eague=s plan for the area, &ithdra& 8olish troops and co#operate &ith the ple$iscite; 2he *eague, ho&ever, no& faced opposition from *ithuania and the .oviet Fnion, &ho opposed of any international force in *ithuania; In ?arch 19'1, the *eague a$andoned plans for the ple$iscite and the international force, and returned to attempting to facilitate a negotiated settlement $et&een the t&o sides;DH)E 4ilnius and the surrounding area &ere formally anne<ed $y 8oland in ?arch 19'', and on 1" ?arch 19' , the %llied Bonference set the frontier $et&een *ithuania and 8oland leaving 4ilnius &ithin 8oland;DH0E *ithuanian authorities refused to accept the decision, and officially remained in a state of &ar &ith 8oland until 19'H;DHHE It &as not until the 19 5 8olish ultimatum that *ithuania &as forced to esta$lish diplomatic relations &ith 8oland and thus de facto accepted the $orders of its neigh$our;DH5E

$edit% Colo'(ia and eru

2he Bolom$ian %rmy countering a 8eruvian attack ?ain article: Bolom$ia!8eru War 2here &ere several $order conflicts $et&een Bolom$ia and 8eru in the early part of the '(th century, and in 19'', their governments signed the .alomUn#*ozano 2reaty to try and resolve these conflicts;DH9E %s part of this treaty, the $order to&n *eticia and its surrounding area &ere ceded from 8eru to Bolom$ia, giving Bolom$ia access to the %mazon >iver;D5(E 3n 1 .eptem$er 19 ', $usiness leaders from the 8eruvian ru$$er and sugar industries &ho had lost land &hen the area &as given to Bolom$ia organised an armed takeover of *eticia;D51E %t first, the 8eruvian government did not recognise the military takeover $ut 8eru=s 8resident *uis .1nchez Berro decided to resist a Bolom$ian re#occupation; 2he 8eruvian army occupied *eticia, resulting in an armed conflict $et&een the t&o nations;D5'E %fter months of diplomatic &rangling, the governments accepted mediation $y the *eague of +ations, and their representatives presented their cases $efore the *eague=s Bouncil; % provisional peace agreement, signed $y $oth parties in ?ay 19 , provided for the *eague to assume control of the disputed territory &hile $ilateral

negotiations proceeded;D5 E In ?ay 19 ", a final peace agreement &as signed, resulting in the return of *eticia to Bolom$ia, a formal apology from 8eru for the 19 ' invasion, demilitarization of the area around *eticia, free navigation on the %mazon and 8utumayo >ivers, and a pledge of non#aggression;

$edit% Saar
.aar &as a province, formed from parts of 8russia and the >henish 8alatinate, that &as esta$lished and placed under *eague control $y the 2reaty of 4ersailles; % ple$iscite &as to $e held after fifteen years of *eague rule to determine &hether the region should $elong to ,ermany or France; When the referendum &as held in 19 ), 9(; P of votes supported $ecoming part of ,ermanyD5"ED5)E 3n 1H January 19 ), the territory=s re#integration &ith ,ermany &as approved $y the *eague Bouncil;

$edit% eace and securit!

In addition to territorial disputes, the *eague also tried to intervene in other conflicts $et&een 9and even &ithin: nations; %mong its successes &ere its attempts to com$at the international trade in opium and se<ual slavery, and its &ork to alleviate the plight of refugees, particularly in 2urkey in the period to 19'0; 3ne of its innovations in this latter area &as the 19'' introduction of the +ansen passport, &hich &as the first internationally recognized identity card for stateless refugees; ?any of the *eague=s successes &ere accomplished $y its various agencies and commissions;

$edit% 6reece and ,ulgaria

?ain article: Incident at 8etrich %fter an incident $et&een sentries on the $order $et&een ,reece and Aulgaria in 3cto$er 19'), fighting $egan $et&een the t&o countries;D50E 2hree days after the initial incident, ,reek troops invaded Aulgaria; 2he Aulgarian government ordered its troops to provide only token resistance, and evacuated $et&een ten thousand and fifteen thousand people from the $order region, trusting the *eague to settle the dispute;D5HE 2he *eague did indeed condemn the ,reek invasion, and called for $oth ,reek &ithdra&al and compensation to Aulgaria; ,reece complied, $ut complained a$out the disparity $et&een their treatment and that of Italy after the Borfu incident;

$edit% Li(eria
Follo&ing accusations of forced la$or on the massive %merican#o&ned Firestone ru$$er plantation and %merican accusations of slave trading, the *i$erian government asked the *eague to launch an investigation;D55E 2he commission created to investigate &as Kointly appointed $y the *eague, the Fnited .tates of %merica, and *i$eria; D59E In 19 (, a report $y the *eague confirmed slavery and forced la$or &as taking place; 2he report implicated many government officials in the selling of contract la$or and recommended that they $e replaced $y -uropeans or %mericans; 2he *i$erian government outla&ed forced la$or and slavery and asked for %merican help, this created anger &ithin *i$eria and led to the resignation of 8resident Bharles /;A; Iing and his vice#president;D59E 2he *eague then threatened to esta$lish a trusteeship over *i$eria unless reforms &ere carried out, enacting these reforms then $ecame the central focus of 8resident -d&in Aarclay;Dcitation neededE

$edit% 0u7den +ncident

?ain article: ?ukden Incident

Japanese troops entering .henyang 15 .eptem$er 19 1 2he ?ukden Incident, also kno&n as the C?anchurian IncidentC or the CFar -astern BrisisC, &as one of the *eague=s maKor set$acks and acted as the catalyst for Japan=s &ithdra&al from the organization; Fnder the terms of an agreed lease, the Japanese government had the right to station its troops in the area around the .outh ?anchurian >ail&ay, a maKor trade route $et&een the t&o countries, in the Bhinese region of ?anchuria;D9(E In .eptem$er 19 1, a section of the rail&ay &as lightly damaged $y officers and troops of the Japanese I&antung %rmyD91ED9'E as a prete<t for an invasion of ?anchuria;D91ED9 E 2he Japanese army, ho&ever, claimed that Bhinese soldiers had sa$otaged the rail&ay and in apparent retaliation 9acting contrary to the civilian government=s ordersD9'E: occupied the entire region of ?anchuria; 2hey renamed the area ?anchukuo, and on 9 ?arch 19 ' set up a puppet government &ith 8u Oi, the former emperor of Bhina, as its e<ecutive head;D9"E Internationally, this ne& country &as recognised only $y the governments of Italy and ,ermanyL the rest of the &orld still considered ?anchuria legally part of Bhina; In 19 ', Japanese air and sea forces $om$arded the Bhinese city of .hanghai, sparking the January '5 Incident; 2he *eague of +ations agreed to a re6uest for help from the Bhinese government, $ut the long voyage $y ship delayed *eague officials from investigating the matter; When they arrived, the officials &ere confronted &ith Bhinese assertions that the Japanese had invaded unla&fully, &hile the Japanese claimed they &ere acting to keep peace in the area; /espite Japan=s high standing in the *eague, the su$se6uent *ytton >eport declared Japan to $e the aggressor and demanded ?anchuria $e returned to the Bhinese; Aefore the report could $e voted on $y the %ssem$ly, Japan announced its intention to push further into Bhina; 2he report passed "'#1 in the %ssem$ly in 19 9only Japan voted against:, $ut instead of &ithdra&ing its troops from Bhina, Japan &ithdre& its mem$ership from the *eague; %ccording to the Bovenant, the *eague should have responded $y placing economic sanctions on Japan, or gathered an army and declared &ar; +either of these actions &as undertaken, ho&ever; 2he threat of economic sanctions &ould have $een almost useless $ecause the Fnited .tates &as not a *eague mem$er; %ny economic sanctions the *eague had placed on its mem$er states &ould have $een ineffective, as a country $arred from trading &ith other mem$er states could simply turn and trade &ith the Fnited .tates; 2he *eague could have assem$led an army, $ut maKor po&ers like Aritain and France &ere too preoccupied &ith their o&n affairs, such as keeping control of their e<tensive colonies, especially after the turmoil of World War I; Japan &as therefore left in control of ?anchuria, until the .oviet Fnion=s >ed %rmy took over the area and returned it to Bhina at the end of World War II;

$edit% Chaco /ar

?ain article: Bhaco War 2he *eague failed to prevent the 19 ' &ar $et&een Aolivia and 8araguay over the arid ,ran Bhaco region of .outh %merica; %lthough the region &as sparsely populated, it contained the 8araguay >iver &hich &ould have given one of the t&o landlocked countries access to the %tlantic 3cean,D9)E and there &as also speculation, later proved incorrect, that the Bhaco &ould $e a rich source of petroleum;D90E Aorder skirmishes throughout the late 19'(s culminated in an all#out &ar in 19 ', &hen the Aolivian army attacked the 8araguayans at Fort Barlos %ntonio *Upez at *ake 8itiantuta;D9HE 8araguay appealed to the *eague of +ations, $ut the *eague did not take

action &hen the 8an#%merican conference offered to mediate instead; 2he &ar &as a disaster for $oth sides, causing )H,((( casualties for Aolivia, &hose population &as around three million, and 0,((( dead for 8araguay, &hose population &as appro<imately one million;D95E It also $rought $oth countries to the $rink of economic disaster; Ay the time a ceasefire &as negotiated on 1' June 19 ), 8araguay had seized control over most of the region;D99E 2his &as recognized in a 19 5 truce $y &hich 8araguay &as a&arded three#6uarters of the Bhaco Aoreal;

$edit% +talian in-asion of )(!ssinia

?ain articles: %$yssinia Brisis and .econd Italo#%$yssinian War In 3cto$er 19 ), Italian dictator Aenito ?ussolini sent "((,((( troops to invade %$yssinia 9-thiopia:;D1((E ?arshal 8ietro Aadoglio led the campaign from +ovem$er 19 ), ordering $om$ing, the use of chemical &eapons like mustard gas, and the poisoning of &ater supplies, against targets &hich included undefended villages and medical facilities;D1((ED1(1E 2he modern Italian %rmy defeated the poorly armed %$yssinians, and captured %ddis %$a$a in ?ay 19 0, forcing -mperor @aile .elassie to flee;D1('E 2he *eague of +ations condemned Italy=s aggression and imposed economic sanctions in +ovem$er 19 ), $ut the sanctions &ere largely ineffective since they did not $an the sale of oil or close the .uez Banal 9controlled $y Aritain:;D1( E %s .tanley Aald&in, the Aritish 8rime ?inister, later o$served, this &as ultimately $ecause no one had the military forces on hand to &ithstand an Italian attack;D1("E In 3cto$er 19 ), F;.; 8resident Franklin /; >oosevelt invoked the recently#passed +eutrality %ct and placed an em$argo on arms and ammunition &ith $oth sides, $ut e<tended a further Cmoral em$argoC to the $elligerent Italians, including other trade items; 3n ) 3cto$er and later on '9 Fe$ruary 19 0 the Fnited .tates endeavoured, &ith uncertain success, to limit its e<ports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels;D1()E 2he *eague sanctions &ere lifted on " July 19 0, $ut $y that point Italy had already gained control of the ur$an areas of %$yssinia;D1(0E In /ecem$er 19 ), the @oare#*aval 8act &as an attempt $y Aritish Foreign .ecretary .amuel @oare and French 8rime ?inister 8ierre *aval to end the conflict in %$yssinia $y dra&ing up a plan to partition the country into t&o parts, an Italian sector and an %$yssinian sector; ?ussolini &as prepared to agree to the 8act, $ut ne&s of the deal &as leaked and $oth the Aritish and French pu$lic venomously protested against it, descri$ing it as a sell#out of %$yssinia; @oare and *aval &ere forced to resign their positions, and $oth the Aritish and French governments dissociated themselves from their respective men;D1(HE In June 19 0, although there &as no precedent for a head of state addressing the %ssem$ly of the *eague of +ations in person, the -mperor of -thiopia @aile .elassie I spoke to the %ssem$ly to appeal for its help in protecting his country;D1(5E %s &as the case &ith Japan, the vigour of the maKor po&ers in responding to the crisis in %$yssinia &as tempered $y their perception that the fate of this poor and far#off country, inha$ited $y non#-uropeans, &as not a central interest of theirs;Dcitation neededE In addition, it sho&ed ho& the *eague could $e influenced $y the self#interest of its mem$ersLD1(9E one of the reasons &hy the sanctions &ere not very harsh &as that $oth Aritain and France feared the prospect of driving ?ussolini and ,erman dictator %dolf @itler into an alliance;D11(E

$edit% Spanish Ci-il /ar

?ain article: .panish Bivil War 3n 1H July 19 0, the .panish %rmy launched a coup d=Vtat, leading to a prolonged armed conflict $et&een .panish >epu$licans 9the leftist government of .pain: and the +ationalists 9conservative, anti#communist re$els &ho included most officers of the .panish %rmy:;D111E %lvarez del 4ayo, the .panish ?inister of Foreign %ffairs, appealed to the *eague in .eptem$er 19 0 for arms to defend its territorial integrity and political independence; 2he *eague mem$ers, ho&ever, &ould not intervene in the .panish Bivil War nor prevent foreign intervention in the conflict; @itler and ?ussolini continued to aid ,eneral Francisco FrancoJs +ationalist insurrectionists, and the

.oviet Fnion aided the .panish >epu$lic; In Fe$ruary 19 H, the *eague did launch a $an on the intervention of foreign national volunteers;

$edit% Second Sino"8apanese /ar

?ain article: .econd .ino#Japanese War Follo&ing a long record of instigating localised conflicts throughout the 19 (s, Japan $egan a full scale invasion of Bhina on H July, 19 H; 3n 1' .eptem$er, the Bhinese representative, Wellington Ioo, appealed to the *eague for an international intervention; Western countries &ere sympathetic to the Bhinese in their struggle against Japan, particularly in their stu$$orn defence of .hanghai, a city &ith a su$stantial num$er of foreigners; @o&ever, the *eague &as una$le to provide any practical measure other than a final statement that gave Bhina Cspiritual support;C 3n " 3cto$er, the *eague adKourned and turned the case over to the +ine 8o&er 2reaty Bonference;

$edit% 9isar'a'ent and failures en route to /orld /ar ++

%rticle eight of the *eague=s covenant gave the *eague the task of reducing armaments to the lo&est point consistent &ith national safety and the enforcement $y common action of international o$ligationsCD11'E % significant amount of the *eague=s time and energy &as devoted to disarmament even though many mem$er governments &ere uncertain that such e<tensive disarmament could $e achieved or &as even desira$le;D11 E 2he %llied 8o&ers &ere also under o$ligation from the 2reaty of 4ersailles to attempt to disarm and the armament restrictions imposed on the defeated countries had $een descri$ed as the first step to&ard &orld &ide disarmament; D11 E 2he *eague Bovenant assigned the *eague the task of creating a disarmament plan for each state $ut the Bouncil devolved this responsi$ility to a special commission set#up in 19'0 to prepare for the 19 '# " World /isarmament Bonference;D11"E ?em$ers of the *eague held different vie&s to&ards disarmament; 2he French &ere reluctant to reduce their armaments &ithout a guarantee of military help if they &ere attacked, 8oland and Bzechoslovakia felt vulnera$le to attack from the east and &anted the *eague=s response to aggression against its mem$ers to $e strengthened $efore they disarmed;D11)E Without this guarantee they &ould not reduce armaments $ecause they felt the risk of attack from ,ermany &as too great; Fear of attack increased as ,ermany regained strength after the First World War especially after @itler gained po&er and $ecame ,erman Bhancellor in 19 ; In particular ,ermany=s attempts to overturn the 2reaty of 4ersailles and the reconstruction of the ,erman military made France increasingly un&illing to disarm;D11"E 2he World /isarmament Bonference &as convened $y the *eague of +ations in ,eneva in 19 ' &ith representatives from 0( states; % one year truce on the e<pansion of armaments, later e<tended $y a fe& months, &as proposed at the start of the conference;D110E 2he /isarmament Bommission o$tained initial agreement from France, Italy, Japan, and Aritain to limit the size of their navies; 2he Iellogg#Ariand 8act, facilitated $y the commission in 19'5, failed in its o$Kective of outla&ing &ar; Fltimately, the Bommission failed to halt the military $uild#up $y ,ermany, Italy and Japan during the 19 (s; 2he *eague &as mostly silent in the face of maKor events leading to World War II such as @itler=s re#militarisation of the >hineland, occupation of the .udetenland and %nschluss of %ustria, &hich had $een for$idden $y the 2reaty of 4ersailles; In fact, *eague mem$ers themselves re#armed; In 19 , Japan simply &ithdre& from the *eague rather than su$mit to its Kudgement, as did ,ermany in 19 9using the failure of the World /isarmament Bonference to agree to arms parity $et&een France and ,ermany as a prete<t:, and Italy in 19 H; 2he *eague commissioner in /anzig &as una$le to deal &ith ,erman claims on the city, a significant contri$uting factor in the out$reak of World War II in 19 9;Dcitation neededE 2he final significant act of the *eague &as to e<pel the .oviet Fnion in /ecem$er 19 9 after it invaded Finland;

$edit% 6eneral 2ea7nesses

:he 6ap in the ,ridge the sign reads C2his *eague of +ations Aridge &as designed $y the 8resident of the F;.;%C
Bartoon from 8unch magazine, 1( /ecem$er 19'(, satirising the gap left $y the F;.;% &hen they did not Koin the *eague of +ations;

2he onset of the .econd World War demonstrated that the *eague had failed in its primary purpose, &hich &as to avoid any future &orld &ar; 2here &ere a variety of reasons for this failure, many connected to general &eaknesses &ithin the organization;

$edit% &rigins and structure

2he origins of the *eague as an organization created $y the %llied 8o&ers as part of the peace settlement to end the First World War led to it $eing vie&ed as a C*eague of 4ictorsC;D11HED115E It also tied the *eague to the 2reaty of 4ersailles, so that &hen the 2reaty $ecame discredited and unpopular, this reflected on the *eague of +ations; 2he *eague=s supposed neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision; It re6uired a unanimous vote of its nine#, later fifteen#, mem$er Bouncil to enact a resolutionL hence, conclusive and effective action &as difficult, if not impossi$le; It &as also slo& in coming to its decisions as certain decisions re6uired the unanimous consent of the entire %ssem$ly; 2his pro$lem mainly stemmed from the fact that the main mem$ers of the *eague of +ations &ere not &illing to accept the possi$ility that their fate &ould $e decided $y other countries and had therefore, in effect, $y enforcing unanimous voting given themselves the po&er of veto;

$edit% 6lo(al representation

>epresentation at the *eague &as often a pro$lem; 2hough it &as intended to encompass all nations, many never Koined, or their time as part of the *eague &as short; ?ost nota$ly missing &as the position that the Fnited .tates of %merica &as supposed to play in the *eague, not only in terms of helping to ensure &orld peace and security $ut also in financing the *eague; 2he F;.; 8resident Woodro& Wilson had $een a driving force $ehind the *eague=s formation and strongly influenced the form it took $ut the Fnited .tates .enate voted not to Koin on 19 +ovem$er 1919;D119E >uth @enig has suggested that, had the Fnited .tates $een a mem$er of the *eague, it &ould have also provided $ackup to France and Aritain, possi$ly making France feel more secure and so encouraging France and Aritain to co#operate more regarding ,ermany and so made the rise to po&er of the +azi party less likely;D1'(E 3n the contrary, @enig ackno&ledges that if %merica had $een a mem$er of the *eague, its reluctance to engage in &ar &ith -uropean states and to enact economic sanctions may have hampered the a$ility of the *eague to deal &ith international incidents;D1'(E 2he structure of government in %merica may also have made its mem$ership pro$lematic as its representatives at the *eague could not have made decisions on $ehalf of the Fnited .tates e<ecutive $ranch &ithout this having already $een approved $y the legislative $ranches;D1'1E In January 19'(, &hen the *eague $egan, ,ermany &as not permitted to Koin $ecause it &as seen as the aggressor in World War I; 2he .oviet Fnion &as also initially e<cluded from the *eague, as communist vie&s &ere not &elcomed $y the victors of World War I; 2he *eague &as further &eakened &hen critical po&ers left in the 19 (s; Japan $egan as a permanent mem$er of the Bouncil, $ut &ithdre& in 19 after the *eague voiced opposition to its invasion of the Bhinese territory of ?anchuria;D1''E Italy also $egan as a permanent mem$er of the Bouncil $ut

&ithdre& in 19 H; 2he *eague had accepted ,ermany as a mem$er in 19'0, deeming it a Cpeace#loving countryC, $ut %dolf @itler pulled ,ermany out &hen he came to po&er in 19 ;D1' E

$edit% Collecti-e securit!

%nother important &eakness gre& from the contradiction $et&een the idea of collective security, that formed the $asis of the *eague, and international relations $et&een individual states;D1'"E 2he collective security system the *eague used meant that nations &ere re6uired to act against states they considered friends, and in a &ay that might endanger their national interests, to support states that they had no normal affinity &ith;D1'"E 2his &eakness &as e<posed during the %$yssinia Brisis &hen Aritain and France had to $alance attempts to maintain the security they had attempted to create for themselves in -urope Cin order to defend against the enemies of internal orderC,D1')E in &hich Italy=s support played a pivotal role, &ith their o$ligations to %$yssinia as a mem$er of the *eague;D1'0E 3n ' June 19 0, in the &ake of the collapse of *eague efforts to restrain Italy=s &ar of con6uest against %$yssinia, Aritish 8rime ?inister .tanley Aald&in told the @ouse of Bommons that collective security had
Cfailed ultimately $ecause of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in -urope to proceed to &hat I might call military sanctions ;;; 2he real reason, or the main reason, &as that &e discovered in the process of &eeks that there &as no country e<cept the aggressor country &hich &as ready for &ar ;;; DIEf collective action is to $e a reality and not merely a thing to $e talked a$out, it means not only that every country is to $e ready for &arL $ut must $e ready to go to &ar at once; 2hat is a terri$le thing, $ut it is an essential part of collective security;C D1("E

Fltimately, Aritain and France $oth a$andoned the concept of collective security in favour of appeasement in the face of gro&ing ,erman militarism under %dolf @itler;D1'HE

$edit% acifis' and disar'a'ent

0oral Suasion; he &a$$it; C?y offensive e6uipment $eing practically nil, it remains for me to fascinate him &ith the po&er of my eye;C
Bartoon from 8unch magazine, '5 July 19'(, satirising the perceived &eakness of the *eague;

2he *eague of +ations, lacked an armed force of its o&n and depended on the ,reat 8o&ers to enforce its resolutions, &hich they &ere very reluctant to do;D1'5E 2he *eague=s t&o most important mem$ers, Aritain and France, &ere reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on $ehalf of the *eague; Immediately after World War I, pacifism &as a strong force $oth in the populations and the governments of the t&o countries; 2he Aritish Bonservatives &ere especially tepid on the *eague and preferred, &hen in government, to negotiate treaties &ithout the involvement of the organization;Dcitation neededE ?oreover, the *eague=s advocacy of disarmament for Aritain, France and its other mem$ers &hile at the same time advocating collective security meant that the *eague &as un&ittingly depriving itself of the only forceful means $y &hich its authority &ould $e upheld; If the *eague &as to force countries to a$ide $y international la&, it &ould re6uire the >oyal +avy and the French %rmy to do the enforcing; When the Aritish Ba$inet discussed the concept of the *eague during the First World War, ?aurice @ankey, the Ba$inet .ecretary, circulated a memorandum on the su$Kect; @e started $y saying: C,enerally it appears to me that any such scheme is dangerous to us, $ecause it &ill create a sense of security &hich is &holly fictitiousC;D1'9E @e attacked the Aritish pre#&ar faith in the sanctity of treaties as delusional and concluded $y claiming:
CIt Da *eague of +ationsE &ill only result in failure and the longer that failure is postponed the more certain it is that this country &ill have $een lulled to sleep; It &ill put a very strong lever into the hands of the &ell#meaning idealists &ho are to

$e found in almost every ,overnment, &ho deprecate e<penditure on armaments, and, in the course of time, it &ill almost certainly result in this country $eing caught at a disadvantageC; D1'9E

2he Foreign 3ffice minister .ir -yre Bro&e also &rote a memorandum to the Aritish Ba$inet claiming that Ca solemn league and covenantC &ould Kust $e Ca treaty, like other treatiesC: CWhat is there to ensure that it &ill not, like other treaties, $e $rokenWC; Bro&e &ent on to e<press scepticism of the planned Cpledge of common actionC against aggressors $ecause he $elieved the actions of individual states &ould still $e determined $y national interests and the $alance of po&er; @e also criticised the proposal for *eague economic sanctions $ecause it &ould ineffectual and that CIt is all a 6uestion of real military preponderanceC; Fniversal disarmament &as a practical impossi$ility, Bro&e &arned;D1'9E

$edit% 9e'ise and legac!

2he *eague of +ations= %ssem$ly $uilding in ,eneva %s the situation in -urope deteriorated into &ar, the %ssem$ly transferred enough po&er to the .ecretary ,eneral on ( .eptem$er 19 5 and 1" /ecem$er 19 9 to allo& the *eague to continue to legally e<ist and to carry on reduced operations;D)"E 2he head6uarters of the *eague, the 8alace of 8eace, remained unoccupied for nearly si< years until the .econd World War ended;D1 (E %t the 19" 2ehran Bonference, the %llied 8o&ers agreed to create a ne& $ody to replace the *eague: the Fnited +ations; ?any *eague $odies, such as the International *a$our 3rganization, continued to function and eventually $ecame affiliated &ith the F+;D" E 2he structure of the Fnited +ations &as intended to make it more effective than the *eague; 2he final meeting of the *eague of +ations &as held in %pril 19"0 in ,eneva; /elegates from " nations attended the assem$ly;D1 1E 2his session concerned itself &ith li6uidating the *eague: assets &orth appro<imately X'',(((,((( in 19"0,D1 'E including the 8alace of 8eace and the *eague=s archives, &ere given to the F+, reserve funds &ere returned to the nations that had supplied them, and the de$ts of the *eague &ere settled;D1 1E >o$ert Becil is said to have summed up the feeling of the gathering during a speech to the final assem$ly &hen he said:
*et us $oldly state that aggression &herever it occurs and ho&ever it may $e defended, is an international crime, that it is the duty of every peace#loving state to resent it and employ &hatever force is necessary to crush it, that the machinery of the Bharter, no less than the machinery of the Bovenant, is sufficient for this purpose if properly used, and that every &ell# disposed citizen of every state should $e ready to undergo any sacrifice in order to maintain peace ;;; I venture to impress upon my hearers that the great &ork of peace is resting not only on the narro& interests of our o&n nations, $ut even more on those great principles of right and &rong &hich nations, like individuals, depend; 2he *eague is dead; *ong live the Fnited +ationsD1 1E

2he motion that dissolved the *eague passed unanimously: C2he *eague of +ations shall cease to e<ist e<cept for the purpose of the li6uidation of its affairs;CD1 E 2he motion also set the date for the end of the *eague as the day after the session &as closed; 3n 19 %pril 19"0, the 8resident of the %ssem$ly, Barl J; @am$ro of +or&ay, declared Cthe t&enty#first and last session of the ,eneral %ssem$ly of the *eague of +ations closed;CD1 'E %s a result, the *eague of +ations ceased to e<ist on '( %pril 19"0;D1 "E

8rofessor /avid Iennedy has suggested that the *eague is a uni6ue moment &hen international affairs &ere CinstitutionalizedC as opposed to the pre#World War I methods of la& and politics;D1 )E 2he principal %llies in World War II 9the FI, the F..>, France, the F;.;, and >epu$lic of Bhina: $ecame permanent mem$ers of the F+ .ecurity BouncilL these ne& C,reat 8o&ersC gained significant international influence, mirroring the *eague Bouncil; /ecisions of the F+ .ecurity Bouncil are $inding on all mem$ers of the F+L ho&ever, unanimous decisions are not re6uired, unlike the *eague Bouncil; 8ermanent mem$ers of the F+ .ecurity Bouncil are also given a shield to protect their vital interests, &hich has prevented the F+ acting decisively in many cases; .imilarly, the F+ does not have its o&n standing armed forces, $ut the F+ has $een more successful than the *eague in calling for its mem$ers to contri$ute to armed interventions, such as during the Iorean War and the peacekeeping mission in the former Ougoslavia; 2he F+ has in some cases $een forced to rely on economic sanctions; 2he F+ has also $een more successful than the *eague in attracting mem$ers from the nations of the &orld, making it more representative;

$edit% See also

United Nations portal World War I portal %rticle Y of the Bovenant of the *eague of +ations %tlantic Bharter Inter&ar period ?inority 2reaties +eutrality %cts 8alais des +ations, $uilt as the *eague=s head6uarters; *igue internationale de la pai<