Summary Writing

November 2013

"Your manuscript is both good and original; but the part that is good is not original, and the part that is original is not good." (Samuel Johnson)

I. II.

The Task Strategy A. B. Deconstruction and Reconstruction: The Cornell method Writing your summary

III.

The Elements A. Vocabulary

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Idioms Gerunds Close calls and false friends Synonyms Social register

B. C. IV. Style A. B. C.

Paraphrasing and Transformation Grammar

Desubstantivate! More style considerations Writing Mechanics

1. 2. 3. 4. Punctuation Articles Linking words British and American spelling

V.

Practice A. B. C. News report Factual text Opinion text

4 I. The Task

The goal of writing a summary is to convey as accurately as possible the full sense of a given text in a condensed form. In essence, you want to say the same thing in fewer words. In order to accomplish this task, you must fearlessly reduce clutter, judiciously select the most important parts of the original, and compose a new text. You must remain objective. You must be thorough. You must be efficient. And your English has to be good. Thats a lot to ask, but with the right tools it can be done. You need to demonstrate proficiency on two fronts: 1. Language and expression o Grammatical accuracy o Correct and appropriate usage o Sensible punctuation o Variety of sentence structures o Range of vocabulary o Fluent, confident, accurate and appropriate use of expression and idiom 2. Content and style o Accurate presentation and coherent organization o Correct layout and logical structure o Effective use of paragraphs o Effective use of linking devices o Appropriate length o Consistent and appropriate social register and tone o Variety of repertoire Objectivity You must remain impartial at all times. It is customary to refer to the author two or three times (at the beginning, somewhere in the middle, and again at the end) to emphasize your objectivity. You may want to comment on the authors style as well. There are several ways to do this. You can write according to the author or use one of the following verbs. The author: notes points out describes maintains is convinced portrays cites concludes gives emphasizes outlines argues believes offers states asserts

5 Getting started In order to firmly establish your impartiality, you can begin your summary with a phrase such as The text is about . Other alternatives: The present article addresses the issue of In the passage, a new type of is introduced and evaluated. The piece of writing at hand reflects the opinion of concerning The author of the article wishes to persuade his/her readers that The main message of this passage is that The subject of the text is The author of the passage intends to

You are unlikely to need reported speech as you will be reporting in the present tense: The author maintains that nuclear energy is safe.

II.

Strategy

Start with an active reading of the text. Make notes in the margin using annotations, exclamation points(!), asterisks(*), numbers or other symbols. Write main idea / main argument/ first argument / evidence / proof / support. A. Deconstruction and Reconstruction Next, begin to deconstruct the original text. You can read the text all the way through once before writing anything down or you can start taking notes right away. In either case, there is a simple tool you can use to keep everything organized. It is called the Cornell method: Main point Explanations

1.

1.

2.

2.

3.

3.

etc.

etc.

6 The main points include: The thesis or main idea. The primary assertions, arguments or findings. The primary means of support for each finding.

Explanations include reasons facts examples descriptions numerical information: statistics, years, dates, figures

Work through the text and break it down into main ideas and explanations. Write them down in the order of the original. All the main points should be covered in your summary. For each main idea, you may have to select and condense the supporting arguments. As you are doing this, you may come up with some good ideas. In effect, you are already in summarizing mode. When this happens, dont lose sight of your good ideas. Write them down somewhere and then find a place to fit them in. Start paraphrasing the text right away. Write clearly and leave space between each note. Do not cram too much on one page. Keeping the items separate will make them easier to recall. Laying out the information in this way will help you to assess the importance of each detail. Write on only one side of each page. Number the pages. What to leave out Obviously, some details are going to have to be left out. You cant keep everything. Things to leave out include: statistics figures proper names of people, places, institutions, etc. direct quotations

But be sure to keep two or three important facts or names to include in your final version. You want to keep the reader on the hook; if you offer too little substance, your summary will be vague and hard to follow.

7 B. Writing your summary Now you are ready to reconstruct your summary from your notes. Write a first draft of your summary, introducing the topic and the author in the first paragraph. In the body of your summary, clearly explain the important content of the reading. Finally, choose a pithy ending. Check the rough draft of your summary against the source text. As you review your work, make sure that your summary is Comprehensive: You have included in your summary all of the authors major ideas, assertions and findings. Accurate: In your choice of words and paraphrasing you did not misrepresent the authors ideas. Neutral: You tried to be objective and fair and did not include your own evaluation or comments. Independent: A person who has not read the source text can understand what you have written.

Then concentrate only on your English text: Is your writing grammatically and structurally accurate? Have you chosen appropriate words, phrases and idioms (correct register)? Is your spelling correct? Is your summary fluent? Do your arguments follow on logically? Have you organized your writing in cohesive paragraphs?

8 III. The Elements

Your summary is going to consist of words, phrases, sentences and paragraphs, all working together to form a logical, organic whole. Finding the right words is the first challenge; organizing them in accordance with the rules of syntax and usage is the second. The third challenge is to make your text flow in a cohesive, pleasant way. This is called style. Lets tackle these three challenges one at a time. A. Vocabulary Strong verbs are most important. If you have limited time to prepare, consider brushing up on your verbs. Phrasal verbs are also worthwhile studying (make up, take over, beat around the bush). Always learn verbs together with their dependent prepositions (get away with, apply for) so that you can use them correctly. Equally important is your command of idiomatic expressions. 1. Idioms

Here are some idioms with definitions. Can you match them up? Idiom 1. under the weather 2. for good 3. on purpose 4. so far 5. first-rate 6. right away 7. every other 8. out of the question 9. all along 10. on time 11. ill at ease 12. up to date Definition a) for a reason, deliberately b) impossible, not feasible c) from the beginning d) not feeling well, ill e) punctually f) excellent, superb

g) until now h) uncomfortable, worried i) j) very soon, immediately modern, current

k) alternate l) permanently, forever

2.

Gerunds

Verbs with dependent prepositions followed by gerunds 1. accuse someone of The guard accused him of smuggling prohibited materials into the prison. 2. apologize for The vendor apologized for giving the customer the wrong change. 3. approve of The principal does not approve of teachers taking the students out in the rain. 4. benefit from The training institute would benefit from having the ministry located nearby. 5. blame someone for Don't blame Alex for leaving the lights on; he was the first one to leave! 6. boast about / of Mr Sanders boasted about having invented the best chicken recipe ever. 7. charge someone for / with Seven lieutenants were charged with conspiring to disobey direct orders. 8. To be committed to NATO is committed to maintaining a presence in the region for as long as necessary 9. compliment someone on My professor complimented me on running the seminar so smoothly. 10. confess to If you confess to stealing the bike, the judge will probably give you probation. 11. congratulate someone on Sven's boss congratulated him on resolving the conflict on his own. 12. consent to A consular officer may never consent to accepting a gift worth more than 1.50. 13. disapprove of I must say that I disapprove of your taking this decision without consulting me. 14. discourage someone from The manager discouraged Sam from applying for a promotion this year. 15. excuse someone for / from Please excuse me for arriving so late; I missed my train. 16. to express an interest in The students expressed an interest in meeting with the teacher for a drink in the evening.

10

11

17. fool someone into Maria fooled her boyfriend into thinking she was a model. 18. force someone into The circumstances forced the couple into marrying. 19. forgive someone for I simply cannot forgive him for lying to me. 20. guard against The security features are intended to guard against forging the new currency. 21. insist on Mr Geoffries insisted on Helen taking a day off to recover. 22. interfere in / with The military is unlikely to interfere with the diplomats' handling of the situation. 23. involve someone / yourself in We were unwittingly involved in concealing the plan. 24. mean something by Ann certainly did not mean anything by mentioning your salary. 25. object to My government objects to making such important decisions unilaterally. 26. plead guilty to The men pleaded guilty to conspiring to break into the president's office. 27. prevent someone / something from Some things simply cannot be prevented from happening. 28. profit from This applicant has certainly profited from having worked in human resources. 29. resort to Rebels often resort to kidnapping prominent figures to secure their demands. 30. result from / in The rise of quiz shows has resulted in people's regaining interest in trivia. 31. speak of Kim and Mark spoke of hosting a dinner party on a boat on the Rhine. 32. succeed in I must admit that I have not quite succeeded in convincing the board yet. 33. suspect someone of He was suspected of trafficking in both drugs and arms.

12 3. Close calls and false friends

Do you know the difference between like and such as? Or between besides and furthermore? Take a look at the following words:

Close calls
1. prove / proof 4. lend / borrow 7. while / during 10. as / than 13. much / many 2. bring / take 5. some / any 8. say / tell 11. for / since 3. proceedings / procedure 6. must / have to 9. remember / remind 12. critic / criticism

14. receive / obtain / acquire / 15. prosecute / persecute get

16. when / if / in case 19. advise / advice 22. assure / ensure 25. actual / current

17. hard / hardly 20. from / of 23. until / by 26. lose / loose

18. request / require 21. relations / relationship 24. appropriate / adequate 27. according to / in accordance with

28. control / check, inspect,

examine

29.

if / whether

30.

note / notify

31. permission / permit 34. costs / expenses 37. perspective / prospect 40. submit / present

32. 35. 38. 41.

of / by besides / in addition economic / effect / affect

33. 36. 39. 42.

reimburse / refund article / section / act historic / historical like / such as

economical

13 Then there is the issue of so-called false friends. Consider these words:

FALSE FRIENDS
ENGLISH actual: authentic, real affair anxious to blame to concur to control consequently contingency contingent critic eventually false genial human to implicate irritate isolated meaning menu notice GERMAN aktuell: current Affre ngstlich blamieren konkurrieren kontrollieren konsequent Kontingent Kontingent Kritik eventuell falsch genial human implizieren irritieren isoliert Meinung Men Notiz

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outlook perspective protocol receipt sanction self-conscious sensible to spare to spend sympathetic technique

Aussicht Perspektive Protokoll Rezept sanktionieren selbstbewusst sensibel sparen spenden sympathisch Technik

Can you keep the English and the German separate? Can you translate these words in both directions?

15 4. Synonyms In order to express the authors ideas using different words, you will need to find synonyms. Can you think of a synonym for each of the following words? surplus (n): ______________________________________________________________________ promise (v): ______________________________________________________________________ disaster (n): ______________________________________________________________________ luck (n): ______________________________________________________________________ smart (adj): ______________________________________________________________________ show (v): ______________________________________________________________________

5.

Social register

Bear in mind that social register also plays a role. High social register is academic and often Latinate in nature, whereas mid-register language can be much more varied and often more verbal in nature. Finally, low-register language can be out of place in a formal text, so you must be careful to avoid excessively low-register expressions. Your choice of register partially determines the style of your writing. Each register has its advantages. Mid-register and low-register language tends to be dynamic and active. On the other hand, high-register vocabulary is often more precise. Summary writing calls for a blend of high-register and mid-register language. By tapping into the whole range of register, you can make your writing simple and powerful at the same time. Consider the following table:

16 SOCIAL REGISTER Verbs Low register (informal) give it a go give it a try give it a whirl run it up the flagpole (and see if someone salutes) get ones hands on get a hold of Medium register (neutral) try make an effort do ones best High register (formal) attempt endeavor spare no effort make a concerted effort apply oneself obtain (active) acquire (active) receive (passive) procure secure gain possession of comprise involve consist of be (passive use) (to be invited) be in possession of have at ones disposal discuss converse converse remain observant

get

be full of have in it have get (passive use) (to get invited) own talk over have a talk about have a chat shoot the breeze chew the fat be on the lookout for keep an eye out for have a look at give a look-over zoom in on keep an eye on keep a bead on keep tabs on sort out work out fix a problem let someone know put someone in the picture let someone in on a secret give someone the scoop

contain include to be made up of be (passive use) (to be invited) possess dispose of talk about

chat talk pay attention for watch for turn to turn ones attention to focus on concentrate on watch observe

attend to direct ones attention to dwell on monitor

find a solution

resolve

tell

inform share something with someone advise notify

17 think over sleep on it get back to get in touch go along with give in look into check into shed some light on throw in the towel push for something fix the problem patch up a mess provide details tell someone exactly what (has) happened get a handle on get to grips with to have the job of (doing something) tell someone to do something think about mull over give it some thought answer reach agree concede investigate consider

respond reply contact establish contact be in agreement concede cede to demands conduct an investigation examine analyze capitulate concede defeat demand resolve the issue remedy the situation ameliorate the problem expand on expound on expatiate on provide an explanation address

give up insist on solve the problem

explain

tackle deal with take care of be responsible for be in charge of give someone

happen work together help give it a second thought beat around the bush beat about the bush put something off push something back stop keep something from happening make sure

occur cooperate assist support reconsider avoid an issue postpone delay prevent guarantee

be tasked with be charged with instruct someone to do something order charge someone with doing something transpire collaborate tap into synergies be of assistance reassess ones options re-examine ones plans skirt an issue prevaricate procrastinate avert ensure

18 find out hear acquire information on / regarding learn ascertain to come to ones attention to be brought to ones attention reiterate to prevaricate to equivocate Nouns luck chance dangerous situation lie fortune opportunity emergency untruth serendipity opportunity contingency fabrication obfuscation subterfuge prevarication equivocation integrity dilemma issue sensitive issue delicate matter

say once more to bend the truth to be economical with the truth

repeat to lie

truthfulness problem hot potato sticky wicket a bone of contention

honesty sincerity difficulty touchy subject

Adjectives and Adverbs tough hard a tough nut to crack tough-going difficult complex challenging intricate multifaceted taxing laborious strenuous practicable achievable viable feasible facile uninsipiring mediocre

difficult

doable can be done

manageable

easy a piece of cake run-of-the-mill nothing to write home about much of a muchness

straightforward simple uninteresting

19 slow-going a drag a sleeping pill worn-out lucky secret(ly) under cover untruthful angry, peeved furious, miffed mad, fuming easy to see anyone can see everyone knows friendly boring tedious laborious prosaic hackneyed clichd fortuitous surreptitious(ly) disingenuous perturbed dismayed disconcerted flagrant

fortunate covert(ly) dishonest disturbed annoyed concerned obvious apparent personable warm making little progress

stuck in a deadlock locking horns at loggerheads best does the job okay open to sure

cordial amiable obliging at an impasse an intractable situation

most effective most practical all right accepting of willing to convinced have no doubt completely absolutely negative(ly)

most expedient

acceptable amenable to certain positive categorically adverse(ly)

wholly totally bad(ly)

For further vocabulary building, the following book is recommendable: The Student Phrase Book Vocabulary for Writing at University By Jeanne Godfrey Palgrave Macmillan, 2013 ISBN 978-0-230-28933-8

20 B. Paraphrasing and Transformation How you reconstruct the source text will depend largely on your English level. You may want to restrict yourself to paraphrasing the text. This can be done at the word level or at the sentence level. Paraphrasing is an important part of the summarizing process. Lets paraphrase a sentence. The temperature in many parts of the earth is gradually rising. If we paraphrase at the word level, we might get something like this: A. The temperature in lots of places around the world is slowly increasing. Or we can change the whole sentence around: B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. Many parts of the world are steadily getting hotter. Much of our planet is becoming warmer and warmer. Vast swathes of the planet are witnessing incremental temperature rises. A large part of the earth is experiencing a gradual rise in average temperatures. All over the world, the temperature is increasing year by year. Temperature increases are continually registered across much of the planet. Temperatures continue to increase in many regions of the world. Temperatures are on the rise around the globe.

Each of these sentences reflects the sense of the original text with a unique flavor. Sentences B to H above require a good command of English syntax, vocabulary and usage. Tricks of the trade include Changing the subject of the sentence. The possible subjects in this case include temperatures and many parts of the world. Changing active voice to passive voice or vice versa. (G) Using different verbs (B,C, E, F, G, H, I) Employing adjectives and adverbs (incremental, steadily).

Transformation Using these and other tricks, you can also transform the original into a completely new text. This is what native speakers tend to do. For example, take the following introductory sentence from the 2009 exam: A tree fungus could provide green fuel that can be pumped directly into tanks, scientists say. If you paraphrase the sentence, you might get something like this: A. Scientists have announced that they have found a fungus that grows in trees and produces an ecological combustible that can be burned in regular automobile engines.

21 Alternatively, you could transform the sentence into something like this: B. Scientists have discovered a tree fungus called Gliocladium roseum that could provide an ecological replacement for fossil fuels in the future. What has happened here? The author of Version A rewrote the sentence in their own words. (Notice that the result in this case is actually longer than the original.) The author of Version B, in contrast, took liberties with the original: (S)he included information that is not found in the original sentence; and (s)he completely left out the part about pumping the new fuel directly into tanks. Which version is better? Version A is true to the original but very wordy. If this author continues like this, the resulting summary will be longer than the original. In addition, Version A is focused only on one sentence without taking into account the rest of the text the context. The author of Version B cuts, shuffles, and transforms the text. (S)he takes a holistic approach to the text. As a result, the sentence includes information found further down in the original (the name of the fungus) and omits the part about pumping the new fuel directly into tanks. That idea will go into a later sentence or be dropped altogether. While this approach is more flexible and creative, it is also more complex. Reorganizing the text in this way requires you to keep track of all the important points and then find creative ways to squeeze them in here and there. It also requires a solid command of vocabulary and syntax. Be honest with yourself. If you prefer to keep it simple, you may wish to stick to paraphrasing. The downside is that you may not be able to pack in as much. Its a trade-off between quantity and quality. Whichever approach you choose, you will need to make extensive use of both synonyms and paraphrasing. C. Grammar The most common problems for speakers of German are: When to use the present continuous tense (-ing). When to use the present simple tense. Differentiating between past and present perfect.

These tenses should be reviewed and used strictly according to the rules. Pay close attention to sentence structure and word order. Try to keep your sentences clear and to the point using Subject-Verb-Object word order. If you can get to a that in your sentence, the rest of your sentence will work itself out. This is a better strategy than getting mired down in obscure gerund and infinitive phrases that you do not really know how to use. Research shows that this how native speakers prefer to speak. It is clearer and easier and sounds more conversational.

22 Example: A. In the event of fire, priority must be given to ensuring the safety of the kitchen staff. B. If there is a fire, first make sure that the kitchen staff is safe. Version A is complex; version B is a pleasure to read. Notice that the sentence pivots on the word that. This word can even be left out, but it is still in the deep structure of the sentence: If there is a fire, first make sure the kitchen staff is safe. Singular and Plural Singular subjects require singular verbs; plural subjects require plural verbs. Noun-verb concordance Make sure each noun can actually do the verb you are asking it to do. An abstract noun and a concrete verb do not make a good couple. For example, take the sentence Intelligent solutions fix problems. Can solutions fix problems? Not really. Intelligent solutions can help to fix problems. Now the sentence is a little better. The verb is less dynamic and thus more acceptable. By applying intelligent solutions, management has managed to fix many problems. Much better: concrete actor; concrete actions; takes place in the real world. Parallel constructions Be careful when writing long sentences that the structure does not fall apart. Rigid logic helps to maintain coherence. Compare the following phrases. A. not only in the school corridors but also when playing tennis B. not only in the school corridors but also on the tennis court B is more logical. A. in terms of instruction as well as in terms of assessing students B. in terms of instruction as well as in terms of assessment B reads better because of the parallel construction. A. both in Germany and whenever they travel abroad B. both in Germany and abroad C. both when they are in Germany and when they travel abroad B and C are preferable to A due to their parallel nature.

23 IV. Style

In Politics and the English Language, George Orwell railed against the abstract nature of modern writing. Consider George Orwells translation of this famous verse from Ecclesiastes (King James Bible): I returned and I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. Here is Orwells version: Objective considerations of contemporary phenomena compel the conclusion that success or failure in competitive activities exhibits no tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity, but that a considerable element of the unpredictable must invariably be taken into account. Orwell explains the contrast as follows: This is a parody, but not a very gross one. () It will be seen that I have not made a full translation. The beginning and ending of the sentence follow the original meaning fairly closely, but in the middle the concrete illustrations race, battle, bread dissolve into the vague phrases success or failure in competitive activities. This had to be so, because no modern writer of the kind I am discussing () would ever tabulate his thoughts in that precise and detailed way. The whole tendency of modern prose is away from concreteness. Now analyze these two sentences a little more closely. The first contains fortynine words but only sixty syllables, and all its words are those of everyday life. The second contains thirty-eight words of ninety syllables: eighteen of those words are from Latin roots, and one from Greek. The first sentence contains six vivid images, and only one phrase (time and chance) that could be called vague. The second contains not a single fresh, arresting phrase, and in spite of its ninety syllables it gives only a shortened version of the meaning contained in the first. Yet without a doubt it is the second kind of sentence that is gaining ground in modern English. () Be concrete in your writing. Specifically, use verbs and concrete nouns instead of abstract nouns, adjectives and adverbs. Try the exercise on the next page. Look for ways to bring clarity to the sentences. Make them more concrete.

24 A. Desubstantivate! Convert the following noun-laden sentences into verbal masterpieces. 1. The repairs made to the infrastructure of the country are not the solution to the problem.

2. The consolidation of the fight against international terrorism must be achieved through the intensified cooperation of national intelligence agencies.

3. It is not only the identification of suspects which is severely lacking, but also the methodical assessment of probability concerning the appearance of future criminal agents.

4. The aims of the program include the collection of weapons as well as the dismantling of paramilitary groups and the forfeiture of property illegally appropriated by such groups.

5. Electoral fraud constitutes an obstacle to the development of democratic structures. The result is widespread disillusionment with the democratic process.

25 B. More style considerations Logical connectors When you are finished writing your summary, add logical connectors where appropriate. Logical connectors are like sign posts, directing the reader through your text. Brevity of phrasing Check each sentence and ask yourself how you could remove words from it and shorten some phrases by using different words. Your summary should be as economical as possible. Smooth flow Summaries tend to be too choppy, and with good (if unfortunate) reason: they are artificial constructs built up sentence by sentence. There is a tendency to make each sentence short, and to make most of the sentences about the same length. Unfortunately, this makes the sentences sound choppy. Read your summary aloud. As you read, mark the places that seem choppy. Then change this choppiness by joining some sentences together so that you have a good mixture of short, medium and long sentences. Strong endings Whenever possible, save the best for last. If there is a strong message in your sentence, it is best placed at the very end, where it packs a punch: A. They took everything but the kitchen sink, although they had only three hours to vacate the apartment. B. Although they had only three hours to vacate the apartment, they took everything but the kitchen sink. Version A fires its ammunition too early and fizzles out. Sentence B, in contrast, has a nice turn of a phrase at the end that rewards the reader for having finished the sentence. Apostrophes and contractions Form possessives with apostrophes only for people: Johns rifle but not the clubs rifle. Correct is the rifle of the club or a rifle belonging to the club. Not the experiments aim, but the aim of the experiment. Do not use contractions. Write would not instead of wouldnt.

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Writing mechanics

27

Punctuation marks
full stop (UK) / period (US) decimal point, dot Comma Colon semi-colon Hyphen Dash exclamation point question mark Apostrophe Ellipsis single quotes double quotes / quotation marks / inverted commas stroke / oblique (UK) / slash (US) brackets (UK) / parentheses (US) square brackets (UK) / brackets (US)

. . , : ; ! ? ' ... ' ' " " / () []

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The Comma Conundrum 1. Commas must be used in the following circumstances:

a.) Initial subordinate adverbial clauses Although she owes me a lot of money, I always lend her more. Whenever I see him, I am reminded of our school days together. Before you say any more, remember what you promised.

b.) Subordinate participial phrases The horse, seeing how high the fence was, refused to jump. Encouraged by his exam results, he signed up for the next course. She made her way to the door, carefully feeling along the wall.

c.) Parenthesis I hope, as I said once before, that it will all turn out well. When he did that, however, there was a ghastly silence. There are, too, many mothers who work in part-time jobs. (cf. There are too many mothers who work in part-time jobs.)

d.) Apposition Kamal Kharrazi, Iran's foreign minister, did not agree. (cf. Kamal Kharrazi, who is Iran's foreign minister, did not agree.) Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, is in much need of repair. (cf. Kabul, which is the capital of Afghanistan, is in much need of repair.)

e.) Non-defining relative clauses with who, whom and which Compare: 1. The students, who knew all the answers, stared out of the window. 2. The students who knew all the answers stared out of the window.
In the first sentence, all the students knew all the answers and all the students stared out of the window. The phrase who knew all the answers is a non-defining relative clause. It does not define the preceding noun but merely adds information. The students (who knew all the answers) stared out of the window. In the second sentence, only some of the students stared out of the window, namely those who knew the answers. Here, who knew all the answers is a defining relative clause. A defining relative clause can never be omitted, since doing so would change the meaning of the sentence.

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Compare: 1. The report, which took me two months to write, is already outdated. 2. The report that I wrote for the director is already outdated.
In the first sentence, which took me two months to write is a non-defining relative clause that provides supplementary information; it therefore begins with which. In the second sentence, that I wrote for the director is a defining relative clause. The defining relative clause usually begins with that. but can also begin with which. It is not set off by a comma and is absolutely necessary for the meaning of the sentence.

f.) Connective relative clauses He passed the test with flying colors, which was a relief to his mother. We had to sleep in our wet clothes, which wasn't very comfortable. (Which modifies the whole independent clause, as does "was" in German. g.) Independent clauses with different subjects She went to the movies, and I went home. The duchess slowly raised her arm, but the prince did not kiss her hand. h.) Initial adverbials and prepositional phrases Actually, I don't know where it is. In theory, the new design should achieve a top speed of 300 km/h. i.) Initial "if" clauses If you compile a list of telephone numbers, I will make the calls. (cf. I will make the calls if you compile a list of telephone numbers.) j.) Lists The waiter brought coffee, cream, sugar, and biscuits. k.) Direct speech "Yes," she said, "I'll come as soon as I can." l.) Tags It's a nice day, isn't it ? You know what I'm talking about, don't you ? m.) Numbers 1,000

17,234

534,210

1,000,000

23,482,988

(cf. 2.75%)

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2. Commas must not be used:

a.) Before the conjunction that I hope that your mother will get better soon. It is possible that he spent the night in a hotel. b.) Before an infinitive with to Don't forget to call me. The problem is too complicated to resolve in one single meeting. c.) Before an object clause I do not know what size he wears. (I do not know that.) I cannot imagine who could have done that! (I cannot imagine the person.) d.) Between independent clauses. (Use a semicolon instead.) I am not quite clear on this point; we should discuss it in more detail. The minister spoke cautiously; he was afraid of offending his guests. e.) In indirect speech He says you must repeat the exam. I think I'll go and have a cup of coffee. I wonder why he said that.

Often a semicolon does the job better than a comma:

"Some cause happiness wherever they go; others, whenever they go." - Oscar Wilde

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Punctuation Exercise

1. She loves him: Dear John I want a man who knows what love is all about you are generous kind thoughtful people who are not like you admit to being useless and inferior you have ruined me for other men I yearn for you I have no feelings whatsoever when we're apart I can be forever happy Yours Gloria

2. She loves him not: Dear John I want a man who knows what love is all about you are generous kind thoughtful people who are not like you admit to being useless and inferior you have ruined me for other men I yearn for you I have no feelings whatsoever when we're apart I can be forever happy Yours Gloria

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COMMAS: To punctuate or not to punctuate; that is the question.

Put commas into each sentence (if necessary) and identify the rule you have applied.

1.

Although I arrived here a week ago I still can't find my way to the embassy without a map. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 2. We expect as I said before at the press conference to reach an agreement tomorrow. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 3. If you take her word for it you'll regret it. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 4. Have you got the coffee tea milk and sugar?

Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 5. I have heard that you want to be posted to Brussels. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 6. I've no idea what made him change his mind. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 7. "Don't stand there grinning" she shouted angrily.

Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 8. Even the pond was dry the ducks looked totally lost in the dust. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 9. The ambassador seeing that he was making no progress adjourned the meeting. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 10. William Hague Britain's foreign secretary gave a convincing speech on the problems of asylum seekers. Rule: .......................................................................................................................

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11. The woman who shared my prison cell was released after serving ten years. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 12. Even the Australians who don't have a treaty with Thailand support prisoner transfers. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 13. Much to my amazement the train was on time. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 14. The motorcade left for the airport and I went back to my office. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 15. The kidnapped boy was returned to his parents unharmed which was a great relief to all concerned.

Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 16. Hoping to avoid the waiting journalists John left through the side entrance. Rule: ....................................................................................................................... 17. I was told I would probably have to serve half my sentence before being eligible for parole. Rule: .......................................................................................................................

34

The and A
Add articles where necessary: 1. Twenty years after 2. The role Germany has assumed in 3. The emergence of the G20 as 4. This has mainly happened because of 5. Yet what are 6. In ____ alternative options? day-to-day business, it is hard to recognise much change. coming decades will reunification, Germany is still made up of two parts. European integration is a major one. new, influential economic arena. global warming.

7. It is widely considered common sense that bring a power shift in international relations.

8. This is difficult to achieve in times of 9. Germany's foreign policy is in dire need of

strong competition. reorientation.

10. Germany has adopted a foreign policy based on peace, understanding and the values of human rights. 11. According to German law

12. German position on the reform of the UN Security Council is exemplary. 13. It is impossible to shrug off domestic problems: long-term unemployment, failing immigration policy, declining birth-rate.

14. The article discusses the need for _________ more intelligent immigration policy. 15. We should learn from previous mistakes regarding ________ integration of foreigners in Germany. 16. Long-term investments in _________ schooling and education of immigrants children should be made. 17. They should take part in further training in order to find ________ employment. This would ease recognition of foreign qualifications.

35

LIST OF 'LINK WORDS' FOR WRITTEN ENGLISH

1. Words expressing result: (result) therefore accordingly consequently / in consequence thus furthermore in addition moreover also for instance for example namely such as at the same time in spite of / despite even then /even so for all that nevertheless nonetheless however in any case although / though / even though in fact and yet on the contrary nevertheless whereas having said this in contrast but on the one hand / on the other hand or rather similarly likewise/in the same way

2. Words which add new information: (amplification)

3. Words which are used to make the meaning clearer: (clarification)

4. Words which help to balance evidence: (concession)

5. Words which introduce a contradiction of the facts: (opposition)

6. Words which offer a balanced view: (contrast)

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7. Words which introduce a new aspect: (digression) 8. Words which introduce structure: (enumeration)

by the way incidentally firstly / first of all first and foremost secondly / thirdly then finally / last of all

9. Words which introduce a suggestion or idea: (hypothesis) 10. Words which relate to previous statements: (inference) 11. Words which express a restriction: (limitation)

it is as if supposing that

in other words that being so in that case at least at any rate admittedly up to a point as far as broadly speaking more or less by and large on the whole a case in point in point of fact as regards / with regard to as for in terms of when it comes to apropos

12. Words which express uncertainty: (modification)

13. Words which focus attention on a particular point: (reference)

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14. Words which introduce a condition: (condition)

if provided that in the event that should were it not for / had it not been for in order (to) so that with the aim of all in all to sum up in brief / briefly (to put it) in a nutshell

15. Words which show purpose: (intention)

16. Words which end an argument /explanation: (summing up)

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British and American Spelling Preferences Based on: Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, The Concise Oxford Dictionary and Webster's New Universal Unabridged Dictionary. Updated 2005.

British ae, oe anaemia anaesthetic encyclopaedia /-pedia orthopaedic palaeontology enquire / inquire encase encrust / incrust enfold apologise /-ize criticise /-ize dramatise /-ize memorise /-ize organise /-ize realise /-ize visualise /-ize etc. armour clamour colour endeavour favour honour humour labour odour vapour vigour

American anemia anesthetic encyclopedia orthopedic paleontology inquire / enquire incase incrust infold apologize criticize dramatize memorize organize realize visualize armor clamor color endeavor favor honor humor labor odor vapor vigor

em-, en-; im-, in-

-ise, -ize *

-our, -or

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-re, -er

calibre centre centring /-treing /-tering fibre lustre metre mitre sabre sceptre sombre spectre theatre mould moult plough smoulder Defence licence (license, vb) offence pretence but: practice (practise, vb) deflexion / deflection inflexion / inflection reflection / reflexion Appareled councillor jewellery / jewelry levelled libelled medallist quarrelled totalled travelled woollen dulness enrol enrolment enrols enthral fulfil fulness/fullness instalment

caliber center centering fiber luster meter miter saber scepter somber specter theater / theatre mold molt plow smolder defense license offense pretense practice deflection inflection reflection appareled councilor jewelry leveled libeled medalist quarreled totaled traveled woolen dullness enroll enrollment enrolls enthrall fulfill fullness installment

-ou, -o

-ce, -se

-sion, -ction

Doubling and retaining final "l"

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instil skilful thraldom wilful annulled but: enrolled enrolling paralleled Silent "e" retained abridgement acknowledgement fledgeling / fledgling judgement lodgement

instill skillful thralldom willful annulled enrolled enrolling paralleled abridgment acknowledgment fledgling judgment lodgment

In British printing the forms in ise have in the past been more common, but the trend of usage, influenced by the Oxford English Dictionary and the practice of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and the London Times, is to adopt more generally the ize forms and their derivatives in ization, izer, izable. In Canadian official and literary usage ize has been adopted; Indian, South African, and Australian usage favors ise. The following verbs and corresponding nouns borrowed from Old French or French always end in ise, with rare instances of variant forms in ize: advertise advise chastise circumcise comprise compromise demise despise devise disguise Enterprise exercise excise exorcise franchise affranchise disenfranchise disfranchise enfranchise improvise merchandise revise supervise surmise

** In their derivatives, the British spell with "s" before suffixes beginning with a vowel, as in -ive or -ion

41

The Golden Rules of Writing

by Dr. A.P. Singer-Carter, Ph.D.

1. Verbs HAS to agree with their subjects. 2. Prepositions are not words to end sentences with. 3. And dont start a sentence with a conjunction. 4. It is wrong ever to split an infinitive. 5. Avoid clichs like the plague. (Theyre old hat.) 6. Also, always avoid annoying alliteration. 7. Be more or less specific. 8. Parenthetical remarks (however relevant) are (usually) unnecessary. 9. Also, too, never, ever use repetitive redundancies. 10. No sentence fragments. 11. Contractions arent necessary and shouldnt be used. 12. Foreign words and phrases are not a propos. 13. Do not be redundant; do not use more words than necessary; its highly superfluous. 14. One should NEVER generalize. 15. Comparisons are as bad as clichs. 16. Dont use no double negatives. 17. Eschew ampersands & abbreviations, etc. 18. One-word sentences? Eliminate. 19. Analogies in writing are like feathers on a snake. 20. The passive voice is to be ignored. 21. Eliminate commas, that are, not necessary. Parenthetical words however should be enclosed in commas.

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22. Never use a big word when a diminutive one would suffice. 23. Kill all exclamation points!!! 24. Use words correctly, irregardless of how others use them. 25. Understatement is always the absolute best way to put forth earth shaking ideas. 26. Use the apostrophe in its proper place and omit it when its not needed. 27. Eliminate quotations. As I keep saying: I am not in the slightest bit interested in what other people say: what do you think? 28. If youve heard it once youve heard it a thousand times: Resist hyperbole; not one writer in a thousand can use it properly. 29. Puns are for children, not for groan adults. 30. Go around the barn at high noon to avoid colloquialisms. 31. Even IF a mixed metaphor sings, it should be derailed. 32. Who needs rhetorical questions? 33. Exaggeration is a billion times worse than the understatement. 34. Proofread carefully to see if you any words out. 35. Check your speling, otherwise you mai seam uneduckated.

43 V. Practice

A. Identify the linking words in the following summary.

Its time to overhaul Germanys immigration policy The jury is still out on the long-term effects of Germanys 1960s guestworker policy, under which 2.6 million foreign workers and their families settled in Germany. As Germany gears up to recruit a new batch of qualified workers to fill its current labor gap, immigration is once again at the top of Germanys domestic agenda. But a re policymakers on the right track? Germanys lack of some 100,000 highly qualified workers costs its economy billions every year. Nevertheless, conservative politicians such as CSU party leader Horst Seehofer are on a misguided crusade to protect the German labor market against the threat of foreign workers. Looking after the unemployed is indeed a worthy cause, but improving childcare, job training and employment policies is not going to transform the jobless into the specialized staff Germany needs.

In fact, immigration is advantageous for everyone. Qualified immigrants can help businesses expand and subsequently take on new workers a win-win outcome. The demand for labor that persisted throughout the recent financial crisis is certain to intensify as the economy grows. Prompt action is therefore required. First, foreign credentials must be honored in order to tap immigrants full potential. Second, companies must be prevented from driving down wages by exploiting foreigners who are willing to work for less. And finally, Germany must avoid alienating newcomers by treating them as temporary visitors and instead give them the prospect of permanent residence from the outset. Making immigration procedures more user-friendly would be a first step in the right direction. Let the overhaul begin. 256 words

44 B. Add linking words and adverbs to the following text to make it flow better.

Russia to the rescue? _________________ diplomatic efforts in the United Nations seem to be doing Syria more harm than good. __________________ if Bashar al-Assad surrenders all his chemical weapons, the Syrian people stand to gain precious little from the _______________________ posturing between Moscow and Washington. _______________________ before talks in Geneva were concluded, Syrian air strikes resumed, killing a thousand people. President Obama is right to draw a red line when chemical weapons are deployed. _______________ UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon is also right: chemical weapons are __________________ the tip of the iceberg. It is nave to think Syria can be purged of chemical weapons in nine months. President Putins diplomatic overtures to the regime are more effective than missiles, ________________ the Kremlins foot-dragging attests to its cynicism. ___________________ ________________, the U.S. has agreed to a plan that neither punishes nor weakens Assad but _______________________ rehabilitates him as a negotiating partner. As Syrias opposition parties are increasingly left out in the cold, radical Islamists infiltrating Syria are becoming the winners in this war. Weapons of mass destruction constitute a threat to the West, _______________________ so do jihadists. Putins assertion that the Islamists are being kept at bay with Russian arms must be roundly rejected. ______________________________ that millions of Syrian refugees feel abandoned by the West. _______________________________ going to great lengths to keep the United States out of the Middle East, does President Obama ___________________________ expect Americans to _____________________________ stand up and fight for the victims of Assads chemical attacks? What about the hundreds of thousands killed by conventional means? _________________________ since when is Putin Obamas savior? 263 words

45 C. Add linking words to the following text to make it flow better.

In Britain, a skeptical nod to Germanys success As chancellor of a prospering Germany, Angela Merkel wields significant power in the European Union. Her singular popularity makes her a tough act to follow. Germany is confidently pursuing its interests. German leadership is perceived as sound.

The UK and Germany seem to be drifting apart. Relations between the two nations cooled when Mr. Cameron questioned Germanys purist views on the role of the European Central Bank; went from cool to cold when he vetoed the EU fiscal pact; are downright icy due to the EU budget dispute. German-British relations have never been as strong as those between Germany and France. The former were an improvised reaction to Charles de Gaulles European ideas: Germany and the UK grew closer whenever France needed to be kept in check.

Germany is strong enough to take decisions on its own, flexing its muscles if necessary. The reason for the estrangement between Germany and the UK goes beyond a shift in the European balance of power. The British Tories and the German CDU shared key post-war values; British conservatives see the EU as a burden on the free market. The British admire the German economic miracle; by imitating it they hope to become the ultimate global player. The British have trouble understanding why the Germans are bending over backwards to save the euro, to the detriment of their own economy. Angela Merkel would do well to take British anti-EU sentiment into account in her dealings with Mr. Cameron.

275 words

46 D. Summarize the following article in 150 to 200 words. Dolphin May Get A Prosthetic Tail By PHIL DAVIS, Associated Press Writer , September 25, 2006. CLEARWATER, Fla. - The news from Indian River Lagoon was too familiar: another dolphin gravely injured because of human action. But marine scientist Steve McCulloch immediately saw this rescue was unique. The baby bottlenose dolphin lost her tail, but perhaps her life could be saved. McCulloch, director of dolphin and whale research at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution, decided to channel his anger into a solution. The solution for the dolphin dubbed Winter may be a prosthetic tail. If the logistics can be worked out, Winter's prosthesis would be the first for a dolphin who lost its tail and the key joint that allows it to move in powerful up-and-down strokes. "There's never been a dolphin like her," said Dana Zucker, chief operating officer of the Clearwater Marine Aquarium, which is now Winter's home. A dolphin in Japan has a prosthesis, the first in the world, to replace a missing part of its tail. Winter was a frail, dehydrated 3-month-old when she came to the animal rescue center in December. A fisherman found her tangled in the buoy line of a crab trap in Indian River Lagoon near Cape Canaveral. The line tightened around her tail as she tried to swim away, strangling the blood supply to her tail flukes. "It looked like paper," Zucker said of Winter's tail. "Bit by bit over the weeks it just fell off." Winter was left with a rounded stump. A team of more than 150 volunteers and veterinarians spent months nursing Winter back to health. Zucker and her family cuddled with Winter and fed her a special mix of infant formula and pureed fish in the aquarium's rescue pool. Winter learned how to swim without her tail, amazing her handlers with a combination of moves that resemble an alligator's undulations and a shark's side-to-side tail swipes. She uses her flippers, normally employed for steering and braking, to get moving. Winter can't keep up with wild dolphins that can swim up to 25 mph with strokes of their tail flukes. She will be a permanent resident at the aquarium, even if she gets a prosthetic tail. In the tank, she swims and plays with another dolphin, rolling and diving and surfacing to demand belly rubs and fish from her caretakers.

47 Zucker has formed a team to discuss the prospects of designing a tail for Winter. It has been consulting with a diving gear manufacturer, a tire company and the Navy, which has experience attaching items to dolphins for military research. It's uncharted territory. Fuji, an elderly dolphin who lives at an aquarium in Okinawa, Japan, had part of his tail remaining on which to attach a prosthesis. Winter doesn't. Both her tail flukes and peduncle, a wrist-like joint that allows a dolphin's tail to move up and down, were lost to necrosis. It is not clear how the prosthetic tail would be attached to her stump, but it would need to be tough. "The dolphin's tail fin is the most powerful swimming mechanism Mother Nature ever designed," McCulloch said. "When you see how much pressure they put on their flukes, the prosthesis is going to take a marvel of modern engineering." Veterinarians are unsure if a prosthesis will be beneficial or harmful in the long term. Swimming without a tail may ultimately wear on Winter's spine. She would need at least three tails as she grows. She is now about 4 feet long and weighs 110 pounds. When she is full grown at age 15, Winter will be twice as long and four times as heavy. The cost of the prosthetic tail is unknown. "All I know is Fuji's tail cost $100,000 and that was in 2004," McCulloch said. That's equal to the entire monthly operating budget of the Clearwater Marine Aquarium, Zucker said. The small animal hospital relies mostly on volunteer workers; its roof leaks in heavy rains. "We're a mom and pop shop," Zucker said. "It's a labor of love." She expects the design cost of the tail will be underwritten by the company that creates it. It's the cost of the long-term care of Winter and the other injured animals in her care that worry her. Winter is a living reminder for humans to be careful about what they leave in the water. "The kids get it right away. It's the adults, more creatures of habit, who take more persuasion," McCulloch said. "You can't outlaw fishing line, but you can educate a fisherman not to use careless techniques such as tossing out line."

750 words

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EXAMINATION SAMPLES GENERAL PAPER 2009 Summary Summarize the following report in your own words. The report should be reduced to approximately one third of its original length; the summary should have between 200 and 300 words. Failure to meet these guidelines will result in point loss. TEXT A tree fungus could provide green fuel that can be pumped directly into tanks, scientists say. The organism, found in the Patagonian rainforest, naturally produces a mixture of chemicals that is remarkably similar to diesel. "This is the only organism that has ever been shown to produce such an important combination of fuel substances," said the plant scientist from Montana State University who led the work. "We were totally surprised to learn that it was making a plethora of hydrocarbons." In principle, biofuels are attractive replacements for liquid fossil fuels used in transport that generate greenhouse gases. The European Union has set biofuel targets of 5.75% by 2010 and 10% by 2020. But critics say current biofuels scarcely reduce greenhouse gas emissions and cause food price rises and deforestation. Producing biofuels sustainably is now a target and this latest work has been greeted by experts as an encouraging step. The fungus, called Gliocladium roseum and discovered growing inside the ulmo tree (Eucryphia cordifolia) in northern Patagonia, produces a range of long-chain hydrocarbon molecules that are virtually identical to the fuel-grade compounds in existing fossil fuels. Details of the concoction, which the scientist calls "mycodiesel", will be published in the next issue of the journal Microbiology. "The results were totally unexpected and very exciting and almost every hair on my arms stood on end," said the researcher. Many simple organisms, such as algae, are already known to make chemicals that are similar to the long-chain hydrocarbons present in transport fuel but none produce the explosive hydrocarbons with the high energy density of those in mycodiesel. The researcher in charge of this project said that the chemical mixture produced by his fungus could be used in a modern diesel engine without any modification. Another advantage of the G. roseum fungus is its ability to eat up cellulose. This is a compound that, along with lignin, makes up the cell walls in plants and is indigestible by most animals. As such, it makes up much of the organic waste currently

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discarded, such as stalks and sawdust. Converting this plant waste into useful fuels is a major goal for the biofuel industry, which currently uses food crops such as corn and has been blamed for high food prices. Normally, cellulosic materials are treated with enzymes that first convert it to sugar, with microbes then used to ferment the sugar into ethanol fuel. In contrast, G. roseum consumes cellulose directly to produce mycodiesel. Although the fungus makes less mycodiesel when it feeds on cellulose compared to sugars, new developments in fermentation technology and genetic manipulation could help improve the yield. In fact, the genes of the fungus are just as useful as the fungus itself in the development of new biofuels. "Fungi are very important but we often overlook these organisms," a fungus expert at Swansea University, said: "This is the first time that a fungus has been shown to produce hydrocarbons that could potentially be exploited as a source of fuel in the future. Concept-wise, the discovery and its potential applications are fantastic. However, more research is needed, as well as a pilot study to determine the costs and benefits. Even so, another potential supply of renewable fuel allows us to diversify our energy sources and is certainly an exciting discovery." The executive director of the National Energy Research Centre also welcomed the discovery but noted it is at its earliest stage of development. "This appears another encouraging discovery that natural processes are more capable of producing materials of real value to mankind than we had previously known. It's another piece of evidence that there is real potential to adapt such processes to provide energy sources that can help reduce our need for, and dependence on, fossil fuels." The next stage for this breakthrough research will be to refine the extraction of mycodiesel from the fungus. This requires more laboratory work to identify the most efficient ways to grow the organism and, perhaps, genetic modification of the fungus to improve yields. If successful, this new technology will then need to be tested in a largescale demonstration plant to solve any problems in scaling up to commercial production. This discovery also raises questions about how fossil fuels were made in the first place. The accepted theory is that crude oil, which is used to make diesel, is formed from the remains of dead plants and animals that have been exposed to heat and pressure for millions of years. But if fungi like this are producing mycodiesel all over the rainforest, they may have contributed to the formation of fossil fuels. 765 words

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EXAMINATION SAMPLES GENERAL PAPER 2010 Summary Summarize the following report in your own words. The report should be reduced to approximately one third of its original length; the summary should have between 200 and 300 words. Failure to meet these guidelines will result in point loss. TEXT Ecology and economics should push in the same direction. After all, the eco part of each word derives from the Greek word for home, and the protagonists of both claim to have humanity's welfare as their goal. Yet environmentalists and economists are often at loggerheads. For economists, the world seems to be getting better. For many environmentalists, it seems to be getting worse. These environmentalists have developed a sort of litany of three big environmental fears: natural resources are running out; the population is ever growing, leaving less and less to eat and the planet's air and water are becoming ever more polluted. Human activity is thus defiling the earth, and humanity may end up killing itself in the process. The trouble is, the evidence does not back up this litany. The early environmental movement worried that the mineral resources on which modern industry depends would run out. Clearly, there must be some limit to the amount of fossil fuels and metal ores that can be extracted from the earth: the planet, after all, has a finite mass. But that limit is far greater than many environmentalists would have people believe. Reserves of natural resources have to be located, a process that costs money. That, not natural scarcity, is the main limit on their availability. However, known reserves of all fossil fuels, and of most commercially important metals, are now larger than were believed to be. In the case of oil, for example, reserves that could be extracted at reasonably competitive prices would keep the world economy running for about 150 years at present consumption rates. Add to that the fact that the price of solar energy has fallen by half in every decade for the past 30 years, and appears likely to continue to do so into the future, and energy shortages do not look like a serious threat either to the economy or to the environment. The population explosion is also turning out to be a bugaboo. As far back as the end of the 18th Century Thomas Malthus claimed that, if unchecked, human population would expand exponentially, while food production could increase only linearly, by bringing new land into cultivation. He was wrong. Population growth has turned out to have an

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internal check: as people grow richer and healthier, they have smaller families. Indeed, the growth rate of the human population reached its peak, of more than 2% a year, in the early 1960s. The rate of increase has been declining ever since. It is now 1.26%, and is expected to fall to 0.46% in 2050. The United Nations estimates that most of the world's population growth will be over by 2100, with the population stabilising at just below 11 billion. Granted, the threat of pollution is real, but exaggerated. Many analyses show that air pollution diminishes when a society becomes rich enough to be able to afford to be concerned about the environment. For London, the city for which the best data are available, air pollution peaked around 1890. Today, the air is cleaner than it has been since 1585. There is good reason to believe that this general picture holds true for all developed countries. And, although air pollution is increasing in many developing countries, they are merely replicating the development of the industrialized countries. When they grow sufficiently rich they, too, will start to reduce their air pollution. All this contradicts the litany. Yet opinion polls suggest that many people, in the rich world, at least, nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining. Scientific funding goes mainly to areas with many problems. That may be wise policy, but it will also create an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the case. The attitude of the media is also a factor in the distortion. People are clearly more curious about bad news than good. Newspapers and broadcasters are there to provide what the public wants. That, however, can lead to significant distortions of perception. To replace the litany with facts is crucial if people want to make the best possible decisions for the future.

683 words