Air Conditioning Definition (from ASHRAE*) Air conditioning is the process of treating air so as to control simultaneously its temperature,

humidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the requirements of the conditioned space. Basic processes: Cooling and Heating
Comfort air conditioning

To meet comfort requirements of occupants (*ASHRAE = American Society of Heating, Refrigerating & Air-conditioning Engineers, Inc.) Applications of air conditioning: Industrial air conditioning e.g. textile mills, electronics, pharmaceutical Air conditioning of commercial buildings e.g. offices, hotels, retails Residential air conditioning Air conditioning of vehicles (buses, cars, trains, aircrafts, etc.) Related terms Environmental control systems (ECS) Heating, ventilating, air-conditioning and refrigerating (HVAC&R) systems Heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC)

 Mechanical ventilating and air-conditioning (MVAC or ACMV) Air conditioning and refrigeration (AC&R)
Air Conditioning and Refrigeration

No. 10 on the list of the [Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century] http://www.greatachievements.org o These cooling technologies have altered some of our most fundamental patterns of living o Buildings are climate-controlled & comfortable o Fresh foods & milk are kept in refrigerators/freezers o Building designs are changed completely o Environment for industrial processes are controlled The History of Air Conditioning www.air-conditioners-andheaters. com/air_conditioning_history.htm 1830: Dr. John Gorrie (ice for cooling hospital rooms) 1881: James Garfield (device w/ melted ice water) Late 19th century: manufactured air (controlling humidity in textile mills) Early 1900s: Willis Carrier (designed modern A/C systems for offices, apartments, hotels, hospitals) 1917-1930: movie theatres were kept cool by A/C
The Father of Modern Air Conditioning

Dr. Willis Haviland Carrier (1875-1950) Formed Carrier Air Conditioning Company (1907) Published a paper on rational psychrometric formulae in 1911 Invented and patented many HVAC equipment Wrote a well-known air conditioning textbook

Importance of air conditioning for buildings Change building designs & human adaptation Affect occupant satisfaction, productivity, health and safety Contribute to effective building performance Often form a major part of building construction costs and running costs Affect energy consumption & environmental performance of a building HUMAN COMFORT CONTROL The most recent research on human comfort looks at local sensations of individual body parts (Zhang et al. 2010) and thermoregulation with skin temperature predictions (Munir et al. 2009). The interaction between indoor environment and skin is for normal office conditions largely determined by the mean radiant temperature and therefore there is a large effect of mean radiant temperature on the energy consumption in a comfort controlled office (Kang et al. 2010). By optimizing the responses to the individual human comfort differences energy conservations of up to 25% are possible (van Oeffelen et al. 2010). The energy supply to a building must be related to actual

dynamic changing comfort needs, behaviour of the occupants of the building and the behaviour of the building itself due the weather conditions. Therefore, more actual information is needed. The application of low cost wireless sensors offers new practical applicable possibilities (Neudecker 2010, Gameiro Da Silva et al. 2010). If so, then energy demand and energy supply could become more balanced and less energy wasted. Measuring the radiating temperatures by a low cost Infra Red camera should make it possible by image post-processing to estimate energy fluxes and temperature distributions with comfort prediction. Correct temperature distribution measurements could be calculated by remote camera control and thermo graphic parameter correction (Revel and Sabbatini 2010). Thermal comfort for all can only be achieved when occupants have effective control over their own thermal environment (van Hoof 2008). This led to the development of Individually Controlled Systems (ICS) with different local heating/cooling options (Filippini 2009, Wanatabe et al. 2010). Our intention is to design and built an experimental workplace with an individual controlled heating/cooling panel in front of the workplace to test our specific approach to comfort and energy management. The implementation of such detailed dynamic approach to individual comfort control is new. It is necessary to look more closely to the individuals on working space and personal level. So we do not look only to room temperatures and thermostat settings of heating or cooling devices, but really look into the dynamic parameters related to the individual thermal comfort, the actual occupancy, and the

actual parameters of the building services installations and use of appliances.

ANALYSIS OF PERCIEVED HUMAN COMFORT

Literature shows that the hands are the most sensitive body parts for the human thermoregulatory system (Zhang 2003). In addition, upper-extremity skin temperature is a sensitive indicator of the body thermal state in the cooling region (Wang et al. 2007). Studies in the automotive field have shown that facial skin temperature is a measure for overall thermal sensation (De Oliveira et al. 2009). Both the hands and face are directly exposed to the environment and show potential to be remotely sensed. Recently, individual controlled (HVAC) comfort systems were proposed, which can cope with the individual differences (e.g. clothing behavior , body fat) between office workers. In addition, these systems focus on the body parts (hands, feet and head) which mainly dictate thermal discomfort in mild cool/warm office environments. A direct conditioning of these parts would be the most effective way to achieve thermal comfort. A set up of such a concept is shown in Fig. 1. The human body can regulate heat flow to the environment by increasing or decreasing the skin blood flow. During mild cool exposure vasoconstriction is the most important thermoregulatory effecter, which can be clearly observed in the upper extremity region. In addition, the variations in facial skin temperature may also indicate if a person is getting warmer or

cooler. The challenge for automatic control of radiant heating is to detect the turning point from a neutral thermal state to a cooler thermal state before the user perceives any cool thermal sensation. The fact that the skin temperature can fluctuate within a range of temperatures without producing any temperature sensation (i.e. the neutral zone) is highly useful in this.

Figure 1. Experimental workplace set-up. for individual thermal comfort(A) local HVAC system consisting of two vertical mounted radiation heating panels, and (B) digital control panel. Two infrared (IR) cameras for skin temperature measurements and measurement positions (black circles) of local comfort parameters, where 1=feet, 2=abdomen, 3=desk, 4=hands and 5=head.

Thermal comfort

Thermal comfort is defined as that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment. This condition is also sometimes called as neutral condition, though in a strict sense, they are not necessarily same. A living human body may be likened to a heat engine in which the chemical energy contained in the food it consumes is continuously converted into work and heat. The process of conversion of chemical energy contained in food into heat and

work is called as metabolism. The rate at which the chemical energy is converted into heat and work is called as metabolic rate. Knowledge of metabolic rate of the occupants is required as this forms a part of the cooling load of the air conditioned building. Similar to a heat engine, one can define thermal efficiency of a human being as the ratio of useful work output to the energy input. The thermal efficiency of a human being can vary from 0% to as high as 15-20% for a short duration. By the manner in which the work is defined, for most of the light activities the useful work output of human beings is zero, indicating a thermal efficiency of 0%. Irrespective of the work output, a human body continuously generates heat at a rate varying from about 100 W (e.g. for a sedentary person) to as high as 2000 W (e.g. a person doing strenuous exercise). Continuous heat generation is essential, as the temperature of the human body has to be maintained within a narrow range of temperature, irrespective of the external surroundings. A human body is very sensitive to temperature. The body temperature must be maintained within a narrow range to avoid discomfort, and within a somewhat wider range, to avoid danger from heat or cold stress. Studies show that at neutral condition, the temperatures should be: o Skin temperature, tskin 33.7 C Core temperature, tcore 36.8 C At other temperatures, the body will feel discomfort or it may even become lethal. It is observed that when the core o temperature is between 35 to 39 C, the body experiences only a
o

mild discomfort. When the temperature is lower than 35 C or o higher than 39 C, then people suffer major loss in efficiency. It o becomes lethal when the temperature falls below 31 C or rises o above 43 C.

Factors affecting thermal comfort

Thermal comfort is affected by several factors. These are: 1. Physiological factors: such as age, activity, sex and health. These factors influence the metabolic rate. It is observed that of these factors, the most important is activity. Other factors are found to have negligible effect on thermal comfort. 2. Insulating factor due to clothing: The type of clothing has strong influence on the rate of heat transfer from the human body. The unit for measuring the resistance offered by clothes is called as clo. 1 clo is equal to a resistance of about 0.155 2 m .K/W. Typical clo values for different types of clothing have been estimated and are available in the form of tables. For ]]\example, a typical business suit has a clo value of 1.0, while a pair of shorts has a clo value of about 0.05. 3. Environmental factors: Important factors are the dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, air motion and surrounding surface temperature. Of these the dry bulb temperature affects heat transfer by convection and evaporation, the relative

humidity affects heat loss by evaporation, air velocity influences both convective and evaporative heat transfer and the surrounding surface temperature affects the radiative heat transfer. Apart from the above, other factors such as drafts, asymmetrical cooling or heating, cold or hot floors etc. also affect the thermal comfort. The objective of a comfort air conditioning system is to control the environmental factors so that comfort conditions prevail in the occupied space. It has no control on the physiological and insulating factors. However, wearing suitable clothing may help in reducing the cost of the air conditioning system.

COMFORT ZONE

Figure 2: The new Graphic Comfort Zone Method, Figure 5.2.1.1 in Standard 55-2010(IP version shown).

The comfort zone is defined by the combinations of air temperature and mean radiant temperature for which the PMV is within the limits specified.

As with the 2004 standard, there are three primary compliance paths in Standard 55-2010: the Graphic Comfort Zone Method, the Computer Model Method, and the Optional Method for Determining Acceptable Thermal Conditions in Naturally Conditioned Spaces (Adaptive Method). The Graphic Comfort Zone Method is the simplest, the time-honored Graphic Method based on the (in) famous thermal comfort chart. It is based on the Computer Model Method, but minimizes calculations. It includes a comfort zone graphic in the standard that applies to projects where the assumptions and limitations stated in the method apply. The second method is the Computer Model Method, which requires calculations that allowand requirethe use of project specific inputs. This method applies to some projects or spaces not suited for the graphic comfort zone method. The third method is the Adaptive Method introduced in 2004 to extend the applicability of the standard to naturally ventilated spaces. This approach is for use in naturally ventilated spaces without mechanical cooling, and applies to times when no heating system is in use. In such projects and conditions, it better describes the range of thermal conditions that provide comfort as occupants adapt to changing outdoor conditions. Today, the improved and enlarged comfort zone graphic in the 2010 standard better represents the several conditions and opportunities related to this compliance method. Foremost, this graphic cannot be applied based on dry-bulb temperature alone! As is true in all three compliance paths, and indeed in much of the standard, the graphic represents operative temperature.

Computer Model Method

This method is the basis for the comfort zones drawn in the Graphic Comfort Zone Method, derived from the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and Predicted Percent Dissatisfied (PPD) indices developed by the late Professor Ole Fanger in his seminal doctoral thesis (first published in book form in 1970). The use of these indices as the basis for this method makes Standard 55-2010 consistent with ISO Standard 7730. The computer code that calculates these indices is in Appendix D of the standard, and is widely available from other sources. This approach allows users of the standard to predict the extent to which comfort will be provided based on a specific set of expected clothing level (clo), activity level (met), air temperature, radiant temperature, air speed, and humidity. FACTORS GOVERNING EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE Effective temperature, ET Effective temperature is not an actual temperature in the sense that it can be measured by a thermometer. It is an experimentally determined index of the various combinations of dry-bulb temperature, humidity, radiant conditions, and air movement that induce the same thermal sensation. Those combinations that induce the same feeling of warmth or cold are called thermo-equivalent conditions. The new effective temperature (ET*) of a given space is defined as the dry-bulb temperature of a thermo-equivalent environment at 50 percent RH and a specific uniform radiation

condition. The thermo-equivalent heat exchange is based on clothing at 0.6 clo, still air (40 fpm = 0.2 m/s or less), 1-hour exposure time, and a sedentary activity level (approximately 1 met). Thus, any space has an ET* of 70F (21C) when it induces a sensation of warmth like that experienced in still air at 70F (21C), 50 percent RH, and the proper radiant conditions. ET* is, in general, a reliable indicator of discomfort or dissatisfaction with the thermal environment. If ET* could be envisioned as a thermometer scale.
The Comfort Chart

The comfort chart, shown in Figure 2, correlates the perception of comfort with the various environmental factors known to influence it. The dry-bulb temperature is indicated along the bottom. The right side of the chart contains a dew point scale, and the left side a wet-bulb temperature scale indicating guide marks for imaginary lines sloping diagonally down from left to right. The lines curving upward from left to right represent RHs. ET* lines are also drawn. These are the sloping dashed lines that cross the RH lines and are labeled in increments of 5F. At any point along any one of these lines, an individual will experience the same thermal sensation and will have the same amount of skin wetness due to regulatory sweating. Clo levels at which 94 percent of occupants will find acceptable comfort are also indicated. Notice that the comfort chart in Figure 2 is derived

from what is called the psychrometric chart. Two comfort envelopes or zones are defined by the shaded regions on the comfort chartone for winter and one for summer. The thermal conditions within these envelopes are estimated to be acceptable to 80 percent of the occupants when wearing the clothing ensemble indicated. To satisfy 90 percent of the people, the limits of the acceptable comfort zone are sharply reduced to onethird of the above ranges. The zones overlap in the 73 to 75F (23 to 24C) range. In this region, people in summer dress tend to be slightly cool, while those in winter clothing feel a slightly warm sensation. Figure 2 generally applies when altitudes range from sea level to 7,000 feet (2,134 m), MRT is nearly equal to drybulb air temperature, and air velocity is less than 40 fpm (0.2 m/s). Under these conditions, thermal comfort can be defined in terms of two variables: dry-bulb air temperature and humidity. Mean radiant temperature is actually just as important as air temperature in affecting comfort. When air movement in an indoor environment is low, the operative temperature is approximately the average of air temperature and MRT. When the MRT in the occupied zone significantly differs from the air temperature, the operative temperature should be substituted for the dry-bulb temperature scale along the bottom of Figure 2. The comfort chart is primarily useful for occupants with a minimum of 1 hour of exposure, 0.6 clo (standard shirtsleeve indoor office clothing), and a 1-met (seated or sedentary) activity level. It is secondarily useful at higher temperatures to identify when there is a risk of sedentary heat stress.
Factors that may change effective temperature

1-Climatic and seasonal difference:-

The weather of a place represents the state of the atmospheric environment over a brief period of time. Integrated weather condition over several years is generally referred to as climate or more specifically, as the macro-climate. An analysis of the climate of a particular region can help in assessing the seasons or periods during which a person may experience comfortable or uncomfortable conditions. It further helps in identifying the climatic elements, as well as their severity, that cause discomfort. The information helps a designer to build a house that filters out adverse climatic effects, while simultaneously allowing those that are beneficial. Discomfort and the corresponding energy demand for mechanical systems can be significantly reduced by judicious control of the climatic effects. The built-form and arrangement of openings of a building can be suitably derived from this analysis. For example, in a place like Mumbai, one feels hot and sweaty owing to intense solar radiation accompanied by high humidity. Here, the building design should be such that (a) it is sufficiently shaded to prevent solar radiation from entering the house and, (b) it is ventilated to reduce discomfort due to high humidity. On the other hand, in a place like Shimla, it is necessary to maintain warmth inside the building due to the predominantly cold climate. Climate thus plays a pivotal role in determining the design and construction of a building.

2-Occupancy duration:-

Occupants emit heat from their activities through breathing and perspiration. Total occupant heat gain consists of sensible gain component and latent load gain component. The sensible load affects dry bulb air temperature. Table 1 gives representative rates at which sensible heat and moisture are emitted by humans in different states of activity. In high-density spaces, such as auditoriums, these sensible and latent heat gains comprise a large fraction of the total load. Even for shortterm occupancy, the extra sensible heat and moisture introduced by people may be significant. See Chapter 9 for detailed information; however, Table 1 summarizes design data for common conditions. The conversion of sensible heat gain from people to space cooling load is affected by the thermal storage characteristics of that space because some percentage of the sensible load is radiant energy. Latent heat gains are usually considered instantaneous, but research is yielding practical models and data for the latent heat storage of and release from common building materials.
Activity Space Sensible heat rate (W)

Seated at theater

Theater, matinee

65

Seated at theater, night

Theater, night

70

Seated, very light work

Offices, hotels, apartments

70

Moderately active office work

Offices, hotels, apartments

75

Standing, light work; walking Walking, standing Sedentary work Light bench work Moderate dancing Walking 4.8 km/h; light machine work Bowling Heavy work Heavy machining work; lifting Athletics

Department store; retail store Drug store, bank Restaurant Factory Dance hall Factory Bowling alley Factory Factory Gynasium

75 75 80 80 90 110 170 170 185 210

Table 1 . 3.clothing:-

Table 2 shows the recommended comfort conditions for different seasons and clothing suitable at 50 % RH, air velocity of 0.15 m/s and an activity level of 1.2 met.
Season Clothing I
cl

op,opt

T range for
op

90% acceptance Winter Heavy slacks, long sleeve shirt and sweater Light slacks and short sleeve shirt Minimal (shorts) Table 2: Optimum 0.9 clo
o o

22 C

20 to 23.5 C

Summer

0.5 clo

24.5 C

23 to 26 C

0.05 clo

27 C

26 to 29 C

and recommended operative temperatures for comfort

The above values may be considered as recommended inside design conditions for comfort air conditioning. It will be shown later that the cost of air conditioning (initial plus running) increases as the required inside temperature increases in case of winter and as the required inside condition decreases in case of summer. Hence, air conditioning systems should be operated at as low a temperature as acceptable in winter and as high a temperature as acceptable in summer. Use of suitable clothing and maintaining suitable air velocities in the conditioned space can lead to reduced cost of air conditioning. For example, in summer the clothing should be minimal at a socially acceptable level, so that the occupied space can be maintained at higher temperatures. Similarly, by increasing air velocity without causing draft, one can maintain the occupied space at a higher temperature in summer. Similarly, the inside o temperatures can be higher for places closer to the equator (1 C o rise in ET is allowed for each 5 reduction in latitude). Of course, the above recommendations are for normal activities. The required conditions change if the activity levels are different. For example, when the activity level is high (e.g. in gymnasium), then the required indoor temperatures will be lower. These special considerations must be kept in mind while fixing the inside design conditions. Prof. P.O. Fanger ofn Denmark has carried out pioneering and detailed studies on thermal comfort and suggested comfort conditions for a wide variety of situations.
Table 3 - Typical Insulation for Clothing Ensembles

Ensemble Description

Icl (clo)

Walking shorts, short-sleeved shirt

0.36

Trousers, short-sleeved shirt

0.57

Trousers, long-sleeved shirt

0.61

Same as above, plus suit jacket

0.96

Same as above, plus vest and T-shirt

0.96

Trousers, long-sleeved shirt, long-sleeved sweater, T-shirt

1.01

Same as above, plus suit jacket and long underwear bottoms

1.30

Sweat pants, sweat shirt

0.74

Long-sleeved pajama top, long pajama trousers, short 3/4 sleeved robe, slippers (no socks) 0.96

Knee-length skirt, short-sleeved shirt, panty hose, sandals

0.54

Knee-length skirt, long-sleeved shirt, full slip, panty hose

0.67

Knee-length skirt, long-sleeved shirt, half slip, panty hose, long-sleeved sweater

1.10

Knee-length skirt, long-sleeved shirt, half slip, panty hose, suit jacket

1.04

Ankle-length skirt, long-sleeved shirt, suit jacket, panty hose

1.10

Long-sleeved coveralls, T-shirt

0.72

Overalls, long-sleeved shirt, T-shirt

0.89

Insulated coveralls, long-sleeved thermal underwear, long underwear bottoms

1.37

4.AGE AND SEX:The comfort chart is prepared for the prepared for the o preference of men only. Women require about 0.5 C higher effective temperature. 5.SHOCK EFFECT:This comfort is due to sudden entering and leaving of people form outside from outside to condition space. 6.ACTIVITY:The room effective temperature is influenced by the rate of bodily activity. heavy activity people need low temperature than those seated at rest. SOLAR RADIATION Solar radiation is the radiant energy received from the sun. It is the intensity of sunrays falling per unit time per unit area and is usually expressed in Watts per square metre (W/m2). The radiation incident on a surface varies from moment to moment

depending on its geographic location (latitude and longitude of the place), orientation, season, time of day and atmospheric conditions . Solar radiation is the most important weather variable that determines whether a place experiences high temperatures or is predominantly cold. The instruments used for measuring of solar radiation are the pyranometer and the pyrheliometer. The duration of sunshine is measured using a sunshine recorder. AIR MOTION The motion of air, measured in feet/minute. also effects our comfort. If the air motion is too fast, we experienced drafts. If the air motion is too slow, we feel smoothened and suffocated. The optimum air motion is between 15 to 25 feet/minute. increasing air movement increases the rate of convention and rate of evaporation. Thats why you feel cooler when you sit front of a fan. AIR HUMIDITY Air humidity, which represents the amount of moisture present in the air, is usually expressed in terms of relative humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour in a certain volume of moist air at a given temperature, to the mass of water vapour in the same volume of saturated air at the same temperature; it is normally expressed as a percentage. It varies considerably, tending to be the highest

close to dawn when the air temperature is at its lowest, and decreasing as the air temperature rises. The decrease in the relative humidity towards midday tends to be the largest in summer. In areas with high humidity levels, the transmission of solar radiation is reduced because of atmospheric absorption and scattering. High humidity reduces evaporation of water and sweat. Consequently, high humidity accompanied by high ambient temperature causes a lot of discomfort. SKY CONDITION Sky condition generally refers to the extent of cloud cover in the sky or the duration of sunshine. Under clear sky conditions, the intensity of solar radiation increases; whereas it reduces in monsoon due to cloud cover. The re-radiation losses from the external surfaces of buildings increase when facing clear skies than covered skies. The measurement of sky cover is expressed in oktas. For example, 3 oktas means that 3/8th of the visible sky is covered by clouds.

WIND Wind is the movement of air due to a difference in atmospheric pressure, caused by differential heating of land and water mass on the earths surface by solar radiation and rotation of earth. Wind speed can be measured by an anemometer and is usually expressed in metres per second (m/s). It is a major design consideration for architects because it affects indoor

comfort conditions by influencing the convective heat exchanges of a building envelope, as well as causing air infiltration into the building .