CE 46-HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

Aim: The objective of the course is to educate the students on the various components of Highway Engineering. It exposes the students to highway planning, engineering surveys for highway alignment, Design of eometric Elements of Highways and !rban roads

Objectives: Introduction to Transportation "ystems Engineering

Explaining Transportation #lanning eometric Design of highways #avement Design of highways Explaining Traffic Engineering

Text Book(s): 1. $hanna $ and %usto & E , Highway Engineering, $hanna #ublishers, 'oor(ee, )**+. ). $adiyali , ', #rinciples and #ractice of Highway Engineering, $hanna Technical #ublications, Delhi, )***. Reference Book(s): +. Transportation Engineering - #lanning, &.". #apacostas, #.D. #revedouros, #rentice Hall of India #vt ltd, )**.. ). I'& "tandards /I'& 01 2 )**+ - I'& 34 2+5546 0. 7ureau of Indian "tandards /7I"6 #ublications on Highway 8aterials 9. "pecifications for 'oad and 7ridges, 8:'TH /India6

UNIT 1 Road classification The roads can be classified in many ays. The classifica!ion based on s"eed and accessibili!y is !he mos! #eneric one. No!e !ha! as !he accessibili!y of road increases$ !he s"eed red%ces. &'ee fi#%re (). Accordin#ly$ !he roads can be classified as follo s in !he order of increased accessibili!y and red%ced s"eeds. *ree ays+ *ree ays are access-con!rolled di,ided hi#h ays. -os! free ays are fo%r lanes$ ! o lanes each direc!ion$ b%! many free ays iden !o incor"ora!e more lanes as !hey en!er %rban areas. Access is con!rolled !hro%#h !he %se of in!erchan#es$ and !he !y"e of in!erchan#e de"ends %"on !he .ind of in!ersec!in# road ay &r%ral roads$ ano!her free ay e!c.)

E/"ress ays+ They are s%"erior !y"e of hi#h ays and are desi#ned for hi#h s"eeds & (01 .m2hr is common)$ hi#h !raffic ,ol%me and safe!y. They are #enerally "ro,ided i!h #rade se"ara!ions a! in!ersec!ions. 3ar.in#$ loadin# and %nloadin# of #oods and "edes!rian !raffic is no! allo ed on e/"ress ays.

Hi#h ays+ They re"resen! !he s%"erior !y"e of roads in !he co%n!ry. Hi#h ays are of ! o !y"es - r%ral hi#h ays and %rban hi#h ays. R%ral hi#h ays are !hose "assin# !hro%#h r%ral areas &,illa#es) and %rban hi#h ays are !hose "assin# !hro%#h lar#e ci!ies and !o ns$ ie. %rban areas.

Ar!erials+ I! is a #eneral !erm deno!in# a s!ree! "rimarily mean! for !hro%#h !raffic %s%ally on a con!in%o%s ro%!e. They are #enerally di,ided hi#h ays i!h f%lly or "ar!ially con!rolled access. 3ar.in#$ loadin# and %nloadin# ac!i,i!ies are %s%ally res!ric!ed and re#%la!ed. 3edes!rians are allo ed !o cross only a! in!ersec!ions2desi#na!ed "edes!rian crossin#s.

4ocal s!ree!s + A local s!ree! is !he one hich is "rimarily in!ended for access !o residence$ b%siness or ab%!!in# "ro"er!y. I! does no! normally carry lar#e ,ol%me of !raffic and also i! allo s %nres!ric!ed "ar.in# and "edes!rian mo,emen!s.

Collec!or s!ree!s+ These are s!ree!s in!ended for collec!in# and dis!rib%!in# !raffic !o and from local s!ree!s and also for "ro,idin# access !o ar!erial s!ree!s. Normally f%ll access is "ro,ided on !hese s!ree!s . There are fe "ar.in# res!ric!ions e/ce"! d%rin# "ea. ho%rs.

i!"re 1: '"eed ,s accessibili!y

FACTORS AFFECTING HIGHWAY ALIGHNMENT Design speed 5esi#n s"eed is !he sin#le mos! im"or!an! fac!or !ha! affec!s !he #eome!ric desi#n. I! direc!ly affec!s !he si#h! dis!ance$ hori6on!al c%r,e$ and !he len#!h of ,er!ical c%r,es. 'ince !he s"eed of ,ehicles ,ary i!h dri,er$ !errain e!c$ a desi#n s"eed is ado"!ed for all !he #eome!ric desi#n. 5esi#n s"eed is defined as !he hi#hes! con!in%o%s s"eed a! hich indi,id%al ,ehicles can !ra,el i!h safe!y on !he hi#h ay hen ea!her condi!ions are cond%ci,e. 5esi#n s"eed is differen! from !he le#al s"eed limi! hich is !he s"eed limi! im"osed !o c%rb a common !endency of dri,ers !o !ra,el beyond an acce"!ed safe s"eed. 5esi#n s"eed is also differen! from !he desired s"eed hich is !he ma/im%m s"eed a! hich a dri,er o%ld !ra,el hen %ncons!rained by ei!her !raffic or local #eome!ry.

'ince !here are ide ,aria!ions in !he s"eed ado"!ed by differen! dri,ers$ and by differen! !y"es of ,ehicles$ desi#n s"eed sho%ld be selec!ed s%ch !ha! i! sa!isfy nearly all dri,ers. A! !he same !ime$ a hi#her desi#n s"eed has cascadin# effec! in o!her #eome!ric desi#ns and !hereby cos! escala!ion. Therefore$ an 78!h "ercen!ile desi#n s"eed is normally ado"!ed. This s"eed is defined as !ha! s"eed hich is #rea!er !han !he s"eed of 789 of dri,ers. In some co%n!ries !his is as hi#h as :8 !o :7 "ercen!ile s"eed.

Topography The ne/! im"or!an! fac!or !ha! affec!s !he #eome!ric desi#n is !he !o"o#ra"hy. I! is easier !o cons!r%c! roads i!h re;%ired s!andards for a "lain !errain. Ho e,er$ for a #i,en desi#n s"eed$ !he cons!r%c!ion cos! increases m%l!iform i!h !he #radien! and !he !errain. Therefore$ #eome!ric desi#n s!andards are differen! for differen! !errain !o .ee" !he cos! of cons!r%c!ion and !ime of cons!r%c!ion %nder con!rol. This is charac!eri6ed by shar"er c%r,es and s!ee"er #radien!s. Other a!tors In addi!ion !o desi#n s"eed and !o"o#ra"hy$ !here are ,ario%s o!her fac!ors !ha! affec! !he #eome!ric desi#n and !hey are briefly disc%ssed belo +
#e$icle: +The dimensions$ ei#h! of !he a/le and o"era!in# charac!eris!ics of a ,ehicle infl%ence !he desi#n as"ec!s s%ch as id!h of !he "a,emen!$ radii of !he c%r,e$ clearances$ "ar.in# #eome!rics e!c. A design vehicle hich has s!andard

ei#h!$ dimensions and o"era!in# charac!eris!ics are %sed !o es!ablish hi#h ay desi#n con!rols !o accommoda!e ,ehicles of a desi#na!ed !y"e. %"man: The im"or!an! h%man fac!ors !ha! infl%ence #eome!ric desi#n are !he "hysical$ men!al and "sycholo#ical charac!eris!ics of !he dri,er and "edes!rians li.e !he reac!ion !ime. Traffic: I! ill be %neconomical !o desi#n !he road for "ea. !raffic flo . Therefore a reasonable ,al%e of !raffic ,ol%me is selec!ed as !he desi#n ho%rly ,ol%me hich is de!ermined from !he ,ario%s !raffic da!a collec!ed. The #eome!ric desi#n is !h%s based on !his desi#n ,ol%me$ ca"aci!y e!c. &nvironmental: *ac!ors li.e air "oll%!ion$ noise "oll%!ion e!c. sho%ld be #i,en d%e considera!ion in !he #eome!ric desi#n of roads. &conom': The desi#n ado"!ed sho%ld be economical as far as "ossible. I! sho%ld ma!ch i!h !he f%nds allo!ed for ca"i!al cos! and main!enance cos!. Ot$ers: Geome!ric desi#n sho%ld be s%ch !ha! !he aes!he!ics of !he re#ion is no! affec!ed.

Nagp"r !#assi i!ation

In Na#"%r road classifica!ion$ all roads ere classified in!o fi,e ca!e#ories as Na!ional hi#h ays$ '!a!e hi#h ays$ -a<or dis!ric! roads$ =!her dis!ric! roads and ,illa#e roads.

National $i!$(a's
They are main hi#h ays r%nnin# !hro%#h !he len#!h and bread!h of India connec!in# ma<or "or!s $ forei#n hi#h ays$ ca"i!als of lar#e s!a!es and lar#e ind%s!rial and !o%ris! cen!ers incl%din# roads re;%ired for s!ra!e#ic mo,emen!s. I! as recommended by >aya.ar commi!!ee !ha! !he Na!ional hi#h ays sho%ld be !he frame on hich !he en!ire road comm%nica!ion sho%ld be based. All !he na!ional hi#h ays are assi#ned !he res"ec!i,e n%mbers.

*or e.#. !he hi#h ay connec!in# 5elhi-Ambala-Amri!sar is deno!ed as NH-( &5elhi-Amri!sar)$ here as a bif%rca!ion of !his hi#h ay beyond *%ll%ndar !o 'rina#ar and ?ri is deno!ed as NH-(@A. They are cons!r%c!ed and main!ained by C3W5. The !o!al len#!h of Na!ional hi#h ay in !he co%n!ry is 87$((0 Ams$ and cons!i!%!e abo%! 09 of !o!al road ne! or.s of India and carry 419 of !o!al !raffic.

)tate $i!$(a's They are !he ar!erial roads of a s!a!e$ connec!in# %" i!h !he na!ional hi#h ays of ad<acen! s!a!es$ dis!ric! head ;%ar!ers and im"or!an! ci!ies i!hin !he s!a!e They also ser,e as main ar!eries !o and from dis!ric! roads. To!al len#!h of all 'H in !he co%n!ry is ($BC$((: Ams.

*ajor district roads Im"or!an! roads i!h in a dis!ric! ser,in# areas of "rod%c!ion and mar.e!s $ connec!in# !hose i!h each o!her or i!h !he ma<or hi#h ays. India has a !o!al of 4$C1$111 .ms of -5R.

Ot$er district roads Roads ser,in# r%ral areas of "rod%c!ion and "ro,idin# !hem mar.e! cen!ers or o!her im"or!an! roads li.e -5R or 'H. i!h o%!le! !o

#illa!e roads They are roads connec!in# ,illa#es or #ro%" of ,illa#es i!h each o!her or !o !he neares! road of a hi#her ca!e#ory li.e =5R or -5R. India has 06$81$111 .ms of =5RDER o%! of !he !o!al BB$(8$0B( .ms of all !y"e of roads.

Roads !#assi i!ation !riteria A"ar! from !he classifica!ion #i,en by !he differen! "lans$ roads ere also classified based on some o!her cri!eria. They are #i,en in de!ail belo . Based on "sa!e This classifica!ion is based on he!her !he roads can be %sed d%rin# differen! seasons of !he year. All- ea!her roads+ Those roads hich are ne#o!iable d%rin# all ea!hers$ e/ce"! a! ma<or ri,er crossin#s here in!err%"!ion of !raffic is "ermissible %" !o a cer!ain e/!en! are called all ea!her roads. *air- ea!her roads+ Roads hich are ne#o!iable only d%rin# fair ea!her are called fair ea!her roads.

Based on carria!e (a' This classifica!ion is based on !he !y"e of !he carria#e ay or !he road "a,emen!. 3a,ed roads i!h hards s%rface + If !hey are "ro,ided i!h a hard "a,emen! co%rse s%ch roads are called "a,ed roads.&e#+ s!ones$ Wa!er bo%nd macadam &WF-)$ Fi!%mino%s macadam &F-)$ concre!e roads)

?n"a,ed roads+ Roads hich are no! "ro,ided i!h a hard co%rse of a!leas! a WF- layer !hey is called %n"a,ed roads. Th%s ear!h and #ra,el roads come %nder !his ca!e#ory.

A#ign$ent The "osi!ion or !he layo%! of !he cen!ral line of !he hi#h ay on !he #ro%nd is called !he ali#nmen!. Hori6on!al ali#nmen! incl%des s!rai#h! and c%r,ed "a!hs. Eer!ical ali#nmen! incl%des le,el and #radien!s. Ali#nmen! decision is im"or!an! beca%se a bad ali#nmen! ill enhance !he cons!r%c!ion$ main!enance and ,ehicle o"era!in# cos!s. =nce an ali#nmen! is fi/ed and cons!r%c!ed$ i! is no! easy !o chan#e i! d%e !o increase in cos! of ad<oinin# land and cons!r%c!ion of cos!ly s!r%c!%res by !he roadside. Re%"ire$ents The re;%iremen!s of an ideal ali#nmen! are The ali#nmen! be! een ! o !erminal s!a!ions sho%ld be shor! and as far as "ossible be s!rai#h!$ b%! d%e !o some "rac!ical considera!ions de,ia!ions may be needed. The ali#nmen! sho%ld be easy !o cons!r%c! and main!ain. I! sho%ld be easy for !he o"era!ion of ,ehicles. 'o !o !he ma/im%m e/!end easy #radien!s and c%r,es sho%ld be "ro,ided. I! sho%ld be safe bo!h from !he cons!r%c!ion and o"era!in# "oin! of ,ie es"ecially a! slo"es$ emban.men!s$ and c%!!in#. I! sho%ld ha,e safe #eome!ric fea!%res. The ali#nmen! sho%ld be economical and i! can be considered so only hen !he ini!ial cos!$ main!enance cos!$ and o"era!in# cos! are minim%m.

Fa!tors !ontro##ing a#ign$ent We ha,e seen !he re;%iremen!s of an ali#nmen!. F%! i! is no! al ays "ossible !o sa!isfy all !hese re;%iremen!s. Hence e ha,e !o ma.e a <%dicial choice considerin# all !he fac!ors. The ,ario%s fac!ors !ha! con!rol !he ali#nmen! are as follo s+

=bli#a!ory "oin!s+ These are !he con!rol "oin!s #o,ernin# !he hi#h ay ali#nmen!. These "oin!s are classified in!o ! o ca!e#ories. 3oin!s !hro%#h hich i! sho%ld "ass and "oin!s !hro%#h hich i! sho%ld no! "ass. 'ome of !he e/am"les are+

o Frid#e si!e+ The brid#e can be loca!ed only here !he ri,er has s!rai#h! and "ermanen! "a!h and also here !he ab%!men! and "ier can be s!ron#ly fo%nded. The road a""roach !o !he brid#e sho%ld no! be c%r,ed and s.e crossin# sho%ld be a,oided as "ossible. Th%s !o loca!e a brid#e !he hi#h ay ali#nmen! may be chan#ed.

o -o%n!ain+ While !he ali#nmen! "asses !hro%#h a mo%n!ain$ !he ,ario%s al!erna!i,es are !o ei!her cons!r%c! a !%nnel or !o #o ro%nd !he hills. The s%i!abili!y of !he al!erna!i,e de"ends on fac!ors li.e !o"o#ra"hy$ si!e condi!ions and cons!r%c!ion and o"era!ion cos!.

o In!ermedia!e !o n+ The ali#nmen! may be sli#h!ly de,ia!ed !o connec! an in!ermedia!e !o n or ,illa#e nearby. These ere some of !he obli#a!ory "oin!s !hro%#h hich !he ali#nmen! sho%ld "ass. Comin# !o !he second ca!e#ory$ !ha! is !he "oin!s !hro%#h hich !he ali#nmen! sho%ld no! "ass are+ Reli#io%s "laces+ These ha,e been "ro!ec!ed by !he la from bein# ac;%ired for any "%r"ose. Therefore$ !hese "oin!s sho%ld be a,oided hile ali#nin#. Eery cos!ly s!r%c!%res+ Ac;%irin# s%ch s!r%c!%res means hea,y com"ensa!ion hich o%ld res%l! in an increase in ini!ial cos!. 'o !he ali#nmen! may be de,ia!ed no! !o "ass !hro%#h !ha! "oin!. 4a.es2"onds e!c+ The "resence of a la.e or "ond on !he ali#nmen! "a!h o%ld also necessi!a!e de,ia!ion of !he ali#nmen!.

Traffic+ The ali#nmen! sho%ld s%i! !he !raffic re;%iremen!s. Fased on !he ori#indes!ina!ion da!a of !he area$ !he desire lines sho%ld be dra n. The ne ali#nmen! sho%ld be dra n .ee"in# in ,ie !he desire lines$ !raffic flo "a!!ern e!c. Geome!ric desi#n+ Geome!ric desi#n fac!ors s%ch as #radien!$ radi%s of c%r,e$ si#h! dis!ance e!c. also #o,ern !he ali#nmen! of !he hi#h ay. To .ee" !he radi%s of c%r,e minim%m$ i! may be re;%ired !o chan#e !he ali#nmen!. The ali#nmen!s sho%ld be finali6ed s%ch !ha! !he obs!r%c!ions !o ,isibili!y do no! res!ric! !he minim%m re;%iremen!s of si#h! dis!ance. The desi#n s!andards ,ary i!h !he class of road and !he !errain and accordin#ly !he hi#h ay sho%ld be ali#ned. Economy+ The ali#nmen! finali6ed sho%ld be economical. All !he !hree cos!s i.e. cons!r%c!ion$ main!enance$ and o"era!in# cos! sho%ld be minim%m. The cons!r%c!ion cos! can be decreased m%ch if i! is "ossible !o main!ain a balance be! een c%!!in# and fillin#. Also !ry !o a,oid ,ery hi#h emban.men!s and ,ery dee" c%!!in#s as !he cons!r%c!ion cos! ill be ,ery hi#her in !hese cases. +ross sectional elements Overvie( The fea!%res of !he cross-sec!ion of !he "a,emen! infl%ences !he life of !he "a,emen! as ell as !he ridin# comfor! and safe!y. =f !hese$ "a,emen! s%rface charac!eris!ics affec! bo!h of !hese. Camber$ .erbs$ and #eome!ry of ,ario%s cross-sec!ional elemen!s are im"or!an! as"ec!s !o be considered in !his re#ard. They are e/"lained briefly in !his cha"!er.

+amber Camber or can! is !he cross slo"e "ro,ided !o raise middle of !he road s%rface in !he !rans,erse direc!ion !o drain off rain a!er from road s%rface. The ob<ec!i,es of "ro,idin# camber are+ '%rface "ro!ec!ion es"ecially for #ra,el and bi!%mino%s roads '%b-#rade "ro!ec!ion by "ro"er draina#e G%ic. dryin# of "a,emen! hich in !%rn increases safe!y

Too s!ee" slo"e is %ndesirable for i! ill erode !he s%rface. Camber is meas%red in 1 in n or n% &E#. ( in 81 or 09) and !he ,al%e de"ends on !he !y"e of "a,emen! s%rface. The ,al%es s%##es!ed by IRC for ,ario%s ca!e#ories of "a,emen! is #i,en in Table (. The common !y"es of camber are "arabolic$ s!rai#h!$ or combina!ion of !hem &*i#%re ()

i!"re 1: 5ifferen! !y"es of camber Table 1: IRC Eal%es for camber '%rface !y"e Concre!e2Fi!%mino%s Gra,el2WFEar!hen Hea,y 4i#h! rain rain 09 B9 49 (.C 9 0.8 9 B.1 9

,idt$ of carria!e (a'

Wid!h of !he carria#e ay or !he id!h of !he "a,emen! de"ends on !he id!h of !he !raffic lane and n%mber of lanes. Wid!h of a !raffic lane de"ends on !he id!h of !he ,ehicle and !he clearance. 'ide clearance im"ro,es o"era!in# s"eed and safe!y . The ma/im%m "ermissible id!h of a ,ehicle is -.// and !he desirable side clearance for sin#le lane !raffic is 1.67 m. This re;%ire minim%m of lane id!h of B.C8 m for a sin#le lane road &*i#%re (a). Ho e,er$ !he side clearance re;%ired is abo%! 1.8B m$ on ei!her side or (.16 m in !he cen!er. Therefore$ a ! o lane road re;%ire minim%m of B.8 me!er for each lane &*i#%re (b). The desirable carria#e ay id!h recommended by IRC is #i,en in Table (

Table 1: IRC '"ecifica!ion for carria#e ay id!h 'in#le lane T o lane$ no .erbs T o lane$ raised .erbs In!ermedia!e carria#e -%l!i-lane B.C8 C.1 C.8 8.8 B.8

i!"re 1: 4ane id!h for sin#le and ! o lane roads

UNIT 0erbs Aerbs indica!e !he bo%ndary be! een !he carria#e ay and !he sho%lder or islands or foo!"a!hs. 5ifferen! !y"es of .erbs are &*i#%re ()+

4o or mo%n!able .erbs + This !y"e of .erbs are "ro,ided s%ch !ha! !hey enco%ra#e !he !raffic !o remain in !he !hro%#h !raffic lanes and also allo !he dri,er !o en!er !he sho%lder area i!h li!!le diffic%l!y. The hei#h! of !his .erb is abo%! (1 cm abo,e !he "a,emen! ed#e i!h a slo"e hich allo s !he ,ehicle !o climb easily. This is %s%ally "ro,ided a! medians and channeli6a!ion schemes and also hel"s in lon#i!%dinal draina#e. 'emi-barrier !y"e .erbs + When !he "edes!rian !raffic is hi#h$ !hese .erbs are "ro,ided. Their hei#h! is (8 cm abo,e !he "a,emen! ed#e. This !y"e of .erb "re,en!s encroachmen! of "ar.in# ,ehicles$ b%! a! ac%!e emer#ency i! is "ossible !o dri,e o,er !his .erb i!h some diffic%l!y. Farrier !y"e .erbs + They are desi#ned !o disco%ra#e ,ehicles from lea,in# !he "a,emen!. They are "ro,ided hen !here is considerable amo%n! of "edes!rian !raffic. They are "laced a! a hei#h! of 01 cm abo,e !he "a,emen! ed#e i!h a s!ee" ba!!er. '%bmer#ed .erbs + They are %sed in r%ral roads. The .erbs are "ro,ided a! "a,emen! ed#es be! een !he "a,emen! ed#e and sho%lders. They "ro,ide la!eral confinemen! and s!abili!y !o !he "a,emen!.

i!"re 1: 5ifferen! !y"es of .erbs Sho"#ders

"houlders are provided along the road edge and are intended for accommodation of stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles and provide lateral support for base and surface courses. The shoulder should

be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truc( even in wet conditions. The shoulder width should be ade;uate for giving wor(ing space around a stopped vehicle. It is desirable to have a width of 9.. m for the shoulders. < minimum width of ).3 m is recommended for )2lane rural highways in India. &ar'ing #anes 3ar.in# lanes are "ro,ided in %rban lanes for side "ar.in#. 3arallel "ar.in# is "referred beca%se i! is safe for !he ,ehicles mo,in# on !he road. The "ar.in# lane sho%ld ha,e a minim%m of B.1 m id!h in !he case of "arallel "ar.in#. ("s)*ays F%s bays are "ro,ided by recessin# !he .erbs for b%s s!o"s. They are "ro,ided so !ha! !hey do no! obs!r%c! !he mo,emen! of ,ehicles in !he carria#e ay. They sho%ld be a! leas! C8 me!ers a ay from !he in!ersec!ion so !ha! !he !raffic near !he in!ersec!ions is no! affec!ed by !he b%s-bay. Ser+i!e roads 'er,ice roads or fron!a#e roads #i,e access !o access con!rolled hi#h ays li.e free ays and e/"ress ays. They r%n "arallel !o !he hi#h ay and ill be %s%ally isola!ed by a se"ara!or and access !o !he hi#h ay ill be "ro,ided only a! selec!ed "oin!s. These roads are "ro,ided !o a,oid con#es!ion in !he e/"ress ays and also !he s"eed of !he !raffic in !hose lanes is no! red%ced.

Drainage The "a,emen! s%rface sho%ld be absol%!ely im"ermeable !o "re,en! see"a#e of a!er in!o !he "a,emen! layers. *%r!her$ bo!h !he #eome!ry and !e/!%re of "a,emen! s%rface sho%ld hel" in drainin# o%! !he a!er from !he s%rface in less !ime. Footpath
*oo!"a!hs are e/cl%si,e ri#h! of ay !o "edes!rians$ es"ecially in %rban areas. They are "ro,ided for !he safe!y of !he "edes!rians hen bo!h !he "edes!rian !raffic and ,ehic%lar !raffic is hi#h. -inim%m id!h is (.8 me!er and may be increased based on !he !raffic. The foo!"a!h sho%ld be ei!her as smoo!h as !he "a,emen! or more smoo!her !han !ha! !o ind%ce !he "edes!rian !o %se !he foo!"a!h.

Ri!$t of (a' Ri#h! of ay &R=W) or land id!h is !he id!h of land ac;%ired for !he road$ alon# i!s ali#nmen!. I! sho%ld be ade;%a!e !o accommoda!e all !he cross-sec!ional elemen!s of !he hi#h ay and may reasonably "ro,ide for f%!%re de,elo"men!. To "re,en! ribbon

de,elo"men! alon# hi#h ays$ con!rol lines and b%ildin# lines may be "ro,ided. Con!rol line is a line hich re"resen!s !he neares! limi!s of f%!%re %ncon!rolled b%ildin# ac!i,i!y in rela!ion !o a road. F%ildin# line re"resen!s a line on ei!her side of !he road$ be! een hich and !he road no b%ildin# ac!i,i!y is "ermi!!ed a! all. The ri#h! of ay id!h is #o,erned by+ Wid!h of forma!ion+ I! de"ends on !he ca!e#ory of !he hi#h ay and id!h of road ay and road mar#ins. Hei#h! of emban.men! or de"!h of c%!!in#+ I! is #o,erned by !he !o"o#ra"hy and !he ,er!ical ali#nmen!. 'ide slo"es of emban.men! or c%!!in#+ I! de"ends on !he hei#h! of !he slo"e$ soil !y"e e!c. 5raina#e sys!em and !heir si6e hich de"ends on rainfall$ !o"o#ra"hy e!c. 'i#h! dis!ance considera!ions + =n c%r,es e!c. !here is res!ric!ion !o !he ,isibili!y on !he inner side of !he c%r,e d%e !o !he "resence of some obs!r%c!ions li.e b%ildin# s!r%c!%res e!c. Reser,e land for f%!%re idenin#+ 'ome land has !o be ac;%ired in ad,ance an!ici"a!in# f%!%re de,elo"men!s li.e idenin# of !he road. Table 1: Normal ri#h! of ay for o"en areas Road classifica!ion Road ay id!h in m 3lain and rollin# !errain ="en areas NH2'H -5R =5R ER NH2'H -5R =5R ER 48 08 (8 (0 F%il!-%" areas B1 01 (8 (1 01 (8 (0 : 04 (7 (8 : -o%n!aino%s and s!ee" !errain

i!"re 1: A !y"ical Ri#h! of ay &R=W) The im"or!ance of reser,ed land is em"hasi6ed by !he follo in#. E/!ra id!h of land is a,ailable for !he cons!r%c!ion of roadside facili!ies. 4and ac;%isi!ion is no! "ossible la!er$ beca%se !he land may be occ%"ied for ,ario%s o!her "%r"oses &b%ildin#s$ b%siness e!c.) The normal R=W re;%iremen!s for b%il! %" and o"en areas as s"ecified by IRC is #i,en in Table ( A !y"ical cross sec!ion of a R=W is #i,en in *i#%re (.

Overvie( Hori6on!al ali#nmen! is one of !he mos! im"or!an! fea!%res infl%encin# !he efficiency and safe!y of a hi#h ay. A "oor desi#n ill res%l! in lo er s"eeds and res%l!an! red%c!ion in hi#h ay "erformance in !erms of safe!y and comfor!. In addi!ion$ i! may increase !he cos! of ,ehicle o"era!ions and lo er !he hi#h ay ca"aci!y. Hori6on!al ali#nmen! desi#n in,ol,es !he %nders!andin# on !he desi#n as"ec!s s%ch as desi#n s"eed and !he effec! of hori6on!al c%r,e on !he ,ehicles. The hori6on!al c%r,e desi#n elemen!s incl%de desi#n of s%"er ele,a!ion$ e/!ra idenin# a! hori6on!al c%r,es$ desi#n of !ransi!ion c%r,e$ and se! bac. dis!ance. These ill be disc%ssed in !his cha"!er and !he follo in# ! o cha"!ers. 1esi!n )2eed The desi#n s"eed$ as no!ed earlier$ is !he sin#le mos! im"or!an! fac!or in !he desi#n of hori6on!al ali#nmen!. The desi#n s"eed also de"ends on !he !y"e of !he road. *or e.#$ !he desi#n s"eed e/"ec!ed from a Na!ional hi#h ay ill be m%ch hi#her !han a ,illa#e road$ and hence !he c%r,e #eome!ry ill ,ary si#nifican!ly. The desi#n s"eed also de"ends on !he !y"e of !errain. A "lain !errain can afford !o ha,e any #eome!ry$ b%! for !he same s!andard in a hilly !errain re;%ires s%bs!an!ial c%!!in# and fillin# im"lyin# e/orbi!an! cos!s as ell as safe!y concern d%e !o %ns!able slo"es. Therefore$ !he desi#n s"eed is normally red%ced for !errains i!h s!ee" slo"es. *or ins!ance$ Indian Road Con#ress &IRC) has classified !he !errains in!o fo%r ca!e#ories$ namely "lain$ rollin#$ mo%n!aino%s$ and s!ee" based on !he cross slo"e as #i,en in !able (. Fased on !he !y"e of road and !y"e of !errain !he desi#n s"eed ,aries. The IRC has s%##es!ed desirable or r%lin# s"eed as ell as minim%m s%##es!ed desi#n s"eed and is !ab%la!ed in !able 0.

Table 1: Terrain classifica!ion Terrain classifica!ion Cross slo"e &9) 3lain Rollin# -o%n!aino%s '!ee" The recommended desi#n s"eed is #i,en in Table 0. Table -: 5esi#n s"eed in Ty"e N'H'H -5R =5R ER %ori3ontal c"rve
The "resence of hori6on!al c%r,e im"ar!s cen!rif%#al force hich is a reac!i,e force ac!in# o%! ard on a ,ehicle ne#o!ia!in# i!. Cen!rif%#al force de"ends on s"eed and radi%s of !he hori6on!al c%r,e and is co%n!erac!ed !o a cer!ain e/!en! by !rans,erse fric!ion be! een !he !yre and "a,emen! s%rface. =n a c%r,ed road$ !his force !ends !o ca%se !he ,ehicle !o o,err%n or !o slide o%! ard from !he cen!re of road c%r,a!%re. *or "ro"er desi#n of !he c%r,e$ an %nders!andin# of !he forces ac!in# on a ,ehicle !a.in# a hori6on!al c%r,e is necessary. Eario%s forces ac!in# on !he ,ehicle are ill%s!ra!ed in !he fi#%re (.

1-(1 (1-08 08-61 61

as "er IRC &r%lin# and minim%m) Rollin# 71-68 68-81 81-41 41-B8 Hilly 81-41 41-B1 B1-08 08-01 '!ee" 41-B1 B1-01 08-01 08-01

3lain (11-71 71-68 68-81 81-41

i!"re 1: Effec! of hori6on!al c%r,e

They are !he cen!rif%#al force &3) ac!in# o%! ard$ ei#h! of !he ,ehicle &W) ac!in#
do n ard$ and !he reac!ion of !he #ro%nd on !he heels & and ). The cen!rif%#al force and !he ei#h! is ass%med !o be from !he cen!re of #ra,i!y hich is a! h %ni!s abo,e !he #ro%nd. 4e! !he heel base be ass%med as b %ni!s. The cen!rif%#al force in

is #i,en by &()

here

is !he ei#h! of !he ,ehicle in

$ and

is !he s"eed of !he ,ehicle in is !he radi%s of !he c%r,e in .

is

!he accelera!ion d%e !o #ra,i!y in

The cen!rif%#al ra!io or !he im"ac! fac!or

is #i,en by+ &()

The cen!rif%#al force has ! o effec!s+ A !endency !o o,er!%rn !he ,ehicle abo%! !he o%!er heels and a !endency for !rans,erse s.iddin#. Ta.in# momen!s of !he forces i!h res"ec! !o !he o%!er heel hen !he ,ehicle is <%s! abo%! !o o,erride$

A! !he e;%ilibri%m o,er !%rnin# is "ossible hen

and for safe!y !he follo in# condi!ion m%s! sa!isfy+ &0)

The second !endency of !he ,ehicle is for !rans,erse s.iddin#. i.e. When !he !he cen!rif%#al force is #rea!er !han !he ma/im%m "ossible !rans,erse s.id resis!ance d%e !o fric!ion be! een !he "a,emen! s%rface and !yre. The !rans,erse s.id resis!ance &*) is #i,en by+

here

and

is !he frac!ional force a! !yre

and

and

is !he reac!ion a!

!yre and $ is !he la!eral coefficien! of fric!ion and is !he ei#h! of !he ,ehicle. This is co%n!erac!ed by !he cen!rif%#al force &3)$ and e;%a!in#+

A! e;%ilibri%m$ hen s.iddin# !a.es "lace &from e;%a!ion()

and for safe!y !he follo in# condi!ion m%s! sa!isfy+ &B)

E;%a!ion 0 and B #i,e !he s!able condi!ion for desi#n. If e;%a!ion 0 is ,iola!ed$ !he ,ehicle ill o,er!%rn a! !he hori6on!al c%r,e and if e;%a!ion B is ,iola!ed$ !he ,ehicle ill s.id a! !he hori6on!al c"rveAnal'sis of s"2er4elevation '%"er-ele,a!ion or can! or ban.in# is !he !rans,erse slo"e "ro,ided a! hori6on!al c%r,e !o co%n!erac! !he cen!rif%#al force$ by raisin# !he o%!er ed#e of !he "a,emen! i!h res"ec! !o !he inner ed#e$ !hro%#ho%! !he len#!h of !he hori6on!al c%r,e. When !he o%!er ed#e is raised$ a com"onen! of !he c%r,e ei#h! ill be com"limen!ed in co%n!erac!in# !he effec! of cen!rif%#al force. In order !o find o%! ho m%ch !his raisin# sho%ld be$ !he follo in# analysis may be done. The forces ac!in# on a ,ehicle hile !a.in# a hori6on!al c%r,e i!h s%"erele,a!ion is sho n in fi#%re (.

i!"re 1: Analysis of s%"er-ele,a!ion

*orces ac!in# on a ,ehicle on hori6on!al c%r,e of radi%s

a! a s"eed of

are+

!he cen!rif%#al force ac!in# hori6on!ally o%!- ards !hro%#h !he cen!er of #ra,i!y$ !he ei#h! of !he ,ehicle ac!in# do n- ards !hro%#h !he cen!er of #ra,i!y$ and !he fric!ion force be! een !he heels and !he "a,emen!$ alon# !he s%rface in ard.

A! e;%ilibri%m$ by resol,in# !he forces "arallel !o !he s%rface of !he "a,emen! e #e!$

here is !he ei#h! of !he ,ehicle$ is !he cen!rif%#al force$ is !he coefficien! of fric!ion$ is !he !rans,erse slo"e d%e !o s%"erele,a!ion. 5i,idin# by $ e #e!+

&( )

We ha,e already deri,ed an e/"ression for 32W.Fy s%bs!i!%!in# !his in e;%a!ion ($ e #e!+ &0)

This is an e/ac! e/"ression for s%"erele,a!ion. F%! normally$ and for small $

and

$ !hen e;%a!ion 0 becomes+

&B)

here$ is !he ra!e of s%"er ele,a!ion$

!he coefficien! of la!eral fric!ion

!he

s"eed of !he ,ehicle in $ !he radi%s of !he c%r,e in and . Three s"ecific cases !ha! can arise from e;%a!ion B are as follo s+ ( If !here is no fric!ion d%e !o some "rac!ical reasons$ !hen and e;%a!ion B

becomes . This res%l!s in !he si!%a!ion here !he "ress%re on !he o%!er and inner heels are sameI re;%irin# ,ery hi#h s%"er-ele,a!ion . 0 If !here is no s%"er-ele,a!ion "ro,ided d%e !o some "rac!ical reasons$ !hen and e;%a!ion B becomes of fric!ion. B . This res%l!s in a ,ery hi#h coefficien!

If

and here

!hen for safe !ra,elin# s"eed from e;%a!ion B is #i,en by is !he res!ric!ed s"eed.

Design of super-elevation *or fas! mo,in# ,ehicles$ "ro,idin# hi#her s%"er ele,a!ion i!ho%! considerin# coefficien! of fric!ion is safe$ i.e. cen!rif%#al force is f%lly co%n!erac!ed by !he ei#h! of !he ,ehicle or s%"er ele,a!ion. *or slo mo,in# ,ehicles$ "ro,idin# lo er s%"er ele,a!ion considerin# coefficien! of fric!ion is safe$ i.e. cen!rif%#al force is co%n!erac!ed by s%"er ele,a!ion and coefficien! of fric!ion. IRC s%##es!s follo in# desi#n "roced%re+ '!e" ( *ind '!e" 0 If '!e" B *ind for !he desi#n s"eed and ma/ $ i.e $ !hen !he ma/im%m !o s!e" 4. '!e" 4 *ind !he allowable speed for !he ma/im%m and $ . If $ !hen $ else if #o !o s!e" B. for C8 "ercen! of desi#n s"eed$ ne#lec!in# $ i.e .

is safe for !he desi#n s"eed$ else #o

If !hen !he desi#n is ade;%a!e$ o!her ise %se s"eed ado"! con!rol meas%res or loo. for s"eed con!rol meas%res Ma,i$"$ and $ini$"$ s"per)e#e+ation 5e"ends on &a) slo mo,in# ,ehicle and &b) hea,y loaded !r%c.s i!h hi#h CG. IRC s"ecifies a ma/im%m s%"er-ele,a!ion of C "ercen! for "lain and rollin# !errain$ hile !ha! of hilly !errain is (1 "ercen! and %rban road is 4 "ercen!. The minim%m s%"er ele,a!ion is 0-4 "ercen! for draina#e "%r"ose$ es"ecially for lar#e radi%s of !he hori6on!al c%r,e. Attain$ent o s"per)e#e+ation (. Elimina!ion of !he cro n of !he cambered sec!ion by+ (. Ro!a!in# !he o%!er ed#e abo%! !he cro n + The o%!er half of !he cross slo"e is ro!a!ed abo%! !he cro n a! a desired ra!e s%ch !ha! !his s%rface falls on !he same "lane as !he inner half. 0. 'hif!in# !he "osi!ion of !he cro n+ This me!hod is also .no n as dia#onal cro n me!hod. Here !he "osi!ion of !he cro n is "ro#ressi,ely shif!ed

o%! ards$ !h%s increasin# !he id!h of !he inner half of cross sec!ion "ro#ressi,ely. 0. Ro!a!ion of !he "a,emen! cross sec!ion !o a!!ain f%ll s%"er ele,a!ion by+There are ! o me!hods of a!!ainin# s%"er ele,a!ion by ro!a!in# !he "a,emen! (. Ro!a!ion abo%! !he cen!er line + The "a,emen! is ro!a!ed s%ch !ha! !he inner ed#e is de"ressed and !he o%!er ed#e is raised bo!h by half !he !o!al amo%n! of s%"er ele,a!ion$ i.e.$ by i!h res"ec! !o !he cen!re. 0. Ro!a!ion abo%! !he inner ed#e+ Here !he "a,emen! is ro!a!ed raisin# !he o%!er ed#e as ell as !he cen!re s%ch !ha! !he o%!er ed#e is raised by !he f%ll amo%n! of s%"er ele,a!ion i!h res"ec! !o !he inner ed#e. Radi"s of %ori3ontal +"rve
The radi%s of !he hori6on!al c%r,e is an im"or!an! desi#n as"ec! of !he #eome!ric desi#n. The ma/im%m comfor!able s"eed on a hori6on!al c%r,e de"ends on !he radi%s of !he c%r,e. Al!ho%#h i! is "ossible !o desi#n !he c%r,e i!h ma/im%m s%"er ele,a!ion and coefficien! of fric!ion$ i! is no! desirable beca%se re-ali#nmen! o%ld be re;%ired if !he

desi#n s"eed is increased in f%!%re. Therefore$ a r%lin# minim%m radi%s deri,ed by ass%min# ma/im%m s%"er ele,a!ion and coefficien! of fric!ion.

can be &()

Ideally$ !he radi%s of !he c%r,e sho%ld be hi#her !han . Ho e,er$ ,ery lar#e c%r,es are also no! desirable. 'e!!in# o%! lar#e c%r,es in !he field becomes diffic%l!. In addi!ion$ i! also enhances dri,in# s!rain. E/!ra idenin# E/!ra idenin# refers !o !he addi!ional id!h of carria#e ay !ha! is re;%ired on a c%r,ed sec!ion of a road o,er and abo,e !ha! re;%ired on a s!rai#h! ali#nmen!. This idenin# is done d%e !o ! o reasons+ !he firs! and mos! im"or!an! is !he addi!ional id!h re;%ired for a ,ehicle !a.in# a hori6on!al c%r,e and !he second is d%e !o !he !endency of !he dri,ers !o "ly a ay from !he ed#e of !he carria#e ay as !hey dri,e on a c%r,e. The firs! is referred as !he mechanical idenin# and !he second is called !he "sycholo#ical idenin#. These are disc%ssed in de!ail belo .

UNIT45 %ori3ontal Transition +"rves Transi!ion c%r,e is "ro,ided !o chan#e !he hori6on!al ali#nmen! from s!rai#h! !o circ%lar c%r,e #rad%ally and has a radi%s hich decreases from infini!y a! !he s!rai#h! end &tangent point) !o !he desired radi%s of !he circ%lar c%r,e a! !he o!her end &curve point) There are fi,e ob<ec!i,es for "ro,idin# !ransi!ion c%r,e and are #i,en belo + (. !o in!rod%ce #rad%ally !he cen!rif%#al force be! een !he !an#en! "oin! and !he be#innin# of !he circ%lar c%r,e$ a,oidin# s%dden <er. on !he ,ehicle. This increases !he comfor! of "assen#ers. 0. !o enable !he dri,er !%rn !he s!eerin# #rad%ally for his o n comfor! and sec%ri!y$ B. !o "ro,ide #rad%al in!rod%c!ion of s%"er ele,a!ion$ and 4. !o "ro,ide #rad%al in!rod%c!ion of e/!ra idenin#. 8. !o enhance !he aes!he!ic a""earance of !he road. Type of transition curve 5ifferen! !y"es of !ransi!ion c%r,es are s"iral or clo!hoid$ c%bic "arabola$ and 4emnisca!e. IRC recommends s"iral as !he !ransi!ion c%r,e beca%se+ (. i! f%lfills !he re;%iremen! of an ideal !ransi!ion c%r,e$ !ha! isI (. ra!e of chan#e or cen!rif%#al accelera!ion is consis!en! &smoo!h) and 0. radi%s of !he !ransi!ion c%r,e is a! !he s!rai#h! ed#e and chan#es !o !he c%r,e "oin! & is ,ery easy. Length of transition curve
The len#!h of !he !ransi!ion c%r,e sho%ld be de!ermined as !he ma/im%m of !he follo in# !hree cri!eria+ ra!e of chan#e of cen!rif%#al accelera!ion$ ra!e of chan#e of s%"er ele,a!ion$ and an em"irical form%la #i,en by IRC. Ra!e of chan#e of cen!rif%#al accelera!ion

a!

) and calc%la!ion and field im"lemen!a!ion

A! !he !an#en! "oin!$ radi%s is infini!y and hence cen!rif%#al accelera!ion is 6ero. A! !he end of !he !ransi!ion$ !he radi%s R has minim%m ,al%e R. The ra!e of chan#e of cen!rif%#al accelera!ion sho%ld be ado"!ed s%ch !ha! !he desi#n sho%ld no! ca%se discomfor! !o !he dri,ers. If is !he ra!e of chan#e of cen!rif%#al accelera!ion$ i! can be ri!!en as+

Therefore$ !he len#!h of !he !ransi!ion c%r,e

in

is &()

here is !he ra!e of chan#e of cen!rif%#al accelera!ion #i,en by an em"irical form%la s%##es!ed by by IRC as belo + &0 )

2. Rate of introduction of super-elevation Raise & ) of !he o%!er ed#e i!h res"ec! !o inner ed#e is #i,en by
. The ra!e of chan#e of !his raise from !o is achie,ed #rad%ally i!h a #radien! of in o,er !he len#!h of !he !ransi!ion c%r,e &!y"ical ran#e

of

is 61-(81). Therefore$ !he len#!h of !he !ransi!ion c%r,e

is+ &B)

3. By empirical formula IRC s%##es! !he len#!h of !he !ransi!ion c%r,e is minim%m for a "lain and rollin# !errain+ &4)

and for s!ee" and hilly !errain is+ &8)

and !he shif! as+ &6)

The len#!h of !he !ransi!ion c%r,e

is !he ma/im%m of e;%a!ions ($ B and 4or8$ i.e. &C)

Case (a) *or sin#le lane roads+

&( )

Therefore$ &0)

i!"re 1: 'e!-bac. for sin#le lane roads &

*or m%l!i lane roads$ if is !he dis!ance be! een cen!erline of !he road and !he cen!erline of !he inner lane$ !hen &B)

&4)

i!"re -: 'e!-bac. for m%l!i-lane roads &

Case (a) *or sin#le lane roads+

&( )

Therefore$ &0)

i!"re 1: 'e!-bac. for sin#le lane roads &

*or m%l!i lane roads$ if is !he dis!ance be! een cen!erline of !he road and !he cen!erline of !he inner lane$ !hen &B)

&4)

i!"re -: 'e!-bac. for m%l!i-lane roads & #ertical ali!nment4I Overvie(

The ,er!ical ali#nmen! of a road consis!s of #radien!s&s!rai#h! lines in a ,er!ical "lane) and ,er!ical c%r,es. The ,er!ical ali#nmen! is %s%ally dra n as a "rofile$ hich is a #ra"h i!h ele,a!ion as ,er!ical a/is and !he hori6on!al dis!ance alon# !he cen!re line of !he road as !he !he hori6on!al a/is. >%s! as a circ%lar c%r,e is %sed !o connec! hori6on!al s!rai#h! s!re!ches of road$ ,er!ical c%r,es connec! ! o #radien!s. When !hese ! o c%r,es mee!$ !hey form ei!her con,e/ or conca,e. The former is called a s%mmi! c%r,e$ hile !he la!!er is called a ,alley c%r,e. This sec!ion co,ers a disc%ssion on #radien! and s%mmi! c%r,es.

6radient Gradien! is !he ra!e of rise or fall alon# !he len#!h of !he road i!h res"ec! !o !he hori6on!al. While ali#nin# a hi#h ay$ !he #radien! is decided for desi#nin# !he ,er!ical c%r,e. Fefore finali6in# !he #radien!s$ !he cons!r%c!ion cos!$ ,ehic%lar o"era!ion cos! and !he "rac!ical "roblems in !he si!e also has !o be considered. ?s%ally s!ee" #radien!s are a,oided as far as "ossible beca%se of !he diffic%l!y !o climb and increase in !he cons!r%c!ion cos!. -ore abo%! #radien!s are disc%ssed belo . E e!t o gradient The effec! of lon# s!ee" #radien! on !he ,ehic%lar s"eed is considerable. This is "ar!ic%larly im"or!an! in roads here !he "ro"or!ion of hea,y ,ehicles is si#nifican!. 5%e !o res!ric!i,e si#h! dis!ance a! %"hill #radien!s !he s"eed of !raffic is of!en con!rolled by !hese hea,y ,ehicles. As a res%l!$ no! only !he o"era!in# cos!s of !he ,ehicles are

increased$ b%! also ca"aci!y of !he roads ill ha,e !o be red%ced. *%r!her$ d%e !o hi#h differen!ial s"eed be! een hea,y and li#h! ,ehicles$ and be! een %"hill and do nhill #radien!s$ acciden!s abo%nd in #radien!s. Representation o gradient The "osi!i,e #radien! or !he ascendin# #radien! is deno!ed as and !he ne#a!i,e

#radien! as . The de,ia!ion an#le is+ hen ! o #rades mee!$ !he an#le hich meas%res !he chan#e of direc!ion and is #i,en by !he al#ebraic difference be! een !he ! o

#rades . E/am"le+ ( in B1 J B.BB9 s!ee" #radien!$ hile ( in 81 J 09 is a fla!!er #radien!. The #radien! re"resen!a!ion is ill%s!ra!ed in !he fi#%re (.

is a

i!"re 1: Re"resen!a!ion of #radien! Types o gradient -any s!%dies ha,e sho n !ha! #radien! %"!o se,en "ercen! can ha,e considerable effec! on !he s"eeds of !he "assen#er cars. =n !he con!rary$ !he s"eeds of !he hea,y ,ehicles are considerably red%ced hen lon# #radien!s as fla! as ! o "ercen! is ado"!ed. Al!ho%#h$ fla!!er #radien!s are desirable$ i! is e,iden! !ha! !he cos! of cons!r%c!ion ill also be ,ery hi#h. Therefore$ IRC has s"ecified !he desirable #radien!s for each !errain. Ho e,er$ i! may no! be economically ,iable !o ado"! s%ch #radien!s in cer!ain loca!ions$ s!ee"er #radien!s are "ermi!!ed for shor! d%ra!ion. 5ifferen! !y"es of #rades are disc%ssed belo and !he recommended !y"e of #radien!s for each !y"e of !errain and !y"e of #radien! is #i,en in !able (.

Table 1: IRC '"ecifica!ions for #radien!s for differen! roads Terrain 3lain2Rollin# Hilly R%lin# B.B 8.1 4imi!in#s 8.1 6.1 E/ce"!ional 6.C C.1

'!ee"

6.1

C.1

7.1

R%lin# #radien!$ limi!in# #radien!$ e/ce"!ional #radien! and minim%m #radien! are some !y"es of #radien!s hich are disc%ssed belo . R"lin! !radient The r%lin# #radien! or !he desi#n #radien! is !he ma/im%m #radien! i!h hich !he desi#ner a!!em"!s !o desi#n !he ,er!ical "rofile of !he road. This de"ends on !he !errain$ len#!h of !he #rade$ s"eed$ "%llin# "o er of !he ,ehicle and !he "resence of !he hori6on!al c%r,e. In fla!!er !errain$ i! may be "ossible !o "ro,ide fla! #radien!s$ b%! in hilly !errain i! is no! economical and some!imes no! "ossible also. The r%lin# #radien! is ado"!ed by !he desi#ner by considerin# a "ar!ic%lar s"eed as !he desi#n s"eed and for a desi#n ,ehicle i!h s!andard dimensions. F%! o%r co%n!ry has a he!ero#eneo%s !raffic and hence i! is no! "ossible !o lay do n "recise s!andards for !he co%n!ry as a hole. Hence IRC has recommended some ,al%es for r%lin# #radien! for differen! !y"es of !errain. 7imitin! !radient This #radien! is ado"!ed hen !he r%lin# #radien! res%l!s in enormo%s increase in cos! of cons!r%c!ion. =n rollin# !errain and hilly !errain i! may be fre;%en!ly necessary !o ado"! limi!in# #radien!. F%! !he len#!h of !he limi!in# #radien! s!re!ches sho%ld be limi!ed and m%s! be sand iched by ei!her s!rai#h! roads or easier #rades. &xce2tional !radient E/ce"!ional #radien! are ,ery s!ee"er #radien!s #i,en a! %na,oidable si!%a!ions. They sho%ld be limi!ed for shor! s!re!ches no! e/ceedin# abo%! (11 me!res a! a s!re!ch. In mo%n!aino%s and s!ee" !errain$ s%ccessi,e e/ce"!ional #radien!s m%s! be se"ara!ed by a minim%m (11 me!re len#!h #en!ler #radien!. A! hair"in bends$ !he #radien! is res!ric!ed !o 0.89. +ritical len!t$ of t$e !rade The ma/im%m len#!h of !he ascendin# #radien! hich a loaded !r%c. can o"era!e i!ho%! %nd%e red%c!ion in s"eed is called cri!ical len#!h of !he #rade. A s"eed of 08 .m"h is a reasonable ,al%e. This ,al%e de"ends on !he si6e$ "o er$ load$ #rad-abili!y of !he !r%c.$ ini!ial s"eed$ final desirable minim%m s"eed *inim"m !radient This is im"or!an! only a! loca!ions here s%rface draina#e is im"or!an!. Camber ill !a.e care of !he la!eral draina#e. F%! !he lon#i!%dinal draina#e alon# !he side drains re;%ire some slo"e for smoo!h flo of a!er. Therefore minim%m #radien! is "ro,ided for draina#e "%r"ose and i! de"ends on !he rain fall$ !y"e of soil and o!her si!e condi!ions. A minim%m of ( in 811 may be s%fficien! for concre!e drain and ( in 011 for o"en soil drains are fo%nd !o #i,e sa!isfac!ory "erformance.

UNIT / )"mmit c"rve '%mmi! c%r,es are ,er!ical c%r,es i!h #radien! %" ards. They are formed hen ! o #radien!s mee! as ill%s!ra!ed in fi#%re ( in any of !he follo in# fo%r ays+ (. 0. B. 4. hen a "osi!i,e #radien! mee!s ano!her "osi!i,e #radien! Kfi#%re (aL. hen "osi!i,e #radien! mee!s a fla! #radien! Kfi#%re (bL. . hen an ascendin# #radien! mee!s a descendin# #radien! Kfi#%re (cL. . hen a descendin# #radien! mee!s ano!her descendin# #radien! Kfi#%re (dL. .

Type o S"$$it C"r+e -any c%r,e forms can be %sed i!h sa!isfac!ory res%l!s$ !he common "rac!ice has been !o %se "arabolic c%r,es in s%mmi! c%r,es. This is "rimarily beca%se of !he ease i!h i! can be laid o%! as ell as allo in# a comfor!able !ransi!ion from one #radien! !o ano!her. Al!ho%#h a circ%lar c%r,e offers e;%al si#h! dis!ance a! e,ery "oin! on !he c%r,e$ for ,ery small de,ia!ion an#les a circ%lar c%r,e and "arabolic c%r,es are almos! con#r%en!. *%r!hermore$ !he %se of "arabolic c%r,es ere fo%nd !o #i,e e/cellen! ridin# comfor!.

i!"re 1: Ty"es of s%mmi! c%r,es Design Consideration In de!erminin# !he !y"e and len#!h of !he ,er!ical c%r,e$ !he desi#n considera!ions are comfor! and sec%ri!y of !he dri,er$ and !he a""earance of !he "rofile ali#nmen!. Amon# !hese$ si#h! dis!ance re;%iremen!s for !he safe!y are mos! im"or!an! on s%mmi! c%r,es. The s!o""in# si#h! dis!ance or absol%!e minim%m si#h! dis!ance sho%ld be "ro,ided on !hese c%r,es and here o,er!a.in# is no! "rohibi!ed$ o,er!a.in# si#h! dis!ance or in!ermedia!e si#h! dis!ance sho%ld be "ro,ided as far as "ossible. When a fas! mo,in# ,ehicle !ra,els alon# a s%mmi! c%r,e$ !here is less discomfor! !o !he "assen#ers. This is beca%se !he cen!rif%#al force ill be ac!in# %" ards hile !he ,ehicle ne#o!ia!es a s%mmi! c%r,e hich is a#ains! !he #ra,i!y and hence a "ar! of !he !yre "ress%re is relie,ed. Also if !he c%r,e is "ro,ided i!h ade;%a!e si#h! dis!ance$ !he len#!h o%ld be s%fficien! !o ease !he shoc. d%e !o chan#e in #radien!. Circ%lar s%mmi! c%r,es are iden!ical since !he radi%s remains same !hro%#ho%! and hence !he si#h! dis!ance. *rom

!his "oin! of ,ie $ !ransi!ion c%r,es are no! desirable since i! has ,aryin# radi%s and so !he si#h! dis!ance ill also ,ary. The de,ia!ion an#les "ro,ided on s%mmi! c%r,es for hi#h ays are ,ery lar#e$ and so !he sim"le "arabola is almos! con#r%en! !o a circ%lar arc$ be! een !he same !an#en! "oin!s. 3arabolic c%r,es are easy for com"%!a!ion and also i! had been fo%nd o%! !ha! i! "ro,ides #ood ridin# comfor! !o !he dri,ers. I! is also easy for field im"lemen!a!ion. 5%e !o all !hese reasons$ a sim"le "arabolic c%r,e is "referred as s%mmi! c%r,e. Length o the s"$$it !"r+e The im"or!an! desi#n as"ec! of !he s%mmi! c%r,e is !he de!ermina!ion of !he len#!h of !he c%r,e hich is "arabolic. As no!ed earlier$ !he len#!h of !he c%r,e is #%ided by !he si#h! dis!ance considera!ion. Tha! is$ a dri,er sho%ld be able !o s!o" his ,ehicle safely if !here is an obs!r%c!ion on !he o!her side of !he road. E;%a!ion of !he "arabola is #i,en by $ here $ here N is !he de,ia!ion an#le and is !he len#!h of !he In deri,in# !he len#!h of !he c%r,e$ ! o si!%a!ions can arise de"endin# on !he %"hill and do nhill #radien!s hen !he len#!h of !he c%r,e is #rea!er !han !he si#h! dis!ance and !he len#!h of !he c%r,e is #rea!er !han !he si#h! dis!ance.
4e! is !he len#!h of !he s%mmi! c%r,e$ is !he ''52I'52='5$ is !he de,ia!ion an#le$

dri,erMs eye hei#h! &(.0 m)$ and !he hei#h! of !he obs!r%c!ion$ !hen !he len#!h of !he s%mmi! c%r,e can be deri,ed for !he follo in# ! o cases. The len#!h of !he s%mmi! c%r,e can be deri,ed from !he sim"le #eome!ry as sho n belo + +ase a. 7en!t$ of s"mmit c"rve !reater t$an si!$t distance( )

i!"re 1: 4en#!h of s%mmi! c%r,e &

The si!%a!ion hen !he si#h! dis!ance is less !han !he len#!h of !he c%r,e is sho n in fi#%re (.

&()

+ase b. 7en!t$ of s"mmit c"rve less t$an si!$t distance The second case is ill%s!ra!ed in fi#%re (

i!"re 1: 4en#!h of s%mmi! c%r,e &

*rom !he basic #eome!ry$ one can ri!e &()

Therefore for a #i,en i!h res"ec! !o

and

!o #e! minim%m

$ differen!ia!e !he abo,e e;%a!ion

and e;%a!e i! !o 6ero. Therefore$

'ol,in# !he ;%adra!ic e;%a!ion for

&0 )

No $

e can s%bs!i!%!e and

bac. !o #e! !he ,al%e of minim%m ,al%e of

for a #i,en

. Therefore$

'ol,in# for

&B )

&4)

When s!o""in# si#h! dis!ance is considered !he hei#h! of dri,erMs eye abo,e !he road s%rface & ) is !a.en as (.0 me!res$ and hei#h! of ob<ec! abo,e !he "a,emen! s%rface & is !a.en as 1.(8 me!res. If o,er!a.in# si#h! dis!ance is considered$ !hen !he ,al%e of dri,erMs eye hei#h! & (.0 me!res. L ) and !he hei#h! of !he obs!r%c!ion & ) are !a.en e;%al as )

#alle' c"rve Ealley c%r,e or sa# c%r,es are ,er!ical c%r,es i!h con,e/i!y do n ards. They are formed hen ! o #radien!s mee! as ill%s!ra!ed in fi#%re ( in any of !he follo in# fo%r ays+

i!"re 1: Ty"es of ,alley c%r,e (. 0. B. 4. hen a descendin# #radien! mee!s ano!her descendin# #radien! Kfi#%re (aL. hen a descendin# #radien! mee!s a fla! #radien! Kfi#%re (bL. hen a descendin# #radien! mee!s an ascendin# #radien! Kfi#%re (cL. hen an ascendin# #radien! mee!s ano!her ascendin# #radien! Kfi#%re

Design !onsiderations
There is no res!ric!ion !o si#h! dis!ance a! ,alley c%r,es d%rin# day !ime. F%! ,isibili!y is red%ced d%rin# ni#h!. In !he absence or inade;%acy of s!ree! li#h!$ !he only so%rce for ,isibili!y is i!h !he hel" of headli#h!s. Hence ,alley c%r,es are desi#ned !a.in# in!o acco%n! of headli#h! dis!ance. In ,alley c%r,es$ !he cen!rif%#al force ill be ac!in# do n ards alon# i!h !he ei#h! of !he ,ehicle$ and hence im"ac! !o !he ,ehicle ill be more. This ill res%l! in <er.in# of !he ,ehicle and ca%se discomfor! !o !he "assen#ers. Th%s !he mos! im"or!an! desi#n fac!ors considered in ,alley c%r,es are+ &() im"ac!-free

mo,emen! of ,ehicles a! desi#n s"eed and &0) a,ailabili!y of s!o""in# si#h! dis!ance %nder headli#h! of ,ehicles for ni#h! dri,in#. *or #rad%ally in!rod%cin# and increasin# !he cen!rif%#al force ac!in# do n ards$ !he bes! sha"e !ha! co%ld be #i,en for a ,alley c%r,e is a !ransi!ion c%r,e. C%bic "arabola is #enerally "referred in ,er!ical ,alley c%r,es. 'ee fi#%re (.

i!"re 1: Ealley c%r,e de!ails 5%rin# ni#h!$ %nder headli#h! dri,in# condi!ion$ si#h! dis!ance red%ces and a,ailabili!y of s!o""in# si#h! dis!ance %nder head li#h! is ,ery im"or!an!. The head li#h! si#h! dis!ance sho%ld be a! leas! e;%al !o !he s!o""in# si#h! dis!ance. There is no "roblem of o,er!a.in# si#h! dis!ance a! ni#h! since !he o!her ,ehicles i!h headli#h!s co%ld be seen from a considerable dis!ance. Length o the +a##ey !"r+e The ,alley c%r,e is made f%lly !ransi!ional by "ro,idin# ! o similar !ransi!ion c%r,es of e;%al len#!h The !ransi!ional c%r,e is se! o%! by a c%bic "arabola here

The len#!h of !he ,alley !ransi!ion c%r,e is desi#ned based on ! o cri!eria+ (. comfor! cri!eriaI !ha! is allo able ra!e of chan#e of cen!rif%#al accelera!ion is limi!ed !o a comfor!able le,el of abo%! . 0. safe!y cri!eriaI !ha! is !he dri,er sho%ld ha,e ade;%a!e headli#h! si#h! dis!ance a! any "ar! of !he co%n!ry. +omfort criteria The len#!h of !he ,alley c%r,e based on !he ra!e of chan#e of cen!rif%#al accelera!ion !ha! ill ens%re comfor!+ 4e! is !he ra!e of chan#e of accelera!ion$ !he minim%m radi%s of !he c%r,e$ is !he desi#n s"eed and is !he !ime$ !hen is #i,en as+

or a c"bic 2arabola8 t$e #al"e )afet' criteria 4en#!h of !he ,alley c%r,e for headli#h! dis!ance may be de!ermined for ! o condi!ions+ &() len#!h of !he ,alley c%r,e #rea!er !han s!o""in# si#h! dis!ance and &0) len#!h of !he ,alley c%r,e less !han !he s!o""in# si#h! dis!ance. of for len#!h is #i,en by+

+ase 1 7en!t$ of valle' c"rve !reater t$an sto22in! si!$t distance ( ) The !o!al len#!h of ,alley c%r,e is #rea!er !han !he s!o""in# si#h! dis!ance ''5. The si#h! dis!ance a,ailable ill be minim%m hen !he ,ehicle is in !he lo es! "oin! in !he ,alley. This is beca%se !he be#innin# of !he c%r,e ill ha,e infini!e radi%s and !he bo!!om of !he c%r,e ill ha,e minim%m radi%s hich is a "ro"er!y of !he !ransi!ion c%r,e. The case is sho n in fi#%re (.

i!"re 1: Ealley c%r,e$ case ($ *rom !he #eome!ry of !he fi#%re$ e ha,e+

&()

here is !he de,ia!ion an#le in radians$ is !he hei#h! of headli#h! beam$ !he head beam inclina!ion in de#rees and is !he si#h! dis!ance. The inclina!ion ( de#ree.

is is

+ase - 7en!t$ of valle' c"rve less t$an sto22in! si!$t distance ( ) The len#!h of !he c%r,e is less !han ''5. In !his case !he minim%m si#h! dis!ance is from !he be#innin# of !he c%r,e. The im"or!an! "oin!s are !he be#innin# of !he c%r,e and !he bo!!om mos! "ar! of !he c%r,e. If !he ,ehicle is a! !he bo!!om of !he c%r,e$ !hen i!s headli#h! beam ill reach far beyond !he end"oin! of !he c%r,e hereas$ if !he ,ehicle is a! !he be#innin# of !he c%r,e$ !hen !he headli#h! beam ill hi! <%s! o%!side !he c%r,e. Therefore$ !he len#!h of !he c%r,e is deri,ed by ass%min# !he ,ehicle a! !he be#innin# of !he c%r,e . The case is sho n in fi#%re (. *rom !he fi#%re$

&()

i!"re 1: Ealley c%r,e$ case 0$ No!e !ha! !he abo,e e/"ression is a""ro/ima!e and is sa!isfac!ory beca%se in "rac!ice$ !he #radien!s are ,ery small and is acce"!able for all "rac!ical "%r"oses. We ill no! be able !o .no "rior !o hich case !o be ado"!ed. Therefore bo!h has !o be calc%la!ed and !he one hich sa!isfies !he condi!ion is ado"!ed. (. *le/ible "a,emen! 0. Ri#id "a,emen! F#e,i*#e pa+e$entThese "a,emen!s reflec! !he deforma!ion of s%b #rade and !he s%bse;%en! layers !o !he s%rface. Rigid pa+e$entThe ri#id charac!eris!ic of !he "a,emen! are associa!ed i!h ri#idi!y or fle/%ral s!ren#!h or slab ac!ion so !he load is dis!rib%!ed o,er a ide area of s%b #rade soil. F#e,i*#e pa+e$ent- De inition These "a,emen!s reflec! !he deforma!ion of s%b #rade and !he s%bse;%en! layers !o !he s%rface. *le/ible$ %s%ally as"hal!$ is laid i!h no reinforcemen! or i!h a s"eciali6ed fabric reinforcemen! !ha! "ermi!s limi!ed flo or re"osi!ionin# of !he roadbed %nder #ro%nd chan#es. The desi#n of fle/ible "a,emen! is based on load dis!rib%!in# charac!eris!ic of !he com"onen! layers. The blac. !o" "a,emen! incl%din# a!er H #ra,el bo%nd macadam fall in !his ca!e#ory.
*le/ible "a,emen! on !he hole has lo or ne#li#ible fle/ible s!ren#!h fle/ible in !heir s!r%c!%ral ac!ion). The fle/ible "a,emen! layers !ransmi! !he ,er!ical or com"ressi,e s!resses !o !he lo er layers by #rain !ransfer !hro%#h con!ac! "oin!s of #ran%lar s!r%c!%re.

The ,er!ical com"ressi,e s!ress is ma/im%m on !he "a,emen! s%rface direc!ly %nder !he heel load and is e;%al !o con!ac! "ress%re %nder !he heels. 5%e !o !he abili!y !o dis!rib%!e !he s!ress !o lar#e area in !he sha"e of !r%nca!ed cone !he s!resses #e! decreased in !he lo er layer. As s%ch !he fle/ible "a,emen! may be cons!r%c!ed in a n%mber of layers and !he !o" layer has !o be s!ron#es! as !he hi#hes! com"ressi,e s!resses.

To be s%s!ained by !his layer$ in addi!ion !o ear and !ear$ !he lo er layer ha,e !o !a.e %" only lesser ma#ni!%de of s!ress as !here is no direc! earin# ac!ion die !o !raffic loads$ !herefore inferior ma!erial i!h lo er cas! can be %sed in !he lo er layers. Rigid pa+e$ent- De inition The ri#id charac!eris!ic of !he "a,emen! are associa!ed i!h ri#idi!y or fle/%ral s!ren#!h or slab ac!ion so !he load is dis!rib%!ed o,er a ide area of s%b #rade soil. Ri#id "a,emen! is laid in slabs i!h s!eel reinforcemen!. The ri#id "a,emen!s are made of cemen! concre!e ei!her "lan$ reinforced or "res!ressed concre!e. Cri!ical condi!ion of s!ress in !he ri#id "a,emen! is !he ma/im%m fle/%ral s!ress occ%rrin# in !he slab d%e !o heel load and !he !em"era!%re chan#es. Ri#id "a,emen! is desi#ned and analy6ed by %sin# !he elas!ic !heory.

Ad+antages o Rigid &a+e$ent (. Ri#id las!s m%ch$ m%ch lon#er i.e B1D years com"ared !o 8-(1 years of fle/ible "a,emen!s. 0. In !he lon# r%n i! is abo%! half !he cos! !o ins!all and main!ain. F%! !he ini!ial cos!s are some ha! hi#h. B. Ri#id "a,emen! has !he abili!y !o brid#e small im"erfec!ions in !he s%b#rade. 4. 4ess -ain!enance cos! and Con!in%o%s Traffic and *lo . 8. Hi#h efficiency in !erms of f%nc!ionali!y +om2arison of lexible and Ri!id 9avement
(. 5eforma!ion in !he s%b #rade is !ransferred !o !he %""er layers 0. 5esi#n is based on load dis!rib%!in# charac!eris!ics of !he com"onen! layers B. Ha,e lo fle/%ral s!ren#!h 4. 4oad is !ransferred by #rain !o #rain con!ac! 8. Ha,e lo com"le!ion cos! b%! re"airin# cos! is hi#h 6. Ha,e lo life s"an C. '%rfacin# canno! be laid direc!ly on !he s%b #rade b%! a s%b base is needed

(. 5eforma!ion in !he s%b #rade is no! !ransferred !o s%bse;%en! layers 0. 5esi#n is based on fle/%ral s!ren#!h or slab ac!ion B. Ha,e hi#h fle/%ral s!ren#!h 4. No s%ch "henomenon of #rain !o #rain load !ransfer e/is!s 8. Ha,e lo re"airin# cos! b%! com"le!ion cos! is hi#h 6. 4ife s"an is more as com"are !o fle/ible C. '%rfacin# can be direc!ly laid on !he s%b #rade 7. Thermal s!resses are more ,%lnerable

7. No !hermal s!resses are ind%ced as !he "a,emen! ha,e !he abili!y !o con!rac! and e/"and freely :. Tha!s hy e/"ansion <oin!s are no! needed (1. '!ren#!h of !he road is hi#hly de"enden! on !he s!ren#!h of !he s%b #rade ((. Rollin# of !he s%rfacin# is needed (0. Road can be %sed for !raffic i!hin 04 ho%rs (B. *orce of fric!ion is less 5eforma!ion in !he s%b #rade is no! !ransferred !o !he %""er layers. Mi, design

!o be ind%ced as !he abili!y !o con!rac! and e/"and is ,ery less in concre!e :. Tha! hy e/"ansion <oin!s are needed (1. '!ren#!h of !he road is less de"enden! on !he s!ren#!h of !he s%b #rade ((. Rollin# of !he s%rfacin# in no! needed (0. Road canno! be %sed %n!il (4 days of c%rin# (B. *orce of fric!ion is hi#h

Thro%#h mi/ desi#n$ s%i!able "ro"or!ions of !he in#redien!s &coarse a##re#a!es$ fine a##re#a!es$ cemen!$ a!er and admi/!%re$ if any) are es!ima!ed$ .ee"in# in ,ie !he s!ren#!h$ or.abili!y$ d%rabili!y and economic considera!ions. These "ro"or!ions are achie,ed !hro%#h i!era!i,e e/"erimen!al "roced%re in !he labora!ory. There are n%mber of me!hods for mi/ desi#n of cemen! concre!e$ and a de!ailed disc%ssion can be ob!ained else here &Ne,ille and Froo.s (:::). Wa!er-cemen! ra!io is an im"or!an! considera!ion in !he mi/ desi#n "rocess. As a!er cemen! ra!io is increased in concre!e$ !he d%rabili!y and s!ren#!h decreases$ ho e,er$ !he or.abili!y enhances. 5e"endin# on !he !y"e of cons!r%c!ion$ or.abili!y re;%iremen!s are differen!. *or lar#e scale "rod%c!ion of cemen! concre!e$ !he "ro"or!ionin# o"era!ion is "erformed in !he ba!ch mi/in# "lan! . *i#%re B sho s a "ho!o#ra"h of a !y"ical concre!e ba!ch mi/in# "lan!.

i!"re 5: A t'2ical cement concrete batc$ mixin! 2lant 9ro2erties of fres$ concrete Ideally a fresh concre!e sho%ld be or.able$ sho%ld no! se#re#a!e or bleed d%rin# cons!r%c!ion. Cons!i!%en! "ro"er!ies$ !heir "ro"or!ions$ a##re#a!e sha"e and si6es$ !em"era!%re affec! !he "erformance of fresh mi/. The !es!s !ha! are cond%c!ed on fresh concre!e incl%de or.abili!y !es! and air-con!en! !es!. 'ome of !es!s !hro%#h hich or.abili!y of can be es!ima!ed are Aelly ball "ene!ra!ion !es!$ sl%m" !es!$ com"ac!in# fac!or !es!$ Eee bee !es! and flo !able !es! e!c. +"rin! of concrete 3resence of ade;%a!e amo%n! of mois!%re$ a! some re;%isi!e !em"era!%re and for a s%i!able "eriod of !ime$ is necessary !o com"le!e !he hydra!ion "rocess of cemen!. This "rocess is called c%rin#. The c%rin# condi!ions si#nifican!ly affec! !he final s!ren#!h achie,ed by !he concre!e. *or "a,emen! cons!r%c!ion$ only in-si!% c%rin# me!hods are a""licable. C%rin# com"o%nds are some!imes a""lied !o re!ain !he mois!%re a#ains! e,a"ora!ion. *or final c%rin# of concre!e "a,emen!s con!in%o%s "ondin# or mois!ened hessain2 #%nny ba#s are %sed &roperties o hardened !on!rete Tes!s are cond%c!ed on hardened concre!e !o es!ima!e "ro"er!ies li.e$ com"ressi,e s!ren#!h$ !ensile s!ren#!h$ mod%l%s of r%"!%re$ elas!ic mod%l%s$ 3oissonMs ra!io$ cree" and shrin.a#e "erformance$ d%rabili!y$ !hermal e/"ansion coefficien! e!c. These "arame!ers are of f%nc!ions of a##re#a!e !y"e$ sha"e and si6e$ !y"e and ;%an!i!y of cemen! and admi/!%res incor"ora!ed$ a!er cemen! ra!io$ c%rin#$ a#e e!c. Com"ressi,e s!ren#!h of concre!e is !he fail%re com"ressi,e s!ress on c%bical or cylindrical sam"les of concre!e. Com"ressi,e s!ren#!h of concre!e is rela!ed !o !he combined effec! of !em"era!%re and !ime$ a "arame!er called ma!%ri!y. -a!%ri!y of

concre!e is calc%la!ed as !he !ime of c%rin# &in ho%rs)$ m%l!i"lied by !he !em"era!%re$ &in de#rees) abo,e some s"ecified reference !em"era!%re. Eario%s em"irical rela!ionshi"s are s%##es!ed !o ob!ain !he ,ario%s s!ren#!h "arame!ers of concre!e &elas!ic mod%l%s$ !ensile s!ren#!h$ bendin# s!ren#!h e!c.) from !he com"ressi,e s!ren#!h of concre!e. 5irec! !ension !es! on concre!e is "erformed by a""lyin# !ension !o !he cylindrical or d%mble sha"ed sam"les of concre!e. Indirec! !ension is a""lied !o concre!e sam"les by s"li! cylinder !es!. -od%l%s of r%"!%re of concre!e is es!ima!ed by meas%rin# !he ma/im%m bendin# s!ress on concre!e beam s%b<ec!ed !o "%re bendin# in s!a!ic condi!ion. *a!i#%e !es! is #enerally "erformed s%b<ec!in# !he concre!e beams i!h re"e!i!i,e fle/%ral loadin#. The more is !he s!ress ra!io &defined as !he ra!io be! een !he bendin# s!ress a""lied !o !he mod%l%s of r%"!%re) !he less is !he fa!i#%e life. The em"irically deri,ed fa!i#%e e;%a!ion by 3CA &(:C4) is !he follo in#+ &() and &0) Where$ Nf is !he n%mber of load a""lica!ions !o fail%re$ 'R is !he s!ress ra!io i!h reference !o :1 days mod%l%s of r%"!%re. The e;%a!ion s%##es!ed by AA'HT= &(::B) is !he follo in#+ &B) Trans"or!a!ion of concre!e The !rans"or!a!ion of concre!e is !o be done in s%ch a ay !ha! se#re#a!ion and "rema!%re se!!in# is a,oided. Wheel barro $ !r%c. mi/er$ d%m"er !r%c.$ bel! con,eyor$ "i"e-line e!c. are !he ,ario%s ays concre!e is !rans"or!ed !o !he cons!r%c!ion si!e. *i#%re 4 sho s a !y"ical !r%c. concre!e mi/er. E-ERGING R=A5 -ATERIA4' *odification of &xistin! *aterials &xistin! materials ma' re:"ire modifications so as to im"ro,e en#ineerin# "ro"er!ies of ma!erial sa!isfy #eneral s"ecifica!ion re;%iremen! of locally a,ailable ma!erial !%rn o%ld "ro,e !o be cos! effec!i,e

hich in

mee! !he demand of s"ecial "%r"ose ma!erials ha,in# s"ecific "ro"er!ies. E/am"le+ hi#h or lo "ermeabili!y$ enhanced shear s!ren#!h e!c

T$ese $ave been disc"ssed f"rt$er "nder t(o sections as8 binder &bi!%men) modifica!ion a##re#a!e modifica!ion

1esi!n 2arameters The desi#n "arame!ers can be "rimarily di,ided in!o !hree ca!e#ories$ ma!erial$ !raffic and en,ironmen!al "arame!ers and are disc%ssed in !he follo in#. *aterial 2arameters The elastic modulus$ Poisson's ratio$ fatigue life$ modulus of rupture e!c. are !he en#ineerin# "arame!ers %sed for !he s!r%c!%ral desi#n of !he concre!e "a,emen!. The in"%! "arame!ers are ei!her fo%nd o%! e/"erimen!ally or es!ima!ed from ,ario%s recommenda!ions "ro,ided in !he desi#n #%idelines &ACI 011($ A'T- 011B$ I'-486). '!a!is!ically s%i!able desi#n ,al%e is !o be ado"!ed if !here are ,aria!ions in !he in"%! "arame!ers &Cha.robor!y and 5as 011B). The modulus of subgrade reaction &k) is #enerally %sed for charac!eri6a!ion of s%b#rade s!ren#!h. k in ideali6ed model re"resen!s !he s"rin# cons!an! of a dense li;%id fo%nda!ion. The k ,al%e is ob!ained by "erformin# "la!e load !es! on !he s%b#rade. The IRC+87 &0110) "ro,ides a !able i!h s%##es!ed k ,al%es hen CBR ,al%es of s%b#rade are .no n. Concre!e slab$ in #eneral$ are cons!r%c!ed on bo%nd$ s!abili6ed$ or %nbo%nd s%b-base layer$ and no! direc!ly on s%b#rade. The s%b-base layer "ro,ided belo !he concre!e "a,emen! ser,es cer!ain "%r"oses &A%s!roads 0114)$ s%ch as$ (. I! "ro,ides %niform s%""or! !o !he concre!e slab. 0. I! limi!s "%m"in# a! <oin!s and slab ed#es. B. I! con!rols shrin.a#e of concre!e slab or s ellin# of s%b#rade soil The effec!i,e k ,al%e !ha! incl%des !he s%b-base layer and !he s%b#rade sho%ld be %sed for desi#n of !hic.ness of !he concre!e slab. This effec!i,e k ,al%e can be ob!ained by "erformin# "la!e load !es! on !he cons!r%c!ed s%b-base$ or by com"%!a!ional means. Eario%s #%idelines &IRC+87 0110$ AA'HT= (::B$ 3CA (:74$ A%s!roads 0114) s%##es! s%i!able ,al%es of effec!i,e k hen !he !y"e and !hic.ness of !he s%b-base layer is .no n.

UNIT4; Traffic 2arameters 1esi!n life 5esi#n life is !he n%mber of years &or n%mber of s!andard a/le re"e!i!ions) for hich !he "a,emen! is bein# desi#ned. A "a,emen! is e/"ec!ed !o ser,e sa!isfac!orily i!hin !he desi#n life. *or concre!e "a,emen!s 01 !o 41 years may be ass%med as !he desi#n life &3CA (:74$ IRC+87 0110). Basic desi!n 2rinci2le Tho%#h differen! a""roaches for concre!e "a,emen! desi#n are s%##es!ed in ,ario%s #%idelines$ !he desi#n "rinci"les !end !o remain similar across differen! #%idelines$ for e/am"le$ 3CA &(::4)$ A%s!roads &0114)$ NCHR3 &0114)$ IRC+87 &0110) e!c.$ e/ce"! !he AA'HT= &(::B) "ro,isions$ hich is based on em"irical a""roach. The basic s!e"s in,ol,ed in !he desi#n of concre!e "a,emen! me!hod can be s%mmari6ed as follo s+ The de,elo"ed s!resses d%e !o load for a !rial !hic.ness of !he concre!e slab are calc%la!ed for ,ario%s loadin# confi#%ra!ion and !he cri!ical one is chosen. The a/le loads are #enerally di,ided in!o differen! a/le load #ro%"s and !he load s!resses are calc%la!ed indi,id%ally. The ra!io be! een !he load s!ress and Modulus of Rupture &-=R) is .no n as stress ratio . The s!ress ra!io de!ermines ho many re"e!i!ions !he "a,emen! can s%s!ain &i.e. allowable traffic repetitions ) for !he indi,id%al a/le load #ro%". If !he s!ress ra!io is 1.88 or lo er$ i! can i!hs!and ,ir!%ally infini!e n%mber of !raffic re"e!i!ions &3CA (:74). The ra!io be! een !he allo able re"e!i!ions !o !he e pected traffic repetitions is !he damage fraction. The calc%la!ion "rocess is re"ea!ed for ,ario%s a/le loads &some!imes$ for ,ario%s seasons$ or ,ario%s !imin#s of !he day)$ and !he s%m of indi,id%al dama#e frac!ions & cumulative fatigue damage ) sho%ld be less !han e;%al !o one for "a,emen! desi#n bein# safe. If fo%nd %nsafe$ !he !rial !hic.ness is chan#ed and !he desi#n "rocess is re"ea!ed. The desi#n "rocess may also incl%de considera!ions for !em"era!%re s!ress$ mois!%re s!resses$ and erosion dis!ress.

A brief disc%ssion on concre!e "a,emen! desi#n a""roaches s%##es!ed by ,ario%s desi#n "rac!ices$ vi!" 3CA me!hod &(:74)$ A%s!roads me!hod &0114)$ AA'HT= me!hod &(::B)$ NCHR3 mechanis!ic-em"irical me!hod &0114) and !he Indian Roads Con#ress &IRC) me!hod &0110) are "laced in !he follo in#+

9ortland +ement Association (9+A) *et$od The 3CA me!hod is based on Wes!er#aard$ 3ic.e! and RayMs or. and f%r!her !heore!ical analysis by *ini!e Elemen! -e!hod &H%an# (::B). The da!a %sed !o de,elo" !he 3CA me!hod is #enera!ed from ,ario%s road !es!s$ li.e$ A''H= road !es!$ Arlin#!on !es! &cond%c!ed by 3CA)$ Fa!es !es! road$ and -aryland road !es! &3CA (:74). The 3CA desi#n me!hod is based on !he follo in# ! o considera!ions &3CA (:74)+ The fa!i#%e dama#e on !he concre!e slab$ d%e !o re"e!i!i,e a""lica!ion of !raffic load is es!ima!ed. The c%m%la!i,e fa!i#%e dama#e "rinci"le is %sed !o es!ima!e !he desi#n !hic.ness of !he slab. Ed#e s!ress be! een !he mid- ay of !he !rans,erse <oin! is !a.en as cri!ical confi#%ra!ion. The s!resses d%e !o ar"in# and c%rlin# &d%e !o !em"era!%re and mois!%re #radien!) are no! considered in !he fa!i#%e analysis as "er 3CA recommenda!ion$ beca%se$ mos! of !he !ime !he s!resses #enera!ed are s%b!rac!i,e !o !he load s!ress. The "ossibili!y of erosion of "a,emen! ma!erials "laced belo !he concre!e slab is e,al%a!ed. The ra!e a! hich !he slab is deflec!ed d%e !o a/le load is %sed as a cri!erion for erosion. Theore!ically$ i! can be sho n !ha! a !hin "a,emen! i!h smaller deflec!ion basin is s%b<ec!ed !o fas!er ra!e of deflec!ion$ com"ared !o !hic.er slab. Hence !hin slab is more s%sce"!ible !o erosion. In a similar ay !he c%m%la!i,e erosion dama#e is calc%la!ed for indi,id%al a/le load #ro%"s. If !his ,al%e is #rea!er !han one$ !hen !he desi#n needs !o be re,ised.

A"stroads met$od A%s!roads me!hod has been ado"!ed from 3CA &(:74) a""roach i!h modifica!ions s%i!ed !o A%s!ralian condi!ions &A%s!roads 0114). A bo%nd mi/ or lean cemen! concre!e is %sed as s%b-base ma!erial. *or a #i,en CBR ,al%e of !he s%b#rade and #i,en !hic.ness of cemen!ed s%b-base$ !he effec!i,e s%b#rade s!ren#!h can be ob!ained from !he char! "ro,ided. *i#%re-(: schema!ically sho s s%ch a char!. *or differen! le,els of !raffic$ A%s!roads &0114) s%##es!s minim%m ,al%es of !he base !hic.nesses !o be "ro,ided.

i!"re41< )c$ematic dia!ram of A"stroads (-==/) c$art for estimation of effective s"b!rade stren!t$ As "er As!roads &0114)$ !he concre!e "a,emen! slab !hic.ness$ for a #i,en e/"ec!ed !raffic re"e!i!ions$ is desi#ned considerin# !he &i) fle/%ral fa!i#%e of !he concre!e slab and !he &ii) s%b#rade erosion arisin# o%! of re"ea!ed deflec!ions. *or bo!h !he considera!ions$ e;%a!ions are s%##es!ed !o calc%la!e !he allo able !raffic re"e!i!ions. If !he allo able !raffic is less !han !he e/"ec!ed !raffic$ !he desi#n is re,ised by increasin# !he slab !hic.ness. The concre!e sho%lders ado"!ed are of in!e#ral !y"e or s!r%c!%ral !y"e .

AA)%TO met$od The AA'HT= me!hod &(::B) for desi#n of concre!e "a,emen! has e,ol,ed from !he AA'H= road !es! &AA'H= (:60). The AA'HT= "a,emen! desi#n follo s an em"irical a""roach. 3a,emen! "erformance in !erms of "resen! ser,iceabili!y inde/ & P#$ )$ loss of ser,iceabili!y$ s%b-#rade and s%b-base s!ren#!h$ c%m%la!i,e !raffic$ "ro"er!ies of concre!e$ <oin! load !ransfer efficiency$ draina#e condi!ion$ o,erall s!andard de,ia!ion and reliabili!y are !he in"%! "arame!ers considered in !he "a,emen! desi#n. The P#$ ,al%e of !he fresh "a,emen! is ass%med as 4.8 and !he "a,emen! is deemed !o ha,e failed hen !he P#$ ,al%e reaches 0.8. The resilien! mod%li of !he s%b#rade and s%b-base ma!erials are de!ermined in !he labora!ory sim%la!in# !he seasonal mois!%re con!en! and s!ress si!%a!ion. '%##es!ed ,al%es are also a,ailable for #i,en mois!%re con!en!$ "las!ici!y inde/ e!c. The com"osi!e mod%l%s of s%b-#rade reac!ion &k) is es!ima!ed from mod%l%s of s%b-#rade reac!ion and elas!ic mod%l%s of s%b-base for ,ario%s seasons and !he de"!h of ri#id fo%nda!ion and !he !hic.ness of !he s%b-base. 5esi#n e;%a!ion as ell nomo#ra"hs are a,ailable !o es!ima!e !he slab !hic.ness &%) from !hese in"%! "arame!ers. N+%R9 mec$anistic4em2irical (*4&) met$od

The NCHR3 &0114) has recen!ly de,elo"ed concre!e "a,emen! desi#n "roced%re based on mechanis!ic-em"irical &--E) a""roach. This a""roach a!!em"!s !o red%ce !he e/!en! of em"iricism "re,alen! in !he e/is!in# AA'HT= &(::B) #%idelines. This "ro"osed NCHR3 "a,emen! desi#n sys!em is mod%lar in na!%re$ !ha! is$ !he desi#n a""roach can be modified by "ar!s &as and hen ne .no led#e is a,ailable) i!ho%! disr%"!in# !he o,erall desi#n "roced%re. This a""roach also can !a.e care of ,ario%s heel-a/le load confi#%ra!ion &Ahan%m e! al. 0114). As "er !his a""roach !rial !hic.ness of !he slab is firs! ass%med$ and !he s!ress$ s!rain and dis"lacemen! ,al%es are ob!ained. *rom !hese ,al%es$ !he "erformance of !he "a,emen! in !erms of dis!resses &s%ch as fa%l!in#$ crac.in#) and smoo!hness and "redic!ed. If !hese "redic!ed "erformance "arame!ers does no! sa!isfy !he re;%ired "erformance for a #i,en reliabili!y$ !he desi#n re,ised. The desi#n a""roach incl%des a lar#e da!a-base as in"%! "arame!ers$ for e/am"le$ a,era#e daily !raffic$ !raffic #ro !h ra!e$ !raffic com"osi!ion$ ho%rly ea!her da!a on air !em"era!%re$ "reci"i!a!ion$ ind s"eed$ "ercen!a#e s%nshine$ rela!i,e h%midi!y$ "a,emen! ma!erial en#ineerin# "arame!ers$ #ro%nd a!er de"!h$ infil!ra!ion$ draina#e$ hydra%lic cond%c!i,i!y$ !hermal cond%c!i,i!y$ hea! ca"aci!y e!c. The !em"era!%re s!ress is considered in !his me!hod$ b%! !he !em"era!%re "rofile is lineari6ed !o enhance com"%!a!ional efficiency &NCHR3 0114).

Indian Roads +on!ress (IR+) met$od The Indian Roads Con#ress &IRC) #%idelines$ IRC+87 &0110)$ has ado"!ed !he Wes!er#aardMs e;%a!ion !o es!ima!e load s!ress and Frdab%ryMs e;%a!ion !o es!ima!e !em"era!%re s!ress. The load s!ress is hi#hes! a! !he corner of !he slab$ lesser in ed#e and leas! in !he in!erior. The order of ,aria!ion of !em"era!%re s!ress is <%s! !he re,erse of !his. As "er IRC+87 &0110)$ i! is recommended !ha! !he desi#n needs !o be done for ed#e s!ress condi!ion and s%bse;%en!ly chec. needs !o be "erformed for corner s!ress condi!ion so as !o finali6e !he desi#n. The follo in# are !he s!e"s follo ed as "er IRC+87 &0110) #%ideline for !he desi#n of concre!e "a,emen!+

The in"%! "arame!ers are ob!ained !o form%la!e !he desi#n "roblem. The <oin! s"acin# and !he slab dimensions are decided. If !here is a bo%nd s%b-base layer o,er !he s%b#rade$ a s%i!able ,al%e of effec!i,e k is !o be ado"!ed. A !rial !hic.ness of !he concre!e slab is ass%med. The ed#e s!ress is es!ima!ed for ,ario%s a/le loads from !he #i,en char!s. *i#%re01 schema!ically sho s s%ch a char!. The c%m%la!i,e fa!i#%e dama#e "rinci"le for fa!i#%e is a""lied !o chec. !he ade;%acy of !he slab !hic.ness. The s%m of ed#e s!ress d%e !o load for !he hi#hes! a/le load #ro%" and !he !em"era!%re s!ress sho%ld be less !han !he M&R of concre!e$ o!her ise !he desi#n is re,ised. The ade;%acy of corner s!ress is chec.ed i!h res"ec! !o M&R ,al%e and accordin#ly !he desi#n is finali6ed. Wes!er#aardMs corner s!ress form%la is for

es!ima!ion of corner s!ress d%e !o load$ and !he corner s!ress d%e !o !em"era!%re is ass%med !o be 6ero.

i!"re4-= )c$ematic dia!ram of IR+:;> c$art for estimation of load stress at t$e ed!e (IR+:;> -==-)

&stimation of la'er t$icknesses The !hic.ness of !he "a,emen! is ad<%s!ed in s%ch a ay !ha! !he s!ress2 s!rain de,elo"ed is less !han !he allo able ,al%es ob!ained from "as! "erformance informa!ion. The ! o ma<or modes of s!r%c!%ral fail%re of "a,emen! are fati!"e and r"ttin!. o ati!"e: Traffic a""lies re"e!i!i,e load !o !he "a,emen! s%rface$ and !he crac.s s!ar! from bo!!om !he bo%nd layer2 slab and "ro"a#a!e %" ards. When !he e/!en! of s%rface crac.s reaches a "redefined le,el$ !he "a,emen! is said !o ha,e failed d%e !o fle/%ral fa!i#%e.

"nctional desi!n The f%nc!ional "a,emen! desi#n in,ol,es considera!ions of s.id resis!ance$ ro%#hness$ s%rface dis!resses$ reflec!i,i!y of "a,emen! s%rface e!c. The f%nc!ional "a,emen! desi#n considers mainly !he s%rface fea!%res of a "a,emen!. 1raina!e desi!n A road needs !o be desi#ned in s%ch a ay !ha! !he rain2 sno "reci"i!a!ion is drained off !he "a,emen! and i!s s%rro%ndin#s. A s%i!able s%rface draina#e sys!em for !he "a,emen! is desi#ned for !his "%r"ose. 'ome a!er$ ho e,er$ ill "ercola!e in!o !he "a,emen! from

i!s !o" s%rface and needs !o be !a.en o%! of !he "a,emen! - !his is done by "ro,idin# an in!ernal draina#e sys!em !o !he "a,emen!. Wa!er ill also !ry !o en!er in!o !he "a,emen! from bo!!om d%e !o ca"illary rise or d%e !o rise in a!er !able. A s%i!ably desi#ned s%bs%rface draina#e sys!em !ries !o a,oid s%ch a "roblem. 9avement t$ickness desi!n c$arts *or !he desi#n of "a,emen!s !o carry !raffic in !he ran#e of ( !o (1 msa$ %se char! ( and for !raffic in !he ran#e (1 !o (81 msa$ %se char! 0 of IRC+BC 011(. The desi#n c%r,es rela!e "a,emen! !hic.ness !o !he c%m%la!i,e n%mber of s!andard a/les !o be carried o,er !he desi#n life for differen! s%b-#rade CFR ,al%es ran#in# from 0 9 !o (1 9. The desi#n char!s ill #i,e !he !o!al !hic.ness of !he "a,emen! for !he abo,e in"%!s. The !o!al !hic.ness consis!s of #ran%lar s%b-base$ #ran%lar base and bi!%mino%s s%rfacin#. The indi,id%al layers are desi#ned based on !he !he recommenda!ions #i,en belo and !he s%bse;%en! !ables. 9avement com2osition )"b4base '%b-base ma!erials com"rise na!%ral sand$ #ra,el$ la!eri!e$ bric. me!al$ cr%shed s!one or combina!ions !hereof mee!in# !he "rescribed #radin# and "hysical re;%iremen!s. The s%b-base ma!erial sho%ld ha,e a minim%m CFR of 01 9 and B1 9 for !raffic %"!o 0 msa and !raffic e/ceedin# 0 msa res"ec!i,ely. '%b-base %s%ally consis! of #ran%lar or WF- and !he !hic.ness sho%ld no! be less !han (81 mm for desi#n !raffic less !han (1 msa and 011 mm for desi#n !raffic of (+1 msa and abo,e. Base The recommended desi#ns are for %nbo%nded #ran%lar bases hich com"rise con,en!ional a!er bo%nd macadam &WF-) or e! mi/ macadam &W--) or e;%i,alen! confirmin# !o -='T s"ecifica!ions. The ma!erials sho%ld be of #ood ;%ali!y i!h minim%m !hic.ness of 008 mm for !raffic %" !o 0 msa an (81 mm for !raffic e/ceedin# 0 msa. Bit"mino"s s"rfacin! The s%rfacin# consis!s of a earin# co%rse or a binder co%rse "l%s earin# co%rse. The mos! commonly %sed earin# co%rses are s%rface dressin#$ o"en #raded "remi/ car"e!$ mi/ seal s%rfacin#$ semi-dense bi!%mino%s concre!e and bi!%mino%s concre!e. *or binder co%rse$ -='T s"ecifies$ i! is desirable !o %se bi!%mino%s macadam &F-) for !raffic %"!o o 8 msa and dense bi!%mino%s macadam &5F-) for !raffic more !han 8 msa.

N"merical exam2le 5esi#n !he "a,emen! for cons!r%c!ion of a ne by"ass i!h !he follo in# da!a+ (. T o lane carria#e ay 0. Ini!ial !raffic in !he year of com"le!ion of cons!r%c!ion J 411 CE35 &s%m of bo!h direc!ions) B. Traffic #ro !h ra!e J C.8 9 4. 5esi#n life J (8 years 8. Eehicle dama#e fac!or based on a/le load s%r,ey J 0.8 s!andard a/le "er commercial ,ehicle 6. 5esi#n CFR of s%b#rade soil J 49. Solution (. 5is!rib%!ion fac!or J 1.C8

0.

B. To!al "a,emen! !hic.ness for CFR 49 and !raffic C.0 msa from IRC+BC 011( char!( J 661 mm 4. 3a,emen! com"osi!ion can be ob!ained by in!er"ola!ion from 3a,emen! 5esi#n Ca!alo#%e &IRC+BC 011(). (. Fi!%mino%s s%rfacin# J 08 mm '5FC D C1 mm 5F0. Road-base J 081 mm WFB. s%b-base J B(8 mm #ran%lar ma!erial of CFR no! less !han B1 9

i!. / 9ro2a!ation of fati!"e crackin! o The hori6on!al !ensile s!ress2 s!rain a! !he bo!!om of bo%nd layer &bi!%mino%s s%rfacin#$ cemen!ed base or concre!e slab$ as !he case may be) is %sed as !he #o,ernin# "arame!er for fa!i#%e fail%re. o Con,en!ionally$ for desi#n of concre!e "a,emen! s!ress is %sed as "arame!er$ and for desi#n of bi!%mino%s "a,emen! s!rain is %sed as "arame!er. o R"ttin!: R%!!in# is !he acc%m%la!ion of "ermanen! deforma!ion. This is !he manifes!a!ion of #rad%al densifica!ion of "a,emen! layers$ and shear dis"lacemen! of !he s%b#rade.

i! ;. 1evelo2ment of R"ttin!

o The ,er!ical s!rains on !he "a,emen! layers$ mainly !he ,er!ical s!rain on !he s%b#rade is ass%med !o be #o,ernin# fac!or for r%!!in# fail%re. o The r%!!in# iss%e is no! considered for concre!e "a,emen! desi#n$ beca%se i! does no! ha,e any "ermanen! deforma!ion. The fa!i#%e2 r%!!in# e;%a!ions are de,elo"ed from field or labora!ory s!%dies$ here fa!i#%e 2 r%!!in# li,es are ob!ained i!h res"ec! !o res"ec!i,e s!ress2 s!rain for fa!i#%e2 r%!!in#. *or a #i,en desi#n life$ !h%s$ allo able fa!i#%e and r%!!in# s!ress2 s!rains can be es!ima!ed %sin# !he fa!i#%e2 r%!!in# e;%a!ions. The ,ario%s o!her !y"es of "a,emen! fail%res co%ld be shrin.a#e$ !hermal fa!i#%e$ !o" do n crac.in# &for bi!%mino%s "a,emen!) e!c.

+oncrete 2avement Concre!e "a,emen! is$ in #eneral$ consis!s of !hree layers$ s%b#rade$ base layer and !he concre!e slab.

Generally bo%nd base layers are %sed for concre!e "a,emen! cons!r%c!ion. As "er Indian s"ecifica!ion$ some e/am"le of s%ch base layers are 5ry 4ean Concre!e &54C)$ Roller Com"ac!ed Concre!e &RCC) &IRC+(8-0110) The concre!e slab is #enerally of -41 !o -81 #rade of concre!e as "er Indian s"ecifica!ions$ and is called as "a,in# ;%ali!y concre!e &3GC) &IRC+(8-0110).

Bit"mino"s 2avement The s%b#rade is a com"ac!ed soil layer. The base and s%b-base co%rse co%ld be made %" of bo%nd or %nbo%nd #ran%lar layer. As "er Indian s"ecifica!ions &-=RTHH 011()$ some e/am"les of base or s%b-base layers are+ Gran%lar s%bbase&G'F)$ Wa!er Fo%nd -acadam &WF-)$ We! -i/ -acadam &W--) e!c. The binder co%rse is made %" bi!%mino%s ma!erial. As "er Indian s"ecifica!ions &-=RTHH 011()$ some e/am"les of binder co%rse are+ Fi!%mino%s -acadam &F-)$ 5ense Fi!%mino%s -acadam &5F-) e!c. The earin# co%rse is !he !o" bi!%mino%s layer hich is comes in con!ac! !o !he ,ehicle !yre. Wearin# co%rse "ro,ides im"ermeabili!y !o !he "a,emen! s%rface a#ains! a!er "ercola!ion &Cha.robor!y and 5as 011B). The binder co%rse and earin# co%rse !o#e!her are called bi!%mino%s s%rfacin#.

IR+ *&T%O1 O

7&?IB7& 9A#&*&NT *I? 1&)I6N

These #%idelines ill a""ly !o desi#n of fle/ible "a,emen!s for E/"ress ay$ Na!ional Hi#h ays$ '!a!e Hi#h ays$ -a<or 5is!ric! Roads$ and o!her ca!e#ories of roads. *le/ible "a,emen!s are considered !o incl%de !he "a,emen!s hich ha,e bi!%mino%s s%rfacin# and #ran%lar base and s%b-base co%rses conformin# !o IRC2 -='T s!andards. These #%idelines a""ly !o ne "a,emen!s. 1esi!n criteria
The fle/ible "a,emen!s has been modeled as a !hree layer s!r%c!%re and s!resses and s!rains a! cri!ical loca!ions ha,e been com"%!ed %sin# !he linear elas!ic model. To #i,e "ro"er considera!ion !o !he as"ec!s of "erformance$ !he follo in# !hree !y"es of "a,emen! dis!ress res%l!in# from re"ea!ed &cyclic) a""lica!ion of !raffic loads are considered+

(. Eer!ical com"ressi,e s!rain a! !he !o" of !he s%b-#rade hich can ca%se s%b-#rade deforma!ion res%l!in# in "ermanen! deforma!ion a! !he "a,emen! s%rface. 0. Hori6on!al !ensile s!rain or s!ress a! !he bo!!om of !he bi!%mino%s layer hich can ca%se frac!%re of !he bi!%mino%s layer. B. 3a,emen! deforma!ion i!hin !he bi!%mino%s layer.
While !he "ermanen! deforma!ion i!hin !he bi!%mino%s layer can be con!rolled by mee!in# !he mi/ desi#n re;%iremen!s$ !hic.ness of #ran%lar and bi!%mino%s layers are selec!ed %sin# !he analy!ical desi#n a""roach so !ha! s!rains a! !he cri!ical "oin!s are

i!hin !he allo able limi!s. *or calc%la!in# !ensile s!rains a! !he bo!!om of !he bi!%mino%s layer$ !he s!iffness of dense bi!%mino%s macadam &5F-) layer i!h 612C1 bi!%men has been %sed in !he analysis. ail"re +riteria +ritical locations in 2avement
A and F are !he cri!ical loca!ions for !ensile s!rains . -a/im%m ,al%e of !he s!rain is since !he

ado"!ed for desi#n. C is !he cri!ical loca!ion for !he ,er!ical s%b#rade s!rain

ma/im%m ,al%e of !he occ%rs mos!ly a! C. 'atigue Criteria( Fi!%mino%s s%rfacin#s of "a,emen!s dis"lay fle/%ral fa!i#%e crac.in# if !he !ensile s!rain a! !he bo!!om of !he bi!%mino%s layer is beyond cer!ain limi!. The rela!ion be! een !he fa!i#%e life of !he "a,emen! and !he !ensile s!rain in !he bo!!om of !he bi!%mino%s layer as ob!ained as &()

in hich$ is !he allo able n%mber of load re"e!i!ions !o con!rol fa!i#%e crac.in# and is !he Elas!ic mod%l%s of bi!%mino%s layer. The %se of e;%a!ion ( o%ld res%l! in fa!i#%e crac.in# of 019 of !he !o!al area. Rutting Criteria The allo able n%mber of load re"e!i!ions !o con!rol "ermanen! deforma!ion can be e/"ressed as &0)

is !he n%mber of c%m%la!i,e s!andard a/les !o "rod%ce r%!!in# of 01 mm. 1esi!n 2roced"re
Fased on !he "erformance of e/is!in# desi#ns and %sin# analy!ical a""roach$ sim"le desi#n char!s and a ca!alo#%e of "a,emen! desi#ns are added in !he code. The "a,emen! desi#ns are #i,en for s%b#rade CFR ,al%es ran#in# from 09 !o (19 and desi#n !raffic ran#in# from ( msa !o (81 msa for an a,era#e ann%al "a,emen! !em"era!%re of B8 C. The

la!er !hic.nesses ob!ained from !he analysis ha,e been sli#h!ly modified !o ada"! !he desi#ns !o s!a#e cons!r%c!ion. ?sin# !he follo in# sim"le in"%! "arame!ers$ a""ro"ria!e desi#ns co%ld be chosen for !he #i,en !raffic and soil s!ren#!h+ 5esi#n !raffic in !erms of c%m%la!i,e n%mber of s!andard a/lesI and CFR ,al%e of s%b#rade.

1esi!n traffic The me!hod considers !raffic in !erms of !he c%m%la!i,e n%mber of s!andard a/les &7(61 .#) !o be carried by !he "a,emen! d%rin# !he desi#n life. This re;%ires !he follo in# informa!ion+ (. 0. B. 4. 8. Ini!ial !raffic in !erms of CE35 Traffic #ro !h ra!e d%rin# !he desi#n life 5esi#n life in n%mber of years Eehicle dama#e fac!or &E5*) 5is!rib%!ion of commercial !raffic o,er !he carria#e ay.

Initial traffic Ini!ial !raffic is de!ermined in !erms of commercial ,ehicles "er day &CE35). *or !he s!r%c!%ral desi#n of !he "a,emen! only commercial ,ehicles are considered ass%min# laden ei#h! of !hree !onnes or more and !heir a/le loadin# ill be considered. Es!ima!e of !he ini!ial daily a,era#e !raffic flo for any road sho%ld normally be based on C-day 04-ho%r classified !raffic co%n!s &A5T). In case of ne roads$ !raffic es!ima!es can be made on !he basis of "o!en!ial land %se and !raffic on e/is!in# ro%!es in !he area. Traffic !ro(t$ rate Traffic #ro !h ra!es can be es!ima!ed &i) by s!%dyin# !he "as! !rends of !raffic #ro !h$ and &ii) by es!ablishin# econome!ric models. If ade;%a!e da!a is no! a,ailable$ i! is recommended !ha! an a,era#e ann%al #ro !h ra!e of C.8 "ercen! may be ado"!ed. 1esi!n life *or !he "%r"ose of !he "a,emen! desi#n$ !he desi#n life is defined in !erms of !he c%m%la!i,e n%mber of s!andard a/les !ha! can be carried before s!ren#!henin# of !he "a,emen! is necessary. I! is recommended !ha! "a,emen!s for ar!erial roads li.e NH$ 'H sho%ld be desi#ned for a life of (8 years$ EH and %rban roads for 01 years and o!her ca!e#ories of roads for (1 !o (8 years. #e$icle 1ama!e actor The ,ehicle dama#e fac!or &E5*) is a m%l!i"lier for con,er!in# !he n%mber of commercial ,ehicles of differen! a/le loads and a/le confi#%ra!ions !o !he n%mber of s!andard a/le-load re"e!i!ions. I! is defined as e;%i,alen! n%mber of s!andard a/les "er commercial ,ehicle. The E5* ,aries i!h !he a/le confi#%ra!ion$ a/le loadin#$ !errain$ !y"e of road$ and from re#ion !o re#ion. The a/le load e;%i,alency fac!ors are %sed !o con,er! differen! a/le load re"e!i!ions in!o e;%i,alen! s!andard a/le load re"e!i!ions. *or

!hese e;%i,alency fac!ors refer IRC+BC 011(. The e/ac! E5* ,al%es are arri,ed af!er e/!ensi,e field s%r,eys. #e$icle distrib"tion A realis!ic assessmen! of dis!rib%!ion of commercial !raffic by direc!ion and by lane is necessary as i! direc!ly affec!s !he !o!al e;%i,alen! s!andard a/le load a""lica!ion %sed in !he desi#n. ?n!il reliable da!a is a,ailable$ !he follo in# dis!rib%!ion may be ass%med.
)in!le lane roads: Traffic !ends !o be more channeli6ed on sin#le roads !han ! o lane roads and !o allo for !his concen!ra!ion of heel load re"e!i!ions$ !he desi#n sho%ld be based on !o!al n%mber of commercial ,ehicles in bo!h direc!ions.

T(o4lane sin!le carria!e(a' roads: The desi#n sho%ld be based on C8 9 of !he commercial ,ehicles in bo!h direc!ions. o"r4lane sin!le carria!e(a' roads: The desi#n sho%ld be based on 41 9 of !he !o!al n%mber of commercial ,ehicles in bo!h direc!ions. 1"al carria!e(a' roads: *or !he desi#n of d%al ! o-lane carria#e ay roads sho%ld be based on C8 9 of !he n%mber of commercial ,ehicles in each direc!ion. *or d%al !hree-lane carria#e ay and d%al fo%r-lane carria#e ay !he dis!rib%!ion fac!or ill be 61 9 and 48 9 res"ec!i,ely.