Periodic Properties

Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table:

The blocks of the periodic table are named for the last orbital to be occupied according to the building-up principle. The periods are numbered according to the principal quantum number of the valence shell.

THE PERIODICITY OF ATOMIC PROPERTIES

The periodic table can be used to predict a wide range of properties.
2 All periodic trends of the chemicals are based on Coulomb's law FC =k q1 q2/d . As distance from the protons in the nucleus to the valence electrons increases values associated with attributes such as electron affinity, ionization energy, and electronegativity decrease.

The variation of effective nuclear charge through the periodic table plays an important role in the explanation of periodic trends. The effective charge increases from left to right across a period and falls back sharply on going to the next period. 1. Atomic Radius Electron clouds do not have sharp boundaries, and so we cannot measure the exact radius of an atom. When atoms pack together in solids and bond together to form molecules, their centres are found at definite distances from one another. The atomic radius of an element is defined as half the distance between the centres of neighbouring atoms.

If the element is a metal, its atomic radius is taken to be half the distance between the centres of neighbouring atoms in a solid sample. Such as the distance between neighbouring nuclei in solid copper is 256 pm, the atomic radius of copper is 128 pm. If the element is a non-metal or a metalloid, we use half the distance between the nuclei of atoms joined by a chemical bond; this radius is also called the covalent radius of the element. Such as the distance between the nuclei in a Cl2 molecule is 198 pm, and so the covalent radius of chlorine is 99 pm. If the element is a noble gas, we use the van der Waals radius, which is half the distance between the canters of neighbouring atoms in a sample of the solidified gas. Because the atoms in a sample of a noble gas are not chemically bonded together, van der Waals radii are generally much larger than covalent radii and are best not included in the discussion of trends.

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Atomic radii generally decrease from left to right across a period as the effective atomic number increases, and they increase down a group as successive shells are occupied.

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2. Ionic Radius The ionic radius of an element is its share of the distance between neighbouring ions in an ionic solid The distance between the centers of a neighbouring cation and anion is the sum of the two ionic radii. All cations are smaller than their parent atoms, because the atom loses one or more electrons to form the cation and exposes its core, which is generally much smaller than the parent atom. Atoms in the same main group tend to form ions with the same charge. Like atomic radii, the radii of these ions increase down each group because electrons are occupying shells with higher principal quantum numbers. anions are larger than their parent atoms. The reason can be traced to the increased number of electrons in the valence shell of the anion and the repulsive effects exerted by electrons on one another. The variation in the radii of anions shows the same diagonal trend as that for atoms and cations, with the smallest at the upper right of the periodic table, close to fluorine. Atoms and ions with the same number of electrons are called isoelectronic. Na , F , and Mg2+
+ -

In isoelectronic group of atoms and ion size variation cation < neutral atom < anion

Electronegativity :

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Electronegativity, symbol , is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself. An atom's electronegativity is affected by both its atomic number and the distance that its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus. The opposite of electronegativity is electropositivity: a measure of an element's ability to donate electrons. In general, electronegativity increases from left to right along a period, and decreases on descending a group. Hence, fluorine is the most electronegative of the elements (not counting noble gases), whereas caesium is the least electronegative.
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4. Ionization Energy The ionization energy, I, is the minimum energy needed to remove an electron from an atom in the gas phase:

X ( g ) X (+g ) + e( g )

I = E( X + ) E( X )

First ionization energy I1, Second ionization energy, I2, First ionization energies typically decrease down a group. First ionization energies generally increase across a period. First Ionization energy of Group 5 and Group 6 Second ionization energies are higher than first ionization energies (of the same element) and very much higher if the electron is to be removed from a closed shell. Metals are found toward the lower left of the periodic table because these elements have low ionization energies and can readily lose their electrons.

5. Electron Affinity The electron affinity, Eea, of an element is the energy released when an electron is added to a gas-phase atom.

X ( g ) + e( g ) X (g ) I = E ( X ) E ( X )
A positive electron affinity means that energy is released when an electron attaches to an atom. A negative electron affinity means that energy must be supplied to push an electron onto an atom. Electron affinities are highest toward the right of the periodic table. First Electron Affinity Second Electron Affinity Elements with the highest electron affinities are those in Groups 16/VI and 17/VII.

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6. Metallic Character Element which easily give up electrons are called metal. As ionization energy decreases down the group so the metal character increases down the group. As ionization energy increases across the period so the metal character decreases across the period. Because of low ionization energy, s-block elements are likely to be reactive metals with all the characteristics that the name metalimplies. Because ionization energies are lowest at the bottom of each group and the elements there lose their valence electrons most easily, cesium and barium react most vigorously of all s-block elements and have to be stored out of contact with air and water. Due to low ionization energy s-block elements tend to make cation. Elements on the left of the p-block, especially the heavier elements, have ionization energies that are low enough for these elements to have some of the metallic properties of the members of the s-block. However, the ionization energies of the p-block metals are quite high, and they are less reactive than those in the s-block Elements at the right of the p-block (with the exception of the noble gases) have characteristically high electron affinities: they tend to gain electrons to complete closed shells and make anion All d-block elements are metals. Their properties are transitional between the s- and the p-block elements, which (with the exception of the members of Group 12) accounts for their alternative name, the transition metals. Because transition metals in the same period differ mainly in the number of d-electrons, and these electrons are in inner shells, their properties are very similar. Ability of d-block element to act as catalyst. The ability to form ions with different charges Similar radius- Alloy F- block element: Lanthanoids and Actinoids series Lanthanoids: superconducting material Actinoids: radio active All elements in the s-block are reactive metals that form basic oxides. The p-block elements tend to gain electrons to complete closed shells; they range from metals through metalloids to nonmetals. All d-block elements are metals with properties between those of s-block and p-block metals. Many d-block elements form cations in more than one oxidation state. Metal Characteristics of Metals and Non-metals Non- metal

Physical properties Good conductors of electricity malleable ductile lustrous typically: solid; high melting point; good conductors of heat Chemical properties react with acids form basic oxides (which react with acids) form cations form ionic halides

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Poor conductors of electricity not malleable not ductile not lustrous typically: solid, liquid, or gas; low melting point; poor conductors of heat do not react with acids form acidic oxides (which react with bases) form anions form covalent halides

Diagonal Relationships: A diagonal relationship is a similarity in properties between diagonal neighbours in the main groups of the periodic table Both lithium and magnesium react directly with nitrogen to form nitrides Aluminum, beryllium reacts with both acids and bases. The Inert-Pair Effect: The inert-pair effect is the tendency to form ions two units lower in charge than expected from the group number; it is most pronounced for heavy elements in the p-block.
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