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1.1.% )alculate the number of particles and the amount of substance in moles".
)onvert bet(een the amount of substance in moles" and the number of atoms, molecules or formula units.
1.2 Formulas
1.%.1 Define the term molar mass *" and calculate the mass of one mole of a species. 1.%.% Distinguish bet(een atomic mass, molecular mass and formula mass.
The term molar mass in g mol'1" can be used for all of these.
1.%.& Define the terms relative molecular mass *r" and relative atomic mass Ar".
The terms have no units.
1.%.+ ,tate the relationship bet(een the amount of substance in moles" and mass, and carry out calculations involving amount of substance, mass and molar mass. 1.%.- Define the terms empirical formula and molecular formula.
The molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula.
1.%.# Determine the empirical formula and.or the molecular formula of a given compound.
Determine the : empirical formula from the percentage composition or from other suitable experimental data percentage composition from the formula of a compound molecular formula (hen given both the empirical formula and the molar mass.
1.&.% 1dentify the mole ratios of any t(o species in a balanced chemical e0uation.
2se balanced chemical e0uations to obtain information about the amounts of reactants and products.
1.&.& Apply the state symbols s", l", g" and a0".
3ncourage the use of state symbols in chemical e0uations.
1.+.1 )alculate stoichiometric 0uantities and use these to determine experimental and theoretical yields.
*ass is conserved in all chemical reactions. 4iven a chemical e0uation and the mass or amount in moles" of one species, calculate the mass or amount of another species.
1.+.% Determine the limiting reactant and the reactant in excess (hen 0uantities of reaction substances are given.
4iven a chemical e0uation and the initial amounts of t(o or more reactants : identify the limiting reactant calculate the theoretical yield of a product calculate the amount s" of the reactant s" in excess remaining after the reaction is complete.
1." #olutions
1.-.1 Define the terms solute, solvent, solution and concentration g dm'&" and mol dm'&" )oncentration in mol dm'& is often represented by s0uare brackets around the substance under consideration, eg 5)6&)7768. 1.-.% )arry out calculations involving concentration, amount of solute and volume of solution. 1.-.& ,olve solution stoichiometry problems.
4iven the 0uantity of one species in a chemical reaction in solution in grams, moles or in terms of concentration", determine the 0uantity of another species.
%.1.% ,tate the position of protons, neutrons and electrons in the atom. %.1.& Define the terms mass number (A), atomic number (Z) and isotope. %.1.+ ,tate the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number. A 2se notation , Z X eg. 12 6C %.1.- 3xplain ho( the isotopes of an element differ.
1sotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties. 1 2 3 12 14 35 37 3xamples such as 1 H, 1 H, 1 H, 6 C, 6 C, 17 Cl, 17 Cl should be considered.
%.1.# )alculate and explain non'integer atomic masses from the relative abundance of isotopes. %.1.> )alculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in atoms and ions from the mass number, atomic number and charge.
regions of the spectrum. )alculations, kno(ledge of 0uantum numbers and historical references are not re0uired.
%.%.& Describe the electron arrangement of atoms in terms of main energy levels.
,tudents should kno( the maximum number of electrons that can occupy a main energy level up to @ A 1=". <o kno(ledge of sublevels s, p, d and f is re0uired. The term valence electrons is used to describe the electrons in the highest main energy level.
&.1.& Deduce the relationship bet(een the electron configuration of elements and their position in the periodic table.
3xplanations are only re0uired for the first %$ elements, although general principles can extend tot he (hole of the periodic table. Bor example, students should kno( or be able to predict that C is in group 1 using @ A 1D, but need only kno( that since )s is in group 1, it has one electron in its outer shell.
9eactions of the halogens (ith alkali and confirmation of the silver halide by reaction (ith ammonia solution are not re0uired.
&.&.% Discuss the change in nature, from metallic to non'metallic, of the elements across period &.
2se the study of the period & oxides to illustrate, for example, the change from basic through amphoteric to acidic oxides and their reaction (ith (ater. 6alides and hydrides are not re0uired.
+.1.- :redict (hether a compound of t(o elements (ould be mainly ionic or mainly covalent from the position of the elements in the periodic table, or form their electronegativity values. +.1.# Deduce the formula and state the name of an ionic compound formed from a group 1, % or & metal and a group -, # or > non'metal.
+.%.% Dra( the electron distribution of single and multiple bonds in molecules.
3xamples should include 7%, <%, )7%, )%6+ ethene" and )%6% ethyne".
+.%.& ,tate and explain the relationship bet(een the number of bonds, bond length and bond strength.
The comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of : - t(o carbon atoms Eoined by single, double and triple bonds - the carbon atom and the t(o oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid.
+.%.+ )ompare the relative electronegativity values of t(o or more elements based on their positions in the periodic table.
:recise values of electronegativity are not re0uired.
+.%.# Dra( and deduce !e(is electron dot" structures of molecules and ions for up to four electron pairs on each atom.
A pair of electrons can be represented by dots, crosses, a combination of dots and crosses or by a line. Bor example, chlorine can be sho(n as :
G G GG GG
)l
G G
)l
G G
or
)l )l
or
)l
)l
GG
GG
+.%.> :redict the shape and bond angles for molecules (ith four charge centres on the central atom.
2se the valence shell electron pair repulsion F,3:9" theory to predict the shapes and bond angles of molecules and ions having four pairs of electrons charge centres" around the central atom. ,uitable examples are <6&, 6%7 and alkanes eg )6+".
+.%.= 1dentify the shape and bond angles for species (ith t(o and three negative charge centres.
3xamples should include species (ith non'bonding as (ell as bonding electron pairs, eg )7%, ,7%, )%6%, )%6+, )7&%' and <7%'.
+.%.D :redict molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular shape.
The polarity of a molecule depends on its shape and on the electronegatives of its atoms, eg )7%, 6%7.
+.&.% Describe and explain ho( intermolecular forces affect the boiling points of substances.
The hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of 6%7 and 6%, <6& and :6& )&6=, )6&)67 and )%6-76
+.-.% :redict the relative values of melting and boiling points, volatility, conductivity and solubility based on the different types of bonding in substances.
-.1.% Describe kinetic energy in terms of the movement of particles (hose average energy is proportional to absolute temperature. ,tudents should be able to describe (hat happens (hen the temperature is changed.
Cinetic theory should be interpreted in terms of ideal gases consisting of point masses in random motion (hose energy is proportional to absolute temperature. ,tudents should be able to describe (hat happens (hen the temperature is changed.
-.1.& Describe the *ax(ell'/oltmann energy distribution curve. -.1.+ Dra( and explain 0ualitatively *ax(ell'/oltmann energy distribution curves for different temperatures.II -.1.- Describe 0ualitatively the effects of temperature, pressure, and volume changes on a fixed mass of an ideal gas. -.1.# ,tate the ideal gas e0uation, :FAn9T. -.1.> Apply the ideal gas e0uation in calculations.
2se the relationship bet(een :, F, n and T for gases. ,tudents should be P PV 1V1 = 2 2 and be able to calculate molar volume. familiar (ith T1 T2
#.1.% ,tate the relationship bet(een temperature change, enthalpy change and (hether a reaction is exothermic or endothermic.
)ombustion of organic compounds are good examples of exothermic reactions.
#.1.& Deduce, from an enthalpy level diagram, the relative stabilities of reactants and products and the sign of the enthalpy change for the reaction.
1f the final state is more stable lo(er on the enthalpy level diagram", this implies that !final J !initial and H must be negative. 3nergy must be released in going to a more stable state.
#.1.+ Describe and explain the changes (hich take place at the molecular level in chemical reactions.
9elate bond formation to the release of energy and bond breaking to the absorption of energy.
#.1.- ,uggest suitable experimental procedures for measuring enthalpy changes of reactions in a0ueous solution.
3xplore different reactions operating at constant pressure open containers". 2se of the bomb calorimeter is not re0uired.
#.%.% 3xplain that enthalpy changes of reaction relate to specific 0uantities of either reactants or products.
3nthalpy changes are measured in Eoules K" and are often 0uoted in kK mol'1 or either a reactant or a product.
#.%.& Analyse experimental data for enthalpy changes of reactions in a0ueous solution. #.%.+ )alculate the enthalpy change for a reaction in a0ueous solution using experimental data on temperature changes, 0uantities of reactants and mass of solution.
3nthalpy change of an acid'base reaction could be investigated.
).3 +ess's ,a#.&.1 Determine the enthalpy change of a reaction (hich is the sum of t(o or more reactions (ith kno(n enthalpy changes.
2se examples of simple t(o'and three'step processes. ,tudents should be able to construct simple enthalpy cycles, but (ill not be re0uired to state 6ess's la(.
)." Entrop'
#.-.1 ,tate and explain the factors (hich increase the disorder entropy" in a system.
An increase in disorder can result from the mixing of different types of particles, change of state increased distance bet(een particles", increased movement of particles or increased numbers of particles. An increase in the number of particles in the gaseous state usually has a greater influence than any other possible factor.
#.-.% :redict (hether the entropy change ,"' for a given reaction or process (ould be positive or negative.
Brom a given e0uation, identify a single factor (hich affects the value of , and predict the sign of ,.
).) #pontaneit'
#.#.1 Define standard free energy change of reaction 4 ". #.#.% ,tate (hether a reaction or process (ill be spontaneous by using the sign of " .
#.#.& ,tate and predict the effect of a change in temperature on the spontaneity of a reaction, given standard entropy and enthalpy changes.
2se the e0uation "# !$ % &
>.%.% Define activation energy 3a" and explain that reactions occur (hen reacting species have 3 L 3a.
*olecules must have a minimum energy and appropriate collision geometry in order to react. A simple treatment is all that is re0uired. )ross reference (ith -.1.& and -.1.+.
>.%.& :redict and explain, using collision theory, the 0ualitative effect of particle si?e, temperature, concentration and catalysts on the rate of reaction.
1ncreasing the temperature increases the fre0uency of collisions but, more importantly, the proportion of molecules (ith 3 L 3a increases.
>.%.+ 3xplain that reactions can occur by more than one step and that one step can determine the rate of reaction.
Be( reactions involve Eust one step although one step in the reaction, the rate determining step, determines the reaction rate. 7rders of reactions and rate la(s are not re0uired.
=.%.% Deduce the extent of reaction from the magnitude of the e0uilibrium constant.
Hhen Cc 1, products exceed reactants at e0uilibrium. Hhen Cc 1, reaction goes almost to completion. Hhen Cc 1, reactants exceed products at e0uilibrium. Hhen Cc 1, reaction hardly proceeds.
=.%.& Describe the 0ualitative effects of changes of temperature, pressure and concentration on the position of e0uilibrium and value of the e0uilibrium constant.
2se !e )hatelier's principle to predict the effects of these changes on the position of e0uilibrium. The value of the e0uilibrium constant Cc" is only affected by temperature. The position of e0uilibrium may change (ithout the value of the Cc changing.
=.%.+ ,tate and explain the effect of a catalyst on an e0uilibrium reaction. =.%.+ Describe and explain the application of e0uilibrium and kinetics concepts in the 6aber process and the )ontact process.
D.%.1 Describe and explain the differences bet(een strong and (eak acids and bases in terms of the extent of dissociation, reaction (ith (ater and conductivity.
The term ioni'ation can be used instead of dissociation. ,olutions of e0ual concentration can be compared by p6 and.or conductivity.
D.%.& Describe and explain data from experiments to distinguish bet(een strong and (eak acids and bases, and to determine the relative acidities and basicities of substances.
*easures p6 using a p6 meter or p6 paper. ,tudents should kno( that p6 paper contains a mixture of indicators. The theory of p6 meters is not re0uired.
D.&.& ,tate that each change of one p6 unit represents a tenfold change in the hydrogen ion concentration 56; a0"8.
9elate integral values of p6 to 56; a0"8 expressed as po(ers of ten. )alculation of p6 from 56; a0"8 is not re0uired.
D.&.+ Deduce changes in 56; a0"8 (hen the p6 of a solution changes by more than one p6 unit.
1$.1.& ,tate and explain the relationship bet(een oxidation numbers and the names of compounds.
7xidation numbers in the names of compounds are represented by 9oman numerals, eg. 1ron 11" oxide, 1ron 111"oxide
1$.1.+ 1dentify (hether an element is oxidised or reduced and identify simple redox reactions using oxidation numbers.
Appropriate reactions to illustrate this can be found in topics & and 11. :ossible examples: iron 11" and 111", manganese 11" and F11", chromium 111" and F1", copper 1" and 11" oxides of sulfur and oxyacids, halogens and halide ions.
14.2 !eactivit'
1$.%.1 Deduce a reactivity series based upon the chemical behaviour of a group of oxidising and reducing agents
Displacement reactions of metals and halogens see &.&.1" provide a good experimental illustration of reactivity. ,tandard electrode potentials or reduction potentials are not re0uired.
1$.%.% Deduce the feasibility of a redox reaction from a given reactivity series. 1$.%.& Describe and explain ho( a redox reaction is used to produce electricity in a voltaic cell.
,tudents should be able to dra( a diagram of a simple half'cell and sho( ho( t(o half'cells can be connected by a salt bridge to form a (hole cell. ,uitable examples of half'cells are *g, @n, Be and )u in solutions of their ions.
14.3 Electrol'sis
1$.&.1 Dra( a diagram identifying the essential components of an electrolytic cell.
An electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy. The diagram should include the source of the electric current and conductors, positive and negative electrodes and electrolyte.
1$.&.& Distinguish bet(een the use of a spontaneous redox reaction to produce electricity in a voltaic cell and the use of electricity to carry out a non' spontaneous redox reaction in an electrolytic cell.
,ome teachers may (ish to describe reactions at the electrodes in a cell in terms of reduction at the cathode and oxidation at the anode, but this is not re0uired.
11.1.% :redict and explain the trends in boiling points of members of a homologous series.
1n a homologous series there is a gradual increase in boiling points as the number of carbon atom increases. )ross reference (ith +.&.
11.2 +'drocar&ons
11.%.1 Dra( structural formulas for the isomers of the non'cyclic alkanes up to ) #.
,tructural formulas should indicate clearly the bonding bet(een atoms. Bor example, for pentane :
H 7r H )6& C
H )6C %"&
H C H H or )6&)6%)6%)6%)6&
)6& C C
<ame these using 12:A) rules. )onsider both straight and branch'chained alkanes. 9efer to bond enthalpies. ,ee #.+.
11.%.+ Dra( structural formulas and state the names for straight'chain alkenes )n6%n, (here n is bet(een % and -".
4eometric (cis$trans) isomers are not re0uired.
11.%.# ,tate that the combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic process. ,ee #.& and #.+.
CH3CH2OH
CH3CHO 11.3.8
CH3COOH
CH3COOCH2CH3
11.&.1 Dra( and state the names of compounds containing up to five carbon atoms (ith one of the follo(ing functional groups : aldehyde, ketone, carboxylic acid, alcohol, amide, amine, ester and halogenoalkane.
Bunctional groups in full and condensed forms are re0uired, eg :
Aldehyde:
C H O
or 9)67
)arboxylic acid:
C OH
or 9)776
ethanoic acid )6&)776" and methyl methanoate 6)77)6&" propanal )6&)6%)67" and propanone )6&)7)6&".
1%.1.% Describe ho( the mass spectrometer may be used to determine relative isotopic, atomic and molecular masses using the 1%) scale.
,tudents should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass from the abundance of the isotopes see %.1.#". 1nterpretation of fragmentation patterns is not re0uired.
1%.%.& ,tate the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals. 1%.%.+ ,tate the number of orbitals at each energy level. 1%.%.- Dra( the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of the p x, py and p? orbitals. 1%.%.# ,tate the Aufbau principle.
9eference should be made to 6und's rule.
1%.%.= 9elate the electron configuration of an atom to its position in the periodic table.
,tudents should be able to label the s, p, d and f blocks of the periodic table.
!imit the explanation to the physical states of the compounds under standard conditions and electrical conductivity in the molten state only.
1&.1.% Describe the chemical trends for the chlorides and oxides referred to in 1&.1.1. 1nclude relevant e0uations.
!imit this to acid'base properties of the oxides and the reactions of the chlorides and oxides (ith (ater.
1&.%.% 1dentify (hich elements are considered to be typical of the d'block elements. ,c and @n are not typical. 1&.%.& Describe the existence of variable oxidation states in d'block elements.
The +s and &d sub'levels are close in energy. ,tudents should kno( that all d'block elements can sho( an oxidation state of ;%. 1n addition, they should be familiar (ith the oxidation states of the follo(ing : )r ;&,;#", *n ;+, ;>", Be ;&" and )u ;1".
1&.%.+ Define the term ligand. 1&.%.- Describe ho( complexes of d'block elements are formed.
,uitable examples are : 5Be 6%7"#8&;, 5Be )<"#8&', 5)u <6&"+8%;, 5Ag <6&"%8;. 7nly monodentate ligands are re0uired.
1&.%.> 7utline the catalytic behaviour of d'block elements and their compounds. !imit this to :
*n7% in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide F%7- in the )ontact process Be in the 6aber process <i in the conversion of alkenes to alkanes. The mechanisms of action are not re0uired.
14.2 +'&ridi:ation
1+.%.1 Describe and bonds.
Treatment should be restricted to : bonds ' electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis Eoining the t(o nuclei bonds resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals double bonds formed by a and a bond triple bonds formed by a and t(o bonds.
6ybridi?ation should be explained in terms of the mixing of atomic orbitals to form ne( orbitals for bonding. ,tudents should consider sp, sp% and sp& hybridisation, and the shapes and orientation of these orbitals.
1+.%.& Discuss the relationships bet(een !e(is structures, molecular shapes and types of hybridisation sp, sp% and sp&".
2sing examples from inorganic as (ell as organic chemistry, students should (rite the !e(is structure, deduce the shape of the molecule and recognise the type of hybridisation.
1-.%.% )ompare the effect of both the relative si?es and the charges of ions on the lattice enthalpies of different ionic compounds.
The relative value of the theoretical lattice enthalpy increases (ith higher ionic charge and smaller ionic radius due to increased attractive forces.
1-.%.& )onstruct a /orn'6aber cycle and use it to calculate an enthalpy change. 1-.%.+ Analy?e theoretical and experimental lattice enthalpy values.
A significant difference bet(een the t(o values indicates covalent character.
9ate A k5A8m5/8n (here k A rate constant, 5A8 A concentration of A in mol dm'& etc. m and n A integers, m ; n A overall order of the reaction.
1#.1.& Dra( and analy?e graphical representation for ?ero', first' and second' order reactions. 1#.1.+ Define the term half$life and calculate the half'life for first'order reactions only.
The half'life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate e0uation. The integrated rate e0uation for second'order reactions is not re0uired.
k = Ae
Ea ) RT
A relates to the geometric re0uirements of the collisions see >.%". Direct substitution using simultaneous e0uations and a graphical method can be used. The logarithmic form of the Arrhenius e0uation is :
ln k =
Ea + ln A RT
/oth methods should be explained, but actual calculations are not needed.
1#.&.& Dra( and explain enthalpy level diagrams for reactions (ith and (ithout catalysts. 1#.&.+ Distinguish bet(een homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts.
6omogeneous catalyst ' reactants and catalyst are in the same phase. 6eterogeneous catalyst ' reactants and catalyst are in different phases.
1>.1.% ,tate and explain the 0ualitative relationship bet(een vapor pressure and temperature.
,tudents should be able to sho( the relationship graphically and explain it in terms of kinetic theory.
1>.1.& ,tate and explain the relationship bet(een enthalpy of vapori?ation, boiling point and intermolecular forces.
,tudents should be able to predict the relative strength of intermolecular forces of different li0uids (hen given the physical properties, or vice versa. )ross reference (ith +.&.
1/.2 $he Equili&rium ,a1>.%.1 ,olve homogeneous e0uilibrium problems using the expression for C c.
)alculate Cc given all e0uilibrium concentrations. 4iven Cc and other appropriate concentrations, find an e0uilibrium concentration. Cp and Csp are not re0uired, nor is use of the 0uadratic expression.
1=.&.% Deduce 56; a0"8 and 576' a0"8 for (ater at different temperatures given C ( values. 1=.&.& Define p6, p76 and pC(. 1=.&.+ )alculate 56; a0"8, 576' a0"8, p6 and p76 from specified concentrations.
The values of 56; a0"8 or 576' a0"8 are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base.
1=.&.- ,tate the e0uation for the reaction of any (eak acid or (eak base (ith (ater, and hence derive the ioni?ation constant expression.
1n general 6A a0" 6; a0" ; A' a0" / a0" ; 6%7' l" /6; a0" ; 76' a0" base hydrolysis"
[ H A (aq )][ A (aq)] [ BH ( aq )][OH (aq)] and K b = [ HA(aq)] [ B (aq )] 3xamples used should involve the transfer of only one proton.
Then K a =
1=.&.# Derive the expression Ca x Cb A C( and use it to solve problems for any (eak acid and its conEugate base and for any (eak base and its conEugate acid. 1=.&.> ,tate and explain the relationship bet(een C a and pCa and bet(een Cb and pCb. 1=.&.= Determine the relative strengths of acids or their conEugate bases from C a or pCa values. 1=.&.D Apply Ca or pCa in calculations.
)alculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression see 1=.&.-". ,tudents should state (hen approximations are used in e0uilibrium calculations. 2se of the 0uadratic expression is not re0uired.
1<.) 9ndicators
1=.#.1 Describe 0ualitatively ho( an acid'base indicator (orks.
2se 6ln a0" 6; a0" ; 1n' a0" or similar colour A colour /
1=.#.% ,tate and explain ho( the p6 range of an acid'base indicator relates to its pCa value. 1=.#.& Determine an appropriate indicator for a titration, given the e0uivalence point of the titration and Ca or pCa" values for possible indicators.
1D.%.% Define the term standard electrode potential and explain the measurement of standard electrode potentials to produce the electrochemical series. 1D.%.& Define the term cell potential and calculate cell potentials using standard electrode potentials. 1D.%.+ :redict (hether a reaction (ill be spontaneous using standard electrode potential 3 " values. 9elate positive * values for spontaneous reactions to negative " values see #.#".
,tudents should be able to predict the direction of electron flo( in an external circuit and the reaction taking place in a cell.
10.3 Electrol'sis
1D.&.1 !ist and explain the factors affecting the products formed in the electrolysis of a0ueous solutions.
Bactors to be considered are position in the electrochemical series, nature of the electrode and concentration. ,uitable examples for electrolysis include (ater, a0ueous sodium chloride and a0ueous copper 11" sulfate.
1D.&.% !ist the factors affecting the amount of product formed during electrolysis.
Bactors are charge on the ion, current and duration of electrolysis.
1D.&.& Determine the relative amounts of the products formed during the electrolysis of a0ueous solutions.
%$.1.% Describe and explain ho( information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound.
9estrict this to using infrared spectra to sho( the presence of the functional groups : 7
76,
) 776,
6,
and
%$.1.& Describe and explain ho( information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound.
9estrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : *r ' 1-"' loss of )6& *r ' %D"' loss of )%6- or )67 *r ' &1"A loss of )6&7 *r ' +-"; loss of )776
%$.1.+ Describe and explain ho( information from a i6 <*9 spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound.
9estrict this to using <*9 spectra to determine the number of different environment in (hich hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment. ,plitting patters are not re0uired.
24.2 +'drocar&ons
%$.%.1 ,tate and explain the lo( reactivity of alkanes in terms of the inertness of )'6 and )') bonds. %$.%.% ,tate that alkanes can react (ith halogens and distinguish bet(een homolytic and heterolytic fission.
,tudents should be able to define and recogni?e a free radical. *echanisms are not re0uired.
%$.%.& Describe and explain the structure of ben?ene using chemical and physical evidence.
)onsider the special stability of the ring system heat of combustion or hydrogenation of )#6# in comparison to that of cyclohexene, cyclohexadiene and cyclohexatriene", as (ell as ben?ene's tendency to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions.
%$.&.& Describe and explain the molecularity for the , <1 and ,<% mechanisms.
The predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is ,<1 and for primary halogenoalkanes it is ,<%. /oth mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes.
%$.&.+ Describe ho( the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and (hether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary.
24.4 Alcohols
%$.+.1 Describe the dehydration reaction of alcohols to form alkenes. 20.4.2 Determine the products formed ! the o"id#tion of prim#r!$ second#r! #nd terti#r! #%coho%s usin& #cidified pot#ssium dichrom#te '()* so%ution.
A.1 Determination of ,tructure
A.1.1 ,tate that the structure of a compound can be determined using information from a variety of spectroscopic and chemical techni0ues.
,tudents should reali?e that information from only one techni0ue is usually insufficient to determine or confirm a structure.
A.1.% Describe and explain ho( information from an infrared spectrum can be used to identify functional groups in a compound.
9estrict this to using infrared spectra to sho( the presence of the functional groups :
O C
C OH$ C C
C OOH$
and
C C
C C
H$
A.1.& Describe and explain ho( information from a mass spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound.
9estrict this to using mass spectra to determine the relative molecular mass of a compound and to identify simple fragments, for example : *r ' 1-"' loss of )6& *r ' %D"' loss of )%6- or )67 *r ' &1"A loss of )6&7 *r ' +-"; loss of )776
A.1.+ Describe and explain ho( information from a i6 <*9 spectrum can be used to determine the structure of a compound.
9estrict this to using <*9 spectra to determine the number of different environment in (hich hydrogen is found the number of hydrogen atoms in each environment. ,plitting patters are not re0uired.
A.1.- Describe and explain the structure of ben?ene using chemical and physical evidence.
Consider the speci#% st# i%it! of the rin& s!stem 'he#t of com ustion or h!dro&en#tion of C+H+ in comp#rison to th#t of c!c%ohe"ene$ c!c%ohe"#diene #nd c!c%ohe"#triene*$ #s ,e%% #s en-ene.s tendenc! to under&o su stitution r#ther th#n #ddition re#ctions.
A.%.& Dra( and analyse graphical representation for ?ero', first' and second' order reactions.
A.%.+ Define the term half$life and calculate the half'life for first'order reactions only.
The half'life should be calculated from graphs and by using the integrated form of the rate e0uation. The integrated rate e0uation for second'order reactions is not re0uired.
A.+.& Describe and explain the molecularity for the , <1 and ,<% mechanisms.
The predominant mechanism for tertiary halogenoalkanes is ,<1 and for primary halogenoalkanes it is ,<%. /oth mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes.
A.+.+ Describe ho( the rate of nucleophilic substitution in halogenoalkanes depends on both the identity of the halogen and (hether the halogenoalkane is primary, secondary or tertiary.
A.-.1 ,tate the expression for the ionic product constant of (ater C (".
C( A 56; a0"8576' a0"8 A 1.$ x 1$'1+ mol% dm'# at %D= C but this varies (ith temperature.
A.-.% Deduce 56; a0"8 and 576' a0"8 for (ater at different temperatures given C ( values. A.-.& Define p6, p76 and pC(. A.-.+ )alculate 56; a0"8, 576' a0"8, p6 and p76 from specified concentrations.
The values of 56; a0"8 or 576' a0"8 are directly related to the concentration of the acid or base.
A.-.- ,tate the e0uation for the reaction of any (eak acid or (eak base (ith (ater, and hence derive the ioni?ation constant expression.
1n general 6A a0" 6; a0" ; A' a0" / a0" ; 6%7' l" /6; a0" ; 76' a0" base hydrolysis"
[ H A (aq )][ A (aq)] [ BH ( aq )][OH (aq)] and K b = [ HA(aq)] [ B (aq )] 3xamples used should involve the transfer of only one proton.
Then K a =
A.-.# ,tate and explain the relationship bet(een C a and pCa and bet(een Cb and pCb. A.-.> Determine the relative strengths of acids or their conEugate bases from C a or pCa values. A.-.= Apply Ca or pCa in calculations.
)alculations can be performed using various forms of the acid ionisation constant expression see 1=.&.-". ,tudents should state (hen approximations are used in e0uilibrium calculations. 2se of the 0uadratic expression is not re0uired.
/.1.% 7utline the stages involved in research, development and testing of ne( pharmaceutical products.
9efer to the Thalidomide case as an example of (hat can go (rong. The use of combinatorial chemistry is not re0uired here, but is covered in /.=.+.
/.1.+ Discuss terms lethal dosage !D-$" tolerance, and side effects.
!D-$ is the lethal dose re0uired for -$N of the population. A person (ho developes tolerance re0uires a larger dose of a drug in order to achieve the effect originally obtained by a smaller dose. ,tress that the difference bet(een the main effect and the side effects is relative. Bor example, morphine is often used as a pain killer (ith intestinal constipation being a side effect. Bor a person (ith diarrhoea the constipation induced becomes the main effect, (ith the pain relief being the side effect. The risk:benefit ratios should be considered.
..2 Antacids
/.%.1 ,tate and explain ho( excess acidity in the stomach can be reduced by the of different bases.
3xamples should include aluminum and magnesium compounds and sodium hydrogen carbonate. ,tudents should be able to (rite balances e0uations for neutrali?ation reactions and kno( that antacids are often combined (ith
alginates (hich produce a neutrali?ing layer preventing the acid in the stomach from rising into the esophagus and causing heartburn", and (ith anti'foaming agents such as dimethicone".
..3 Analgesics
/.&.1 Describe and explain the different (ays that analgesics prevent pain.
*ild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering (ith the production of substances eg prostaglandins" that cause pain, s(elling or fever. ,trong analgesics (ork by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the brain, preventing the transmission of pain impulses (ithout depressing the central nervous system.
/.&.% describe the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of using aspirin and paracetamol acetaminophen"
Aspirin has been found to be useful in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks. The disadvantages of aspirin include ulceration and stomach bleeding, allergic reactions and 9eye's syndrome in children a potentially fatal liver and brain disorder". :aracetamol is very safe in the correct dose but can, rarely, cause blood disorders and kidney damage. 7verdosage can lead to serious liver damage, brain damage and even death.
/.&.& )ompare the structures of morphine, codeine and the semi'synthetic opiate, heroin.
,tress the simple modification to the structure of morphine (hich results in the semi'synthetic drug, heroin.
/.&.+ Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using morphine and its derivative as strong analgesics.
1nclude the social as (ell as physiological effects of both short ' and long' term use.
..4 ;epressants
/.+.1 Describe the effects of depressants.
At lo( doses a depressant may exert little or no effect. At moderate doses the compound may induce sedation soothing, reduction of anxiety". At higher doses it may induce sleep and at extremely high doses it may cause death. Depressants are often prescribed as anti'depressants because they relieve depression.
/.+.% Discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol.
1nclude effects on the family, cost to society and the short' and long'term health effects.
B.4., *esc ibe and e!"lain the techniques used fo the detection of ethanol in the b eath and in the blood o u ine.
Include "otassiu(-.I/dich o(ate in the b eathal01e # anal0sis of the blood o u ine b0 ch o(ato$ a"h0 and abso "tion of inf a- ed adiation in the into!i(ete .
/.+.- !ist other commonly used depressants and describe their structure.
!imit this to a brief mention of the use of dia?epam FaliumO", nitra?epam *ogadon O" and fluoxetine hydrochloride :ro?ac O"
.." #timulants
/.-.1 !ist the physiological effects of stimulants. /.-.% )ompare amphetamines and adrenaline.
Amphetamines and adrenaline are chemically similar in that both derive from the phenylethylamine structure. Amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline and are kno(n as sympathomimetric drugs.
/.-.+ Describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure (ith that of nicotine.
)affeine is a respiratory stimulant. Hhen consumed in large amounts it can cause anxiety, irritability and sleeplessness. 1t is a (eak diuretic. /oth caffeine and nicotine contain tertiary amine group.
..) Anti&acterials
/.#.1 7utline the historical development of penicillins.
1nclude the discovery by Bleming and the development by Blorey and )hain.
/.#.% )ompare broad$spectrum and narro)$spectrum antibiotics. /.#.& 3xplain ho( penicillins (ork and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain.
:enicillins (ork by interfering (ith the chemicals that bacteria need to form normal cell (alls. *odifying the side chain results in penicillins (hich are more resistant to the penicillinase en?yme.
/.#.+ Discuss and explain the effect overprescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstock.
../ Antivirals
/.>.1 ,tate ho( viruses are different from bacteria. /.>.% Describe the different (ays in (hich antiviral drugs (ork.
Antiviral drugs may (ork by altering the cell's genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply. Alternatively they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking en?yme activity (ithin the host cell.
Higher level
..< #tereochemistr' in ;rug Action and ;esign
/.=.1 Describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action.
,tudents should be a(are that cis$ and trans$isomerism can occur in inorganic complexes and that the t(o different isomers can have different pharmacological effects. The anti'cancer drug cisplatin is a good example.
sickness in pregnant (omen, (hilst the other enantiomer causes deformities in the limbs of the fetus.
/.=.& Describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer.
A chiral auxiliary is used to convert a non'chiral molecule into Eust the desired enantiomer, thus avoiding the need to separate enantiomers from a racemic mixture. 1t (orks by attaching itself to the non'chiral molecules to create the stereochemical conditions necessary to force the reaction to follo( a certain path. 7nce the ne( molecule has been formed, the auxiliary can be taken off recycled" to leave the desired enantiomer. An example is the synthesis of Taxol, an anti'cancer drug.
..0 Anesthetics
/.D.1 )ompare local and general anesthetics in terms of their mode of action. /.D.% )ompare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine. /.D.& Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane.
<itrous oxide is not very potent, trichloromethane leads to liver damage, ethoxyethane and cyclopropane are highly flammable. 6alothane %'bromo'%' chloro'1,1,1'trifluoroethane" is (idely used but is potentially harmful to the o?one layer.
!imit this to the follo(ing methods : )7 ' catalytic converters <7x ' catalytic converters, lean burn engines, recirculation of exhaust gases ,7x ' alkaline scrubbing, removal of sulfur'containing compounds from coal and oil, limestone'based fluidi?ed beds :articulates ' electrostatic precipitation 6ydrocarbons ' catalytic converters.
D.%.% !ist the pollutants, and their sources, that cause the lo(ering of o?one concentration.
)onsider chlorofluorocarbons )B)s" and nitrogen oxides.
D.&.% !ist the main greenhouse gases and their sources, and discuss their relative effects.
The greenhouse gases to be considered are )6+, 6%7, )7% and <%7 (hich have natural and man'made origins. Their effects depend on their abundance and their ability to absorb heat radiation.
D.&.& Discuss the influence of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases on global (arming.
3ffects include climate change, thermal expansion of the oceans and melting of the polar ice caps.
D.+.% Discuss the environmental effects of acid rain and possible methods to counteract them.
D.-.% )ompare the advantages and disadvantages of treating drinking (ater (ith chlorine and o?one.
1nclude cost, retention time and formation of chlorinated organic compounds.
D.-.& Discuss (ays to obtain fresh (ater from sea (ater using distillation, reverse osmosis and ion exchange. D.-.+ Discuss (ays to reduce the amount of (ater used and to recycle (ater.
D.#.& Distinguish bet(een aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic material in (ater. D.#.+ Describe the influence of se(age, detergents and fertilisers on the gro(th of a0uatic plants, and the effect of their subse0uent decomposition on oxygen concentration eutrophication".
The additional nitrogen and phosphorus compounds encourage gro(th of a0uatic plants often in the form of 'algal blooms' or, in coastal areas, 'red tides'.
D.#.- Discuss the effect of heat on dissolved oxygen and metabolism in (ater.
Higher level
;.< #mog
D.=.1 )ompare reducing and photochemical smog. D.=.% Describe the catalytic effect of particulates and nitrogen oxides on the oxidation of sulfur dioxide.
:articulates and ,7% ' heterolytic catalysis to form ,7& <7x ; ,7% ' free radical catalysis to form ,7&
D.=.+ Discuss the formation of thermal inversions and their effects on air 0uality.
D.D.% Describe the steps in the catalysis of 7& depletion by )B)s and <7x.
D.D.& 7utline the reasons for greater o?one depletion in polar regions.
)onsider the seasonal variation in temperature in the upper atmosphere. 9efer to surface catalysis on ice particles.
D.1$.% ,tate the principal toxic types of chemicals that may be found in polluted (ater.
1nclude heavy metals, pesticides, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls :)/s".
D.1$.& 7utline the sources, health and environmental effects of cadmium, mercury and lead compounds.
)admium ' metal plating, some rechargeable batteries, pigments *ercury ' seed dressing to prevent mould, batteries !ead ' some kinds of paint, as tetraethyl lead in gasoline 1nclude the formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines and a possible link to the formation of nitrites leading to oxygen depletion in the body.
D.1$.+ Describe the sources and possible health effects of nitrates in drinking (ater.