Chapter 6: Hydraulic Principles

Anchor: #i1007286

Section 1: Open Channel Flow

Anchor: #i1007291

Introduction

This chapter describes concepts and equations that apply to the design or analysis of open channels and co and stor! drains" #efer to the rele ant chapters for specific procedures" Anchor: #i1007$01

Continuity and Velocity

The continuity equation is the state!ent of conser ation of !ass in fluid !echanics" %or the special case o inco!pressible fluid' it assu!es the follo&ing for!:

(quation 6)1" &here:

Q * discharge +cfs or !$,sA * flo& cross)sectional area +sq" ft" or !2v * !ean cross)sectional elocity +fps or !,s' perpendicular to the flo& area-" The superscripts 1 and 2 refer to successi e cross sections along the flo& path"

As indicated by the .ontinuity (quation' the a erage elocity in a channel cross)section' + - is the di ided by the cross)sectional area of flo& perpendicular to the cross)section" /t is only a general i reflect the hori0ontal and ertical ariation in elocity"

1elocity aries hori0ontally and ertically across a section" 1elocities near the ground approach 0 elocities typically occur so!e depth belo& the &ater surface near the station &here the deepest fl di!ensional analysis techniques such as the 4lope .on eyance 5ethod and +4tandard- 4tep 6ac7 .hapter 7-' ignore the ertical distribution' and esti!ate the hori0ontal elocity distribution by sub cross section and co!puting a erage elocities for each subsection" The resulting elocities repres distribution" Anchor: #8/9::5;%

Channel Capacity

5ost of the depart!ental channel analysis procedures use the 5anning<s (quation for unifor! flo& +(qu

for analysis:

(quation 6)2" &here:

v * 1elocity in cfs or !$,sec z * 1"=86 for (nglish !easure!ent units' and 1"0 for !etric n * 5anning<s roughness coefficient +a coefficient for quantifying the roughness characteristics of R * hydraulic radius +ft" or !- * A , >? WP * &etted peri!eter of flo& +the length of the channel boundary in direct contact &ith the &ate S * slope of the energy gradeline +ft",ft" or !,!- +%or unifor!' steady flo&' 4 * channel slope' ft",f

.o!bine 5anning<s (quation &ith the continuity equation to deter!ine the channel unifor! flo& (quation 6)$"

(quation 6)$" &here:

Q * discharge +cfs or !$,sz * 1"=86 for (nglish !easure!ent units' and 1"0 for !etric A * cross)sectional area of flo& +sq" ft" or !2-"

%or con enience' 5anning<s (quation in this !anual assu!es the for! of (quation 6)$" 4ince 5a does not allo& a direct solution to &ater depth +gi en discharge' longitudinal slope' roughness cha channel di!ensions-' an indirect solution to channel flo& is necessary" This is acco!plished by de discharge relationship for flo& in the strea!"

All con entional procedures for de eloping the stage)discharge relationship include certain basic p follo&s:

geo!etric descriptions of typical cross section identification and quantification of strea! roughness characteristics a longitudinal &ater surface slope"

@ou need careful consideration to !a7e an appropriate selection and esti!ation of these para!eters" Anchor: #i1007=91

Conveyance
/n channel analysis' it is often con enient to group the channel cross)sectional properties in a single ter! con eyance +A-' sho&n in (quation 6)="

(quation 6)=" 5anning<s (quation can then be &ritten as:

(quation 6)B"

.on eyance is useful &hen co!puting the distribution of o erban7 flood flo&s in the cross section and th through the opening in a proposed strea! crossing" Anchor: #i1007B2$

Energy E uations
Assu!ing channel slopes of less than 10 percent' the total energy head can be sho&n as (quation 6)6"

(quation 6)6" &here:

H * total energy head +ft" or !P * pressure +lb",sq"ft" or :,!2C& * unit &eight of &ater +62"= lb",cu"ft" or 9810 :,!$-

z * ele ation head +ft" or !-

* a erage elocity head' h +ft" or !

g * gra itational acceleration +$2"2 ft", s2 or 9"81 !,s2D * 7inetic energy coefficient' as described in Ainetic (nergy .oefficient .o!putation section v * !ean elocity +fps or !,s-"

/n open channel co!putations' it is often useful to define the total energy head as the su! of the sp and the ele ation of the channel botto! &ith respect to so!e datu!"

(quation 6)7" &here:

d * depth of flo& +ft" or !-"

%or so!e applications' it !ay be !ore practical to co!pute the total energy head as a su! of the &ater su +relati e to !ean sea le el- and elocity head"

(quation 6)8" &here:

WS * &ater)surface ele ation or stage +ft" or !- * 0 E d"

Specific Energy Equation. /f the channel is not too steep +slope less than 10 percent- and the strea! straight and parallel' the specific energy' (' beco!es the su! of the depth of flo& and elocity hea

(quation 6)9"

Kinetic Energy Coefficient. 4o!e of the nu!erous factors that cause ariations in elocity fro! point to p section are channel roughness' non)unifor!ities in channel geo!etry' bends' and upstrea! obstructions"

The elocity head based on a erage elocity does not gi e a true !easure of the 7inetic energy of the flo& distribution in a ri er aries fro! a !a3i!u! in the !ain channel to essentially 0ero along the ban7s" ;et alue of the 7inetic energy by !ultiplying a erage elocity head by the 7inetic energy coefficient +D-" The coefficient is ta7en to ha e a alue of 1"0 for turbulent flo& in pris!atic channels +channels of constant cr roughness' and slope- but !ay be significantly different than 1"0 in natural channels" .o!pute the 7inetic &ith (quation 6)10:

(quation 6)10" &here:

vi * a erage elocity in subsection +ft",s or !,s- +see .ontinuity (quation sectionQi * discharge in sa!e subsection +cfs or !$,s- +see .ontinuity (quation sectionQ * total discharge in channel +cfs or !$,sv * a erage elocity in ri er at section or F,A +ft",s or !,sKi * con eyance in subsection +cfs or !$,s- +see .on eyance sectionAi * flo& area of sa!e subsection +sq" ft" or !2Kt * total con eyance for cross)section +cfs or !$,sAt * total flo& area of cross)section +sq" ft" or !2-"

/n !anual co!putations' it is possible to account for dead &ater or ineffecti e flo&s in parts of a c assigning alues of 0ero or negati e nu!bers for the subsection con eyances" The 7inetic energy c therefore' be properly co!puted" /n co!puter !odels' ho&e er' it is not easy to assign 0ero or neg of the i!plicit understanding that con eyance and discharge are si!ilarly distributed across a cros understanding is particularly i!portant at bends' e!ban7!ents' and e3pansions' and at cross secti

natural and !an!ade constrictions" The subdi isions should isolate any places &here ineffecti e o suspected" Then' by o!itting the subsections or assigning ery large roughness coefficients to the! 7inetic energy coefficient is co!puted"

/n so!e cases' your calculations !ay sho& 7inetic energy coefficients in e3cess of 20' &ith no sat e3planations for the enor!ous !agnitude of the coefficient" /f adGacent cross sections ha e co!pa changes are not sudden bet&een cross sections' such alues can be accepted" /f the change is sudd so!e atte!pt to attain unifor!ity' such as using !ore cross sections to achie e gradual change' or the cross section" Anchor: #i10077$0

Energy !alance E uation

The (nergy 6alance (quation' (quation 6)1' relates the total energy of an upstrea! section +2- along a ch energy of a do&nstrea! section +1-" The para!eters in the (nergy (quation are illustrated in %igure 6)1" ( be e3panded into (quation 6)11:

(quation 6)11" &here:

z * ele ation of the strea!bed +ft" or !d * depth of flo& +ft" or !D * 7inetic energy coefficient v * a erage elocity of flo& +fps or !,sf * friction head loss fro! upstrea! to do&nstrea! +ft" or !g * acceleration due to gra ity * $2"2 ft, s2 or 9"81 !,s2"

The energy grade line +(;9- is the line that Goins the ele ations of the energy head associated &ith profile +see %igure 6)1-"

Anchor: %igure 6)1" (;9 for >ater 4urface ?rofile Anchor: #i1007800

"epth o# Flow

Hnifor! depth +du- of flo& +so!eti!es referred to as nor!al depth of flo&- occurs &hen there is unifor! conduit" Hnifor! depth occurs &hen the discharge' slope' cross)sectional geo!etry' and roughness charac through a reach of strea!" 4ee 4lope .on eyance 5ethod for ho& to deter!ine unifor! depth of flo& in +.hapter 7-"

6y plotting specific energy against depth of flo& for constant discharge' a specific energy diagra! is obta >hen specific energy is a !ini!u!' the corresponding depth is critical depth +dc-" .ritical depth of flo& discharge and channel geo!etry" %or a gi en discharge and si!ple cross)sectional shapes' only one critica 2o&e er' in a co!pound channel such as a natural floodplain' !ore than one critical depth !ay e3ist"

Anchor: #i999870grtop %igure 6)2" Typical 4pecific (nergy Iiagra! @ou can calculate critical depth in rectangular channels &ith the follo&ing (quation 6)12:

(quation 6)12" &here:

q * discharge per ft" +!- of &idth +cfs,ft" or !$,s,!-"

@ou can deter!ine the critical depth for a gi en discharge and cross section iterati ely &ith (quat

(quation 6)1$" &here:

!c * &ater surface &idth for critical flo& +ft" or !Ac * area for critical flo& +sq" ft" or !2-"

Anchor: #i100788B

Froude $u%&er

The %roude :u!ber +%r- represents the ratio of inertial forces to gra itational forces and is calculated usin

(quation 6)1=" &here:

v * !ean elocity +fps or !,sg * acceleration of gra ity +$2"2 ft, s2 or 9"81 !,s2d" * hydraulic !ean depth * A , T +ft" or !A * cross)sectional area of flo& +sq" ft" or !2! * channel top &idth at the &ater surface +ft" or !-"

The e3pression for the %roude :u!ber applies to any single section of channel" The %roude :u!b al&ays 1"0" Anchor: #i10079=0

Flow 'ypes

4e eral recogni0ed types of flo& are theoretically possible in open channels" The !ethods of analysis as & necessary assu!ptions depend on the type of flo& under study" 8pen channel flo& is usually classified as unifor!' steady or unsteady' or or critical or supercritical"

:on)unifor!' unsteady' subcritical flo& is the !ost co!!on type of flo& in open channels in Te3as" Iue and difficulty in ol ed in the analysis of non)unifor!' unsteady flo&' !ost hydraulic co!putations are ! si!plifying assu!ptions &hich allo& the application of steady' unifor!' or gradually aried flo& principl di!ensional !ethods of analysis"

Steady# $nifor" %&o'. 4teady flo& i!plies that the discharge at a point does not change &ith ti!e' and un no change in the !agnitude or direction of elocity &ith distance along a strea!line such that the depth o change &ith distance along a channel" 4teady' unifor! flo& is an ideali0ed concept of open channel flo& natural channels and is difficult to obtain e en in !odel channels" 2o&e er' for practical high&ay applica steady' and changes in &idth' depth' or direction +resulting in non)unifor! flo&- are sufficiently s!all so considered unifor!" A further assu!ption of rigid' unifor! boundary conditions is necessary to satisfy th constant flo& depth along the channel" Allu ial' sand bed channels do not e3hibit rigid boundary characte

Steady# (on)unifor" %&o'. .hanges in channel characteristics often occur o er a long distance so that the and gradually aried" .onsideration of such flo& conditions is usually reasonable for calculation of &ater Te3as strea!s' especially for the hydraulic design of bridges"

Su*critica&+Supercritica& %&o'. 5ost Te3as strea!s flo& in &hat is regarded as a subcritical flo& regi!e" occurs &hen the actual flo& depth is higher than critical depth" A %roude :u!ber less than 1"0 indicates s type of flo& is tranquil and slo& and i!plies flo& control fro! the do&nstrea! direction" Therefore' the a are carried out fro! do&nstrea! to upstrea!" /n contrast' supercritical flo& is often characteri0ed as rapid flo& depths less than critical depth" A %roude :u!ber greater than 1"0 indicates supercritical flo&" The lo sections and the !ethod of analysis depend on &hich type of flo& pre ails &ithin the channel reach under nu!ber equal to' or close to' 1"0 indicates instability in the channel or !odel" A %roude nu!ber of 1"0 sho all possible" Anchor: #i1007971

Cross Sections

A typical cross section represents the geo!etric and roughness characteristics of the strea! reach in quest e3a!ple of a plotted cross section"

Anchor: #i99997=grtop %igure 6)$" ?lotted .ross 4ection

5ost of the cross sections selected for deter!ining the &ater surface ele ation at a high&ay crossing shou the high&ay because !ost Te3as strea!s e3hibit subcritical flo&" .alculate the &ater surface profile thro fro! do&nstrea! to upstrea!" ;enerate enough cross sections upstrea! to deter!ine properly the e3tent created by the high&ay crossing structure" 4ee .hapter = for details on cross sections" Anchor: #i1007997

(oughness Coe##icients

All &ater channels' fro! natural strea! beds to lined artificial channels' e3hibit so!e resistance to &ater resistance is referred to as roughness" 2ydraulic roughness is not necessarily synony!ous &ith physical r hydraulic con eyance for!ulas quantify roughness subGecti ely &ith a coefficient" /n 5anning<s (quation coefficients' or n) alues' for Te3as strea!s and channels range fro! 0"200 to 0"012J alues outside of this not realistic" Ieter!ination of a proper n) alue is the !ost difficult and critical of the engineering Gudg!ents required 5anning<s (quation"

@ou can find suggested alues for 5anning<s roughness coefficient +KnL alues- in design charts such as file na!ed n alues"doc + :1A9H(4-" Any con enient' published design guide can be referenced for thes reference to !ore than one guide can be producti e in that !ore opinions are collected" @ou can find a pr syste!atic approach for this tas7 in the %2>A publication !S),-)2.-# /uide for Se&ecting 0anning12 Ro for (atura& C anne&2 and %&ood P&ain2"

2o&e er ine3act and subGecti e the n) alue deter!ination !ay be' the n) alues in a cross section are defi unchangeable for a particular discharge and flo& depth" Therefore' once you ha e carefully chosen the n) the! Gust to pro ide another ans&er" /f there is uncertainty about particular n) alue choices' consult a !o designer"

/n so!e instances' such as a trape0oidal section under a bridge' the n) alue !ay ary drastically &ithin a should not subdi ide the section" /f the n) alue aries as such' use a &eighted n) alue +n&-" This procedur (quation 6)1B as follo&s:

(quation 6)1B" &here:

WP * subsection &etted peri!eter n * subsection n) alue"

Anchor: #i10080B=

Su&dividing Cross Sections

6ecause any esti!ating !ethod in ol es the calculation of a series of hydraulic characteristics of the cros &ater)surface ele ations are applied to the cross section" The co!putation of flo& or con eyance for each application requires a hydraulic radius' as seen in %igure 6)=" The hydraulic radius is intended as an a era con eyance" A hydraulic radius and subsequent con eyance is calculated under each arbitrary &ater surfa is significant irregularity in the depth across the section' the hydraulic radius !ay not accurately represen Ii ide the cross section into sufficient subsections so that realistic hydraulic radii are deri ed"

Anchor: #i10000 %igure 6)=" .ross 4ection Area and >etted ?eri!eter

4ubsections !ay be described &ith boundaries at changes in geo!etric characteristics and changes in rou %igure 6)B-" :ote that the ertical length bet&een adGacent subsections is not included in the &etted peri!

peri!eter is considered only along the solid boundaries of the cross sections' not along the &ater interface subsections"

AdGacent subsections !ay ha e identical n) alues" 2o&e er' the calculation of the subsection hydraulic ra !ore consistent pattern as the tabulation of hydraulic characteristics of the cross section is de eloped"

Anchor: #i1000111grtop %igure 6)B" 4ubdi iding >ith #espect to ;eo!etry and #oughness

4ubdi ide cross sections pri!arily at !aGor brea7s in geo!etry" Additionally' !aGor changes in roughness additional subdi isions" @ou need not subdi ide basic shapes that are appro3i!ately rectangular' trape0oi triangular"

4ubdi isions for !aGor brea7s in geo!etry or for !aGor changes in roughness should !aintain these appro so that the distribution of flo& or con eyance is nearly unifor! in a subsection" Anchor: #i1008108

I%portance o# Correct Su&division

The i!portance of proper subdi ision as &ell as the effects of i!proper subdi ision can be illustrated dra sho&s a trape0oidal cross section ha ing hea y brush and trees on the ban7s and subdi ided near the botto because of the abrupt change of roughness"

Anchor: #i10001

%igure 6)6" 4ubdi ision of a Trape0oidal .ross 4ection The con eyance for each subarea is calculated as follo&s:

)1 * )+ * ,- #t. ?1 * ?$ * 1="1= ft #1 * #$ * A1,?1 * $"B= ft A1 * A$ * 1"=86A1#12,$,n * 172="= cfs

)1 * )+ * /0, %. ?1 * ?$ * ="2= ! #1 * #$ * A1,?1 * 1"06 ! A1 * A$ * A1#12,$,n * =6"8 !$,s

A2 * B00 ft2 ?2 * B0 ft #2 * A2,?2 * 10 ft A2 * 1"=86A2#22,$,n * 98B$="$ cfs

A2 * =B !2 ?2 * 1B ! #2 * A2,?2 * $ ! A2 * A2#22,$,n * 267="= !$,s

>hen the subareas are co!bined' the effecti e n) alue for the total area can be calculated"

)c * )1 1 ). 1 )+ * 6-- #t. ?c * ?1 E ?2 E ?$ * 78"28 ft #c * Ac,?c * 7"66 ft AT * A1 E A2 E A$ * 10198$ cfs n * 1"=86Ac#c2,$,AT * 0"0$=

)c * )1 1 ). 1 )+ * ,/ %. ?c * ?1 E ?2 E ?$ * 2$"B ! #c * Ac,?c * 2"$ ! AT * A1 E A2 E A$ * 2768 !$,s n * Ac#c2,$,AT * 0"0$=

A s!aller &etted peri!eter in respect to area abnor!ally increases the hydraulic radius +# * A , ?-' and th co!puted con eyance different fro! that deter!ined for a section &ith a co!plete &etted peri!eter" As s con eyance +AT- for the total area &ould require a co!posite n) alue of 0"0$=" This is less than the n) alu that describe the roughness for the arious parts of the basic trape0oidal shape" Io not subdi ide the basic effecti e alue of n so!e&hat higher than 0"0$B to this cross section' to account for the additional drag i! roughness of the ban7s"

At the other e3tre!e' you !ust subdi ide the panhandle section in %igure 6)7' consisting of a !ain chann plain' into t&o parts" The roughness coefficient is 0"0=0 throughout the total cross section" The con eyanc calculated as follo&s:

)1 * 12, #t. ?1 * 68 ft #1 * A1,?1 * 2"87 ft A1 * 1"=86A1#12,$,n * 1=622"1 cfs ?1 * 21 !

)1 * .- %.

#1 * A1,?1 * 0"9B ! A1 * A1#12,$,n * =8="0 !$,s

A2 * 81="B ft2 ?2 * 82"B ft #2 * A2,?2 * 9"87 ft A2 * 1"=86A2#22,$,n * 1$9226"2 cfs

A2 * 7B"B !2 ?2 * 2="9 ! #2 * A2,?2 * $"0$ ! A2 * A2#22,$,n * $9B="2 !$,s

The effecti e n) alue calculations for the co!bined subareas are as follo&s:

)c * )1 1 ). * 1--20, #t. ?c * ?1 E ?2 * 1B0"B ft #c * Ac,?c * 6"71 ft

)c * )1 1 ). * 2,0, %. ?c * ?1 E ?2 * =B"9 ! #c * Ac,?c * 2"08 !

AT * A1 E A2 * 1B$8=8"$ cfs n * 1"=86Ac#c2,$,AT * 0"0$B

AT * A1 E A2 * ==$8"2 !$,s n * Ac#c2,$,AT * 0"0$B

/f you do not subdi ide the section' the increase in &etted peri!eter of the floodplain is relati ely large & increase in area" The hydraulic radius is abnor!ally reduced' and the calculated con eyance of the entire than the con eyance of the !ain channel' A2" @ou should subdi ide irregular cross sections such as that in indi idual basic shapes"

Anchor: #i10012 %igure 6)7" 4ubdi iding a K?anhandleL .ross 4ection

The cross section shapes in %igure 6)6 through %igure 6)9 represent e3tre!es of the proble!s associated & subdi ision" A bench panhandle' or terrace' is a shape that falls bet&een these t&o e3tre!es +see %igure 6 panhandles if the ratio 9,d is equal to fi e or greater"

#i100127Bgrtop %igure 6)8" 6ench ?anhandle .ross 4ection The follo&ing guidelines apply to the subdi ision of triangular sections +see %igure 6)9-:

4ubdi ide if the central angle is 1B0 or !ore +9,d is fi e or greater-" /f 9,d is al!ost equal to fi e' then subdi ide at a distance of 9,= fro! the edge of the &ater" 4ubdi ide in se eral places if 9,d is equal to or greater than 20" :o subdi isions are required on the basis of shape alone for s!all alues of 9,y' but subdi isions basis of roughness distribution"

Anchor: #i10012 %igure 6)9" Triangular .ross 4ection

%igure 6)10 sho&s another shape that co!!only causes proble!s in subdi ision" /n this case' subdi ide t !ain)channel depth +d!a3- is !ore than t&ice the depth at the strea! edge of the o erban7 area +db-"

Anchor: #i10012 %igure 6)10" ?roble!atic .ross 4ection

/n so!e cases the decision to subdi ide is difficult" 4ubdi isions in adGacent sections along the strea! rea to a oid large differences in the 7inetic energy coefficient +D-" Therefore' if a borderline case is bet&een s subdi ision' do not subdi ide the borderline section" /f it is bet&een sections that !ust be subdi ided' sub &ell"

Section .: Flow in Conduits

Anchor: #i1008261

Open Channel Flow or Pressure Flow

>hen a conduit is not sub!erged' the principles of open channel flo& apply" >hen the conduit is sub!erged' pressure flo& e3ists because the &ater surface is not open to the at!osphere' and the principles of conduit flo& apply" %or circular pipes flo&ing full' (quation 6)$ beco!es:

(quation 6)16" &here:

F * discharge +cfs or !$,s0 * 0"=6== for (nglish !easure!ent or 0"$116 for !etric" n * 5anning<s roughness coefficient I * pipe dia!eter' ft" or ! 4 * slope of the energy gradeline +ft",ft" or !,!- +%or unifor!' steady flo&' 4 * channel slope' ft",ft" or !,!-"

Anchor: #i1008$16

"epth in Conduits
The equations for critical depth apply to conduits' too" Ieter!ine critical depth for a rectangular conduit using (quation 6)12 and the discharge per barrel" .alculate critical depth for circular and pipe)arch or irregular shapes by trial and error use of (quation 6)1$" %or a circular conduit' use (quation 6)17 and (quation 6)18 to deter!ine the area' A' and top &idth' T' of flo&' respecti ely" %or other shapes' acquire or deri e relationships fro! depth of flo&' area' and top &idth"

(quation 6)17"

(quation 6)18" &here:

A * section area of flo&' sq" ft" or !2 ! * &idth of &ater surface' ft" or ! d * depth of flo&' ft" or ! 3 * pipe dia!eter' ft" or ! the cos)1 +M- is the principal alue in the range 0 N M N O" Hse (quation 6)$ to deter!ine unifor! depth" %or !ost shapes' a direct

solution of (quation 6)$ for depth is not possible" The 4lope .on eyance ?rocedure discussed in .hapter 7 is applicable" %or rectangular shapes' area' A' and &etted peri!eter' >? are si!ple functions of flo& depth" %or circular pipe' co!pute area using (quation 6)17' and co!pute &etted peri!eter using (quation 6)19" %or other shapes' acquire or deri e the relationship fro! depth of flo&' area' and &etted peri!eter"

#efer to the table belo& for reco!!ended 5anning<s roughness coefficients for conduit"

(quation 6)19" Anchor: #i1008028

(oughness Coe##icients
The follo&ing table pro ides roughness coefficients for conduits" Anchor: #i102$$68#eco!!ended .ul ert .onduit #oughness .oefficients 'ype o# Conduit .oncrete 6o3 .oncrete ?ipe 4!ooth)lined !etal pipe 4!ooth lined plastic pipe .orrugated !etal pipe 4tructural plate pipe 9ong span structural plate .orrugated !etal +pa ed interior0"012 0"012 0"012 0"012 0"01B)0"027 0"027)0"0$6 0"0$1 0"012 n3Value

?lastic

0"012)0"02=

Anchor: #i10080$7

Energy
The energy equation' (quation 6)6' applies to conduit flo&' too" Additionally' the follo&ing concepts apply to conduit flo&"

%or pressure flo&' the depth' d' represents the distance fro! the flo&line to the hydraulic grade line" %or pressure flo&' the slope of the energy grade line and hydraulic grade line through the conduit are parallel and are represented by the friction slope" .o!pute friction losses' hf' as the product of friction slope and length of conduit" .onsider the 7inetic energy coefficient +D- equal to unity" 8ther losses include entrance losses' e3it losses' and Gunction losses"

#efer to .hapter 8 for directions to acco!!odate such losses for cul ert design and .hapter 10 for stor! drain design" .o!pute the elocity head at any location in a conduit using (quation 6)20" &here:

(quation 6)20" &here:

v * flo& elocity in cul ert +ft",s or !,s-" g * the gra itational acceleration * $2"2 ft, s2 or 9"81 !,s2" The friction slope represents the slope of the energy grade line and is based upon 5anningPs (quation' rearranged as follo&s:

(quation 6)21"

&here:

Sf * friction slope +ft",ft" or !,!z * 1"=86 for (nglish !easure!ents and 1"0 for !etric"

Anchor: #i10081$B

Steep Slope versus 4ild Slope

>hen critical depth +dc- is higher than unifor! depth +du-' the slope is steep" The conduit !ay flo& co!pletely full +pressure flo&- or partly full +free surface flo&-" The free surface flo& !ay be supercritical or subcritical depending on tail&ater conditions" >hen critical depth is lo&er than unifor! depth' the slope is ter!ed !ild" ?ressure flo& or free surface flo& !ay occur" %ree surface flo& is !ost li7ely to be subcritical &ithin the conduit" The shape of the free &ater surface is dependent on &hether the conduit slope is steep or !ild and on the tail&ater conditions" The 4tandard 4tep ?rocedure described in .hapter 7 acco!!odates the differences in &ater surface shape"

Section +: Hydraulic 5rade 6ine )nalysis

Anchor: #i100816B

Introduction
Analy0e the syste!<s hydraulic grade line +so!eti!es referred to as the 2;9- to deter!ine if you can acco!!odate design flo&s in the drainage syste! &ithout causing flooding at so!e location or causing flo&s to e3it the syste! at locations &here this is unacceptable" Anchor: #i100817B

Hydraulic 5rade 6ine Considerations

Ie elop the hydraulic grade line for the syste! to deter!ine probable &ater le els that !ay occur during a stor! e ent" @ou can then e aluate these &ater le els &ith respect to critical ele ations &ithin the designed facility" The de elop!ent of the hydraulic grade line is a last step in the o erall design of a stor! drain syste!" The hydraulic grade line is the locus of ele ations to &hich the &ater &ould rise if open to at!ospheric pressure +e"g"' pie0o!eter tubes- along a pipe run +see %igure 6) 11-" The difference in ele ation of the &ater surfaces in successi e tubes separated by

a specific length usually represents the friction loss for that length of pipe' and the slope of the line bet&een &ater surfaces is the friction slope" /f you place a pipe run on a calculated friction slope corresponding to a certain rate of discharge' a cross section' and a roughness coefficient' the surface of flo& +hydraulic grade line- is parallel to the top of the conduit" /f there is reason to place the pipe run on a slope less than friction slope' then the hydraulic gradient &ould be steeper than the slope of the pipe run +pressure flo&-" Iepending on the ele ation of the hydraulic grade line at the do&nstrea! end of the subGect run' it is possible to ha e the hydraulic grade line rise abo e the top of the conduit" That is' the conduit is under pressure until' at so!e point upstrea!' the hydraulic grade line is again at or belo& the le el of the soffit of the conduit"

Anchor: #i1002261grtop %igure 6)11" 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine Analy0e to deter!ine the flo& characteristics of the outfall channel" Hse the tail&ater le el occurring in the outfall to the stor! drain syste! in the de elop!ent of a hydraulic grade line" Hse a realistic tail&ater ele ation as the basis for the hydraulic grade line calculation" /f the outfall tail&ater is a function of a relati ely large &atershed area +such as a large strea!- and you base the contribution fro! the stor! drain syste! on a relati ely s!all total &atershed area' then it is not realistic to use a tail&ater ele ation based on the sa!e frequency as the stor! drain design frequency" #efer to 4ection $ of .hapter B for the design frequency in the hydraulic grade line de elop!ent of a stor! drain syste!" Anchor: #i1008228

Stage versus "ischarge (elation

;enerally a stage ersus discharge relation for the outfall channel is useful" #efer to the 4lope .on eyance ?rocedure in .hapter 7 for considerations and a procedure leading to the de elop!ent of a stage ersus discharge relation in an outfall channel" As a nor!al design practice' calculate the hydraulic grade line &hen the tail&ater surface ele ation at the outlet is greater than the soffit ele ation of the outlet pipe or

bo3es" /f you design the syste! as a non)pressure syste!' ignoring Gunction losses' the hydraulic grade line e entually &ill fall belo& the soffit of the pipe so!e&here in the syste!' at &hich point the hydraulic grade line calculation is no longer necessary" ;enerally' chec7 the hydraulic grade line" 2o&e er' such calculations are not needed if the syste! has all of the follo&ing characteristics:

All conduits are designed for non)pressure flo&" ?otential Gunction losses are insignificant" Tail&ater is belo& the soffit of the outfall conduit"

/f the proposed syste! drains into another enclosed syste!' analy0e the do&nstrea! syste! to deter!ine the effect of the hydraulic grade line" Anchor: #i100826B

Conservation o# Energy Calculation

>hen defining the hydraulic grade line' calculations proceed fro! the syste! outfall upstrea! to each of the ter!inal nodes" %or depart!ent practice' base calculation of the hydraulic grade line on conser ation of energy as sho&n in (quation 6)22 &hich includes !aGor and !inor energy losses &ithin the syste!" %or conduit' d*1"

(quation 6)22" &here:

H/4us * 2 E d * ele ation of the hydraulic grade line at upstrea! node +ft" or !vus * upstrea! elocity +fps or !,svds * do&nstrea! elocity +ft",s or !,s! * !inor +Gunction,node- head loss +ft" or !f * friction head loss +ft" or !H/4ds * ele ation of hydraulic grade line at do&nstrea! node +ft" or !g * $2"2 ft", s2 or 9"81 !,s2"

Anchor: #i1008$2=

4inor Energy 6oss )ttri&utions

5aGor losses result fro! friction &ithin the pipe" 5inor losses include those attributed to Gunctions' e3its' bends in pipes' !anholes' e3pansion and contraction' and appurtenances such as al es and !eters" 5inor losses in a stor! drain syste! are usually insignificant" /n a large syste!' ho&e er' their co!bined effect !ay be significant" 5ethods are a ailable to esti!ate

these !inor losses if they appear to be cu!ulati ely i!portant" @ou !ay !ini!i0e the hydraulic loss potential of stor! drain syste! features such as Gunctions' bends' !anholes' and confluences to so!e e3tent by careful design" %or e3a!ple' you can replace se ere bends by gradual cur es in the pipe run &here right)of)&ay is sufficient and increased costs are !anageable" >ell designed !anholes and inlets' &here there are no sharp or sudden transitions or i!pedi!ents to the flo&' cause irtually no significant losses" Anchor: #i1008$$9

Entrance Control
;enerally treat a stor! drain conduit syste! as if it operates in subcritical flo&" As such' entrance losses of flo& into each conduit seg!ent are !ostly negligible" 2o&e er' if discharge enters into the syste! through a conduit seg!ent in &hich there !ust be supercritical flo&' significant head losses are encountered as the discharge builds enough energy to enter the conduit" This situation is !ost li7ely &here a lateral is located on a relati ely steep slope" 8n such slopes' e aluate the type of flo& +subcritical or supercritical-" >ith supercritical flo&' the lateral !ay be operating under entrance control" >hen a lateral is operating under entrance control as described abo e' the head&ater le el is usually !uch higher than a proGection of the hydraulic grade line" /f the entrance control head&ater sub!erges the free fall necessary for the inlet to function properly' it !ay be necessary to reconfigure the lateral by increasing its si0e or changing its slope" 4o!e i!pro e!ent to the inlet characteristics !ay help to o erco!e any unfa orable effects of entrance control" Hsually' entrance control does not affect steep units in the trun7 lines because the &ater is already in the conduitJ ho&e er' you !ay need to consider elocity head losses" Hse the follo&ing procedure to deter!ine the entrance control head: 1" .alculate critical depth as discussed in .ritical Iepth in .onduit earlier in this section" 2" /f critical depth e3ceeds unifor! depth' go to step $J other&ise' no entrance control chec7 is necessary" $" .alculate entrance head in accordance &ith the 2ead&ater Hnder /nlet .ontrol subsection in .hapter 8" =" Add entrance head to flo&line and co!pare &ith the hydraulic grade line at the node" B" Ta7e the highest of the t&o alues fro! step =" .hec7 to ensure that this alue is belo& the throat of the inlet" Anchor: #i1008$9$

Hydraulic 5rade 6ine Procedure

Hse the follo&ing procedure to deter!ine the entrance control head:

1" Ieter!ine an appropriate &ater le el in the outfall channel or facility" %or an open channel outfall' the appropriate &ater le el &ill be a function of the stage s" discharge relation of flo& in the outfall facility and designer<s selection of design frequency for the stor! drain facility" /f the outfall tail&ater le el is lo&er than critical depth at the e3iting conduit of the syste!' use the ele ation associated &ith critical depth at that point as a beginning &ater surface ele ation for the 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine calculation" 2" .o!pute the friction loss for each seg!ent of the conduit syste!' beginning &ith the !ost do&nstrea! run" The friction loss +hf- for a seg!ent of conduit is defined by the product of the friction slope at full flo& and the length of the conduit as sho&n in (quation 6)2$"

(quation 6)2$" The friction slope' 4f' is calculated by rearranging 5anning<s (quation to (quation 6)2="

(quation 6)2=" &here:

o o o o o o o

4f * friction slope +ft",ft" or !,!F * discharge +cfs or !$,sn * 5anning<s roughness coefficient 0 * 1"=86 for use &ith (nglish !easure!ents only" A * cross)sectional area of flo& +sq" ft" or !2# * hydraulic radius +ft" or !- * A , >? >? * &etted peri!eter of flo& +the length of the channel boundary in direct contact &ith the &ater- +ft" or !-"

.o!bining (quation 6)2$ &ith (quation 6)2= yields (quation 6)2B for friction loss"

(quation 6)2B" &here:

0 * 1"=86 for use &ith (nglish !easure!ents units only" 9 * length of pipe +ft" or !-"

%or a circular pipe flo&ing full' (quation 6)2B beco!es (quation 6)26"

(quation 6)26" &here:

0 * 0"=6== for (nglish !easure!ent or 0"$116 for !etric" I * ?ipe dia!eter +ft" or !-" %or partial flo&' you could use (quation 6)2B to appro3i!ate the friction slope" 2o&e er' the bac7&ater !ethods' such as the +4tandard- 4tep 6ac7&ater 5ethod outlined in .hapter 7' pro ide better esti!ates of the hydraulic grade line"

1" Hsing the do&nstrea! 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine ele ation as a base' add the co!puted friction loss hf" This &ill be the tentati e ele ation of the 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine at the upstrea! end of the conduit seg!ent" 2" .o!pare the tentati e ele ation of the 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine as co!puted abo e to the ele ation represented by unifor! depth of flo& added to the upstrea! flo& line ele ation of the subGect conduit" $" The higher of the t&o ele ations fro! step 2 abo e &ill be the controlling 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine ele ation +2;9us- at the upstrea! node of the conduit run" +/f you perfor! bac7&ater calculations' the co!puted ele ation at the upstrea! end beco!es the 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine at that point-" =" /f other losses are significant' calculate the! using the procedures outlined belo&" Hse (quation 6)27 to deter!ine the effect of the su! of !inor losses +h!- on the 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine"

(quation 6)27" B" /f the upstrea! conduit is on a !ild slope +i"e"' critical depth is lo&er than unifor! depth-' set the starting 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine for the ne3t conduit run +2;9ds- to be the higher of critical depth and the 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine fro! step $ +or = if !inor losses &ere considered-" 6" ;o bac7 to step 2 and continue the co!putations in an upstrea! direction into all branches of the conduit syste!" The obGecti e is to co!pare the le el of the 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine to all critical ele ations in the stor! drain syste!" 7" .hec7 all laterals for possible entrance control head as described in the subsection belo&" 8" /f the 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine le el e3ceeds a critical ele ation' you !ust adGust the syste! so that a re ised 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine le el does not sub!erge the

critical ele ation +this condition is so!eti!es referred to as a Kblo&out"L5ost adGust!ents are !ade &ith the obGecti e of increasing capacity of those conduit seg!ents causing the !ost significant friction losses" /f the de eloped 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine does not rise abo e the top of any !anhole or abo e the gutter in ert of any inlet' the conduit syste! is satisfactory" :8T(: /f the conduit syste! does not include any pressure flo& seg!ents but the outlet channel ele ation is higher than the top of the conduit at the syste! e3it' co!pute the 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine through the syste! until the 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine le el is no higher than the soffit of the conduit" At this point' continuance of the 2ydraulic ;rade 9ine is unnecessary' unless other losses are li7ely to be significant"