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Certification Study

Guide for Water


Treatment
Operators


The Training Station
2002
TAUDs Training Station
i
Certification Study
Guide for
Water Treatment





The Training Station
2002
TAUDs Training Station Cram Sessions
TAUDs Training Station
ii
For
Water Treatment Operators

These materials have been prepared for and are for use in the Training Stations cram
sessions for grade water treatment operators. Section 1 is for all water treatment
plant operators, Section two is for Grade 3 and 4 Operators. They are designed to
help the operator prepare for their certification exam.

2002 by the Tennessee Association of Utility Districts. All rights reserved. No
portion of this material may be reproduced in any form without the written
permission of the copyright owner.

The Training Station
P.O. Box 2529
Murfreesboro, Tennessee 37133-2529

The Training Stations Water Treatment Training Team


Greg Baker, Training Specialist Roger Booher, Circuit Rider



Doug Cherry, Program Specialist Larry Lewis, Groundwater Technician


John Shadwick Training Director
Tony Wyatt, Circuit Rider

TAUDs Training Station
iii
Table of Contents

1200-5-1-.17 Operation and Maintenance Requirements ...................................1
1200-5-1-.20 Record Maintenance............................................................ 11
Selected Design Criteria for Water Treatment Plants..................................... 13
Cross Connection Control ...................................................................... 19
Groundwater ..................................................................................... 23
Aeration........................................................................................... 35
Pressure Filters .................................................................................. 41
Fluoridation ...................................................................................... 43
Stabilization...................................................................................... 59
Disinfection....................................................................................... 71
Chemical Feeders ............................................................................... 79
Pumps and Motors ............................................................................... 91
Algae ............................................................................................. 115
Coagulation/Flocculation ..................................................................... 117
Sedimentation .................................................................................. 131
Filtration......................................................................................... 141
Softening......................................................................................... 153

TAUDs Training Station
iv
Notes
TAUDs Training Station
v
Section 1: All Water Treatment Plant Operators
TAUDs Training Station
vi


The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 1


1200-5-1-.17 Operation and Maintenance
Requirements
(1) All community water system which are designated as a surface supply and classified as a
filtration system and all iron removal plants which use gravity filters must have an operator in
attendance and responsible for the treatment process when the plant is in operation. Gravity iron
removal plants which have installed continuous monitoring equipment including equipment for
turbidity and chlorine residual with alarms and/or shutdown ability may seek approval from the
Department to operate the treatment plant in an automated mode without an operator in
attendance. All iron removal plants with pressure filters and using a ground water source from
an approved sand and gravel formation will not be required to have an operator in attendance
during all periods of operation provided suitable protection, acceptable to the Department, is
provided.
Non-community water systems which are classified as a surface supply will be required to
have a full time operator in attendance unless certain continuous monitoring equipment is
installed.
Pursuant to Tennessee Code Annotated 68-13-904, all operators in direct responsible charge
of a water supply system, including the treatment plant and/or distribution system, must be
certified by the Department as competent to operate same.

(2) All community water systems and those non-community water systems classified as a
surface source shall compile and maintain accurate daily operating records of the water works
system on forms prepared and furnished by the Department. The daily operating records shall be
submitted in a timely manner so they are received by the Department no later than ten days after
the end of the reporting month. Any special reports, deemed necessary by the Department to
assure continuous satisfactory operation of the water system, shall be submitted to the
Department.
Water systems which desire to use their own forms to report the daily operating results to
the Department must have prior approval of the form from the Department.

(3) All water quality tests, other than those listed in Regulation 1200-5-1-.06 shall be made in
accordance with the latest edition of "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater" or alternate methods acceptable to the Department. The schedule of laboratory
tests followed in controlling the operation of a waterworks system will vary with the character of
the water; therefore, all waterworks systems must have the equipment necessary to perform all
laboratory tests pertinent to the control of the plant or system operation, and the equipment shall
be maintained in good working order at all times. Laboratory tests pertinent to proper operation
shall be prescribed by the Department for each community water system.

(4) Chlorine is the recommended disinfection agent. Other agents will be considered by the
Department provided they are effective and testing procedures for their effectiveness are
recognized in the latest edition of "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater". All community water systems, using ground water as a raw water source and

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serving more than 50 connections or 150 persons shall continuously chlorinate (unless other
disinfection methods are approved) and shall maintain a free chlorine residual in all parts of the
distribution system in the amount of not less than 0.2 mg/l. Public Water Systems using surface
water shall continuously chlorinate and maintain a free chlorine residual of 0.2 mg/l in all parts
of the distribution system. The residual disinfectant concentration specified by this rule shall not
be less than 0.2 mg/l in more than 5 percent of the samples each month, for any two consecutive
months the system serves water to the public. All public water systems serving 50 or fewer
connections that do not disinfect shall install continuous disinfection if the system fails to
comply with the maximum contaminant level for coliform, experiences a disease outbreak or is
directed to install disinfection by the department. All public water systems serving 50 or fewer
connections that do not disinfect shall install continuous disinfection if the system fails to
comply with the maximum contaminant level for coliform, experiences a disease outbreak or is
directed to install disinfection by the department.

(5) All systems required to submit samples for microbiological examination to the State
laboratory must submit said sample in the bottle(s) provided by the Department and sent to the
proper State laboratory in the shipping carton provided by the State. The cost of postage for
shipping the sample to the proper State laboratory shall be paid by the supplier of water. All
samples submitted for microbiological examination must be collected and mailed to arrive at the
proper State laboratory not later than Thursday noon of any week. Thirty hours is the limit
allowed from the time of collection to the time of examination at the proper State laboratory.

(6) Pursuant to Section 68-13-711(6) the installation, allowing the installation, or maintenance of
any cross-connection, auxiliary intake, or bypass is prohibited unless the source and quality of
water from the auxiliary supply, the method of connection, and the use and operation of such
cross-connection, auxiliary intake, or bypass has been approved by the Department. The
arrangement of sewer, soil, or other drain lines or conduits carrying sewage or other wastes in
such a manner that the sewage or waste may find its way into any part of the public water system
is prohibited.
All community water systems must adopt an ordinance or policy prohibiting all of the above
and submit a copy of the executed ordinance or policy to the Department for approval. All
community water systems shall develop a written plan for a cross-connection control program to
detect and eliminate or protect the system from cross-connections. The written plan must be
approved by the Department.
After adoption and approval of the cross-connection ordinance or policy and plan, each
community water system must establish an ongoing program for the detection and elimination of
hazards associated with cross-connections. Records of the cross-connection control program
must be maintained by the water supplier and shall include such items as date of inspection,
person contacted, recommendations, follow-up, and testing results.

(7) Within one year after the effective date of these regulations all community water system shall
prepare an emergency operations plan in order to safeguard the water supply and to alert the
public of unsafe drinking water in the event of natural or man-made disasters. Emergency
operation plans shall be consistent with guidelines established by the State and shall be reviewed
and approved by the Department.


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(8) Newly constructed or repaired water distribution lines, finished water storage facilities,
filters, and wells shall be flushed and disinfected in accordance with American Water Works
Association (AWWA) Standards. The appropriate standards are C651-86, C652-86, C653-87,
and C654-87 or later versions of these standards. Bacteriological results indicating adequacy of
disinfection procedures must be maintained on file for a period of five (5) years.

(9) All community water systems shall be operated and maintained to provide minimum positive
pressure of twenty (20) psi throughout the distribution system. No person shall install or
maintain a water service connection to any premises where a booster pump has been installed
unless such booster pump is equipped with a low pressure cut-off mechanism designed to cut off
the booster pump when the pressure on the suction side of the pump drops to twenty (20) psi
gauge.

(10) All community water systems having more than 50 service connections shall establish and
maintain an adequate flushing program. The flushing program established shall help ensure that
dead end and low usage mains are flushed periodically, drinking water standards are met,
sediment and air removal and the free chlorine residual specified under Rule 1200-5-1.17(4) is
maintained. Records of each flushing are to be maintained by the water system. These records
shall include date, time, location, persons responsible and length of flushing. In addition to the
above information, the free chlorine residual will have to be measured and recorded on the end
of dead end mains after being flushed.

(11) All community public water systems serving more than 50 service connections and which
have their own source of water shall be required to install, operate, and maintain duplicate
disinfection equipment. Duplicate disinfection equipment means at least two chlorine cylinder(s)
connected to at least two chlorinators. Each set of chlorine cylinders consists of one or more
cylinders which may be connected together by an automatic switchover valve. The two sets of
chlorine cylinders may tee in to a common feed line leading to the chlorinators, but may not be
connected together by an automatic switchover valve. The two sets of chlorine cylinders must be
weighed independently and operated simultaneously. At least two chlorinators must be operated
at all times with each feeding a portion of the required dosage. The chlorinators may discharge
to a common manifold piping network to allow multiple injection points. Facilities may be
exempt from simultaneously operating duplicate disinfection equipment if the facility has a
reliable chlorine residual analyzer with an alarm notifying a manned control center capable of
immediately shutting down the treatment facility.
Facilities, which are staffed during the time water is treated, can use one set of chlorine
cylinders with the automatic switchover device provided the free chlorine residual is checked at
the facility every two hours. A reliable free chlorine residual analyzer with an alarm system to a
manned control center may be used for unmanned facilities that desire to use one set of chlorine
cylinders with the automatic switchover device.
Systems which use a hypochlorinator shall be required to have two solution pumps, two
tanks for bleach solution and operate both units at the same time.

(12) All public water systems which utilize a filtration system shall use the following bed
specifications and not exceed the following rates of filtration.


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(a) Rapid Sand Filtration - 2.0 gallons per minute per square foot for turbidity
removal, 3.0 gallons per minute per square foot for iron removal.
There must be 30 inches of sand media with an effective size of 0.35 mm to 0.55
mm and a uniformity coefficient not greater than 1.70

(b) High Rate Filtration - 4.0 gallons per minute per square foot for turbidity removal,
4.0 gallons per minute per square foot for iron removal.
There must be 30 inches of dual media with 10 to 12 inches of sand and 18 to 20
inches of anthracite. The sand shall have an effective size of 0.35 mm to 0.55 mm
and a uniformity coefficient not greater than 1.70. The anthracite shall have an
effective size of 0.8 mm to 1.2 mm with a uniformity coefficient not greater than
1.85.

(c) Existing water systems with rapid sand filters and approved for higher rates of
filtration by the Department will be allowed to continue at that rate provided the
drinking water standards are met. The water supplier must be able to document
that the Department approved the system for the higher rate.

(d) All mixed media filter beds will be at least 30 inches in depth and approved by the
Department.

(e) Filtration rates above 4.0 gallons per minute per square foot will be considered on
an individual basis. The Department will take into account the raw water
characteristics, the treatment units, operational history, and operating personnel.

(13) All community water systems serving 50 connections or more shall install duplicate pumps
for the raw water, finished water, and distribution pumping stations. A water system will not be
required to have duplicate pumps in a distribution pumping station under the following
conditions: limited number of service connections, availability of replacement pumps,
maintaining adequate flows and pressures without the pumping station, and for emergency use
only. All community public water systems using ground water supplies and having more than 50
service connections must have duplicate wells and/or duplicate pumps in a spring supply unless
fed by gravity flow.

(14) All community water systems serving 50 connections or more are required to have 24 hours
of distribution storage based on the average daily demand for the past twelve months.
Distribution storage must be located so that the instantaneous demand can be met in all areas at
any time.

(a) Systems which purchase water for resale may utilize the storage of the supplier
provided the supplier has adequate distribution storage. Water systems that have
large ground storage tanks will be given credit for distribution storage provided
auxiliary power is available to pump water to the distribution system.

(b) Systems which have more than three (3) treatment facilities, have more than one
source of water, and which have special power arrangements so that it is unlikely

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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 5


that all units would be down at the same time are not required to have distribution
storage provided the peak demand can be met.

(c) Water systems which have an average daily demand of 10 million gallons or more
are not required to have 24 hours of distribution storage provided the system has
adopted a contingency plan for emergencies that has been approved by the
Department. The contingency plan must demonstrate the water system is able to
provide residential service to all customers for a 24 hour period during any
emergency involving the shut down of the treatment facility.

(d) Public water systems which utilize wells and provide only disinfection, pH
adjustment, corrosion inhibitor and/or fluoridation as treatment, may use the
capacity of the wells and the plant as part of the distribution storage under the
following conditions:

1. The existing distribution storage tank(s) are adequate to meet the peak
demands on the system,

2. The well(s), disinfection equipment and other pumping facilities needed to
supply water to the distribution storage tank are equipped with an
auxiliary power source with automatic controls, and

3. The well field capacity is determined by removing the largest well from
consideration.

(e) Public water systems may take into account private distribution storage facilities
in the following manner:

1. Private distribution storage may be counted as water system storage
provided the private storage tank floats on the water utility's system and
the water used serves both the private and utility system demand.
2. The water utility may reduce the amount of needed distribution storage by
subtracting the average daily volume of any water user that has its own
storage tank. This can be done provided the private storage tank is used
on a daily basis.

3. Private distribution storage tanks used strictly for fire protection by the
private owner cannot be in the water systems distribution storage capacity.

(15) All community water systems serving 50 or more service connections must have and
maintain up-to-date maps of the distribution system. These maps must show the locations of the
water mains, sizes of mains, valves, blow-offs or flush hydrants, air-release valves, and fire
hydrants. One up-to-date copy of the overall system distribution map(s) is to be submitted to the
Division of Water Supply every five years.


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(16) All vents on wells, springs, storage tanks, overflows and clearwells shall be properly
screened. All overflows on springs and tanks shall be screened and protected.

(17) All buildings and equipment used in and for the production and distribution of water (to
include chemical and other storage buildings) must be well maintained and be reliable and fit for
the purpose for which they are used. This includes, but is not limited to:
(a) When a water treatment plant is not producing water and an operator is not in attendance,
plant entrances must be locked.
(b) Equipment such as chemical feeders, pumps, turbidimeters, pumpage meters, alarm
systems, and air tanks shall be maintained and in good working condition. Pumps, tanks,
hoses, and other equipment used by system personnel shall be disinfected and dedicated
to its use if it comes into contact with water that may be consumed by humans.
(c) Where breakdowns are numerous or inoperable periods of service excessive, duplicate
equipment shall be obtained.

(18) All community water systems planning to provide fire protection must have the distribution
system designed to provide fire flows. All water mains designed for fire protection must be six
inches or larger and be able to provide 500 gallons per minute with 20 pounds per square inch
residual pressure. Fire hydrants shall not be installed on water mains less than six inches in
diameter.
Fire hydrants are prohibited on all water mains that cannot produce 500 gpm at 20 psi
residual pressure unless approval is obtained from the Department. In order for the water system
to be eligible for this special approval, the governing body of the water system must adopt an
ordinance or policy on the installation and use of fire hydrants for fire protection. This ordinance
or policy must develop a color coding system for fire hydrants to distinguish those that cannot
produce the required fire flow at the required residual pressure from those that can. In addition
to adopting this ordinance or policy, each fire department that may use the hydrants must sign a
statement indicating they understand the ordinance or policy and agree not to connect a pumper
fire truck to those hydrants which cannot produce 500 gpm at 20 psi residual pressure.
(19) Before any new or modified community water treatment facility can be placed in service, it
must be inspected and approved in writing by the Department.

(20) Public water systems which adjust the fluoride content of the water supply shall maintain
the concentration of fluoride in the finished water between 0.9 mg/l and 1.3 mg/l based on the
monthly average. Each water system adjusting the fluoride content to the finished water must
monitor for fluoride as required by the system's individual monitoring program established by
the Department.

(21) New or modified turbidity removal facilities may not be placed into operation until the
facility and the operator have been approved by the Department for the turbidity analysis.

(22) All pipe, solder, or flux which is used in the installation or repair of any public water system
shall be lead free. This shall not apply to lead joints necessary for the repair of cast iron pipes.
The term "lead free" in this section is defined as follows:


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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 7


(a) When used with respect to solders and flux shall mean solders and flux containing
not more than two-tenths of one percent (0.2%) lead and

(b) When used with respect to pipes and pipe fittings shall mean pipes and pipe
fittings containing not more than eight percent (8.0%) lead.

(23) All dead end water mains and all low points in water mains shall be equipped with a
blow-off or other suitable flushing mechanism capable of producing velocities adequate to flush
the main.

(24) All community water systems must establish and maintain a file for customer complaints.
This file should contain name of person with the complaint, date, nature of complaint, date of
investigation and results or actions taken to correct any problems.

(25) The Department may, upon written notice, require confirmation of any sampling results and
also may require sampling and analysis for any contaminant when deemed necessary by the
Department to protect the public health or welfare.

(26) Those public water systems required to monitor for turbidity and chlorine residual must
have the laboratory approved by the Department before the results of these analyses can be
accepted for compliance purposes.

(27) By December 30, 1991, or 18 months after the determination that a ground water system is
influenced by surface water, all public water systems classified as a ground water system
impacted by surface water shall utilize treatment techniques which achieve:
(a) At least 99.9 percent (3 log) removal and/or inactivation of Giardia lamblia cysts between
a point where the raw water is not subject to recontamination by surface water runoff and
a point downstream before or at the first customer.
(b) At least 99.99 percent (4 log) removal and/or inactivation of viruses between a point
where the raw water is not subject to recontamination by surface water runoff and a point
downstream before or at the first customer.

(28) All public water systems using surface water shall provide disinfection to control the
biological quality of the water. Due consideration shall be given to the contact time of the
disinfectant in the water with relation to pH, ammonia, taste producing substances, temperature,
presence and type of pathogens, and trihalomethane formation potential. All disinfection basins
must be designed to prevent water short-circuiting the system. The disinfectant will be applied
in the manner needed to provide adequate contact time.

(29) All community water systems using ground water as the raw water source serving water to
more than 50 connections or 150 people will apply the disinfectant in the manner needed for
adequate contact time. Contact time for ground water systems shall not be less than 15 minutes
prior to the first customer.

(30) Any surface supplied public water system or ground water systems under the direct
influence of surface water required to filter shall employ filtration in combination with

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8 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


disinfection that will achieve 99.9% (3 log) and 99.99% (4 log) inactivation of Giardia lamblia
and viruses respectively between a point where the raw water is not subject to recontamination
by surface water runoff and a point downstream before or at the first customer. For the purposes
of determining removal or inactivation efficiencies for Giardia lamblia and viruses Table
1200-5-1-.17(30)1 and 1200-5-1-.17(30)2 shall apply. The free residual disinfectant
concentration in the water entering the distribution system cannot be less than 0.2 mg/l for more
than four hours.
TABLE 1200-5-1-.17(30)1
ASSUMED LOG REMOVALS BY FILTRATION METHOD
AND REQUIRED LEVELS OF DISINFECTION
______________________________________________________________________________

Treatment Assumed Log Removals Required minimum
level of disinfection

Giardia Viruses Giardia Viruses
Conventional filtration 2.5 2.0 0.5 2.0
Direct filtration 2.0 1.0 1.0 3.0
Slow Sand filtration 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0
Diatomaceous Earth filtration 2.0 1.0 1.0 3.0
______________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 1200-5-1-.17(30)2
CT VALUES FOR ACHIEVING 1-LOG INACTIVATION OF
GIARDIA CYSTS
1
______________________________________________________________________________
pH Temperature
0.5C 5C 10C 15C
Free Chlorine
2,3
6 55 39 29 19
7 79 55 41 26
8 115 81 61 41
9 167 118 88 59
Ozone 0.97 0.63 0.48 0.32
Chlorine dioxide 1270 735 615 500
______________________________________________________________________________
1
Values to achieve 0.5 log inactivation are one half those shown in the table.
2
CT values are for 2.0 mg/l free chlorine.
3
CT values for other concentrations of free chlorine may be taken from Appendix E of the
guidance manual for Compliance with the "Filtration and Disinfection Requirements For Public
Water Systems Using Surface Water Sources," October, 1989, Edition, Science and Technology
Branch Criteria and Standards Division, Office of Drinking Water, USEPA, Washington, D.C.

(31) Each public water system must certify annually in writing to the State that when acrylamide
and epichlorohydrin are used in drinking water systems, the combination (or product) of dose
and monomer level does not exceed the levels specified as follows:

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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 9


Acrylamide = 0.05% dosed at 1 ppm (or equivalent)
Epichlorohydrin = 0.01% dosed at 20 ppm (or equivalent)
Public water systems can rely on manufacturer's or third parties certification for
complying with this requirement.

(32) New service taps on existing mains that must be uncovered to make the tap, shall be flushed
and the free chlorine residual measured and recorded prior to connecting the service lines. These
records shall be retained until the next sanitary survey or for three years.

(33) All public water systems shall properly maintain their distribution system finished water
storage tanks. Each community water system shall establish and maintain a maintenance file on
each of its finished water and distribution storage tanks. These maintenance files must be
available for inspection by the Department's personnel. These files must include the dates and
results of all routine water storage tank inspections by system personnel, any reports of detailed
professional inspections of the water storage tanks by contractor personnel, dates and details of
routine tank cleanings and surface flushings, and dates and details of all tank maintenance
activities. The tank inspection records shall include dates of the inspections; the sanitary, coating
and structural conditions of the tank; and all recommendations for needed maintenance activities.
Community Water Systems shall have a professional inspection performed and a written report
produced on each of their finished water and distribution storage tanks at least once every five
years. Non-community water systems shall have a professional inspection and written report
performed on each of their atmospheric pressure finished water and distribution storage tanks no
less frequently than every five years. Records of these inspections shall be available to the
Department personnel for inspection. Persons conducting underwater inspections of finished
water storage tanks shall comply with AWWA Standard C652-92 or later versions of the
standard.

(34) Paints and coatings for the interior of potable water storage facilities must be acceptable to
the Department. Paints and coatings accepted by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
and/or the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) for potable water contact are generally
acceptable to the Department. Paint systems for steel tanks shall be consistent with AWWA
Standard D102-78. Factory coated bolted steel tanks shall be in accordance with AWWA
D103-87. Wire-wound circular prestressed concrete tanks shall be in accordance with AWWA
D110-86.

(35) By January 1, 1996, public water systems using surface water and ground water systems
under the direct influence of surface water that filter shall have rewash capability. Such systems
shall perform a rewash cycle, or filter to waste each time a filter is backwashed. The rewash
cycle shall be conducted in a way and manner necessary to prevent the introduction of
contaminants such as pathogens and turbidity trapped in the filter into the clear well or
distribution system.
Existing filter plants may be approved to operate without rewash (filter-to-waste provisions)
if existing operational and backwash practices prevent water of unacceptable quality from
entering the clearwell or distribution system. To operate without rewash the water system must
demonstrate to the Department that filtered water turbidity after backwashing is reliably and
consistently below 0.5 NTU immediately after backwashing each filter. Approval to operate

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10 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


without rewash must be approved in writing and approval must be renewed if any modifications
are made to the operation or design of the plant. Each filter that operates without rewash must
have a continuous recording turbidimeter and retain the records for a period of five years.

(36) By January 1, 1995, all chemicals, additives, coatings or other materials used in the
treatment, conditioning and conveyance of drinking water must have been approved by the
National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) or American National Standards Institute (ANSI) certified
parties as meeting NSF product standard 60 and 61. Until 1995, products used for treatment,
conditioning and conveyance of drinking water shall have been listed as approved by the US
EPA or NSF.

(37) Any new Community Water System or Non-Transient Non-Community Water System
commencing operation after September 30, 1999 shall have a Capacity Development Plan and
be a viable water system.

(38) Public Water Systems identified as not complying or potentially not complying with the
requirements of the Safe Drinking Water Act and in accordance with the priorities established in
the States Capacity Development Strategy shall prepare a Capacity Development Plan and
demonstrate viability.

(39) Public water systems are not permitted to construct uncovered finished water reservoirs
after the effective date of this subparagraph.


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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 11


1200-5-1-.20 Record Maintenance.
(1) Any owner or operator of a public water system subject to the provisions of these rules shall
retain on its premises or at a convenient location near its premises the following records:
Records of bacteriological analysis made pursuant to these rules shall be kept for not less than
five (5) years. Records of chemical analyses made pursuant to these rules shall be kept for
not less than ten (10) years. Actual laboratory reports may be kept, or data may be transferred
to tabular summaries, provided that the following information is included:
1. The date, place, and time of sampling, the name of the person who collected the
sample;
2. Identification of the sample as to whether it was a routine distribution system sample,
repeat sample, raw or process water sample or other special purpose sample;
3. Date of analysis;
4. Laboratory and person responsible for performing analysis;
5. The analytical technique/method used; and
6. The results of the analysis.
(b) Records of action taken by the system to correct violations of primary drinking water
regulations shall be kept for a period not less than three (3) years after the last action taken
with respect to the particular violation involved.
(c) Copies of any written reports, summaries or communications relating to sanitary surveys
of the system conducted by the system itself, by a private consultant, or by any State or
Federal agency, shall be kept for a period not less than ten (10) years after completion of the
sanitary survey involved.
(d) Records concerning a variance or exemption granted to the system shall be kept for a
period ending not less than five (5) years following the expiration of such variance or
exemption.
(e) Any such reports required by the State shall be available for inspection by the public at
the appropriate public water system office during regular business hours.
(f) Records of turbidity analysis shall be maintained until the next sanitary survey is
completed. These records shall include daily worksheets, calibration data and strip charts.
The strip charts shall be labeled each day the system operates with the date, time, place of
collection, operator's initials, and the operating scale of the instrument.
(g) Daily worksheets and shift logs used in the production of monthly operation reports shall
be maintained on file until the next sanitary survey is completed.
(h) Cross-connection plans and inspection records, complaint logs, facility maintenance
records, and storage tank inspection records shall be kept for 5 years.
(i) Copies of the public notices issued and certifications made to the state pursuant to Rule
1200-5-1-.19 must be kept for three years after issuance.


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12 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Notes



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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 13


Selected Design Criteria for Water Treatment Plants
Part 4 - TREATMENT
4.0 GENERAL - The design of treatment processes and devices depends on evaluation of the
nature and quality of the particular water to be treated and the desired quality of the
finished water.
4.1.2 Mixing (Flash or Quick):
b. Mixing - The detention period shall not exceed 30 seconds. Concrete blocks
may be placed in the flash mix temporarily to maintain this detention period if
the plant is expected to be expanded in the near future.
4.1.3 Flocculation (Slow Mixing):
b. Detention - The detention time for floc formation must be at least 30 minutes,
with a detention time of 45 minutes being recommended.
4.1.4 Sedimentation - Sedimentation shall follow flocculation. The detention time for
effective clarification is dependent upon a number of factors related to basin design
and the nature of the raw water. The number of basins required is dependent upon
the turbidity, color and colloidal matter and taste and odor causing compounds to be
removed.
a. Detention Time - Plants with conventional sedimentation shall provide a
minimum of 4 hours of settling time, except for iron removal plants which
shall have a minimum of 3 hours.
d. Tube Settlers - Detention time required for sedimentation basins may be
reduced to a minimum of 1 hour if tube settlers are installed. The maximum
loading rate on the tube settlers shall be no greater than 2.5 gpm/ft2.
Provisions shall be made for more frequent removal of sludge from the basins
than is required for conventional sedimentation.
4.2 FILTRATION - Acceptable filters include, at the discretion of the Department, the
following types:
a. gravity filters,
b. pressure filters.
The application of any one type must be supported by water quality data representing a
reasonable period of time to characterize the variations in water quality. Experimental
treatment studies may be required to demonstrate the applicability of the method of
filtration proposed.
4.2.1 Gravity Filters
a. Number - At least two units shall be provided. Where declining rate filtration
is provided, the variable aspect of filtration rates, and the number of filters
must be considered when determining the design capacity for the filters.
b. Rate of Filtration
1. Standard Rate Filtration - The permissible rate of filtration shall be
determined by the quality of the raw water, the degree of pretreatment
provided, the filter media provided the quality of operation provided and
other considerations required by the Department. The nominal rate shall

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be 2 gpm/ft2 of filter area for turbidity removal plants, and 3 gpm/ft2 of
filter area for iron removal plants,
2. High Rate Filtration - Filtration rates for turbidity or iron removal plants
of up to 4 gpm/ft are acceptable with the following.
ii. Dual or mixed filter media must be used.
g. Filter Material - installation of media shall be in accordance with current
AWWA standards.
1. Sand - The media shall be clean silica sand having:
i. a depth of 30 inches,
2. Anthracite - a combination of sand and clean crushed anthracite may be
used. The anthracite shall have:
iii. anthracite layer shall not exceed 20 inches in 30-inch bed.
4.2.2 Pressure Filters - The use of these filters may be considered for iron and manganese
removal and for turbidity removal from ground water sources. Pressure filters shall
not be used in the filtration of surface waters or following lime soda softening.
4.4 DISINFECTION - Chlorine is the preferred disinfecting agent. Other agents will be
considered by the Department, provided reliable feeding equipment is available and testing
procedures for a residual are recognized in "Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater," latest edition. Continuous disinfection is recommended for all
water supplies and is required at all community public water systems serving more than 50
connections or 150 persons.
4.4.1 Equipment
c. Dual Chlorination - Two chlorinator shall be provided and operated
simultaneously such that each feeds approximately half the chlorine
requirement.
e. Automatic Switchover - Automatic switchover of chlorine cylinders should be
provided where necessary to assure continuous disinfection. This does not
take the place of having dual chlorination.
4.4.2 Contact Time and Point of Application
a. Due consideration shall be given to the contact time of the chlorine in water
with relation to pH, ammonia, taste producing substances, temperature,
bacterial quality, trihalomethanes formation potential and other pertinent
factors. Chlorine should be applied at a point which will provide adequate
contact time. All basins used for disinfection must be designed to minimize
short-circuiting.
b. At plants treating surface water, provisions should be made for applying
chlorine to the raw water, top of filters, and filtered water.
c. At plants treating groundwater, provision should be made for applying chlorine
to the clearwell inlet and the high lift pump suction.

4.8 FLUORIDATION - Commercial sodium fluoride, sodium silicofluoride and
hydrofluosilicic acid shall conform to the applicable AWWA Standards. Other chemicals
which may be made available must be approved by the Department.
4.8.3 Chemical Feed Installations

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b. shall provide scales or loss-of-weight recorders for dry or acid chemical feeds.
Dry volumetric feeders are to have percent-of-cycle timer or variable speed
SCR drive. A minimum of 35-gallon dissolver with mechanical agitation,
f. shall provide adequate anti-siphon devices for all fluoride feed lines,
4.9 CORROSION CONTROL - corrosion is caused by a reaction between the pipe material
and the water in direct contact with each other. Consequently, there are three basic
approaches to corrosion control:
4.9.3 Modification of Water Quality
a. pH adjustment by addition of lime, caustic soda or soda ash, in order to
stabilize the water with regard to calcium carbonate.

Part 5 - CHEMICAL APPLICATION
5.0 GENERAL - Plans and specifications describing water treatment plants (new, modified or
expanded) shall include the chemicals and chemical feed equipment to be used in the
treatment process.
5.0.2 Chemical shall be applied to the water at such points and by such means as to:
a. provide maximum flexibility of operation through various points of
application, when appropriate, and
b. prevent backflow at all points of feed.
5.1 FEED EQUIPMENT
5.1.1 Number of Feeders
a. Where chemical feed is essential to the production of safe drinking water or
necessary for continuous operation
1. a minimum of two feeders shall be provided,
2. a standby unit or combination of units of sufficient capacity should be
available to replace the largest unit during shut-downs.
b. Spare parts shall be available for all feeders to replace parts which are subject
to wear and damage.
c positive displacement type solution feed pumps shall be used to feed liquid
chemicals, and shall not be used to feed chemical slurries;
d. chemical solutions cannot be siphoned into the water supply;
e. service water supply cannot be contaminated by chemical solutions by:
1. equipping the supply line with backflow prevention devices (see Section
5.l.8.c), or
2. providing an air gap between supply line and solution tank.
g. dry chemical feeders will:
1. measure chemicals volumetrically or gravimetrically,
2. provide effective solution of the chemical in the solution pot,
3. provide gravity feed from solution pots, in open troughs when feasible,
4. completely enclose chemicals to prevent emission of dust to any of the
operating areas (see Section 5.2.3d).
h. no direct connection exists between any sewer and a drain or overflow from
the feeder or solution chamber or tank.
5.1.5 Solution Tanks

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a. Means shall be provided in a solution tank to maintain uniform strength of
solution, consistent with the nature of the chemical solution; continuous
agitation is necessary to maintain slurries in suspension.
b. Two solution tanks may be required for a chemical, of specific capacity, to
assure continuity of supply in servicing a solution tank.
c. Each tank shall be provided with a drain;
1. No direct connection between any tank or drain and a sewer shall be
permitted, and
2. Any drain must terminate at least two pipe diameters above the overflow
rim of a receiving sump, conduit or waste receptacle.
e. Make-up water shall enter the tank from above the maximum solution level,
providing an air gap of two pipe diameters but not less than six inches, or shall
be protected with an approved backflow prevention devices (see Section
5.1.8.c).
f. Chemical solutions shall be kept covered. Large tanks with access openings
shall have such openings curbed and fitted with tight covers.
5.1.6 Weighing Scales
a. shall be provided for weighing cylinders, at all plants utilizing chlorine gas; for
large plants, indicating and recording type are desirable;
b. shall be provided to measure the amount of fluoride fed with the exception of
the use of a saturator, which shall have a water meter;
c. should be provided for volumetric dry chemical feeders;
5.1.7 Feed Lines
a. should be as short as possible in length of run, and
b. avoiding sharp bends when possible.
5.2 CHEMICALS
5.2.1 Quality
b. Chemicals shall be listed under ANSI/NSF Standard 60(or equivalent) and
meet American Water Works Association specifications, where applicable.
c. Provisions should be made for assay of chemicals delivered.
5.2.2 Storage
b. Cylinders of chlorine shall be:
1. isolated from operating areas,
2. restrained in position to prevent upset,
3. stored inside for sufficient time before being connected to chlorinator
that temperature has been approximately equalized,
4. provided shade from direct sun and given physical security if stored
outside of building.
c. Liquid chemical storage tanks must:
1. have a liquid level indicator,
2. have an overflow and a receiving basin or drain capable of receiving
accidental spills or overflows,
3. provide for protection against freezing and/or loss from solution due to
temperature drop.
d. Special precautions must be taken with:
1. sodium chlorite, to eliminate any danger of explosion;

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2. activated carbon, which is a potentially combustible material, requiring
isolated, fireproof storage and explosion-proof electrical outlets, lights
and motors in areas of dry handling.
3. calcium hypochlorite and potassium permanganate, which may ignite
spontaneously on contact with combustible substances;
4. hydrofluosilicic acid, which is extremely corrosive. Fumes or spillage
may damage equipment or structures.
5. liquid caustic (50% sodium hydroxide solution) which is hazardous and
may be lost from solution at low temperature.
6. gaseous chlorine (see Sections 5.3.4-5.4).
e. Chemicals shall be stored in covered or unopened shipping containers, unless
the chemical is
5.3.5 Where chlorine gas is used, ventilation for each room shall be provided for one
complete air change per minute; and
a. The air outlet from the room shall be near the floor and the point of discharge
shall be so located as not to contaminate air inlets to any rooms or structures,
or adversely affect the surrounding environment;
b. air inlets shall be through louvers near the ceiling, and temperature controlled
to prevent adverse affect on chlorinator;
c. switches for fans and lights shall be outside of the room, at the entrance; signal
light indicating fan operation shall be provided at each entrance when fan can
be controlled from more than one point;
d. vents from feeders and storage shall discharge to the outside atmosphere,
above grade.
5.3.6 Chlorinator rooms should be heated to 60 degrees F, but should be protected from
excess heat; cylinders and gas lines should be protected from temperatures above
that of the feed equipment.
5.3.7 Gaseous feed chlorine installations shall be equipped with a gas detection device
connected to an audible alarm to prevent undetected, potentially dangerous leakage
of chlorine gas.
5.4 OPERATOR SAFETY
a. Gases from feeders, storage and equipment exhausts shall be conveyed to the outside
atmosphere, above grade and remote from air intakes.
b. Special provisions shall be made for ventilation of chlorine feed and storage rooms
(see Section 5.3.5).
c. A M-S-A air mask, Model 401, Catalog No. 01-95066 or equal, complete with
storage cabinet and 30 minute air cylinder shall be provided along with a 30 minute
backup cylinder to prevent loss of utility while the primary air cylinder is being
refilled or tested. The air mask shall be cabinet-mounted close by but not inside the
chlorine room, and shall be easily accessible to the operator.
d. A bottle of ammonium hydroxide shall be available for chlorine leak detection
during cylinder change.
e. All gaseous feed chlorine installations shall be equipped with appropriate leak repair
kits.
f. At least one pair of rubber gloves with long gauntlets, a dust respirator of a type
approved by the U.S. Bureau of Mines for toxic dusts, and an apron or other

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protective clothing shall be provided for each operator in any shift who will handle
dry chemicals.
g. Rubber gloves with long gauntlets, rubber roots, goggles, rubber apron or other
suitable protective clothing shall be provided for each operator preparing chemical
solutions, or cleaning up spills.
h. Facilities shall be provided for washing of face, gloves and protective equipment.
i. A safety shower shall be provided in areas where hazardous chemicals are handled.

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Cross-Connection Control
Cross-connection any physical arrangement whereby a public water system is connected,
either directly or indirectly, with any other water supply system, sewer,
drain, conduit, pool, storage reservoir, plumbing fixture, or other waste
or liquid of unknown or unsafe quality.
Backflow the flow of any water, foreign liquids, gases or other substances back
into a potable water system.
Backpressure a condition in which a substance is forced into a water system because
that substance is under a higher pressure than system pressure.
Backsiphonage a condition in which the pressure in the distribution system is less than
atmospheric pressure.
Cross-connection any connection or structural arrangement between a potable water
system and any other water source or system through which backflow
can occur.
Backflow due to Backpressure :
Boilers
Pressurized tanks
Recirculation of water (potable on nonpotable) for fire protection
Processing requirements

Backflow due to Backsiphonage:
Pumpers for fire
Opening valve at lower elevation
Booster pumps
Undersized piping
Broken mains or hydrants

Devices/Methods in decreasing order of effectiveness:
1. Air Gap (important note: air gap is a method, not a device)
2. RPBP
3. Double check-valve assemblies
4. Vacuum breakers (atmospheric/pressure)
5. Barometric loop

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Reduced Pressure Zone Backflow Preventer (RPBP) :
Acceptable in all cross connection situations and for all degrees of risk
Defined: Two spring-loaded check valves with a pressure-regulated relief valve
located between them.
Alternate Definition.: Device that consists of two spring-loaded, resilient seat check valves in
series with a relief zone between that function to maintain a lower
pressure in the zone than in the supply side of the unit.
A definite sign of rpbp malfunction is continuous drainage from the relief port
Keep plans/inspection records 5 years
Flush out a newly-installed backflow prevention device before testing to rid the unit of foreign
objects or particles.

Community Public Water Systems Design Criteria
5.0.2 Chemicals shall be applied to the water at such points and by such means as to:
b. prevent backflow at all points of feed.
5.1.2 Design and Capacity - Design and capacity shall be such that:
d. chemical solutions cannot be siphoned into the water supply:
c. service water supply cannot be contaminated by chemical solutions
by:
1. equipping the supply line with backflow prevention devices, or
2. providing an air gap between the supply line and solution tank.
h. no direct connection exists between any sewer and a drain or
overflow from the feeder or solution chamber or tank
5.1.3 Location chemical feed equipment
c. shall be located and protective curbing provided, so that chemicals
from equipment failure, spillage or accidental drainage shall not enter
the water through conduits, treatment or storage basins, or result in
hazardous discharges.
5.1.5 Solution Tanks
c. Each tank shall be provided with a drain:
1. No direct connection between any tank or drain and a sewer
shall be permitted, and,
2. Any drain must terminate at least two pipe diameters above the
overflow rim of a receiving sump, conduit or waste receptacle.
e. Make-up water shall enter the tank from above the maximum
solution level, providing an air gap of two pipe diameters, but not less

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than six inches, or shall be protected with an approved backflow
prevention device.
5.1.8 Service Water Supply
c. Back-flow prevention shall be achieved by appropriate measures as:
1. an air gap between fill pipe and maximum flow line of solution
or dissolving tank equivalent to 2 pipe diameters but not less than 6
inches, or
2. an approved reduced pressure backflow preventer, consistent
with the degree of hazard, aggressiveness of the chemical solution,
backpressure sustained, and available means for maintaining and
testing the device, or
3. a satisfactory vacuum relief device.

Division of Water Supply Rule 1200-5-1-.17 (6)
Pursuant to TCA 68-13-711(6) the installation, allowing the installation or maintenance of
any cross-connection, auxiliary intake, or by-pass is prohibited unless the source and quality of
water from the auxiliary supply, the method of connection, and the use and operation of such
cross-connection, auxiliary intake, or by-pass has been approved by the Department. The
arrangement of sewer, soil, or other drain lines or conduits carrying sewage or other wastes on
such a manner that the sewage or wastes may find its way into any part of the public water
system is prohibited.
All community water systems must adopt on ordinance or policy prohibiting all of the above
and submit a copy of the executed ordinance or policy to the Department for approval. All
community water systems shall develop a written plan for a cross-connection control program to
detect and eliminate or protect the system from cross-connections. The written plan must be
approved by the Department.
After adoption and approval of the cross-connection ordinance or policy and plan, each
community water system must establish an on-going program for the detection and elimination
of hazards associated with cross-connections. Records of the cross-connection control program
must be maintained by the water supplier and shall include such items as date of inspection,
person contacted, recommendations, follow-up, and testing results.

Division of Water Supply Rule 1200-5-1-.20(1)(h)
Cross-connection plans and inspection records...shall be kept for 5 years.

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Notes

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Groundwater
Terms
Aquifer a porous, water-bearing geologic formation.

Artesian Aquifer an aquifer in which the water is confined by both an upper and a lower
impermeable layer.

Artesian Well a well in which the water rises above the upper confining or
impermeable layer.

Ground Water the water contained in the saturated sand, soil or gravel of an aquifer.

Water Table the top of the ground water, or top of the zone of saturation.

Water Table Aquifer an aquifer confined only by a lower, impermeable layer.

Water Table Wells wells constructed in water table aquifers.

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24 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Parts of a Well


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Sanitary Seal prevents contaminants from entering the well casing
Well Slab supports the pumping equipment
aids in sealing the well against the intrusion of surface water.
located above ground
Well Casing tube, generally metal, placed in a well to keep the well open.
located below ground
Grout a mixture of cement, water, and sometimes sand, pumped into the
space between the casing and the well hole (annulus).
Grout seals the well against contamination.
located below ground
Well Screen provides enough open spaces for unrestricted water flow
supports the loose aquifer (bore hole in an unconfined aquifer)
prevents sand from entering the well.
located below ground
Gravel Packing aids the screen in filtering sand
increases well efficiency.
located below ground


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Water Well Terminology




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Static Water Level the water level in a well when no water is being taken from the aquifer.
Pumping Water Level the water level in a well during pumping, measured from the ground to
the water surface.
The water level in a well can be measured by:
airline method;
electric sounder method;
wetted tape method.
Radius of Influence the distance from the well within which the water table is influenced or
drawn down when the well is being pumped.
Cone of Depression the cone-shaped depression in the groundwater level around a well
during pumping.
Drawdown the measure of the drop in water level during pumping. Expressed in
feet.
Residual Drawdown the difference between the original static water level and the level to
which the water rises in the well after pumping. Expressed in feet.
Well Yield the rate of water withdrawal that the well can supply over a long period
of time. Expressed as gal/min.
Specific Capacity a measure of the well yeild per unit of drawdown. Expressed as
gal/min/ft

Sanitary Considerations
Sources of Groundwater Contamination
Wastewater from human and animal wastes(viruses and bacteria)
Agricultural runoff (fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides)
Industrial Wastes (heavy metals, phenols, exotic organics)
Wastewater from human and animal wastes(viruses and bacteria)

Modes of entry: percolation of surface waters into the ground;
direct entry through poorly sealed operating wells or old, uncapped,
abandoned wells.
Locating wells to avoid contamination locate a safe distance from potential contaminants;
locate in formations deep enough to protect against
contamination due to surface water percolation.

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Well Problems
Encrustations
Causes: (1) biological slimes
(2) iron and manganese precipitates
(3) precipitates of carbonates/sulfates of calcium and magnesium
Cleaned out using: (1) glassy phosphates
(2) hydrochloric (muriatic) acid
(3) sulfuric acid
Hydrogen Sulfide (1) poisonous
(2) rotten-egg odor
(3) disagreeable taste in water
(4) corrosive
(5) reacts with chlorine, requiring higher doses for disinfection


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Well Yield, Gallons per Minute
Example: During a test for well yield, the time required to fill a 100-gallon tank was 0.25
minutes. Based on this pumping rate, what was the well yield in gallons per minute?
Write down the formula.
min Time,
gal Volume,
= gal/min Yield, Well
Make a Table of Data.
Tank Volume = 100 gallons
Time to Fill Tank = 0.25 minutes
Plug the data into the formula.
min 0.25
gal 100
= gal/min Yield, Well

Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
Well Yield, gal/min = 400 gal/min
The well yield is 400 gallons per minute.


Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest gallon per minute.
1. During a test for well yield, the time required to fill a 55-gallon drum was 0.35 minutes. Based
on this pumping rate, what was the well yield in gallons per minute?
2. During a test for well yield, the time required to fill a 55-gallon drum was 0.15 minutes. Based
on this pumping rate, calculate the well yield in gallons per minute.
3. Determine the well yield in gallons per minute if the time required to fill a 200-gallon tank
was 0.5 minutes.
4. Calculate the well yield in gallons per minute if it takes 0.47 minutes for water pumped from a
well to fill a 55-gallon drum.
5. It takes 0.12 minutes for water pumped from a well to fill a 400-gallon tank. What is the well
yield in gallons per minute, based on this pumping rate?
6. During a test for well yield, the time required to fill a 100-gallon drum was 0.35 minutes.
Based on this pumping rate, what was the well yield in gallons per minute?
7. During a test for well yield, the time required to fill a 400-gallon tank was 0.15 minutes. Based
on this pumping rate, calculate the well yield in gallons per minute.
8. Determine the well yield in gallons per minute if the time required to fill a 200-gallon tank
was 0.15 minutes.
9. Calculate the well yield in gallons per minute if it takes 0.47 minutes for water pumped from a
well to fill a 200-gallon tank.
10. It takes 0.12 minutes for water pumped from a well to fill a 100-gallon tank. What is the well
yield in gallons per minute, based on this pumping rate?

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11. During a test for well yield, the time required to fill a 55-gallon drum was 21 seconds. Based
on this pumping rate, what was the well yield in gallons per minute?
12. During a test for well yield, the time required to fill a 55-gallon drum was 11 seconds. Based
on this pumping rate, calculate the well yield in gallons per minute.
13. Determine the well yield in gallons per minute if the time required to fill a 200-gallon tank
was 15 seconds.
14. Calculate the well yield in gallons per minute if it takes 27 seconds for water pumped from a
well to fill a 55-gallon drum.
15. It takes 7 seconds for water pumped from a well to fill a 55-gallon drum. What is the well
yield in gallons per minute, based on this pumping rate?

Answers

1. 157 gal/min 2. 367 gal/min 3. 400 gal/min 4. 117 gal/min
5. 3,333 gal/min 6. 286 gal/min 7. 2667 gal/min 8. 1,333 gal/min
9. 426 gal/min 10. 833 gal/min 11. 157 gal/min 12. 300 gal/min
13. 800 gal/min 14. 122 gal/min 15. 471 gal/min




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Drawdown, Feet
Example: The water level in a well when no water is being pumped is 45 feet below the
ground surface. When the well pump is in operation the water level drops to 57 feet below the
ground surface. What is the drawdown in feet?
Write down the formula.
Drawdown, ft = Pumping Water Level, ft - Static Water Level, ft
Make a Table of Data.
Pumping Water Level = 57 feet
Static Water Level = 45 feet
Plug the data into the formula.
Drawdown, ft = 57 ft - 45 ft
Do the arithmetic.
Drawdown, ft = 12 ft
The drawdown for the well is 12 feet.

Practice Problems
1. When water is being pumped from a well, the water level drops to 87 feet beneath the surface
of the ground. The water level is 79 feet below the surface of the ground when water is not
being pumped from the well. Determine the drawdown in feet.
2.The water level in a well when no water is being pumped is 55 feet below the ground surface.
When the well pump is in operation, the water level drops to 57 feet below the ground
surface. What is the drawdown in feet?
3. The distance from the ground surface to the water level in a well when the pump is not
operating is 98 feet. The distance from the ground surface to the water level in the well when
the pump is operating is 106 feet. Calculate the drawdown for the well in feet under these
conditions.
4. When water is being pumped from a well, the water level drops to 27 feet beneath the surface
of the ground. The water level is 32 feet below the surface of the ground when water is not
being pumped from the well. Determine the drawdown in feet.
5.The water level in a well when no water is being pumped is 51 feet below the ground surface.
When the well pump is in operation, the water level drops to 57 feet below the ground
surface. What is the drawdown in feet?
6. The distance from the ground surface to the water level in a well when the pump is not
operating is 38 feet. The distance from the ground surface to the water level in the well when
the pump is operating is 46 feet. Calculate the drawdown for the well in feet under these
conditions.
7. When water is being pumped from a well the water level drops to 187 feet beneath the surface
of the ground. The water level is 182 feet below the surface of the ground when water is not
being pumped from the well. Determine the drawdown in feet.

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8.The water level in a well when no water is being pumped is 55 feet below the ground surface.
When the well pump is in operation, the water level drops to 67 feet below the ground
surface. What is the drawdown in feet?
9. The distance from the ground surface to the water level in a well when the pump is not
operating is 98 feet. The distance from the ground surface to the water level in the well when
the pump is operating is 116 feet. Calculate the drawdown for the well in feet under these
conditions.
10. When water is being pumped from a well, the water level drops to 87 feet beneath the surface
of the ground. The water level is 88 feet below the surface of the ground when water is not
being pumped from the well. Determine the drawdown in feet.

Answers

1. 8 ft 2. 2 ft 3. 8 ft 4. 5 ft
5. 6 ft 6. 8 ft 7. 5 ft 8. 12 ft
9. 18 ft 10. 1 ft




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Specific Capacity, gal/min/ft
Example: The yield for a particular well is 500 gallons per minute. The drawdown for the
well is 5 feet. Calculate the specific capacity for the well in gallons per minute per foot of
drawdown.
Write down the formula.
ft Drawdown,
gal/min Yield, Well
= gal/min/ft Capacity, Specific

Make a Table of Data.
Well Yield = 500 gal/min
Drawdown = 5 feet
Plug the data into the formula.
ft 5
gal/min 500
= gal/min/ft Capacity, Specific

Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
Specific Capacity, gal/min/ft = 100 gal/min/ft
The specific capacity for the well is 100 gallons per minute per foot of drawdown.

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest gal/min/ft.
1. The yield for a particular well is 500 gallons per minute. The drawdown for the well is 5 feet.
Calculate the specific capacity for the well in gallons per minute per foot of drawdown.
2. The yield for a particular well is 750 gallons per minute. The drawdown for the well is 5 feet.
Determine the specific capacity for the well in gallons per minute per foot of drawdown.
3. What is the specific capacity in gallons per minute per foot of drawdown if the drawdown for
a well is 7 feet and the well yield is 647 gallons per minute?
4. During a test for well yield, a well produced 560 gallons per minute. The drawdown during the
test is 4 feet. What is the specific capacity for the well in gallons per minute per foot of
drawdown?
5. The yield for a particular well is 457 gallons per minute. The drawdown for the well is 9 feet.
Calculate the specific capacity for the well in gallons per minute per foot of drawdown.
6. The yield for a particular well is 2750 gallons per minute. The drawdown for the well is 2 feet.
Determine the specific capacity for the well in gallons per minute per foot of drawdown.
7. What is the specific capacity in gallons per minute per foot of drawdown if the drawdown for
a well is 7 feet and the well yield is 847 gallons per minute?
8. During a test for well yield, a well produced 760 gallons per minute. The drawdown during the
test is 11 feet. What is the specific capacity for the well in gallons per minute per foot of
drawdown?
9. During a test for well yield, it took a well pump 25 seconds to fill a 250-gallon tank. Before
the well pump was put into operation the static water level was 35 feet. The water level

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dropped to 43 feet when the pump was placed into operation. What is the specific capacity for
the well in gallons per minute per foot of drawdown.
10. Calculate the specific capacity for a well under these conditions. The static water level is 87
feet. The pumping water level is 94 feet. During a test for well yield, it took 27 seconds to fill
a 400-gallon tank.
11. During a test for well yield it took a well pump 15 seconds to fill a 250-gallon tank. Before
the well pump was put into operation, the static water level was 65 feet. The water level
dropped to 68 feet when the pump was placed into operation. What is the specific capacity for
the well in gallons per minute per foot of drawdown.
12. Calculate the specific capacity for a well under these conditions. The static water level is 47
feet. The pumping water level is 58 feet. During a test for well yield it took 17 seconds to fill
a 400-gallon tank.

Answers

1.100 gal/min/ft 2. 150 gal/min/ft 3. 92 gal/min/ft 4. 140 gal/min/ft
5. 51 gal/min/ft 6. 1,375 gal/min/ft 7. 121 gal/min/ft 8. 69 gal/min/ft
9. 75 gal/min/ft 10.127 gal/min/ft 11. 333 gal/min/ft 12.128 gal/min/ft


The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 35


Aeration
Aeration the process of bringing water and air into close contact in order to
remove dissolved gases and to oxidize metals.
Mechanisms (1) Sweeping or scrubbing action of turbulent water (gas removal);
(2) Oxidation of metals (Iron and Manganese).
Efficiency Efficiency depends almost entirely on the amount of surface contact
between air and water.
The amount of surface contact is controlled by the size of the water
droplet or air bubble.

Constituents Affected by Aeration
Aeration (1) removes troublesome gases (process also called degasification)
(2) oxidizes metals such as iron and manganese
(3) reduce tastes and odors caused by volatile chemicals
(4) increases the dissolved oxygen content of the water
Constituent Adverse Effects
Carbon Dioxide Makes water corrosive by increasing the waters acidity.
Makes iron more difficult to remove by keeping it in solution.
Reacts with lime requiring larger doses for softening
Taste and Odor Only effective against tastes and odors caused by volatile compounds.
Methane Colorless, odorless, tasteless, flammable, explosive gas.
Causes garlic taste in water.
Hydrogen Sulfide poisonous gas
rotten-egg odor
causes a disagreeable taste in food cooked in and beverages made from
water containing the gas
gas or water containing the gas is corrosive
reacts with chlorine which requires higher chlorine doses to be
effective

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
36 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Iron and Manganese Iron causes yellowish- or reddish-brown stains on laundry and
plumbing fixtures.
At concentrations of 1.0 mg/l or greater, iron causes turbidity and gives
the water a metallic taste.
Iron can form deposits on pipe walls, well screens, and valves.
Manganese produces black stains and other problems similar to iron.
Iron and manganese in combination produces dark brown to black
stains.
MCL for Iron = 0.3 mg/l
MCL for Manganese = 0.05 mg/l
Removed by oxidation followed by filtration
Dissolved Oxygen Too much dissolved oxygen (DO) causes the water to be corrosive.
Supersaturation of water with DO can cause airbinding of filters.
The amount of DO water can hold depends on water temperature - as
the water temperature goes up, the amount of DO the water can hold
goes down.
Added by sweeping/scrubbing action

Types of Aerators
Type Uses
Cascade Aerators (1) Oxidize iron and manganese
(2) Partially reduce dissolved gases
Cone Aerators (1) Oxidize iron and manganese
(2) Partially reduce dissolved gases
Slat and Coke Tray (1) Oxidize iron and manganese
(2) Lower the concentration of dissolved gases
Positive Draft and Induced Draft Aerators
(1) Oxidize iron and manganese
(2) Most efficient at reducing the concentration of dissolved gases
Spray Aerators (1) Oxidize iron and manganese
(2) Increase dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations


The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 37


Common Operating Problems
Problems caused by supersaturation with air.
Corrosion Can be solved by:
(1) coating surfaces with a protective coating;
(2) operating the process to provide adequate but not excessive
dissolved oxygen.
Floating floc in clarifiers Small bubbles come out of solution and attach to floc, causing the floc
to float.
Air binding of filters Air bubbles attach to filter media (also called false clogging). Air can
disrupt filter media at the beginning of backwash cycle.
Algae Can be controlled by:
shading the aerator from direct sunlight;
treating the aerator periodically with copper sulfate.
Clogged Diffusers Maintain clean air filters.
Do not overlubricate blowers.
Prevent backflow of water into blowers.
Special Problems with Hydrogen Sulfide Removal
Most efficiently removed by sweeping/scrubbing.
At a pH of 6 or less, it exist as a gas. It is easiest to remove in this form.
At a pH of 8 or higher the gas ionizes and cannot be removed by aeration.
When pH is high, the best procedure is to lower the pH to 6 or less before beginning aeration.
Operational Control Tests
Basic Control Test Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
pH
Temperature

Additional Tests Iron
Carbon Dioxide
Manganese
Taste and Odor


Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
38 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Safety
Hydrogen Sulfide Poisonous, colorless, tasteless, flammable, highly explosive gas.
Heavier than air, collects down low.
Methane Colorless, odorless, tasteless, flammable, highly explosive gas.
Lighter than air, collects up high.

Careful consideration must be given to ventilating enclosed aerators.

Safest and best way to deal with hydrogen sulfide and methane is to make sure the aerator is well
ventilated and that there are no places where gases can accumulate.
Iron and Manganese Removal
Problems with Excessive Levels of Iron and Manganese
Aesthetic Problems Colored water - from yellow to black, depending on concentration
Turbid water
Metallic (astringent) tastes
Stains plumbing fixtures and laundry
Iron -reddish brown
Manganese - black
Combined - dark brown to black
Operational Problems iron/manganese precipitates settle in dead ends, causing red-water
complaints
serves as food source for iron bacteria, resulting in
reduction in water main capacity
clogging of appurtenances, such as meters and valves
discoloration of water caused by:
(1) corrosive water
(2) iron bacteria in the distribution system
(3) iron in water
generation of taste-and-odor problems
increased chlorine demand


The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 39


Maximum Desirable Levels
Secondary Maximum Contaminat Levels (SMCL) Iron - 0.3 mg/l
Manganese - 0.05 mg/l
Iron creates taste problem at about 0.5 mg/l
Manganese creates a taste problem at 5 mg/l
Control Processes
Three Methods Precipitation and Filtration
Ion Exchange
Sequestration
Precipitation and Filtration
Precipitation is the process of separating a substance from a solution or
suspension due to a chemical reaction. Precipitates are insoluble, finely
divided substances which are a product of a chemical reaction in
liquids.
Soluble forms of iron (ferrous iron) and manganese (manganous
manganese) are oxidized to convert them to insoluble forms of iron
(ferric iron) and manganese (manganic manganese).
Once converted to insoluble precipitates, the iron and manganese
precipitates are settled out. Any precipitates not settling out are
removed by filtration.

Oxidation The process of converting iron and manganese to insoluble forms
(precipitates).
Aeration Iron requires 0.14 mg/l oxygen per each 1 mg/l iron
Manganese requires 0.27 mg/l oxygen per each 1 mg/l manganese
pH must be >6.5 for Iron, >9,5 for Manganese
Aeration is the least effcetive means of oxidizing manganese.
As the pH increases, the rate at which iron and manganese are oxidized
increases in the aeration process.
Potassium Permanganate (0.6 mg/l per 1 mg/l iron)
Ozone
Chlorine (Do not use in raw water with high levels of organic color.)
Unless iron/manganese samples are tested within 48 hours, the sample
must be acidified.
Detention necessary to allow reactions to got to completion.

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40 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


oxidation of manganese very slow.
Filtration Rapid Sand Filters 3 gal/min/ft
2

High Rate Sand Filters 4 gal/min/ft
2
Manganese Greensand Filters

Ion Exchange Iron can be removed by calcium, magnesium, sodium in ion-exchange
unit.
Sequestration Not recommended if the concentration of the iron, manganese, or both,
exceeds 1 mg/l
Hides, does not remove problem.

Put 10 mg/l chlorine residual in stock phosphate solutions to prevent growth of microbes.

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 41


Algae
I. Operational Problems Caused by Algae
A. taste, odor, color
B. toxicity
C. clogged filters
D. slime accumulations on structures
E. corrosion of structures
F. interference with other processes
G. trihalomethane formation
II. Interference with Other Processes - Algae can change
A. pH
B. alkalinity
C. hardness
D. dissolved oxygen
E. concentration of organic materials
III. Chemical Control of Algae
A. Can use:
1. copper sulfate
2. powdered activated carbon
B. Copper sulfate
1. effectiveness depends on ability to dissolve in water
2. ability to dissolve in water depends on:
a. pH
b. alkalinity
3. conditions for best/most lasting control
a. total alkalinity less than or equal to 50 mg/l as CaCO
3
b. pH between 8 and 9
4. Minimum copper sulfate dose depends on the alkalinity.
5. Maximum dose depends on toxic effect on fish.



Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
42 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Notes


The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 43


Coagulation and Flocculation
Purpose to aid in the removal of nonsettleable solids from water.
After the coagulation/flocculation process, suspended solids are
removed by sedimentation and filtration.
Coagulation Defined as:
the destabilization of colloidal solids;
the water treatment process which causes very small suspended
solids to attract one another and form larger particles.
Flocculation the treatment process following coagulation which uses gentle stirring
to bring suspended particles together so that they form larger, more
settleable solids.
Coagulation/Flocculation - the process by which nonsettleable solids are converted to settleable
solids.
Basic Principles
Nonsettleable solids resist settling for two primary reasons:
(1) particle size; and,
(2) natural forces between particles (zeta potential)
Particle Size Suspended Solids Particles held in suspension by turbulence in
flowing water
Colloidal Solids very small particles such as fine silt, bacteria, viruses,
color-causing particles, which cannot be seen by the naked eye. The
combined effect of the particles is seen as color or turbidity.
Dissolved Solids molecular in size and cannot be removed unless
converted to a precipitate.
Natural Forces Particles in water normally have a negative (-) charge. Since these
particles all have the same charge, they repel each other, keeping each
other from settling. This natural repelling force is called the Zeta
Potential.
A second force exists between particles which tends to pull the particles
together. These natural attractive forces are called van der Waals
forces.
If the Zeta potential is stronger than the van der Waals forces, the
particles will remain in suspension.
If the van der Waals force is stronger than the Zeta potential, the
particles will come together, form floc, and can settle out.


Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
44 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Effect of Coagulation/ Flocculation
Coagulation/flocculation reduces or neutralizes the Zeta potential so
that the van der Waals forces can begin pulling the particles together to
form floc.
Coagulants and Coagulant Aids
Coagulants Coagulants consist of positivley (+) charged ions since most particles in
water carry a negative (-) charge.
The more positive (+) charges, the better. Coagulants with 3 positive
charges (trivalent ions) are 700 to 1,000 times more effective than
coagulants which form a single positive charge (monovalent ions).
Coagulants which form ions with 3 positive charges (trivalent ions) are 50 to 60 times more
effective as coagulants which form ions with two positive charges
(bivalent ions).
Coagulant Aids Coagulant aids are chemicals which are added to water during
coagulation to:
improve coagulation;
build a stronger, more settleable floc;
overcome slow floc formation in cold water;
reduce the amount of coagulant required;
reduce the amount of sludge produced.
The key reason coagulant aids are used is to reduce the amount of alum
used, which, in turn, decreases the amount of alum sludge produced.
Alum sludge is difficult to dewater and to dispose of.
Types of Coagulant Aids
Activated Silica increase the coagulation rate;
reduce the amount of coagulant needed;
widen the pH range for effective coagulation.
Chief Advantage - strengthens floc
Usually added after coagulant, never directly with alum.
Weighting Agents Provide additional particles that can enhance floc formation.
Used to treat water that is:
high in color; or,
low in turbidity; or,
low in mineral content.
Forms Bentonite Clay, Powdered Limestone; Powdered Silica

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 45


Polyelectrolytes Extremely large molecules which produce highly charged ions when
dissolved in water.
Also called polymers.
Types of Polyelectrolytes
Cationic (+) Have a positive (+) charge.
Used as either a primary coagulant or as a coagulant aid.
Advantages: allows reduced coagulant dose;
floc settles better;
less sensitivity to pH;
improved flocculation of organisms such as bacteria
and algae.
Anionic (-) Have a negative (-) charge.
Used primarily as a coagulant aid.
Advantages: increase floc size;
improve settling;
produce a stronger floc;
not materially affected by pH, alkalinity, hardness
or turbidity.
Nonionic Balanced or neutral charge.
Used as a primary coagulant or coagulant aid.

Factors Which Affect How Well a Coagulant Work
(1) Mixing Conditions
(2) pH
(3) Alkalinity
(4) Water Temperature
(5) Turbidity
If the alkalinity concentration in the water is not high enough, and
effective floc will not form when either alum or ferric sulfate is used.
0.5 mg/l alkalinity (as calcium carbonate) is required for each mg/l
alum.
Coagulation/Flocculation Facilities
Rapid Mixing Purpose is to distribute the coagulant rapidly and evenly throughout the
water.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
46 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


First contact with the water is the most critical period in the coagulation
process.
Chemical reactions occur within a fraction of a second.
Water should be stirred violently for a brief time to encourage the
greatest number of collisions between particles as possible.
Types of Mixers Mechanical
Pumps and Conduits
Baffled Chambers
Detention time should be 30 seconds or less (Design Criteria).
Flocculation Provides for gentle mixing to encourage floc formation.
Detention time of at least 30 minutes, with a detention time of 45
minutes preferred.
Process Operations (1) Chemical Selection
(2) Chemical Application
(3) Monitoring process effectiveness
Chemical Selection These raw water characteristics should be monitored in order to do a
thorough job of chemical selection.
(1) Temperature
(2) pH
(3) Alkalinity
(4) Turbidity
(5) Color

Effects of Raw Water Characteristics on Coagulation/Flocculation
Temperature Low water temperature causes poorer coagulation/flocculation.
Higher coagulant doses may be required to maintain acceptable results.
pH Extremes can interfere with the coagulation/flocculation process.
The optimum pH depends on the specific coagulant.
The optimum pH depends on the specific coagulant.
Alkalinity Low alkalinity causes poor coagulation.
May be necessary to add alkalinity (lime, caustic soda, soda ash).
Turbidity Difficult to form floc with low turbidity water.
May need to add weighting agents.

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 47


Color Indicates organic chemicals which can react with the coagulant.
Pretreatment with oxidants or adsorbents to remove color required.

Monitoring Process Effectiveness
Actual plant performance should be monitored for:
(1) Adequate flash mixing
(2) Gentle flocculation
(3) Adequate flocculation time
(4) Settled- and filtered-water quality.
Indication of inadequate flash mixing:
(1) Very small floc (pin floc)
(2) Fish Eyes
(3) High turbidity in settled water
(4) Too frequent filter backwashing
If any of these symptoms occur, check:
(1) adequacy of clash mixing
(2) gentleness of flocculation
(3) flocculation detention time
Operational Control Tests
(1) Jar Test
(2) pH
(3) Turbidity
(4) Temperature
(5) Filterability
(6) Color
(7) Zeta potential
(8) Alkalinity
Common Operational Problems
Low Water Temperature Viscosity of water increases, slow rate of floc settling.
Chemical reaction rates decrease.
Best pH for a coagulant drops.
Floc weakened and penetrates filters.
Solutions: Operate as close to the best pH value for the temperature as possible.

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48 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Increase the coagulant dose.
Add weighting agents to increase the density of the floc and/or
activated silica or polymers to increase the floc strength and encourage
rapid settling.
Slow Floc Formation Low turbidity waters contribute to slow and inadequate floc formation
Solutions: (1) recycle sludge;
(2) add weighting agents.
Low Alkalinity Can cause slow floc formation with alum or ferric sulfate.
Solutions: Add alkalinity (lime, caustic sods, soda ash).
Poor Mixing Can cause slow floc formation, or pinpoint floc.

Safe Handling of Coagulation Chemicals
OSHA Standards Addressing Chemicals Used in Treatment Processes
Personal Protective Equipment Standard
Respiratory Protection Standard
Right-to-Know Law Standard

DO NOT MIX ALUM AND QUICKLIME!!!!

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 49


Detention Time, secs
Flash mix basins are designed to have a detention time of 30 seconds or less.

Sample Problem: The flash mix basin at a water treatment plant has a volume of 125 gallons.
Water flows through the basin at a rate of 350,000 gallons per day. Calculate the detention time
in seconds for the basin.
Write down the formula.
gal/day flow,
sec/min) (60 min/hr) (60 hr/day) (24 gal) (volume,
= sec time, Detention
Make a table of data.
volume, gal = 125 gal
flow, gal/day = 350,000 gal/day
Plug the data into the formula.
gal/day 350,000
sec/min) (60 min/hr) (60 hr/day) (24 gal) (125
= sec time, Detention
Cancel terms and multiply the numbers above the line.
350,000
sec 10,800,000
= sec time, Detention
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
sec 31 or 6 30.8571428 = sec time, Detention

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest second.
1. A flash mix basin at a water treatment plant has a volume of 75 gallons. Water flows through
the basin at a rate of 341,053 gallons per day. Determine the detention time for the basin in
seconds.
2. The flash mix basin at a water treatment plant has a volume of 250 gallons. Water is treated at
a rate of 1,440,000 gallons per day. What is the detention time in seconds for the basin?
3. Determine the detention time in seconds for a flash mix with a volume of 400 gallons if water
is treated at a rate of 3,456,000 gal/day.
4. Calculate the detention time in seconds for a flash mix with a volume of 600 gallons when
water is treated at a rate of 1,234,286 gal/day.
5. A flash mix basin at a water treatment plant is 5 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 7 feet deep. Water
flows through the basin at a rate of 5,385,600 gallons per day. Determine the detention time
for the basin in seconds.
6. The flash mix basin at a water treatment plant is 6 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 7 feet deep.
Water is treated at a rate of 6,386,688 gallons per day. What is the detention time in seconds
for the basin?

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50 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


7. Determine the detention time in seconds for a flash mix basin which is 3.5 feet long, 3.5 feet
wide, and 5 feet deep if water is treated at a rate of 2,199,120 gal/day.
8. Calculate the detention time in seconds for a flash mix basin which is 5.75 feet long, 4 feet
wide, and 6 feet deep when water is treated at a rate of 4,053,888 gal/day.
9. A flash mix basin at a water treatment plant is 7 feet long, 7 feet wide, and 10 feet deep. Water
flows through the basin at a rate of 13,194,720 gallons per day. Determine the detention time
for the basin in seconds.
10. The flash mix basin at a water treatment plant is 6 feet long, 6 feet wide, and 9 feet deep.
Water is treated at a rate of 7,755,264 gallons per day. What is the detention time in seconds
for the basin?
11. Determine the detention time in seconds for a flash mix basin which is 4.75 feet long, 4.75
feet wide, and 5 feet deep if water is treated at a rate of 3,837,240 gal/day.
12. Calculate the detention time in seconds for a flash mix basin which is 5 feet long, 3 feet wide,
and 2.5 feet deep when water is treated at a rate of 2,203,200 gal/day.

Answers
1. 19 sec 4. 42 sec. 7. 18 sec 10 . 27 sec.
2. 15 sec 5. 21 sec. 8. 22 sec. 11. 19 sec.
3. 10 sec 6. 17 sec. 9. 24 sec. 12. 11 sec.


The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 51


Detention Time, Minutes
Flocculation basins are designed to have a detention time of at least 30 minutes, with 45
minutes being preferable.

Sample Problem. A flocculation basin at a water treatment plant has a volume of 34,500
gallons. Water flows through the basin at a rate of 1,250,000 gallons per day. Calculate the
detention time in minutes for the basin.
Write down the formula.
gal/day flow,
min/hr) (60 hr/day) (24 gal) (volume,
= min time, Detention
Make a table of data.
volume, gal = 34,500 gal
flow, gal/day = 1,250,000 gal/day
Plug the data into the formula.
gal/day 1,250,000
min/hr) (60 hr/day) (24 gal) (34,500
= min time, Detention
Cancel terms and multiply the numbers above the line.
1,250,000
min 49,680,000
= min time, Detention
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
min 40 or 39.744 = min time, Detention

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest minute.
1. A flocculation basin at a water treatment plant has a volume of 45,000 gallons. Water flows
through the basin at a rate of 1,620,000 gallons per day. Determine the detention time for the
basin in minutes.
2. The flocculation basin at a water treatment plant has a volume of 22,000 gallons. Water is
treated at a rate of 990,000 gallons per day. What is the detention time in minutes for the
basin?
3. Determine the detention time in minutes for a flash mix with a volume of 12,000 gallons if
water is treated at a rate of 411,429 gal/day.
4. Calculate the detention time in minutes for a flash mix with a volume of 25,000 gallons when
water is treated at a rate of 730,769 gal/day.
5. A flocculation basin at a water treatment plant is 50 feet long, 14 feet wide, and 15 feet deep.
Water flows through the basin at a rate of 3,648,310 gallons per day. Determine the detention
time for the basin in minutes.

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52 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


6. The flocculation basins at a water treatment plant is 60 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 16 feet
deep. Water is treated at a rate of 4,308,480 gallons per day. What is the detention time in
minutes for the basin?
7. Determine the detention time in minutes for a flocculation basin which is 35 feet long, 13 feet
wide, and 12 feet deep if water is treated at a rate of 1,547,651 gal/day.
8. Calculate the detention time in minutes for a flocculation basin which is 58 feet long, 14 feet
wide, and 12.5 feet deep when water is treated at a rate of 3,416,490 gal/day.
9. A water treatment plant has two flocculation basins, each of which is 45 feet long, 15 feet
wide, and 14 feet deep. Water is treated at a rate of 4,154,606 gal/day. Determine the
detention time in minutes for the flocculation basins.
10. There are four flocculation basins at a water treatment plant. Each basin is 30 feet long, 13
feet wide and 12 feet deep. The basins are operated in parallel. Water is treated at a rate of
1,292,544 gal/day. Calculate the detention time in minutes for the basins.
11. A water treatment plant has two flocculation basins, each of which is 25 feet long, 12 feet
wide, and 11 feet deep. Water is treated at a rate of 2,293,223 gal/day. Determine the
detention time in minutes for the flocculation basins.
12. There are four flocculation basins at a water treatment plant. Each basin is 12 feet long, 12
feet wide and 9 feet deep. The basins are operated in parallel. Water is treated at a rate of
1,692,058 gal/day. Calculate the detention time in minutes for the basins.


Answers
1. 40 mins 5. 31 mins 9. 49 mins
2. 32 mins 6. 36 mins 10. 39 mins
3. 42 mins 7. 38 mins 11. 31 mins
4. 49 mins 8. 32 mins 12. 33 mins

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 53


Liquid Feeder Setting, mL/mn
Sample Problem: Raw water was treated at a rate of 3.0 MGD. Liquid alum was used in the
coagulation process. An alum dose of 12 mg/l was used to treat the water. The alum
concentration in the liquid alum was 667 mg/ml. Calculate the liquid alum feed rate in ml/min.
Write down the formula.
million) (1 min/hr) (60 hr/day) (24 mg/ml) conc, (chem
) (1,000,000 l/gal) (3.785 MGD) (flow, mg/l) dose, (chem.
= ml/min Setting, Feeder Liquid
Make a table of data.
chemical dose, mg/l = 12 mg/l
flow, MGD = 3.0 MGD
chemical concentration, mg/ml = 667 mg/ml
Plug the data into the formula.
million) (1 min/hr) (60 hr/day) (24 mg/ml) (667
) (1,000,000 l/gal) (3.785 MGD) (3.0 mg/l) (12
= ml/min Setting, Feeder Liquid
Cancel terms and multiply the numbers above the line.
(1) min) (60 (24) (667)
ml 0 136,260,00
= ml/min Setting, Feeder Liquid
Multiply the numbers above the line.
min 960,480
ml 0 136,260,00
= ml/min Setting, Feeder Liquid
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
ml/min 142 or 7 141.866566 = ml/min Setting, Feeder Liquid

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest milliliter per minute (ml/min).
1. An operator uses 50% liquid caustic to adjust the pH of the filtered water. The caustic soda
dose required is 8 mg/l. The 50% liquid caustic has a concentration of 768 mg/ml. Water is
treated at a rate of 1,650 gal/min. Determine the required feed rate in milliliter per minute
(ml/min).
2. A 50% liquid ferric sulfate solution is used to provide a dose of 5 mg/l in the raw water.
Raw water is treated at a rate of 2,800 gal/min. The 50% liquid ferric sulfate has a concentration
of 739 mg/ml. Calculate the required chemical feed rate in milliliters per minute (ml/min).
3. Alum is fed at a dose of 20 mg/l while treating raw water at a rate of 4,500 gal/min. Liquid
alum (50%) is used in the coagulation/flocculation process. The liquid alum has a
concentration of 673 mg/ml. What is the required feed rate in milliliters per minute (ml/min)?
4. An operator uses 25% liquid caustic soda in treating the water. The 25% liquid caustic has a
concentration of 320 mg/ml. The caustic soda dose is 6 mg/l. What would the required feed
rate be in ml/min if raw water is treated at a rate of 900 gal/min?

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
54 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


5. An operator uses a saturated sodium fluoride solution to fluoridate water. Water is treated at a
rate of 750m gal/min. What would the required feed rate be in milliliters per minute (ml/min)
if the fluoride dose is 1.0 mg/l? A saturated sodium fluoride solution has a fluoride
concentration of 18 mg/ml.
6. A 50% caustic soda solution has a concentration of 768 mg/ml. Caustic soda is fed at a dose of
10 mg/l while treating water at a rate of 2,500 gal/min. Determine the required feed rate in
milliliters per minute (ml/min).
7. Ferric sulfate is fed at a dose of 11 mg/l while treating water at a rate of 2,100 gallons per
minute. A 50% ferric sulfate solution with a concentration of 739 mg/ml is used to treat the
water. Calculate the feed rate (ml/min) required to provide the desired dose.
8. What would the required feed rate in ml/min be for a 25% caustic soda solution (concentration
= 320 mg/ml) if water is treated at a rate of 1,300 gal/min and the caustic soda dose is 12
mg/l?
9. Liquid alum is used in the coagulation/flocculation process at a water treatment plant. The
liquid alum (50%) has a concentration of 673 mg/ml. An alum dose of 25 mg/l is used to treat
raw water. Raw water is treated at a rate of 1,500 gal/min. Calculate the required liquid alum
feed rate in milliliters per minute (ml/min).
10. Sodium fluoride is used to fluoridate the filtered water at a treatment plant. A saturated
sodium fluoride solution has a fluoride concentration of 18 mg/ml. Water is treated at a rate of
200 gal/min. Determine the required feed rate in ml/min if the fluoride dose is to be 0.9 mg/l.
11. A saturated sodium fluoride solution will be used to fluoridate water at a dose of 1.1 mg/l.
The saturated sodium fluoride solution has a concentration of 18 mg/l. Water is treated at a
rate of 175 gal/min. What is the required feed rate in milliliters per minute (ml/min)?
12. A 50% ferric sulfate solution is used in the coagulation/flocculation process at a water
treatment plant. Each milliliter of the 50% ferric sulfate solution contains 739 mg of ferric
sulfate. Raw water is treated at a rate of 7000 gallons per minute. The ferric sulfate dose is 8
mg/l. Determine the required feed rate in milliliters per minute (ml/min).

Answers to Practice Problems
1. 65 ml/min 4. 64 ml/min 7. 118 ml/min 10. 38 ml/min
2. 72 ml/min 5. 158 ml/min 8. 185 ml/min 11. 40 ml/min
3. 506 ml/min 6. 123 ml/min 9. 211 ml/min 12. 287 ml/min




The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 55


Lime Dosage, mg/L
Sample Problem: According to the jar test on alum dose of 20 mg/L is required to treat the raw
water,. What is the required lime dose in milligrams per liter (mg/L)?

Write down the formula.
alum mg/l 1
mg/l) (alum, Lime) mg/l (0.37
= mg/l Dosage, Liquid
Make a table of data.
alum dose, mg/l = 20 mg/l
Plug the data into the formula.
alum mg/l 1
mg/l) (20 Lime) mg/l (0.37
= mg/l Dosage, Liquid
Cancel terms and multiply the numbers above the line.
1
mg/l 7.4
= mg/l Dosage, Liquid
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
mg/l 7.4 = mg/l Dosage, Liquid

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest tenth of a milligram per liter (mg/L).
1. What would the required lime dose in milligrams per liter be if the alum dose is 15 mg/L?
2. An operator wants to feed an amount of lime sufficient to provide the alkalinity needed in
order for alum to work correctly. The alum dose is 12 mg/L. What is the required lime dose
mg/L?
3. Determine the required lime dose in milligrams per liter (mg/L) if the alum dose is 30 mg/L.
4. Calculate the lime dose needed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) if the alum dose is 22 mg/L.
5. The alum dose is 10 mg/L. What is the required lime dosage in milligrams per liter (mg/L)?
6. What lime dose in milligrams per liter (mg/L) would be needed to provide the alkalinity
needed by alum if the alum dose is to be 35 mg/L?
7. If the alum dose is 8 mg/L, what should the lime dose be in milligrams per liter (mg/L)?
8. Calculate the lime dose in milligrams per liter needed if the alum dose is 14 milligrams per
liter (mg/L).
9. Determine the lime dosage in milligrams per liter (mg/L) if the alum dose is to be 25 mg/L.
10. An operator wants to use hydrated lime to provide the alkalinity required for alum to work
properly. The alum dose is to be 18 milligrams per liter (mg/L). What should the lime dose
in milligrams per liter be?
11. Calculate lime dose in milligrams per liter (mg/L) needed to provide the alkalinity required
by an alum dose of 5 mg/L.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
56 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


12. Determine the required lime dose in milligrams per liter (mg/L) if the alum dose is to be 27
mg/L.
Answers
1. 5.6 mg/L 4. 8.1 mg/L 7. 3.0 mg/L 10. 6.7 mg/L
2. 4.4 mg/L 5. 3.7 mg/L 8. 5.2 mg/L 11. 1.9 mg/L
3. 11.1 mg/L 6. 13.0 mg/L 9. 9.3 mg/L 12. 10.0 mg/L







The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 57


Sedimentation
Purpose to remove settleable solids such as grit, sand, and chemical precipitates
in order to decrease the solids loading on filters and other processes.
The decreased loading can result in:
(1) longer filter runs;
(2) reduced filter maintenance.

Variations of the Sedimentation Process
Plain Sedimentation Reduces heavy sediment loads without the addition of chemicals.
Prevents sediments from:
(1) damaging pumps;
(2) creating maintenance problems in the processes which follow.
Occurs in lakes, reservoirs, or presedimentation basins
Sedimentation following chemical addition
Removes solids which have become larger, heavier and more settleable
due to chemical treatment or conditioning.
Tube settlers (Shallow-depth Sedimentation) Uses inclined tubes in a conventional basin.
Solids-Contact Process Combines coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation processes into a
single treatment unit.
The flow of water is vertical in this unit.
Types of Sedimentation Basins
Rectangular Flow is in one direction, parallel to the basin length (rectilinear flow).
Circular Basin Center Feed-Water flows radially from the basins center to the outside
(periphery).
Flow pattern is called radial flow.
Circular Basin Peripheral Feed-Flow is from the outside edge (periphery) to the center
of the basin.
Flow pattern is called peripheral flow.
Square Basin
Center Feed Flow is from the center to the outside edge.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
58 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Sedimentation Basin Zones
Inlet Zone decreases the water velocity and distributes the flow evenly across the
basin.
Settling Zone provides a calm (quiescent) area so that the suspended materials can
settle out
Outlet Zone provides a smooth transition from the settling zone to the effluent flow
area
Sludge Zone receives the settled solids and keeps them separate from the solids in
the settling zone
The settling zone is directly affected by the other three zones, which
can result in less efficient settling.

Sedimentation Basin Appurtenances
Baffle reduces influent velocities, producing calm, non-turbulent flow
conditions in the settling zone.
Effluent Launder collects settled water from the basin and channels it to the effluent
piping, which carries the water to the next treatment process.
Overflow Weir Steel or fiberglass plate designed to distribute the basin overlfow to all
points of the launder.
Sludge Removal Equipment (1) Chain and flight collector
(2) Travelling bridge collector
(3) Floating-bridge siphon collector
Solids-Contact Basins
Also called an upflow clarifier or sludge-blanket clarifier.
Used in lime-soda ash softening, turbidity removal or color removal processes.
All designs are divided by baffles into two distinct zones, a mixing zone and a settling zone.
Coagulation/flocculation take place in the mixing zone.

Sedimentation Basin Operations

Primary Function To produce settled water with the lowest possible turbidity.
Can also reduce the concentration of organics which cause color or form
trihalomethanes.
Performance depends on the:
coagulant dose;
flow rate through the basin; and,
the settling characteristics of the suspended particles.

Efficiency depends on the flow rate through the basin

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 59


Surface Overflow Rate
Defined as the flow rate divided by the basins surface area.
Units are gallons per day per square foot (gal/day/ft
2
)
The optimum surface overflow rate depends on the settling velocity of the floc.
Also referred to as the surface loading rate.

Weir Overflow Rate
Defined as the flow rate divided by the weir length.
Units are gallons per day per foot of weir length (gal/day/ft)
The higher the weir overflow rate, the more influence it has on the settling zone.

Detention Time
Defined as:
the theoretical amount of time it takes for water to flow through a basin;
the amount of time water remains in a basin;
the amount of time it takes to fill a basin at a given flow rate;
the amount of time it takes to drain a basin at a given flow rate.
Units are hours.
Detention Times for Various Basins
Iron Removal 3 hours
Conventional Turbidity Removal 4 hours
Tube Settlers 1 hour

Tube Settler Operations
Due to high loading rates, the flow must have good settling characteristics.
May require coagulant and addition or modification of the flocculation process.
Sludge removal required more frequently than in conventional basins.

Solids Contact Basin Operations
Detention time is short, 1 to 2 hours.
Must have proper coagulation/flocculation and control of solids concentration in sludge blanket.
Coagulant aids and weighting agents may be required.

Sedimentation Basin Maintenance
Conventional Basins 1. Drain and inspect at least once per year.
2. Manually cleaned basins should be drained more frequently to wash
sludge deposits into the disposal system.
Solids Contact Basins Should be drained and inspected annually.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
60 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Alum Sludge Gelatinous, viscous, contains only 0.1 % to 2 % solids.
Difficult to dewater because water is chemically bound to floc.
Volume can be reduced through use of coagulant aids.
Operating Problems
Most Common (1) Poorly formed floc.
(2) Short-circuiting.
Poorly formed floc Poorly formed floc results from poor coagulation/flocculation
inadequate flash mixing
improper coagulant or coagulant doses
improper flocculation
Possible solutions Increase mixing energy
Solutions Use a coagulant aid
Install baffles in the sedimentation basins
Short-circuiting (1) Poor inlet baffling (major cause)
(2) Density currents caused by high solids concentrations or cold water
(3) Wind
Short-circuiting can be identified using tracer studies, such as:
(1) dye tracing; or,
(2) tracking the fluoride concentration at various points versus time.
Algae and slime growth
(1) causes tastes and odors
(2) clogs weirs and filters
(3) creates slick, hazardous surfaces

Control Tests Effluent Turbidity

Safety (1) Equip basins with guardrails
(2) Life jackets and poles
(3) Equipment guards

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 61


Detention Time, Hours
Sample Problem: A sedimentation basin has a volume of 145,000 gallons. Water flows through
the basin at a rate of 870,000 gallons per day. What is the detention time in hours for the basin?

Write down the formula.
gal/day flow,
hr/day) (24 gal) (volume,
= hr time, Detention
Make a table of data.
volume, gal = 145,000 gal
flow, gal/day = 870,000 gal/day
Plug the data into the formula.
gal/day 870,000
hr/day) (24 gal) (145,000
= hr time, Detention
Cancel terms and multiply the numbers above the line.
870,000
hr 3,480,000
= hr time, Detention
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
hr 4.0 = hr time, Detention
.

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest tenth of an hour.
1. A sedimentation basin has a volume of 75,000 gallons. Water flows through the basin at a rate
of 600,000 gallons per day. What is the detention time in hours for the basin?
2. Water flows through a sedimentation basin at a rate of 300,000 gallons per day. The basin has
a volume of 50,000 gallons. Calculate the detention time in hours for the basin.
3. Determine the detention time in hours for a sedimentation basin which has a volume of
150,000 gallons if water is flowing through the basin at a rate of 800,000 gallons per day.
4. What would the detention time in hours be for a 225,000-gallon sedimentation basin if water is
flowing through the basin at a rate of 1,038,462 gal/day?
5. A sedimentation basin is 100 feet long, 25 feet wide, and 11 feet deep. Water is flowing
through the basin at a rate of 783,619 gal/day. What is the detention time in hours for the
basin?
6. Water flows through a sedimentation basin at a rate of 1,077,120 gal/day. The basin is 80 feet
long, 30 feet wide, and 12 feet deep. Calculate the detention time in hours for the basin.
7. A sedimentation basin is 75 feet long, 35 feet wide, and 15 feet deep. Water flows through the
basin at a rate of 2,079,000 gal/day. Determine the detention time in hours for the basin.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
62 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


8. Water flows through a sedimenation basin which is 90 feet long, 28 feet wide, and 13 feet
deep at a rate of 1,050,192 gal/day. What is the detention time in hours for the basin?
9. A water treatment plant has two sedimentation basins, each of which is 100 feet long, 25 feet
wide and 12 feet deep. Water is treated at a rate of 1,825,627 gallons per day. What is the
detention time in hours for the basin?
10. There are two sedimentation basins at a water treatment plant. Each basin is 110 feet in
length, 30 feet in width, and 15 feet deep. Water is treated at a rate of 4,039,200 gallons per
day. Calculate the detention time in hours for the sedimenation basins.
11. Each of the sedimentation basins at a water treatment plant is 120 feet long, 30 feet wide, and
14 feet deep. There are four sedimentation basins at the treatment plant. Water is treated at a
rate of 10,053,120 gallons per day. Determine the detention time in hours for the basins.
12. There are four sedimentation basins at a water treatment plant. Each of the sedimentation
basins is 60 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 12 feet deep. One of the basins has been taken out of
service for maintenance. Water is treated at a rate of 2,769,737 gal/day. Calculate the
detention time in hours for the remaining basins.
Answers
1. 3.0 hrs 4. 5.2 hrs 7. 3.4 hrs 10. 4.4 hrs
2. 4.0 hrs 5. 6.3 hrs 8. 5.6 hrs 11. 3.6 hrs
3. 4.5 hrs 6. 4.8 hrs 9. 5.9 hrs 12. 4.2 hrs




The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 63


Surface Loading Rate, gal/day/ft
2

Sample Problem: A sedimentation basin has a surface area of 2,250 square feet. Water flows
through the basin at a rate of 1,250,000 gallons per day. What is the surface loading rate in
gallons per day per square foot for the basin?

Write down the formula.
2
ft area,
ga/day flow,
=
2
gal/day/ft Rate, Loading Surface
Make a table of data.
flow, gal/day = 1,250,000 gal/day
area, ft
2
= 2,250 ft
2

Plug the data into the formula.
2
ft 2,250,
ga/day 1,250,00
=
2
gal/day/ft Rate, Loading Surface
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
2
gal/dayft 556 or 6 555.555555 =
2
gal/day/ft Rate, Loading Surface

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest gal/day/ft2.
1. A sedimentation basin has a surface area of 1,100 square feet. Water flows through the basin
at a rate of 599,500 gallons per day. What is the surface loading rate for the basin in gallons
per day per square foot?
2. Determine the surface loading rate in gallons per day per square foot for a sedimentation basin
with a surface area of 1,250 square feet if water flows through the basin at a rate of 637,500
gal/day.
3. The flow through a sedimentation basin is 556,000 gallons per day. The basin has a surface
area of 1,160 square feet. Calculate the surface loading rate in gallons per day per square foot
for the basin.
4. Calculate the surface loading rate in gallons per day per square foot for a sedimentation basin
with a surface area of 1,500 square feet if the flow through the basin is 540,000 gallons per
day.
5. A sedimentation basin at a water plant is 100 feet long, 25 feet wide, and 12 feet deep. Water
flows through the basin at a rate of 1,025,000 gallons per day. Calculate the surface loading
rate in gallons per day per square foot of surface area.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
64 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


6. Water flows through a sedimentation basin at a water plant at a rate of 945,000 gallons per
day. The sedimentation basin is 60 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 11 feet deep. What is the
surface loading rate for the basin in gallons per day per square foot?
7. Determine the surface loading rate for a sedimentation basin which is 49 feet long, 29 feet
wide, and 10 feet deep if water flows through the basin at a rate of 751,709 gallons per day.
8. Calculate the surface loading rate for a sedimentation basin which is 50 feet long, 20 feet
wide, and 13 feet deep if water flows through the basin at a rate of 487,000 gallons per day.
9. A water treatment plant has two sedimentation basins, each of which is 110 feet in length, 30
feet in width, and 14 feet deep. Water is treated at a rate of 2,970,000 gallons per day. What is
the surface loading rate for the basin in gallons per day per square foot of surface area?
10. The sedimentation basins at a water treatment plant are 100 feet long, 28 feet wide, and 14
feet deep. There are two sedimentation basins. Water is treated at a rate of 2,665,600 gallons
per day. Determine the surface loading rate in gallons per day per square foot for the basins.
11. A water treatment plant has two sedimentation basins. Determine the surface loading rate for
the sedimentation basin if each is 105 feet long, 29 feet wide, and 13 feet deep if water is
treated at a rate of 3,111,990 gallons per day.
12. Calculate the surface loading rate for a pair of sedimentation basin, each of which is 95 feet
long, 25 feet wide, and 10 feet deep if water flows through the basins at a rate of 1,781,250
gallons per day.
13. A water treatment plant has two sedimentation basins, each of which is 80 feet in length, 30
feet in width, and 14 feet deep. Water is treated at a rate of 2,126,400 gallons per day. What is
the surface loading rate for the basin in gallons per day per square foot of surface area?
14. The sedimentation basins at a water treatment plant are 85 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 11 feet
deep. There are four sedimentation basins. Water is treated at a rate of 5,324,400 gallons per
day. Determine the surface loading rate in gallons per day per square foot for the basins.
15. A water treatment plant has four sedimentation basins. The basins are 120 feet long, 35 feet
wide, and 12 feet deep. One of the basins has been taken out of service for maintenance.
Calculate the surface loading rate in gallons per day per square foot if water is treated at a rate
of 5,191,200 gallons per day.
Answers
1. 545 gal/day/sqft 6. 525 gal/day/sqft 11. 511 gal/day/sqft
2. 510 gal/day/sqft 7. 529 gal/day/sqft 12. 375 gal/day/sqft
3. 479 gal/day/sqft 8. 487 gal/day/sqft 13. 443 gal/day/sqft
4. 360 gal/day/sqft 9. 450 gal/day/sqft 14. 522 gal/day/sqft
5. 410 gal/day/sqft 10. 476 gal/day/sqft 15. 412 gal/day/sqft



The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 65


Weir Overflow Rate, gal/day/ft
Sample Problem: A sedimentation basin has a weir which is 93 feet long. Water flows through
the basin at a rate of 1,750,000 gallons per day. What is the weir overflow rate in gallons per day
per foot of weir for the basin?

Write down the formula.
ft weir, of length
ga/day flow,
= gal/day/ft Rate, Overflow Weir
Make a table of data.
flow, gal/day = 1,750,000 gal/day
length of weir, ft = 93 ft
Plug the data into the formula.
ft 93
ga/day 1,750,000
= gal/day/ft Rate, Overflow Weir
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
gal/day/ft 18,817 or 3 18,817.204 = gal/day/ft Rate, Overflow Weir

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest gal/day/ft.
1. The effluent weir on a sedimentation basin is 90 feet long. Water flows through the basin at a
rate of 1,350,000 gallons per day. What is the weir overflow rate in gallons per day per foot of
weir for the basin?
2. Calculate the weir overflow rate in gallons per day per foot of weir if the effluent weir is 50
feet long and water flows throught the basin at a rate of 662,500 gallons per day.
3. Determine the weir overflow rate in gallons per day per foot of weir for a sedimentation basin
if the effluent weir is 75 feet long, and water flows through the basin at a rate of 914,625
gallons per day.
4. What would the weir overflow rate in galllons per day per foot of weir be for a sedimentation
basin with an effluent weir which is 60 feet long if water flows through the basin at a rate of
796,620 gallons per day?
5. The effluent weir on a sedimentation basin is 100 feet in length. Water flows through the basin
at a rate of 2,079,300 gallons per day. What is the weir overflow rate in gallons per day per
foot of weir?
6. A water treatment plant has two sedimentation basins. Each basin has an effluent weir which
is 90 feet long. Water is treated at a rate of 3,104,460 gallons per day. Calculate the weir
overflow rate for the basins in gallons per day per foot of weir.
7. There are two sedimentation basins at a water treatment plant. The effluent weir in each basin
is 85 feet in length. Water is treated at a rate of 2,803,810 gallons per day. Determine the weir
overflow rate in gallons per day per foot of weir.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
66 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


8. The effluent weirs in the sedimentation basins at a water treatment plant are 110 feet long.
There are two sedimentation basins. Water flows through the plant at a rate of 3,984,200
gallons per day. What is the weir overflow rate in gallons per day per foot of weir?
9. The effluent weirs on the sedimentation basins at a water treatment plant are 60 feet in length.
There are two sedimentation basins. Water flows through the plant at a rate of 2,357,040
gallons per day. What is the weir overflow rate in gallons per day per foot of weir?
10. A water treatment plant has two sedimentation basins. Each basin has an effluent weir which
is 75 feet long. Water is treated at a rate of 3,247,500 gallons per day. Calculate the weir
overflow rate for the basins in gallons per day per foot of weir.
11. There are two sedimentation basins at a water treatment plant. The effluent weir in each basin
is 83 feet in length. Water is treated at a rate of 2,483,858 gallons per day. Determine the weir
overflow rate in gallons per day per foot of weir.
12. The effluent weirs in the sedimentation basins at a water treatment plant are 45 feet long.
There are two sedimentation basins. Water flows through the plant at a rate of 1,823,310
gallons per day. What is the weir overflow rate in gallons per day per foot of weir?
Answers
1. 15,000 gal/day/ft 7. 16,493 gal/day/ft
2. 13,250 gal/day/ft 8. 18,110 gal/day/ft
3. 12,195 gal/day/ft 9. 19,642 gal/day/ft
4. 13,277 gal/day/ft 10. 21,650 gal/day/ft
5. 20,793 gal/day/ft 11. 14,963 gal/day/ft
6. 17,247 gal/day/ft 12. 20,259 gal/day/ft














The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 67


Filtration Fact Sheet
Purpose to remove suspended material from water

Suspended Materials (1) Floc carryover from sedimentation basin
(2) Precipitates from the softening process, primarily calcium
carbonate
(3) Iron and manganese

Turbidity The cloudy appearance of water caused by suspended materials.

Problems Caused by Turbidity
Interference with disinfection - shields microorganisms from disinfectant.
React with chlorine, leaving less for disinfection
Forms deposits in water mains which can create tastes and odors and bacterial regrowth.

MCL For systems using conventional or direct filtration must be less than
or equal to 0.5 NTU in at least 95% of samples taken each month.
At no time to exceed 5 NTU

Mechanisms of Suspended Solids Removal
Adsorption [Most Important]
Straining [Least Important]

Driving Force Head

Efficiency of process depends on: (1) raw water quality
(2) effectiveness of treatment processes preceding filtration
(3) filter operations.
Types of Filters Gravity Filters Pressure Filters
(1) Slow Sand Filters (1) Sand or Multi-Media
(2) Rapid Sand (2) Diatomaceous Earth
(3) High Rate
(a) Dual Media
(b) Multi-Media

Gravity Filters - water moves through the filter because of gravity

Pressure Filters - water is pumped through the filter

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
68 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Rapid Sand Filter Components
Filter Bay Backwash Troughs Filter Media Surface Wash
Support Gravel Control Equipment Underdrain

Filter Media
Single Media Filters - Sand (total of at least 30 inches)
Dual Media - Sand and Anthracite (total of at least 30 inches)
Multi-Media (Triple Media) - Silica Sand, Garnet Sand and Anthracite (total of at least
30 inches)

Support Gravel
Functions (1) Keeps media out of underdrain
(2) Even distribution of backwash water

Underdrains
Pipe-lateral Leopold Bottom
Wheeler Bottom Porous Plates
Strainer Nozzles
Functions (1) even distribution of backwash water
(2) even collection of filtered water

Backwash Troughs
Must be placed to (1) prevent media loss
(2) allow for water to flow evenly out of filter during backwash

Surface Wash
(1) Provides additional cleaning [also called auxiliary scours or filter agitation]
(2) Required to provide extra agitation for cleaning filter media because normal backwash
rates are insufficient to clean filters.

Filter Controls
Rate-of-flow Controller - provides reasonably constant filtration rate

Loss-of-head Indicator - indicates the amount of head-loss due to buildup of suspended matter in
water. Used to determine when a filter is to be backwashed.

On-line Turbidimeters - continuously records turbidity in filter effluent

Pressure Filters
Air binding - not a problem since water is under pressure.
Major Disadvantage - filter cannot be observed.


Direct Filtration
Filtration without sedimentation

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 69


Filter Operations

3 Steps Filtration Backwash Filtering-to-Waste [Rewash]

Backwashing essential to filter operation
Determining when to backwash, consider (1) headloss
(2) turbidity breakthrough
(3) duration of run

Filtering to Waste do until turbidity returns to acceptable level

Filter Aids
Polymers used to: (1) strengthen bonds between floc particles
(2) improves adhesion to media by coating them

This results in: (1) the floc holding together better
(2) the flow adhering to the media more strongly
(3) increased resistance to shear forces exerted by water as it flows
through the filter
Added just ahead of filters
Too much results in rapid headloss

Major Operational Problems
Chemical Treatment Prior to Filtration

Short filter runs because of turbidity breakthrough (1) more coagulation; or
(2) better flash mixing
(3) less filter aid

Short filter due to rapid build-up of head loss (1) less coagulant
(2) less filter aid

Sand Boils Violent, upswelling boils which indicate that the supporting gravel in a
filter has been displaced.
Some gravel movement always occurs so filters should be probed at least once per year to locate
the gravel bed.


Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
70 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Most problems are caused by ineffective backwashing. These problems include:
(1) Mud ball formation
(2) Filter bed shrinkage
(3) Gravel displacement
(4) Sand boils

Other Operational Problems

(A) Air Binding - caused by: (1) operating filter under negative head
(2) cold water, supersaturated with air, warming up in
the filter bed

(B) Media Loss

Flow Rate
Fluctuations in filtration rates caused by: (1) increase in total plant flow
(2) malfunctioning rate-of-flow controller
(3) flow increase when a filter is taken out of
service for backwash
(4) operator error

Allowable Rates
Type of Filter Allowable Rate, gal/min/ft
2

Rapid Sand 2 gal/min/ft2
Iron Removal 3 gal/min/ft2
High Rate 4 gal/min/ft2

Backwashing the Filter
Poor backwashing can cause (1) Mudballs
(2) Filter bed shrinkage
(3) Gravel displacement
(4) Air binding
(5) Media loss
Backwash must agitate the media grains violently, causing the grains to rub together to
dislodge sticky coating.
Proper backwashing essential for the production of high quality water.
Filters must be cleaned for efficient operation.
Backwashing reduces maintenance requirements.
Treated water is always used for backwashing so that the filter bed will not be
contaminated.
If the filter is not backwashed soon enough the voids between the media grains will
become filled with sticky solids, preventing water from flowing through the filter. This is
called terminal head loss.
When a filter bed goes dry, it should be filled using the backwash valve.

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During backwash, the mass of media particles is made to flow like a liquid by the
backwash water. It is said that the bed has become fluidized.

Operational Control Tests
Effluent Turbidity (NTU) Minimum of one sample per four hour period while plant is in
operation.

Pressure Filters
Media should be inspected annually.

Air binding does not occur in pressure filters since they remain under pressure constantly
during operation.

Major disadvantage - the filter cannot be observed during operation.

According to Design Criteria pressure filters should only be used in groundwater plants
for turbidity or iron and manganese removal.


Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
72 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Filtration Rate, gal/min/ft
2
Sample Problem: A hook gauge test was performed on a filter. During the test, the water level
was allowed to drop six inches a total of three times. The time required for the water to drop six
inches was 67 seconds, 69 seconds, and 66 seconds, respectively. The filter bay is 12 feet long
and 8 feet wide. The filter bed is 12 feet long and 8 feet wide. What is the filtration rate in
gallons per minute per square foot?

Step One: Determine the sand area in square feet.
Write down the formula.
Sand Area, ft
2
= (sand bed length, ft)(sand bed width, ft)
Make a table of data.
sand bed length, ft = 12 ft
sand bed width, ft = 8 ft
Plug the data into the formula.
Sand Area, ft
2
= (12 ft)(8 ft)
Do the arithmetic.
Sand Area, ft
2
= 96 ft
2


Step Two: Determine the volume of water in ft
3
passing through the filter during each test.
Write down the formula.
Volume, ft
3
= (filter bay length, ft)(filter bay width, ft)(water drop, ft)
Make a table of data.
filter bay length, ft = 12 ft
filter bay width, ft = 8 ft
water drop, ft = 6in/12inches per foot = 0.5 ft
Plug the data into the formula.
Volume, ft
3
= (12 ft)(8 ft)(0.5 ft)
Do the arithmetic.
Volume, ft
3
= 48 ft
3




The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 73


Step Three: Determine the volume of water in gallons passing through the filter during each
test.
Write down the formula.
Volume, gallons = (volume, ft
3
) (7.48 gal/ft
3
)
Make a table of data.
Volume, ft
3
= 48 ft
3

Plug the data into the formula.
Volume, gallons = (48 ft
3
) (7.48 gal/ft
3
)
Do the arithmetic.
Volume, gallons = 359.04 gal


Step Four: Determine the average time in seconds for the water to drop during the test.
Write down the formula.
n
sec ,
n
Test + ... sec ,
2
Test + sec ,
1
Test
= sec Time, Average
Make a table of data.
Test
1
= 67 sec
Test
2
= 69 sec
Test
3
= 66 sec
n = 3
Plug the data into the formula.
3
sec 66 + sec 69 + sec 67
= sec Time, Average
Plug the data into the formula.
3
sec 202
= sec Time, Average
Do the arithmetic.
sec 33 67.3333333 = sec Time, Average

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
74 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Step Five: Determine the average time in minutes for the water to drop during the test.
Write down the formula.
sec/min 60
sec time, average
= min time, Average
Make a table of data.
sec 3 67.3333333 = sec Time, Average
Plug the data into the formula.
sec/min 60
sec 3 67.3333333
= min time, Average
Do the arithmetic.
min 2 1.12222222 = min time, Average

Step Six: Determine the flow rate in gallons per minute during the test.
Write down the formula.
min time, average
gal volume,
= gal/min Rate, Filter
Make a table of data.
volume, gal = 359.04 gal
average time, min = 1.122222222 min
Plug the data into the formula.
min 2 1.12222222
gal 359.04
= gal/min Rate, Filter
Do the arithmetic.
gal/min 7 319.936633 = gal/min Rate, Filter
Step Seven: Determine the filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot..
Write down the formula.
2
ft area, sand
gal/min rate, filter
=
2
gal/min/ft Rate, Filter
Make a table of data.
filter rate, gal/min = 319.9366337 gal/min
area, ft
2
= 96ft
2

Plug the data into the formula.
2
ft 96
gal/min 7 319.936633
=
2
gal/min/ft Rate, Filter
Do the arithmetic.
2
gal/min/ft 3.3 or 7 3.33267326 =
2
gal/min/ft Rate, Filter

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 75


Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest tenth of a gallon per minute per square foot of filter (one
decimal place).
1. An operator performed a hook gage test on a filter during which the water level over the filter
was allowed to drop six inches. The water was allowed to drop three times. The following
data was gathered.
Time for Test 1 = 76 seconds
Time for Test 2 = 80 seconds
Time for Test 3 = 78 seconds
The filter bay is 8 feet wide and 12 feet long. The filter bed is 8 feet wide and 12 feet long.
Calculate the filter rate in gallons per minute per square foot of filter.

2. During a hook gage test on a filter, the following data was collected.
Time for Test 1 = 90 seconds
Time for Test 2 = 89 seconds
Time for Test 3 = 91 seconds
The filters sand bed is 15 feed long and 12 feed wide. The filter bay is 18 feet long and 12 feet
wide. What is the filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot?

3. There are 8 filters at a water treatment plant. Each filter has a bay which is 20 feet long and 15
feet wide. Each filter's sand bed is 17 feet long and 15 feet wide. A hook gage test was
performed three times on one of the filters. During each run, the water over the filter was
allowed to drop six inches. Determine the filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot
given the following times.
Test 1 = 100 seconds
Test 2 = 105 seconds
Test 3 = 101 seconds

4. During a hook gage test, the water level over a filter was allowed to drop by six inches a total
of three times. The times required for the water to drop were 92 seconds, 94 seconds, and 98
seconds. The filter bed is 12 feet long and 10 feet wide. The filter bay is 14 feet long and 10
feet wide. What was the filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot of filter?

5. A hook gage test was run on a filter. The water level over the filter was allowed to drop six
inches. The times required for the water level to drop were recorded as follows.
Test 1 = 93 seconds
Test 2 = 91 seconds
Test 3 = 92 seconds

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
76 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


The filter bay and filter bed were 15 feet long and 12 feet wide. Determine the filtration rate in
gallons per minute per square foot.
6. These times were required for the water level over a filter to drop six inches during a hook
gage test.
Test 1 = 112 seconds
Test 2 = 110 seconds
Test 3 = 114 seconds
The filter bay is 21 feet long and 18 feet wide. The filter bed is 18 feet long and 18 feet wide.
Calculate the filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot.

7. An operator performed a hook gage test on filter, during which the water level over the filter
was allowed to drop 6 inches a total of three times. The filter bay was 11 feet long and 9 feet
wide. The filter bed was 9 feet long and 9 feet wide. The times required for the water level to
drop by six inches were 110 seconds, 115 seconds and 113 seconds. Determine the filtration
rate in gallons per minute per square foot of filter surface.

8. There are 27 filters at a water treatment plant. Each of the filters has a bay which is 25 feet
long and 18 feet wide. Each filter bed is 22 feet long and 18 feet wide. During a hook gage
test of one of the filters the water level over the filter was allowed to drop six inches a total of
three times. The times required for the water level to drop were 88 seconds, 92 seconds, and
93 seconds. What was the filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot?

9. A hook gage test was run on a filter and the following data was collected.
Time, Test 1 = 97 seconds
Time, Test 2 = 94 seconds
Time, Test 3 = 99 seconds
The filter bay was 15 feet long and 10 feet wide. The filter bed was 12 feet long and 10 feet
wide. Determine the filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot.

10. Use the following data gathered during a hook gage test to calculate the filtration rate in
gallons per minute per square foot for a filter.
Filter Bay: Length = 20 feet width = 18 feet
Filter Bed: Length = 18 feet width = 18 feet
Water Drop = 6 inches
Times: Test 1 = 106 seconds
Test 2 = 109 seconds
Test 3 = 110 seconds

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 77


11. A hook gauge test was performed on a filter. During the test the water level over the filter
was allowed to drop three times. Use the following data to determine the filtration rate in
gallons per minute per square foot for the filter.
Filter Bay Dimensions: Length = 18 feet width = 15 feet
Filter Bed Dimensions: Length = 15 feet width = 15 feet
Water Drop = 6 inches
Times: Test 1 = 86 seconds
Test 2 = 88 seconds
Test 3 = 84 seconds

12. The following data was gathered during a hook gage test on a filter.
Filter Bay Dimensions: Length = 14 feet width = 12 feet
Filter Bed Dimensions: Length = 11.5 feet width = 12 feet
Water Drop = 6 inches
Times: Test 1 = 94 seconds
Test 2 = 90 seconds
Test 3 = 96 seconds
What is the filtration rate in gal/min/ft
2
?

Answers
1. 2.9 gal/minft
2
5. 2.4 gal/min/ft
2
9. 2.9 gal/min/ft
2

2. 3.0 gal/min/ft
2
6. 2.3 gal/min/ft
2
10. 2.3 gal/min/ft
2

3. 2.6 gal/min/ft
2
7. 2.4 gal/min/ft
2
11. 3.1 gal/min/ft
2

4. 2.8 gal/min/ft
2
8. 2.8 gal/min/ft
2
12. 2.9 gal/min/ft
2



Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
78 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Filter Production Rates
1. A filter has an area of 200 square feet. The filter operates at a rate of 2 gal/min/ft2. Determine
the filter production rate in gallons per minute.

2. A filter has an area of 375 square feet. It operates at a rate of 2.8 gal/min/ft2. What is the filter
production rate in gallons per minute?

3. A filter bed is 12 feet wide and 20 feet long. It operates at a rate of 3.5 gal/min/ft2. Calculate
the filter production rate in gal/min.

4. A filter produces water at a rate of 800 gal/min. What is the filter production rate in gal/day?

5. A filter has an area of 400 square feet. It operates at a rate of 3 gal/min/ft2. What is the filter
production rate in gal/day?

6. A filter has a sand bed which is 15 feet wide and 32 feet long. It operates at a rate of 4
gal/min/ft2. What is the filter production rate in gal/day?

Answers

1. 400 gal/min 4. 1,152,000 gal/day
2. 1,050 gal/min 5. 1,728,000 gal/day
3. 840 gal/min 6. 2,764,800 gal/day




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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 79


Fluoridation
Purpose To provide and maintain a fluoride concentration in the finished water
sufficient to reduce the incidence of tooth decay (`1.0 mg/l).
Fluorides effectiveness depends on the amount of fluoride ion
consumed each day.
The amount of fluoride consumed depends on two factors:
(1) the fluoride concentration in the drinking water; and,
(2) the amount of water consumed.
Optimum fluoride levels must be maintained in the water in order to
achieve maximum benefits from fluoride.

Dental Fluorosis Mildest Form - mottling (light, opaque areas, whitish in color)
More Severe Form - teeth darken to shades of gray to black
Most Severe Form - pitting forms in teeth, increasing the likelihood of
decay.
Occasional overfeeding does not cause dental fluorosis.
Fluorosis results from excessive fluoride levels in drinking water
when the fluoride level is greater than approximately 5 mg/l.

Fluoride Chemicals
Sodium Fluoride (1) White, odorless solid (powder or crystalline);
(2) Solubility almost constant 4%, which makes it useful in fluoride
saturators.
Hydrofluosilicic Acid (1) clear, colorless, fuming, corrosive liquid;
(2) pungent odor;
(3) skin irritant;
(4) low pH, 1.0 to 1.5
Sodium Silicofluoride (1) white, odorless, crystalline or granular material;
(2) most inexpensive fluoride chemical.
(3) 60.7% available fluoride

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
80 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Fluoride Feeders - Dry Chemicals
Volumetric Feeders: (1) Simpler to operate;
(2) Cheaper to purchase and maintain;
(3) less accurate;
(4) lower capacity.
Gravimetric Feeders (1) extremely accurate;
(2) expensive;
(3) much higher capacity than volumetric feeders.
Fluoride Feeders - Liquid Chemicals
Acid Feeders Uses positive displacement pump (usually a diaphragm pump) and
either a day tank, or pump directly from shipping container.
Saturators (1) operation based on principle that sodium fluoride has a constant
solubility, 4%;
(2) Used primarily in small plants because of their reliability, ease of
operation and maintenance.
Auxiliary Equipment
Scales (1) Required to measure the amount of fluoride chemical fed;
(2) Scales are necessary for all feeders except saturators;
(3) Must be sized to accommodate and weigh the acid tank when full,
or the volumetric feeder and hopper when full.
Softeners Used to soften make-up water when the hardness in the make-up water
exceeds 75 mg/l as CaC0
3
.
Dissolving Tanks Used to dissolve dry chemicals before injection into the treated water.
Mixers Used to insure dissolving of sodium silicofluoride in order to prevent
feeding a slurry;
Required because:
(1) Sodium silicofluoride has a low solubility rate; and,
(2) Limited detention time in the dissolving tank.
Water Meters (1) Plant flow meters - readings used to calculate feed rates and doses.
(2) Measure solution make-up water to accurately determine fluoride
feed rates.

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 81


Day Tanks (1) Tank which holds about one days supply liquid of chemical;
(2) Required for larger plants that feed hydrofluosilicic acid from bulk
storage tanks.
Other Auxiliary Equipment Hoppers
Bag Loaders
Dust Collectors and Wet Scrubbers
Weight Recorders
Vacuum Breakers (Installed on make-up water lines)

Fluoride Injection Point
Should be located: (1) after filtration to avoid loss of fluoride;
(2) at a location where water flows at a fixed rate, if at all possible;
(3) as far as possible from feed points for chemicals which contain
calcium.
(4) best place is between filters and clearwell.

Common Operating Problems
Variable Fluoride Readings
Can result from:
(1) the dilution of water which has been fluoridated with unfluoridated
water in finished water storage tanks;
(2) dry feeders which are out of calibration.
Low Fluoride Readings
Can result from: (1) aluminum, which can interfere with the Alizarin-Visual test;
(2) underdosing caused by inadequate sodium fluoride depth in a
saturator;
(3) under dosing due to incomplete mixing in dissolving tanks;
(4) water which has been fluoridated mixing with water which has not
been fluoridated.
High Fluoride Readings
Can result from: (1) Polyphosphates can interfere with the SPADNS method, resulting
in high fluoride readings (1.0 mg/l polyphosphates increases fluoride
reading by 0.1 mg/l).
(2) Not accounting for natural fluoride in the water.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
82 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Safety
Overexposure to dry fluoride chemicals results from:
(1) ingestion;
(2) inhalation;
(3) bodily contact.
Contaminated food and drink are the most common ways fluoride is
ingested.
Inhalation of dust while filling the hopper on a dry feeder is the most
common type of chronic overexposure.
Chronic Toxic Exposure exposure to large doses of fluoride over an extended period of
time.
Acute Toxic Exposure toxic exposure to fluoride which results from a single massive dose.
To avoid bodily contact wear: (1) goggles;
(2) dust respirator or mask;
(3) rubber gloves with long gauntlets, rubber apron, rubber
boots.
(4) adequate ventilation
Cross-Connection Prevention
(1) Anti-siphon valve installed on the discharge side of a diaphragm
pump.
(2) A vacuum breaker should be installed on the make-up water line to
saturators and dissolving tanks.

Division of Water Supply Rules and Requirements
MCL Primary4.0 mg/l (Concentration where fluoride can affect health)
Secondary2.0 mg/l
Sampling No preservative is required for fluoride sample.
Concentration Should be between 0.9 mg/l and 1.3 mg/l, based on the monthly
average.

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 83


Sodium Fluoride - Feed Rate, gal/min
Sample Problem: Water is treated as a rate of 120 gal/min. The fluoride dose is 1.0 mg/l. What
is the saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per minute (gal/min)?

Write down the formula.
mg/l 18,000
mg/l) (dosage, gal/min) capacity, (plant
= gal/min Rate, Feed
Make a table of data.
plant capacity, gal/min = 120 gal/min
dosage, mg/l = 1.0 mg/l
Plug the data into the formula.
mg/l 18,000
mg/l) (1.0 gal/min) (120
= gal/min Rate, Feed
Cancel terms and multiply the numbers above the line.
18,000
gal/min 120
= gal/min Rate, Feed
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
gal/min 0.0067 or 6 0.00666666 = gal/min Rate, Feed

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest ten-thousandth of a gallon per minute (fourth decimal place).
1. What would the saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate be in gallons per minute (gal/min)
if water is treated at a rate of 90 gal/min and the fluoride dose is 0.7 mg/l?
2. Water is treated at a rate of 80 gal/min. The fluoride dose is 0.9 mg/l. Determine the saturated
sodium fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per minute.
3. Calculate the saturated sodium fluoride feed rate in gallons per minute if the fluoride dose is
1.1 mg/l and water is treated at a rate of 700 gal/min.
4. Determine the saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per minute (gal/min) if
the flow is 200 gal/min and the fluoride dose is 0.7 mg/l.
5. An operator uses sodium fluoride to fluoridate the water. The fluoride dose is 1.0 mg/l. Water
is treated at a rate of 150 gal/min. What is the saturated sodium fluoride feed rate in gallons
per minute (gal/min)?
6. Sodium fluoride is used to treat the water at a treatment plant. The operator feeds a fluoride
dose of 1.2 mg/l. Water is treated at a rate of 375 gal/min. Calculate the saturated sodium
fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per minute (gal/min).
7. What would the saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate be in gallons per minute (gal/min)
if water is treated at a rate of 190 gal/min and the fluoride dose is 0.9 mg/l?

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
84 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


8. Water is treated at a rate of 400 gal/min. The fluoride dose is 1.1 mg/l. Calculate the saturated
sodium fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per minute.
9. Determine the saturated sodium fluoride feed rate in gallons per minute if the fluoride dose is
0.8 mg/l and water is treated at a rate of 650 gal/min.
10. Calculate the saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per minute (gal/min) if
the flow is 450 gal/min and the fluoride dose is 1.0 mg/l.
11. An operator uses sodium fluoride to fluoridate the water. The fluoride dose is 1.2 mg/l. Water
is treated at a rate of 250 gal/min. What is the saturated sodium fluoride feed rate in gallons
per minute (gal/min)?
12. Sodium fluoride is used to treat the water at a treatment plant. The operator feeds a fluoride
dose of 0.7 mg/l. Water is treated at a rate of 750 gal/min. Calculate the saturated sodium
fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per minute (gal/min).
Answers to Practice Problems
1. 0.0035 gal/min 5. 0.0083 gal/min 9. 0.0289 gal/min
2. 0.0040 gal/min 6. 0.0250 gal/min 10. 0.0250 gal/min
3. 0.0428 gal/min 7. 0.0095 gal/min 11. 0.0167 gal/min
4. 0.0078 gal/min 8. 0.0244 gal/min 12. 0.0292 gal/min

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 85


Sodium Fluoride - Feed Rate, gal/day
Sample Problem: Water is treated as a rate of 120,000 gal/day. The fluoride dose is 1.0 mg/l.
What is the saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per day (gal/day)?

Write down the formula.
mg/l 18,000
mg/l) (dosage, gal/day) capacity, (plant
= gal/day Rate, Feed
Make a table of data.
plant capacity, gal/day = 120,000 gal/day
dosage, mg/l = 1.0 mg/l
Plug the data into the formula.
mg/l 18,000
mg/l) (1.0 gal/day) (120,000
= gal/day Rate, Feed
Cancel terms and multiply the numbers above the line.
18,000
gal/day 120,000
= gal/day Rate, Feed
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
gal/day 6.7 or 7 6.66666666 = gal/day Rate, Feed


Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest tenth of a gallon per day (first decimal place).
1. What would the saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate be in gallons per day (gal/day) if
water is treated at a rate of 90,000 gal/day and the fluoride dose is 0.7 mg/l?
2. Water is treated at a rate of 280,000 gal/day. The fluoride dose is 0.9 mg/l. Determine the
saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per day.
3. Calculate the saturated sodium fluoride feed rate in gallons per day if the fluoride dose is 1.1
mg/l and water is treated at a rate of 200,000 gal/day.
4. Determine the saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per day (gal/day) if the
flow is 1,000,000 gal/day and the fluoride dose is 0.7 mg/l.
5. An operator uses sodium fluoride to fluoridate the water. The fluoride dose is 1.0 mg/l. Water
is treated at a rate of 150,000 gal/day. What is the saturated sodium fluoride feed rate in
gallons per day (gal/day)?
6. Sodium fluoride is used to treat the water at a treatment plant. The operator feeds a fluoride
dose of 1.2 mg/l. Water is treated at a rate of 375,000 gal/day. Calculate the saturated sodium
fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per day (gal/day).
7. What would the saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate be in gallons per day (gal/day) if
water is treated at a rate of 190,000 gal/day and the fluoride dose is 0.9 mg/l?

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
86 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


8. Water is treated at a rate of 475,000 gal/day. The fluoride dose is 1.1 mg/l. Calculate the
saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per day.
9. Determine the saturated sodium fluoride feed rate in gallons per day if the fluoride dose is 1.2
mg/l and water is treated at a rate of 650,000 gal/day.
10. Calculate the saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per day (gal/day) if the
flow is 375,000 gal/day and the fluoride dose is 1.0 mg/l.
11. An operator uses sodium fluoride to fluoridate the water. The fluoride dose is 1.2 mg/l. Water
is treated at a rate of 850,000 gal/day. What is the saturated sodium fluoride feed rate in
gallons per day (gal/day)?
12. Sodium fluoride is used to treat the water at a treatment plant. The operator feeds a fluoride
dose of 0.7 mg/l. Water is treated at a rate of 750,000 gal/day. Calculate the saturated sodium
fluoride solution feed rate in gallons per day (gal/day).
Answers to Practice Problems
1. 3.5 gal/day 5. 8.3 gal/day 9. 43.3 gal/day
2. 14.0 gal/day 6. 25.0 gal/day 10. 20.8 gal/day
3. 12.2 gal/day 7. 9.5 gal/day 11. 56.7 gal/day
4. 38.9 gal/day 8. 29.0 gal/day 12. 29.2 gal/day

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 87


Sodium Fluoride - Calculated Dosage, mg/l
Sample Problem: Water is treated as a rate of 120,000 gal/day. The operator fed 6.7 gallons of
saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate while treating the water. What is the calculated
fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l)?

Write down the formula.
gal , production actual
mg/l) (18,000 gal) fed, (solution
= mg/l Dosage, Calculated
Make a table of data.
solution fed, gal = 6.7 gal
actual production, gal = 120,000 gal
Plug the data into the formula.
gal 120,000
mg/l) (18,000 gal) (6.7
= mg/l Dosage, Calculated
Cancel terms and multiply the numbers above the line.
120,000
mg/l 120,600
= mg/l Dosage, Calculated
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
mg/l 1.0 or 1.005 = mg/l Dosage, Calculated


Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest tenth of a milligram per liter (first decimal place).
1. What would the calculated fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l) be if 90,000 gallons of
water were treated using 3.5 gallons of saturated sodium fluoride solution were used to treat
the water?
2. Water is treated at a rate of 280,000 gal/day. A total of 14 gallons of saturated sodium fluoride
solution were fed. Determine the calculated fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l).
3. Calculate the fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l) if 12.2 gallons of saturated sodium
fluoride feed used to treat 200,000 gallons of water.
4. Determine the calculated fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l) if 38.9 gallons of
saturated sodium fluoride solution were used to treat 1,000,000 gallons of water.
5. An operator uses sodium fluoride to fluoridate the water. 150,000 gallons of water were
treated. A total of 8.3 gallons of saturated sodium fluoride solution were used to treat the
water. What is the calculated fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l)?
6. Sodium fluoride is used to treat the water at a treatment plant. The operator fed 25 gallons of
saturated sodium fluoride solution while treating 375,000 gallons of water. Calculate the
fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l).

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
88 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


7. What would the calculated fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l) be if 9.5 gallons of
saturated sodium fluoride solution were fed while treating 190,000 gallons of water?
8. A total of 475,000 gallons of water were treated at a water treatment plant. 29 gallons of
saturated sodium fluoride solution were fed while treating the water. Calculate the fluoride
dose in milligrams per liter (mgl).
9. Determine the calculated fluoride dose in milligrams per liter if 43.3 gallons of saturated
sodium fluoride solution were fed while treating 650,000 gallons of water.
10. Calculate the fluoride dose in milligrams per liter if 20.8 gallons of saturated sodium fluoride
solution were used to treat 375,000 gallons of water.
11. An operator uses sodium fluoride to fluoridate the water. 850,000 gallons of water were
treated. 56.7 gallons of saturated sodium fluoride solution were used to treat the water. What
is the calculated dose in mg/l?
12. Sodium fluoride is used to treat the water at a treatment plant. 750,000 gallons of water were
treated using 29.2 gallons of saturated sodium fluoride solution. Determine the calculated
fluoride dose in milligrams per liter.
Answers to Practice Problems
1. 0.7 mg/l 4. 0.7 mg/l 7. 0.9 mg/l 10. 1.0 mg/l
2. 0.9 mg/l 5. 1.0 mg/l 8. 1.1 mg/l 11. 1.2 mg/l
3. 1.1 mg/l 6. 1.2 mg/l 9. 1.2 mg/l 12. 0.7 mg/l

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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 89


Sodium Silicofluoride and Hydrofluosilicic Acid - Feed Rate, lbs/day
Sample Problem: Water was treated at a rate of 2.75 MGD. The fluoride dose is 1.0 mg/l.
Calculate the sodium silicofluoride feed rate in pounds per day.

Write down the formula.
(purity) ion) fluoride (available
lbs/gal) (8.34 MGD) (capacity, mg/l) (dosage,
= lbs/day Rate, Feed
Make a table of data.
dosage, mg/l = 1.0 mg/l
capacity, MGD = 2.75 MGD
available fluoride ion = 60.7 %/100% = 0.607
purity = 98.5%/100% = 0.985
Plug the data into the formula.
(0.985) (0.607)
lbs/gal) (8.34 MGD) (2.75 mg/l) (1.0
= lbs/day Rate, Feed
Cancel terms and multiply the numbers above the line.
(0.985) (0.607)
lbs/day 22.935
= lbs/day Rate, Feed
Multiply the numbers above the line.
0.597895
lbs/day 22.935
= lbs/day Rate, Feed
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
lbs/day 38.4 or 9 38.3595781 = lbs/day Rate, Feed

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest tenth of a pound (one decimal place).
1. While treating a flow of 0.475 MGD, an operator fed fluoride at a dose of 1.2 mg/l. What was
the sodium silicofluoride feed rate in pounds per day?
2. During the previous 24-hour period water was treated at a rate of 3.5 MGD. Fluoride was fed
at a dose of 0.7 mg/l. Calculate the hydrofluosilicic acid feed rate in pounds per day (lbs/day).
3. On Tuesday, the fluoride dose was 1.1 mg/l Water was treated at a rate of 1.75 MGD. What
was the hydrofluosilicic acid feed rate in pounds per day (lbs/day)?
4. Calculate the sodium silicofluoride feed rate in pounds per day (lbs/day) if the fluoride dose
was 0.8 mg/l and the flow was 0.65 MGD.
5. While treating a flow of 2,000,000 gal/day, an operator fed fluoride at a dose of 1.0 mg/l.
What was the sodium silicofluoride feed rate in pounds per day?

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
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6. During the previous 24-hour period water was treated at a rate of 1,250,000 gal/day. Fluoride
was fed at a dose of 0.9 mg/l. Calculate the hydrofluosilicic acid feed rate in pounds per day
(lbs/day).
7. On Friday, the fluoride dose was 1.0 mg/l Water was treated at a rate of 1,565,000 gal/day.
What was the hydrofluosilicic acid feed rate in pounds per day (lbs/day)?
8. Calculate the sodium silicofluoride feed rate in pounds per day (lbs/day) if the fluoride dose
was 0.7 mg/l and the flow was 2,100,000 gal/day.
9. While treating a flow of 2,700,000 gal/day, an operator fed fluoride at a dose of 1.1 mg/l.
What was the sodium silicofluoride feed rate in pounds per day?
10. During the previous 24-hour period water was treated at a rate of 12,890,000 gal/day.
Fluoride was fed at a dose of 0.8 mg/l. Calculate the hydrofluosilicic acid feed rate in pounds
per day (lbs/day).
11. On Tuesday, the fluoride dose was 1.2 mg/l. Water was treated at a rate of 4,250,000 gal/day.
What was the hydrofluosilicic acid feed rate in pounds per day (lbs/day)?
12. Calculate the sodium silicofluoride feed rate in pounds per day (lbs/day) if the fluoride dose
was 0.9 mg/l and the flow was 5,100,000 gal/day.
Answers to Practice Problems
1. 7.9 lbs/day 5. 27.9 lbs/day 9. 41.4 lbs/day
2. 112.2 lbs/day 6. 51.5 lbs/day 10. 472.1 lbs/day
3. 88.1 lbs/day 7. 71.7 lbs/day 11. 233.5 lbs/day
4. 7.3 lbs/day 8. 20.5 lbs/day 12. 64.0 lbs/day

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Sodium Silicofluoride and Hydrofluosilicic Acid Calculated Dosage, mg/l
Sample Problem: Water was treated at a rate of 4.75 MGD. A total of 66 pounds of sodium
silicofluoride were used to treat the water. Calculate the fluoride dose in milligrams per liter
(mg/l).

Write down the formula.
lbs/gal) (8.34 MGD) . production (plant
(purity) ion) fluoride (available lbs) fed, (fluoride
= mg/l Dosage, Calculated
Make a table of data.
fluoride fed, lbs = 66 lbs
available fluoride ion = 60.7 %/100% = 0.607
purity = 98.5%/100% = 0.985
plant production, MGD = 4.75 MGD
Plug the data into the formula.
lbs/gal) (8.34 MGD) (4.75
(0.985) (0.607) lbs) (66
= mg/l Dosage, Calculated
Cancel terms and multiply the numbers above the line.
(8.34) (4.75)
39.46107
= mg/l Dosage, Calculated
Multiply the numbers above the line.
39.615
39.46107
= mg/l Dosage, Calculated
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
mg/l 1.0 or 0.99611435 = mg/l Dosage, Calculated

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest tenth of a milligram per liter (one decimal place).
1. While treating a flow of 0.475 MGD, an operator fed 7.9 pounds of sodium silicofluoride.
What was the fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l)?
2. During the previous 24-hour period water was treated at a rate of 3,500,000 gal/day.
Hydrofluosilicic acid was fed at a rate of 112.2 lbs/day. Calculate the fluoride dose in
milligrams per liter (mg/l).
3. On Tuesday, hydrofluosilicic acid was fed at a rate of 88.1 lbs/day. Water was treated at a rate
of 1,750,000 gal/day. What was the fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l)?
4. Calculate the fluoride dose in mg/l if sodium silicofluoride is fed at a rate of 7.3 pounds per
day (lbs/day) and the flow was 0.65 MGD.
5. While treating a flow of 2,000,000 gal/day, an operator fed 27.9 pounds of sodium
silicofluoride. What was the calculated fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l)?

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
92 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


6. During the previous 24-hour period water was treated at a rate of 1,250,000 gal/day.
Hydroflusilicic acid was fed at a rate of 52 lbs/day. Calculate the fluoride dose in milligrams
per liter (mg/l).
7. On Friday, 72 pounds of hydrofluosilicic acid were fed. Water was treated at a rate of
1,565,000 gal/day. What was the calculated fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l)?
8. 21 pounds of sodium silicofluoride were fed while treating a flow of 2,100,000 gal/day.
Determine the calculated fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l).
9. While treating a flow of 2,700,000 gal/day, an operator fed 41.4 pounds of sodium
silicofluoride. What was the fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l)?
10. During the previous 24-hour period water was treated at a rate of 12,890,000 gal/day. 472
pounds of hydrofluosilicic acid were used to treat the water. Calculate the fluoride dose in
milligrams per liter (mg/l).
11. On Tuesday, 234 pounds of hydrofluosilicic acid was used to treat 4,250,000 gallons of
water. What was the fluoride dose in milligrams per liter (mg/l)?
12. Calculate the fluoride dose in milligrams per liter if 64 pounds of sodium silicofluoride is
used to treat 5,100,000 gallons of water.
Answers to Practice Problems
1. 1.2 mg/l 4. 0.8 mg/l 7. 1.0 mg/l 10. 0.8 mg/l
2. 0.7 mg/l 5. 1.0 mg/l 8. 0.7 mg/l 11. 1.2 mg/l
3. 1.1 mg/l 6. 0.9 mg/l 9. 1.1 mg/l 12. 0.9 mg/l


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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 93


Feed Rate, grams/min
Sample Problem: During the previous day's operations, 174 pounds of sodium silicofluoride
were fed. A total of 12,500,000 gallons of water were treated. Calculate the sodium silicofluoride
feed rate in grams per minute.

Write down the formula.
day per minutes 1,440
grams/lbs) (453.6 lbs/day) rate, (feed
= grams/min Rate, Feed
Make a table of data.
feed rate, lbs/day = 174 lbs/day
Plug the data into the formula.
day per minutes 1,440
grams/lbs) (453.6 lbs/day) (174
= grams/min Rate, Feed
Cancel terms and multiply the numbers above the line.
minutes 1,440
grams 78,926.4
= grams/min Rate, Feed
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
grams/min 55 or 54.81 = grams/min Rate, Feed

Practice Problems
Round your answer to the nearest gram per minute.
1. An operator fed 56 pounds of lime during Monday's operations. Calculate the feed rate in
grams per minute.
2. Determine the alum feed rate in grams per minute if the alum feed rate is 125 pounds per day.
3. Calculate the hydrofluosilicic acid feed rate in grams per minute if the feed rate in pounds per
day is 248 lbs/day.
4. During Monday's operations an operator fed alum at a rate of 985 pounds per day. What was
the alum feed rate in grams per minute.
5. During Thursday's operations an operator fed 457 pounds of alum while treating 2,000,000
gallons of raw water. What was the alum feed rate in grams per minute?
6. During the previous 24 hours, 693 pounds of caustic soda were fed while treating 7,500,000
gallons of raw water. Calculate the caustic soda feed rate in grams per minute.
7. An operator fed 512 pounds of lime during Monday's operations. Calculate the feed rate in
grams per minute.
8. Determine the alum feed rate in grams per minute if the alum feed rate is 399 pounds per day.
9. Calculate the hydrofluosilicic acid feed rate in grams per minute if the feed rate in pounds per
day is 715 lbs/day.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
94 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


10. During Monday's operations an operator fed alum at a rate of 75 pounds per day. What was
the alum feed rate in grams per minute.
11. During Thursday's operations an operator fed 82 pounds of alum while treating 500,000
gallons of raw water. What was the alum feed rate in grams per minute?
12. During the previous 24 hours, 97 pounds of caustic soda were fed while treating 1,500,000
gallons of raw Water. Calculate the caustic soda feed rate in grams per minute.
Answers to Practice Problems
1. 18 grams/min 4. 310 grams/min 7. 161 grams/min 10. 24 grams/min
2. 39 grams/min 5. 144 grams/min 8. 126 grams/min 11. 26 grams/min
3. 78 grams/min 6. 218 grams/min 9. 225 grams/min 12. 31 grams/min

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Stabilization Facts
Purpose To control both the corrosive and scale-forming tendencies of water.
Unstable water can be either corrosive or scale-forming.

Problems Associated with Unstable Water
Public Health (1) Toxic metals which dissolve in corrosive water
a. Lead action level is exceeded if the 90th percentile lead level is
greater than 0.015 mg/l.
b. Copper action level is exceeded if the 90th percentile copper
level is greater than 1.3 mg/l.
A water sample which shows an increase in iron, copper, zinc, lead, or
cadmium indicates corrosion.
(2) Corrosive water can cause the formation of tubercles (iron rust
deposits) which can protect bacteria and other microorganisms from
residual chlorine.
a. Changes in pressure or velocity can break the tubercles open,
releasing bacteria.
b. Some types of bacteria can accelerate corrosion.
Tubercles: knobs of rust formed on the interior of cast iron pipes due to
corrosion.
Aesthetics Corrosive water can cause color, tastes and odors.
Red Water
Caused by iron, dissolved by corrosive water.
Stains plumbing and laundry yellowish- or reddish-brown.
Makes water unappealing.
Dissolved iron serves as a food supply for iron bacteria, which can
cause serious taste and odor problems.
Corrosion of copper causes metallic tastes and blue-green stains on
laundry and plumbing.

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96 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Corrosion Indexes
Stability (Corrosive) Characteristics Langelier Index (LI) Aggressive Index (AI)
Highly Aggressive (Corrosive) < - 2.0 < 10.0
Moderately Aggressive (Corrosive) - 2.0 to < 0.0 10.0 to < 12.0
Nonaggressive (Noncorrosive) > 0.0 > 12.0

Common Operating Problems
Excessive Scaling
Persistence of red-water problems
poor flow velocities, either very high or very low;
tuberculation (deposits of iron rust on pipe walls)
presence of iron bacteria.

Control Tests pH
Total Alkalinity
Pipe Coupons (specimens taking from pipes during large taps)
Coupon Racks

Lead and Copper Rule All public water systems must install and operate Optimum Corrosion
Control Treatment (OCCT).
Records associated with the Lead and Copper Rule must be maintained
for 12 years.
Stabilization Methods (1) pH and alkalinity adjustment.
(2) Protective coatings
(3) Corrosion inhibitors and sequestering agents
1. pH and Alkalinity Adjustment
If the pH and alkalinity levels are increased, corrosion can be
prevented.
Adjustment of the pH above the pH of saturation causes calcium
carbonate to come out of solution and form a protective coating on the
pipe wall.
If the pH and alkalinity levels are increased, corrosion can be
prevented.

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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 97


Adjustment of the pH above the pH of saturation causes calcium
carbonated to come out of solution and form a protective coating on the
pipe wall.
If the pH and alkalinity levels are decreased, scale formation can be
prevented.
Lime is used to increase both pH and alkalinity.
Each mg/l of hydrated lime increases the alkalinity by 1.35 mg/l as
calcium carbonate.
Lime is readily available, cheap, and easy to feed.
Problems with lime feed include:
lime precipitates on everything;
feed equipment and piping require frequent cleaning; and,
lime slurry feed lines should be as short and straight as
possible to minimize maintenance problems.
Soda ash (sodium carbonate) can be added to increase both pH and
alkalinity.
Each mg/l of soda ash increases the alkalinity by 0.94 mg/l as calcium
carbonate. Soda ash (sodium carbonate) can be added to increase both
pH and alkalinity.
Caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) can be used to increase the pH and
alkalinity.
Carbon dioxide can be used to reduce the pH and scale-forming
tendencies.
2. Protective Coatings Cement Linings
Calcium Carbonate
3. Corrosion Inhibitors and Sequestering Agents
Polyphosphates form protective coatings on pipe walls.
Sequestering agents chemically tie up (sequester) the scale-forming
chemicals to prevent scale and tie up iron.
Types of Corrosion
Localized Corrosion attacks metal surfaces unevenly
more serious problem than uniform corrosion
most common types of localized corrosion are galvanic corrosion and
concentration-cell corrosion
Uniform Corrosion metal corrodes at an even rate over the entire surface
usually occurs in water having a very low pH and alkalinity

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
98 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Scale Formation
Scale can protect pipes from corrosive water.
Uncontrolled scale can significantly reduce pipe capacity.
Scale is formed when divalent metallic cations (associated with hardness), primarily calcium and
magnesium salts, combine with other minerals to precipitate onto pipe
walls.
The most common form of scale is calcium carbonate.
Other scale-forming compounds include:
Magnesium Carbonate;
Caclium Sulfate;
Magnesium Chloride.

Factors Affecting Scale Formation
The point at which no more of a chemical can be dissolved by water is its saturation point.
The saturation point varies with the pH, temperature, and total dissolved solids (TDS)
concentration.
The saturation point of calcium carbonate depends primarily on the pH.
The solubility of calcium carbonate decreases as the temperature increases.
As the total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration increases, the solubility of calcium carbonate
increases.

Factors Which Affect Corrosion Rates or Stability
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) As the dissolved oxygen concentration in the water increases, the
corrosion rate increases.
Total Dissolved Solids As the total dissolved solids concentration in the water increases, the
corrosion rate increases.
pH As the pH increases, the corrosion rate decreases.
Alkalinity As the alkalinity increases, the corrosion rate decreases.
Temperature As the water temperature increases, the corrosion rate increases.
Bacteria Certain bacteria can accelerate corrosion rates because they give off
carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
They also can produce slime which can increase the rate of
tuberculation.
Stray Currents Increase the corrosion rate.

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Galvanic Series for Metals Used in Water Systems
The rate of corrosion depends on how far apart metals are in the Galvanic Series.
Galvanic Series - a listing of metals and alloys according to their corrosion potential.
Corroded End (Anode) Most Active
Magnesium
Magnesium Alloys
Zinc
Aluminum
Cadmium
Mild Steel
Wrought (black) Iron
Cast Iron
Lead-tin Solder
Lead
Tin
Brass
Copper
Stainless Steel
Protected End (Cathode) Least Active
When a brass corporation stop is tapped into a cast-iron main and attached to a copper service
line, the copper will be protected at the expense of the brass and cast-
iron.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
100 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


pH of Saturation (pH
s
)
Sample Problem: A finished water sample was analyzed and the following data was obtained.
pH = 7.0 Total Alkalinity = 100 mg/L as CaCO
3

Temperature = 15 C Calcium Hardness = 70 mg/L as CaCO
3

TDS = 400 mg/L
Determine the pH of saturation (pH
s
) for the sample.
Write down the formula.
pH
s
= A + B - log Calcium Hardness - log Total Alkalinity
Make a table of data.
A = 2.12
B = 9.86
log Calcium Hardness = log 70 = 1.84
log Total Alkalinity = log 100 = 2.00
Plug the data into the formula.
pH
s
= 2.12 + 9.86 - 1.84 - 2.00
Do the arithmetic.
pH
s
= 11.98 - 1.84 - 2.00
pH
s
= 10.14 - 2.00
pH
s
= 8.14


Practice Problems - pH of Saturation (pH
s
)
1. Calculate the pH of saturation (pH
s
) for a water sample where the pH is 6.3, the total dissolved
solids (TDS) concentration is 100 mg/L, the calcium hardness is 20 mg/L, the total alkalinity
is 30 mg/L, and the water temperature is 15 degrees Celsius.
2. Determine the pH of saturation (pH
s
) for a finished water sample if the total dissolved solids
concentration is 400 mg/L, the calcium hardness concentration is 100 mg/L as CaCO
3
, the
total alkalinity concentration is 100 mg/L as CaCO
3
, and the water temperature is 25 degrees
Celsius.
3. What would the pH of saturation (pH
s
) be for a finished water sample if the water temperature
is 5 degrees Celsius, the total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration is 400 mg/L, the total
alkalinity concentration is 100 mg/L as CaCO
3
, and the calcium hardness concentration is 100
mg/L as CaCO
3
?
4. An operator analyzed a finished water sample and obtained these results.
pH = 6.3 Calcium Hardness = 10 mg/L as CaCO
3

Temperature = 15 degrees Celsius Total Alkalinity = 10 mg/L as CaCO
3


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TDS = 50 mg/L
What is the pH of saturation (pH
s
) for the sample?
5. A finished water sample was analyzed and the following results were obtained.
Total Alkalinity = 80 mg/L as CaCO
3
Water Temperature = 15 degrees Celsius
Calcium Hardness = 60 mg/L as CaCO
3
pH = 6.9
Total Dissolved Solids = 200 mg/L
Calculate pH of saturation for the sample.
6. What would the pH of saturation (pH
s
) for a water sample be if the total dissolved solids
concentration is 100 mg/L, the total alkalinity is 40 mg/L as CaCO
3
, the calcium hardness is
20 mg/L, and the temperature is 10 degrees Celsius?
7. The pH of a water sample is 7.4. The temperature of the sample is 5 degrees Celsius. The total
alkalinity is 50 mg/L as CaCO
3
, the calcium hardness is 20 mg/L as CaCO
3
, and the total
dissolved solids concentration is 100 mg/L. Calculate the pH of saturation (pH
s
) if the water
temperature is 5 degrees Celsius.
8. Determine the pH of saturation (pH
s
) for a water sample in which the temperature 30 degrees
Celsius, the pH is 7.6, the TDS concentration is 400 mg/L, the total alkalinity is 80 mg/L as
CaCO
3
, and the calcium hardness is 50 mg/L as CaCO
3
.
9. Calculate the pH of saturation (pH
s
) for a water sample in which the total dissolved solids
concentration (TDS) is 200 mg/L, the total alkalinity is 40 mg/L as CaCO
3
, the calcium
hardness is 20 mg/L as CaCO
3
, and the temperature is 20 degrees Celsius.
10. These results were obtained during the analysis of a water sample.
Total Alkalinity = 70 mg/L as CaCO
3
Temperature = 5 degrees Celsius
Calcium Hardness = 50 mg/L as CaCO
3
TDS = 400 mg/L
What is the pH of saturation (pH
5
)?
11. Given the following data, calculate the pH of saturation (pH
s
) .
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) = 100 mg/L
Total Alkalinity = 40 mg/L as CaCO
3

Calcium Hardness = 10 mg/L as CaCO
3

Temperature = 5 degrees Celsius
12. The water temperature is 30 degrees Celsius. The total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration
is 200 mg/L. The calcium hardness concentration is 60 mg/L as CaCO
3
. The total alkalinity is
100 mg/L as CaCO
3
. The pH is 7.6. What is the pH of saturation (pH
s
)?


Answers to Practice Problems
1. 9.09 4. 9.84 7. 9.02 10. 8.59
2. 7.84 5. 8.24 8. 8.17 11. 9.42
3. 8.13 6. 9.05 9. 8.95 12. 7.93

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
102 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Langelier Index
Sample Problem: Calculate the Langelier Index (LI) if the actual pH of the water is 7.9 and the
pH of saturation is 7.5.
Write down the formula.
LI = pH - pH
s

Make a table of data.
pH = 7.9
pH
s
= 7.5
Plug the data into the formula.
LI = 7.9 7.5
Do the arithmetic.
LI = +0.4

Practice Problems - Langlier Index (LI)
Round your answers to the second decimal place.
1. The pH of a water sample is 7.4. The pH of saturation is 7.6. What is the Langelier Index?
2. Determine the Langelier Index for a water sample with a pH of 6.9 if the pH of saturation
(pH
5
) is 8.5.
3. Calculate the Langelier Index for a water sample if the pH is 7.8 and the pH of saturation
(pH
5
) is 7.2.
4. What is the Langelier Index for a water sample if the pH is 6.2 and the pH of saturation (pH
5
)
is 9.6?
5. Calculate the Langelier Index if the pH is 7.2, the water temperature is 20 degrees Celsius, the
calcium hardness is 30 mg/L, the total alkalinity is 50 mg/L, and the total dissolved solids
concentration is 300 mg/L.
6. A finished water sample was analyzed and the following data was gathered. The water
temperature was 10 degrees Celsius. The total alkalinity concentration was 70 mg/L. The
calcium hardness was 40 mg/L. The total dissolved solids concentration was 200 mg/L. What
would the Langelier Index be if the pH was 7.1?
7. The pH of a water sample was 7.4. The total dissolved solids concentration was 200 mg/L.
The total alkalinity concentration was 100 mg/L as CaCO
3
. The calcium hardness
concentration was 80 mg/L as CaCO
3
. The water temperature was 25 degrees Celsius. What
was the Langelier Index?
8. The total alkalinity concentration for a water sample was 80 mg/L as CaCO
3
, and the calcium
hardness was 70 mg/L as CaCO
3
. The temperature was 30 degrees Celsius. The total
dissolved solids concentration was 400 mg/L. Calculate the Langelier Index if the pH was 7.8.
9. The pH of the finished water is 8.0. The water temperature is 25 degrees Celsius. The water
has a total alkalinity of 100 mg/L as CaCO
3
and a carbonate hardness of 100 mg/L as CaCO
3
.

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The total dissolved solids concentration is 400 mg/L. Determine the Langelier Index for the
water.
10. A water has a total dissolved solids concentration of 200 mg/L. The total alkalinity
concentration is 80 mg/L as CaCO
3
, and the calcium hardness is 80 mg/L as CaCO
3
. The pH
is 7.9, and the water temperature is 30 degrees Celsius. Calculate the Langelier Index for the
water.
11. A water sample was analyzed and the following data was obtained.
Total Dissolved Solids = 200 mg/L Temperature = 20 degrees Celsius
Total Alkalinity = 70 mg/L as CaCO
3
pH = 7.5
Calcium Hardness = 60 mg/L as CaCO
3

What was the Langelier Index?
12. Determine the Langelier Index for a water sample given the following data.
Total Dissolved Solids = 400 mg/L Temperature = 5 degrees Celsius
Total Alkalinity = 100 mg/L as CaCO
3
pH = 7.4
Calcium Hardness = 50 mg/L as CaCO
3

Answers to Practice Problems
1. -0.2 4. -3.4 7. -0.48 10. -0.01
2. -1.6 5. -1.47 8. -0.23 11. -0.73
3. +0.6 6. -1.46 9. -10.16 12. -1.03



Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
104 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Aggressive Index (AI)
Sample Problem: A water sample was analyzed with the following results. The pH of the
sample was 7.4. The total alkalinity was 70 mg/l as CaCO
3
. The calcium hardness was 60 mg/L
as CaCO
3
. What is the aggressive index for the finished water?

Write down the formula.
Aggressive Index (AI) = pH + log Calcium Hardness + log Total Alkalinity
Make a table of data.
pH = 7.4
log Calcium Hardness = log 60 = 1.78
log Total Alkalinity = log 70 = 1.84
Plug the data into the formula.
Aggressive Index (AI) = 7.4 + 1.78 + 1.84
Do the arithmetic.
Aggressive Index (AI) = 11.02

An aggressive index of 11.02 indicates that the water is moderately aggressive.

Practice Problems - Aggressive Index
Round your answers to the second decimal place.
1. The operator at a water treatment plant analyzed the finished water in order to determine its
pH, calcium hardness, and total alkalinity. The pH of the sample was 7.8. The calcium
hardness was 80 mg/L as CaCO
3
, and the total alkalinity was 100 mg/L as CaCO
3
. What was
the aggressive index (AI) for the sample?
2. Determine the aggressive index (AI) for a water sample which has a pH of 7.0, a total
alkalinity of 40 mg/L as CaCO
3
, and a calcium hardness of 40 mg/L as CaCO
3
.
3. Calculate the aggressive index (AI) for a water sample with a total alkalinity concentration of
100 mg/L as CaCO
3
, calcium hardness of 100 mg/L as CaCO
3
and a pH of 8.2.
4. What would the aggressive index (AI) for a water sample be if the pH is 6.2, the total
alkalinity is 10 mg/L, and the calcium hardness is 10 mg/L?
5. A finished water sample was analyzed in order to determine its aggressive index (AI). The pH
was 7.3. The total alkalinity was 70 mg/L as CaCO
3
. The calcium hardness was 50 mg/L as
CaCO
3
. Determine the aggressive index for the water sample.
6. The total alkalinity concentration in a finished water sample was 60 mg/L as CaCO
3
. The
calcium hardness concentration for the sample was 30 mg/L as CaCO
3
. The pH was 7.3.
Calculate the aggressive index (AI) for the water sample.
7. The pH of a finished water sample was 6.9. The total alkalinity for the sample was 30 mg/L as
CaCO
3
. The calcium hardness for the sample was 20 mg/L as CaCO
3
. What was the
aggressive index (AI) for the water sample?

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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 105


8. An analysis of a finished water sample showed that the pH for the sample was 6.8, the total
alkalinity was 20 mg/L as CaCO
3
, and the calcium hardness was 20 mg/L as CaCO
3
.
Calculate the aggressive index (AI) for the sample.
9. Determine the aggressive index (AI) for a finished water sample if the calcium hardness was
100 mg/L as CaCO
3
, the total alkalinity for the sample was 100 mg/L, and the pH was 7.9.
10. The pH of the finished water is 7.4. The temperature is 20 degrees Celsius. The calcium
hardness is 60 mg/L as CaCO
3
. The total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration is 400 mg/L.
The total alkalinity for the sample was 80 mg/L. What is the aggressive index (AI) for the
sample?
11. Calculate the aggressive index (AI) for a water given the following data.
pH = 7.0 TDS = 100 mg/L Total Alkalinity = 40 mg/L as CaCO
3

Temperature = 15 Degrees Celsius Calcium Hardness = 20 mg/L as CaCO
3

12. The results of the analysis of a water systems water yielded these results.
pH = 7.6 Calcium Hardness = 60 mg/L as CaCO
3

TDS = 400 mg/L Total Alkalinity = 100 mg/L as CaCO
3

Temperature = 20 Degrees Celsius
Calculate the aggressive index (AI) for the water sample.

Answers to Practice Problems

1. 11.70 4. 8.20 7. 9.68 10. 11.08
2. 10.20 5. 10.84 8. 9.40 11. 9.90
3. 12.20 6. 10.56 9. 11.90 12. 11.38

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
106 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Notes

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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 107


Disinfection
Important Definitions
Disinfection is the destruction of pathogenic organisms.
Sterilization is the destruction of of all living microorganisms.
A pathogenic organism is disease-producing organism.
Free chlorine residual - the chlorine residual formed once all the chlorine demand has
been satisfied.
Combined chlorine residual - the residual produced by the reaction of chlorine with
substances in the water, usually ammonia.
Causative Organisms
Water-borne diseases caused by bacteria
a. gastroenteritis
b. typhoid
c. dysentery
d. cholera
Water-borne diseases caused by viruses
a. polio
b. hepatitis
Water-borne diseases caused by protozoans
a. amebic dysentery
b. cryptospirodosis
c. giardiasis
Disinfection Methods
Heat Treatment Good emergency procedure for small quantities of water
Major disadvantages - No residual prtection/high energy costs
Radiation Treatment Ultrviolet Radiation (UV)
Major disadvantage- No residual disinfectant/requires close contact
between UV source and water
Chemical Treatment Use of chemical oxidants
Chlorine
Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine Compounds
hypochlorites such as bleach and HTH;
chloramines such as mono- and dichloramine)
Ozone

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
108 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Chlorine Chemicals
Chlorine [Cl
2
] Gas 2.5 times as dense as air
pungent, noxious odor
greenish-yellow color
irritating to eyes, nasal passages, respiratory tract
lethal concetration - 0.1% or 1,000 mg/L by volume
dry gas not corrosive
extremely corrosive in presence of water
Liquid ~99.5% chlorine
amber in color
1.5 times as dense as water
Calcium Hypochlorite [Ca(OCl)
2
] dry, white or yellow-white granular material
most dangerous form of hypochlorite to use
one pound of HTH does not yield one pound of chlorine when
dissolved in water
65 percent available chlorine by weight
reacts violently with combustibles
reacts with organics and can start fires
gives off lots of heat when mixed with water
always add HTH to water when mixing, never add
water to HTH!
Sodium Hypochlorite [NaOCl] clear, light-yellow liquid
household bleach typically contains 5% available chlorine
industrial bleach contains 9% to 15% available chlorine
alkaline - pH 9 to 11
quite corrosive
loses 2% to 4% of available chlorine per month at room
temperature
most common form of hypochlorite used


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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 109


Factors Affecting Sucess of Chlorination
Primary Factors - Effectiveness of chlorination depends primarily on Contact Time and
Concentration (C X T)
Chlorine concentration the amount of free chlorine residual is directly related to the
amount of chlorine added.
Contact time between the water and the chlorine - The clearwell is used to provide contact time.
Secondary Factors
Temperature of the water generally, as the temperature goes up, effectiveness goes up
effects of low temperature offset by increased stability of
residual
pH of the water determines distribution of hypochlorous acid/hypochlorite ion
hypochlorous acid most effective residual - predomi nates at pH<7
Foreign subtances in the water Reducing agents - Iron, Manganese, Nitrites, Ammonia
No chlorine residual can be formed until all the reducing
agents have been oxidized
Turbidity prevents good contact between the chlorine and pathogens by shielding the pathogens
from the chlorine
Chlorine Chemistry
The ratio of hypochlorous acid to hypochlorite ion depends on the pH.
Lower pH favors hypochlorous acid, the more effective residual.
Initial Chlorine Demand Chlorine will react with any reducing agents in the water before
any residual is formed. Reducing agents include: organic matter,
nitrites, iron, manganese.
Ammonia Reactions After oxidizing the reducing agents, chlorine begins a series of
reactions with ammonia, forming combined chlorine residuals.
Once all reducing agents and ammonia have been oxidized, any chlorine added to the water will
remain in an unreacted (free) state, this point is called breakpoint.
No chlorine residual can be formed until all reducing agents have been destroyed.
No free chlorine residual can be formed until breakpoint is reached.
Breakpoint - the point at which the chlorine dosage has satisfied the chlorine demand.
Breakpoint chlorination is practiced to ensure the formation of free chlorine residuals which are
most effective at destroying pathogenic organisms.
Uses of Chlorine
Disinfection of drinking water.
Disinfection of water mains, storage tanks, filters, wells and other treatment facilities.
Oxidizing iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfide.
Controlling tastes, odors, algae and slime.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
110 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Major Chlorinator Parts and Operations
Rotameter Meter (measure) gas flow
Injector Venturi device that pulls chlorine gas into a passing stream of dilution water,
forming a strong chlorine solution. (also called an ejector or eductor)
Diffusers One or more short lengths of perforated pipe used to quickly and uniformly
disperse chlorine solution into the main flow of water.
The chlorine withdrawal rate from a 150-lbs cylinder or ton container depends on:
(1) the temperature of the chlorine room;
(2) the threshold temperature; and,
(3) the withdrawal factor for the type of container.
If the withdrawl rate is too high, ice will form on the cylinder, reducing the withdrawal rate.
A new lead washer should be used each time a cylinder is connected.
Use only the wrench provided by the manufacturer.

Safety
A fusible plug, designed to melt at 158 F to 165 F, is located in the valve on a 150-lb cylinder
and on the head of a ton container. It is designed to relieve pressure in the cylinder or
container when exposed to high heat.
Leak Detection 26 Baume` ammonia solution produces white smoke in presence of
chlorine.
Leak detector best means of detecting small leaks, less than 1 ppm.

Common Operating Problems
Leaks Detect with ammonia
Leak detector for small leaks
Prevention: (1) replace lead washer every time the container is changed
(2) clean valve threads with wire brush and wrap threads with teflon tape, linseed oil
and graphite joint compound, linseed oil and white lead,or litharge and glycerine.
(3) Replace all chlorine supply line valves annually
Stiff Container Valves
Sudden Drop in Residual Warning of potential danger!
Corrective measures
increase chlorine levels immediately
take samples and identify contaminants
check distribution system to locate contaminant source or other causes for drop in
residual.

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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 111


Trihalomethane Formation Caused by the reaction of chlorine with organic (humic and fulvic
acids) compounds in water.
These organic compounds come from decaying vegetation.
Hypochlorinator Problems (1) clogged equipment - occurs primarily at the pump head
and suction and discharge lines.
(2) broken diaphragms
Control Tests
Chlorine Residual Amperometric Titrator
DPD Method
Bacteriological Coliform Test
Safety Equipment Required to Handle Chlorine
(1) Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus
(2) Adequate ventilation system [intake vents located at the top of the chlorine room;
exhaust fans at floor level]
(3) appropriate emergency repair kit

Odd Facts
Chlorine gas lowers pH, hypochlorites raise pH.
Forms of Chlorine Residual
1. Free Chlorine Residuals
a. hypochlorous acid
b. hypochlorite ion
2. Combined Chlorine Residual
a. monochloramine
b. dichloramine
c. trichloramine
Free chlorine residual cannot be less than 0.2 mg/l in more than 5% of the samples.

Free chlorine residual cannot be less than 0.2 mg/l in the water entering the distribution system for
more than 4 hours.


Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
112 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Notes

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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 113


Chemical Feeders
Dry Chemical Feeders
used to feed chemicals in powder form
used to feed chemicals in crystalline form

Two Kinds of Dry Chemical Feeders
Gravimetic
Volumetric

Gravimetric Feeder
feed by weight.
can deliver large quantities of chemical
are extremely accurate
are relatively expensive
are unaffected by variations in the density of the chemicals being fed

Volumetric dry chemical feeders
measure chemical feed by volume
less expensive to purchase and maintain than gravimetric feeders
simpler to operate than gravimetric feeders
generally less accurate than gravimetric feeders
accuracy is affected by variations in the density of chemicals fed

Fluoride Feeders
Sodium silicofluoride fed with dry feeder
Hydrofluosilicic acid fed with a liquid (solution) feeder
Sodium fluoride fed from a special type of liquid (solution) feeder, called a saturator,
because of its almost constant solutbility (4%)

Chemical feed systems should be checked for accuracy of feed rate once per shift

Dry Feeder Maintenance includes:
Dissolving tank inspection
Lubrication
Occasional calibration check
Regular inspection of belts, screws, discs or rollers

Liquid Feeders
A diaphram-type metering pump is commonly used to pump or feed liquid chemicals.
Can also use peristaltic pumps (Stenner)

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
114 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Calculated Dosage, mg/l
Sample Problem: An operator wants to check the chemical dose in milligrams per liter. The
operator catches the chemical as it fell from the feeder. Three samples were collected, each for
three minutes. The weights of the samples are as follows: Sample 1 weighs 107 grams; Sample 2
weighs 105 grams; Sample 3 weighs 103 grams. Water is treated at a rate of 1,250,000 gallons
per day. Calculate the chemical dose in milligrams per liter (mg/L).

Step One: Determine the average weight of chemical collected for each test.
Add all the sample weights.
107 grams + 105 grams + 103 grams = 315 grams
Divide the average weight in grams by the number of samples collected.
grams 105 =
3
grams 315

Step Two: Determine the average weight of chemical collected per minute.
Divide the average weight in grams by the time for collecting each sample in minutes.
grams/min 35 =
mins 3
grams 105

Step Three: Determine the calculated dosage in mg/l..
Write down the formula.
l/gal) 5 nute)(3.78 gallons/mi (flow
0mg/gram) )(1,00 (grams/min
= mg/l Dosage,
Make a table of data.
grams/min = 35 grams/min
flow, gal/min = 1,250,000 gal/min/1440 min/day = 868.0555556 gal/min
Plug the data into the formula.
l/gal) 5 nute)(3.78 gallons/mi 556 (868.05555
0mg/gram) (1,00 grams/min) (35
= mg/l Dosage,
Multiply the numbers above the line.
l/gal) 5 nute)(3.78 gallons/mi 556 (868.05555
mg/min 35,000
= mg/l Dosage,
Multiply the number below the line.
l/min 78 3,285.5902
mg/min 35,000
= mg/l Dosage,

Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
mg/l 10.7 or 6 10.6525759 = mg/l Dosage,


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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 115


Practice Problems - Dosage, mg/L - from Grams per Minute
Round your answers to the nearest milligram per liter.
1. An operator wants to check the alum dose in milligrams per liter. The operator caught the
alum as it fell from the feeder. Three samples were collected, each for two minutes. The
weights of the samples are as follows.
Sample 1 weighs 98 grams
Sample 2 weighs 92 grams
Sample 3 weighs 95 grams
Water is treated at a rate of 1,440,000 gallons per day. Calculate the chemical dose in
milligrams per liter (mg/L).
2. An operator wants to check the soda ash dose in milligrams per liter. The operator caught
three samples of soda ash as it fell from the feeder. Each of the three samples were collected
for two minutes. The weights of the samples are as follows.
Sample 1 weighs 55 grams
Sample 2 weighs 52 grams
Sample 3 weighs 52 grams
Water is treated at a rate of 2,520,000 gallons per day. Calculate the soda ash dose in
milligrams per liter (mg/L).
3. An operator caught three samples of powdered activated carbon as it fell from the feeder. Each
of the three samples were collected for two minutes. The weights of the samples are as
follows.
Sample 1 weighs 156 grams
Sample 2 weighs 147 grams
Sample 3 weighs 150 grams
Water is treated at a rate of 1,627,000 gallons per day. Calculate the powdered activated
carbon dose in milligrams per liter (mg/L).
4. An operator collected three 2-minute samples of alum as it fell from the dry feeder. The
samples weighed:
Sample 1 weighs 318 grams
Sample 2 weighs 315 grams
Sample 3 weighs 318 grams
What would the alum dose be in milligrams per liter (mg/L) if water is treated at a rate of
5,746,000 gal/day?
5. An operator wants to check the soda ash dose in milligrams per liter. The operator caught the
soda ash as it fell from the feeder. Three samples were collected, each for two minutes. The
weights of the samples are as follows.
Sample 1 weighs 26 grams
Sample 2 weighs 22 grams
Sample 3 weighs 24 grams
Water is treated at a rate of 1,152,000 gallons per day. Calculate the soda ash dose in
milligrams per liter (mg/L).
6. An operator wants to check the chemical dose in milligrams per liter. The operator caught
three samples of the chemical as it fell from the feeder. Each of the three samples were
collected for two minutes. The weights of the samples are as follows.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
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Sample 1 weighs 25 grams
Sample 2 weighs 23 grams
Sample 3 weighs 24 grams
Water is treated at a rate of 1,800,000 gallons per day. Calculate the chemical dose in milligrams
per liter (mg/L).
7. An operator caught three samples of alum as it fell from the feeder. Each of the three samples
were collected for two minutes. The weights of the samples are as follows.
Sample 1 weighs 130 grams
Sample 2 weighs 126 grams
Sample 3 weighs 119 grams
Water is treated at a rate of 3,960,000 gallons per day. Calculate the alum dose in milligrams per
liter (mg/L).
8. An operator collected three 2-minute samples of powdered activated carbon as it fell from the
dry feeder. The samples weighed:
Sample 1 weighs 134 grams
Sample 2 weighs 130 grams
Sample 3 weighs 132 grams
Determine the powdered activated carbon dose in milligrams per liter (mg/L) if water is treated
at a rate of 2.02 MGD.
9. An operator wants to check the alum dose in milligrams per liter. The operator caught the
alum as it fell from the feeder. Three samples were collected, each for two minutes. The
weights of the samples are as follows.
Sample 1 weighs 35 grams
Sample 2 weighs 32 grams
Sample 3 weighs 35 grams
Water is treated at a rate of 0.72 MGD. Calculate the alum dose in milligrams per liter (mg/L).
10. An operator wants to check the soda ash dose in milligrams per liter. The operator caught
three samples of the chemical as it fell from the feeder. Each of the three samples were
collected for two minutes. The weights of the samples are as follows.
Sample 1 weighs 39 grams
Sample 2 weighs 40 grams
Sample 3 weighs 32 grams
Water is treated at a rate of 1.397 MGD. Calculate the soda ash dose in milligrams per liter
(mg/L).
11. An operator caught three samples of alum as it fell from the feeder. Each of the three samples
were collected for two minutes. The weights of the samples are as follows.
Sample 1 weighs 75 grams
Sample 2 weighs 78 grams

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Sample 3 weighs 78 grams
Water is treated at a rate of 2.088 MGD. Calculate the alum dose in milligrams per liter (mg/L).
12. An operator collected three 2-minute samples of soda ash as it fell from the dry feeder. The
samples weighed:
Sample 1 weighs 134 grams
Sample 2 weighs 130 grams
Sample 3 weighs 132 grams
Determine the powdered activated carbon dose in milligrams per liter (mg/L) if water is treated
at a rate of 2.02 MGD.
Answers to Practice Problems
1. 13 mg/L 4. 10 mg/L 7. 6 mg/L 10. 5 mg/L
2. 7 mg/L 5. 4 mg/L 8. 12 mg/L 11. 7 mg/L
3. 18 mg/L 6. 3 mg/L 9. 9 mg/L 12. 12 mg/L


Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
118 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Pounds per Day from Grams per Minute
Sample Problem: An operator wanted to confirm the feed rate for a dry feeder. The
operator collected the chemical for four minutes as it fell from the feeder. The weight of the
chemical collected was 1,325 grams. Calculate the chemical feed rate in pounds per day.

Step One: Determine the feed rate in grams per minute.
grams/min 331.25 =
mins 4
grams 1,325
=
min Time,
grams Fed, Chemical
= grams/min Rate, Feed

Step Two: Determine the feed rate in pounds per minute.
lbs/min 9 0.73026895 =
gramslbs 453.6
grams/min 331.25
=
grams/lbs 453.6
grams/min Fed, Chemical
= lbs/min Rate, Feed

Step Three: Determine the feed rate in pounds per day.
min/day 1,440 X lbs/min Rate. Feed = lbs/day Rate, Feed
min/day 1,440 X lbs/min 9 0.73026895 = lbs/day Rate, Feed
lbs/day 1,052 or 02 1,051.5873 = lbs/day Rate, Feed

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest pounds per day.
1. An operator wanted to check the calibration on one of their dry feeders. The operator collected
the chemical as it fell from the feeder for five minutes. During that time 257 grams of
chemical were collected. What was the feed rate in pounds per day?
2. While checking a dry feeder, 349 grams of chemical were collected in three minutes.
Determine the feed rate in pounds per day.
3. An operator checked the feed rate from a dry alum feeder by catching the alum in a pie tin as it
was fed. The alum was collected for five minutes. During that time 527 grams of alum were
collected. Calculate the feed rate in pounds per day.
4. An operator wanted to check the calibration on one of their dry feeders. The operator collected
the chemical as it fell from the feeder for four minutes. During that time 177 grams of
chemical were collected. What was the feed rate in pounds per day?
5. While checking a dry feeder, 89 grams of chemical were collected in three minutes. Determine
the feed rate in pounds per day.
6. An operator checked the feed rate from a dry alum feeder by catching the alum in a pie tin as it
was fed. The alum was collected for five minutes. During that time 117 grams of alum were
collected. Calculate the feed rate in pounds per day.
7. An operator wanted to check the calibration on one of their dry feeders. The operator collected
the chemical as it fell from the feeder for four minutes. During that time 229 grams of
chemical were collected. What was the feed rate in pounds per day?

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8. While checking a dry feeder, 315 grams of chemical were collected in five minutes. Determine
the feed rate in pounds per day.
9. An operator checked the feed rate from a dry alum feeder by catching the alum in a pie tin as it
was fed. The alum was collected for three minutes. During that time 259 grams of alum were
collected. Calculate the feed rate in pounds per day.
10. An operator wanted to check the calibration on one of their dry feeders. The operator
collected the chemical as it fell from the feeder for five minutes. During that time 647 grams
of chemical were collected. What was the feed rate in pounds per day?
11. While checking a dry feeder, 783 grams of chemical were collected in four minutes.
Determine the feed rate in pounds per day.
12. An operator checked the feed rate from a dry alum feeder by catching the alum in a pie tin as
it was fed. The alum was collected for three minutes. During that time 1,253 grams of alum
were collected. Calculate the feed rate in pounds per day.
Answers
1. 163 lbs/day 5. 94 lbs/day 9. 274 lbs/day
2. 369 lbs/day 6. 74 lbs/day 10. 411 lbs/day
3. 335 lbs/day 7. 182 lbs/day 11. 621 lbs/day
4. 140 lbs/day 8. 200 lbs/day 12. 1,326 lbs/day


Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
120 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Feed Rate, ml/min
Sample Problem: An operator wants to check the feed rate in milliliters per minute
(ml/min) for a liquid alum feeder. The operator pumps liquid alum into a graduated cylinder.
After three minutes, the volume of alum was checked. During the three minutes, 340 milliliters
of alum were delivered. Determine the liquid alum feed rate in milliliters per minute.

ml/min 113 or 333 113.333333 =
min 3
ml 340
=
min Time,
ml fed, Volume
= ml/min Rate, Feed

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest milliliter per minute (ml/min).
1. An operator wants to check the feed rate in milliliters per minute (ml/min) for a liquid alum
feeder. The operator pumps liquid alum into a graduated cylinder. After three minutes, the
volume of alum was checked. During the three minutes, 120 milliliters of alum were
delivered. Determine the liquid alum feed rate in milliliters per minute.
2. An operator tests a liquid caustic feeder by collecting the caustic discharged by the pump in a
1-liter (1,000 ml) graduated cylinder. The caustic was collected over a period of three
minutes. The volume of caustic collected was 760 milliliter. Calculate the liquid caustic feed
rate in milliliters per minute.
3. To test the liquid ferric sulfate feed rate in milliliters per minute, an operator collected ferric
sulfate in a 1,000 ml graduated cylinder. The operator collected 810 milliliters over three
minutes. What was the liquid ferric sulfate feed rate in milliliters per minute?
4. An operator used a 1,000-ml graduated cylinder to check the feed rate on a liquid alum feed
pump. The operator collected 716 milliliters in three minutes. What was the liquid alum feed
rate in milliliters per minute?
5. An operator wants to check the feed rate in milliliters per minute (ml/min) for a liquid alum
feeder. The operator pumps liquid alum into a graduated cylinder. After three minutes, the
volume of alum was checked. During the three minutes, 547 milliliters of alum were
delivered. Determine the liquid alum feed rate in milliliters per minute.
6. An operator tests a liquid caustic feeder by collecting the caustic discharged by the pump in a
1-liter (1,000 ml) graduated cylinder. The caustic was collected over a period of three
minutes. The volume of caustic collected was 612 milliliter. Calculate the liquid caustic feed
rate in milliliters per minute.
7. To test the saturated sodium fluoride solution feed rate in milliliters per minute, an operator
collected sodium fluoride solution in a 1,000 ml graduated cylinder. The operator collected 72
milliliters over three minutes. What was the sodium fluoride solution feed rate in milliliters
per minute?
8. An operator used a 1,000-ml graduated cylinder to check the feed rate on a liquid caustic feed
pump. The operator collected 279 milliliters in three minutes. What was the liquid caustic
feed rate in milliliters per minute?

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9. An operator wants to check the feed rate in milliliters per minute (ml/min) for a liquid alum
feeder. The operator pumps liquid alum into a graduated cylinder. After three minutes, the
volume of alum was checked. During the three minutes, 345 milliliters of alum were
delivered. Determine the liquid alum feed rate in milliliters per minute.
10. An operator tests a liquid caustic feeder by collecting the caustic discharged by the pump in a
1-liter (1,000 ml) graduated cylinder. The caustic was collected over a period of three
minutes. The volume of caustic collected was 166 milliliter. Calculate the liquid caustic feed
rate in milliliters per minute.
11. To test the liquid ferric sulfate feed rate in milliliters per minute, an operator collected ferric
sulfate in a 1,000 ml graduated cylinder. The operator collected 129 milliliters over three
minutes. What was the liquid ferric sulfate feed rate in milliliters per minute?
12. An operator used a 1,000-ml graduated cylinder to check the feed rate on a liquid alum feed
pump. The operator collected 60 milliliters in three minutes. What was the liquid alum feed
rate in milliliters per minute?

Answers
1. 40 ml/min 5. 182 ml/min 9. 115 ml/min
2. 253 ml/min 6. 204 ml/min 10. 55 ml/min
3. 270 ml/min 7. 24 ml/min 11. 43 ml/min
4. 239 ml/min 8. 93 ml/min 12. 20 ml/min


Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
122 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Chemical Fed, gal
Sample Problem: A liquid alum day tank is 3 feet in diameter. The liquid alum depth was
4.5 feet. Liquid alum was pumped from the tank for 16 hours. The liquid level in the tank
dropped 3.25 feet. How many gallons of liquid alum were fed?

Step One: Determine the volume of chemical fed in cubic feet (ft
3
).
Write down the formula.
Volume, ft
3
= (0.785) (diameter
2
) (height)
Make a table of data.
Diameter = 3ft
Height = 3.25ft
Plug the data into the formula.
Volume, ft
3
= (0.785) (3ft)
2
(3.25ft)
Square the diameter.
Volume, ft
3
= (0.785) (9ft
2
)(3.25ft)

Do the multiplication.
Volume, ft
3
= 22.96125ft
3


Step Two: Convert the volume of chemical fed in cubic feet (ft
3
) to gallons.
Write down the formula.
Volume, gallons = (volume, cubic feet) (7.48 gallons/cubic foot)
Make a table of data.
Volume, ft
3
= 22.96125ft
3

Plug the data into the formula.
Volume, gallons = (22.96125ft
3
) (7.48 gallons/cubic foot)
Do the multiplication.
Volume, gallons = 171.75015 or 172 gallons

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest of a gallon.
1. A potassium permanganate day tank is two feet in diameter and has a maximum liquid depth
of 3.5 feet. During the day shift, the liquid level in the tank dropped 2 feet. Determine how
many gallons of potassium permanganate solution were pumped from the day tank.

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2. Liquid caustic was pumped from a day tank which is 3 feet in diameter. During the days
operations, the liquid level in the tank dropped 2 feet. Calculate the number of gallons of
liquid caustic pumped from the day tank.
3. The soda ash solution day tank at a water treatment plant is four feet in diameter. It has a
maximum liquid level of 4 feet. During the previous days operations, the liquid level dropped
by 3 feet. How many gallons of soda ash solution were fed that day?
4. Liquid ferric sulfate was pumped from a day tank for 14 hours. The day tank has a diameter of
3 feet. The liquid level in the tank dropped 4 feet during that time period. Determine how
many gallons of ferric sulfate were fed.
5. A potassium permanganate day tank is 2.5 feet in diameter and has a maximum liquid depth of
four feet. During the day shift, the liquid level in the tank dropped 3.5 feet. Determine how
many gallons of potassium permanganate solution were pumped from the day tank.
6. Liquid caustic was pumped from a day tank which is 1.83 feet in diameter. During the days
operations, the liquid level in the tank dropped 2.75 feet. Calculate the number of gallons of
liquid caustic pumped from the day tank.
7. The soda ash solution day tank at a water treatment plant is 3.5 feet in diameter. It has a
maximum liquid level of 5 feet. During the previous days operations, the liquid level dropped
by 4.25 feet. How many gallons of soda ash solution were fed that day?
8. Liquid ferric sulfate was pumped from a day tank for 18 hours. The day tank has a diameter of
1.67 feet. The liquid level in the tank dropped 3.1 feet during that time period. Determine how
many gallons of ferric sulfate were fed.
9. A potassium permanganate day tank is 36 in diameter and has a maximum liquid depth of 42
inches. During the day shift, the liquid level in the tank dropped 22 inches. Determine how
many gallons of potassium permanganate solution were pumped from the day tank.
10. Liquid caustic was pumped from a day tank which is 30 inches in diameter. During the days
operations, the liquid level in the tank dropped 28 inches. Calculate the number of gallons of
liquid caustic pumped from the day tank.
11. The soda ash solution day tank at a water treatment plant is 42 inches in diameter. It has a
maximum liquid level of 46 inches. During the previous days operations, the liquid level
dropped by 40 inches. How many gallons of soda ash solution were fed that day?
12. Liquid ferric sulfate was pumped from a day tank for 11 hours. The day tank has a diameter
of 32 inches. The liquid level in the tank dropped 39 inches during that time period.
Determine how many gallons of ferric sulfate were fed.
Answers
1. 47 gal 4. 211 gal 7. 306 gal 10. 86 gal
2. 106 gal 5. 128 gal 8. 51 gal 11. 240 gal
3. 282 gal 6. 54 gal 9. 97 gal 12. 136 gal



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Chlorine Residual
I. Two types of chlorine residual
A. combined chlorine residual
B. free chlorine residual
II. Four types of combined residual
A. monochloramine
B. dichloramine
C. trichloramine
D. chloroorganic compounds
III. Two types of free chlorine residual
A. hypochlorous acid (most effective form of chlorine residual)
B. hypochlorite ion
IV. Problems which make maintaining a chlorine residual in the distribution system difficult include:
A. stagnant water in dead ends
B. biological growth
C. contamination during break repairs
D. contamination from cross-connections
E. inadequate treatment
V. Low chlorine readings are caused by:
A. agitation of the sample
B. aeration of the sample
C. exposure to sunlight
D. holding the sample too long before analysis
E. using the same bottle to collect chlorine samples and bacteriological samples.
VI. Methods of Determination
A. DPD colorimetric analysis (in certain cases the Division of Water Supply may allow the use of
DPD color comparitors)
B. Amperometric titration
VII. DWS Rules
A. 1200-5-1-.17(4)
1. chlorinate to maintain a free chlorine residual of 0.2 mg/l in all parts of the
distribution system.
2. The free chlorine residual shall not be less than 0.2 mg/l in more than 5 percent of the
samples each month, for any two consecutive months.
B. 1200-5-1-.31
1. Lowest chlorine residual for the day must be recorded
2. If the free chlorine residual falls below 0.2 mg/l, a sample must be taken every four
hours until the residual is restored to at least 0.2 mg/l.

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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 125


VIII. Other uses of chlorine
A. disinfecting water mains and storage tanks
B. oxidizing iron, manganese and hydrogen sulfide
C. controlling tastes, odors, algae and slimes

IX. Reacting to a sudden drop in chlorine residual
A. increase chlorination levels
B. take samples to identify contaminants
C. check distribution system to locate source of contamination

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126 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Notes

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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 127


Softening
Purpose to remove minerals from water which cause hardness.
Hardness A characteristic of water which:
(1) requires considerable amounts of soap to produce a foam of lather;
(2) produces scale on glassware, plumbing fixtures, boilers and pipes.

Causes Hardness is caused by divalent, metallic cations (positive ions with a
valence or charge of +2).
The two main cations which cause hardness are calcium (Ca) and
magnesium (Mg).
Other Significant Causes: Strontium (Sr), Aluminum (Al) Barium (Ba)
Iron (Fe) Manganese (Mn) Zinc (Zn)
Expressing Hardness Hardness is expressed as mg/l as CaCO
3
(calcium carbonate)

Concerns Over Soft Water
Excessively Soft Water (1) Corrosive;
(2) Contains excess sodium when softened by the ion-exchange
process.

Types of Hardness
Calcium Hardness Hardness caused by calcium
Magnesium Hardness Hardness caused by magnesium
Carbonate Hardness Hardness caused primarily by calcium bicarbonate and magnesium
bicarbonate [can also be caused by the carbonate salts].
Noncarbonate Hardness Hardness caused by calcium and magnesium slats other than
carbonates and bicarbonates [calcium sulfate, calcium chloride,
magnesium sulfate, magnesium chloride]
Temporary Hardness Hardness which can be removed by boiling. Bicarbonate salts of
calcium and magnesium which precipitate out of water when it is
heated.
Permanent Hardness Hardness which does not precipitate out when water is heated. Also
called noncarbonate hardness.


Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
128 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Softening Methods
Lime-Soda Ash Softening
Uses lime in one of two forms: (1) Hydrated or slaked lime [Ca(OH)
2
]; or,
(2) Quicklime of unslaked lime [CaO], also called calcium
oxide.
Lime-soda ash softening may be more cost-effective for surface water
plants because the algae, turbidity, and color in surface water can foul
the ion-exchange resin.
Operations
Chemical Storage DO NOT STORE QUICKLIME AND ALUM TOGETHER!
Mixing quicklime with water generates large amounts of heat!

Operating Problems with the Lime-Soda Ash Softening Process
Excess Calcium Carbonate can coat filter media and cement grains together;
can pass through the filter and plug the underdrain;
can coat pipe walls in the distribution system, reducing pipe
capacity.
Magnesium Hydroxide Scale Can form on boilers and heating elements in water heaters,
reducing efficiency and increasing operating costs.
After-precipitation The continued precipitation of calcium carbonate after water leaves the
sedimentation basins.
Unstable Water If softened water is not properly stabilized, one of two major
operational problems will result:
(1) scale deposits; or,
(2) corrosion.
Interference with Other Treatment Processes
Disinfection - high pH favors the hypochlorite ion
Disinfection - high pH favors trihalomethane production
Taste and Odor Removal - may hinder the removal of tastes and odors.
Color Removal - color must be removed prior to softening




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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 129


Pumps and Motors
Pump Facts
High-service pump - discharges water under pressure to the distribution system

Booster pump - used to increase pressure in the distribution system and to fill elevated
storage tanks.

Impeller on centrifugal pump used to move water.

Likely causes of vibration in an existing pump/motor installtion
1. bad bearings
2. imbalance of rotating elements
3. misalignment from shifts in underlying foundation

Pump and motor should be tested and complete test results recorded as a baselin for the
measurement of perfomance within first 30 days of operations.

Calipers and thickness gauges can be used to check alignment on flexible couplings

Packing/Seals Facts
If new packing leaks, stop the motor and repack the pump.

Pumps need new packing when the gland or follower is pulled all the way down.

The packing around the shaft should be tightened just enough to allow an occasional drop of
liquid.

Joints of packing should be staggered at least 90.

Mechanical seals consist of a rotating ring and stationary element.

The operating temperature on a mechanical seal should never exceed 160 F.

Motor Facts
Motors pull the most current on start up.

In order to prevent damage, turn the circuit off immediately if the fuse on one of the legs of
a three-phase circuit blows.

An electric motor changes electrical energy into mechanical energy.

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130 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


Power factors on motors can be improved by:
(1) changing the motor loading;
(2) changing the motor type;
(3) using capacitors.

Routine cleaning of pump motors includes:
(1) checking alignment and balance;
(2) checking brushes;
(3) removing dirt and moisture;
(4) removal of obstructions that prevent air circulation.

Cool air extends the useful life of motors.

A motor (electric or internal combustion) used to drive a pump is called a prime mover.

The speed at which the magnetic field rotates is called the motor synchronous speed and is
expressed in rpm.

If a variable speed belt drive is not to be used for 30 days or more, shift the unit to minimum
speed setting.

Emory cloth should not be used on electric motor components because it is electrically
conductive and may contaminate parts.

Ohmmeters used to test a fuse in a motor starter circuit.

The most likely cause of a three-phase motor not coming up to speed after starting - the motor
has lost power to one or more phases.

Transformer Facts

Transformers are used to convert high voltage to low voltage.

High voltage is 440 volts or higher.

Standby engines should be run weekly to ensure that it is working properly.

Relays are used to protect electric motors.




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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 131


Water Horsepower
Water horsepower is that portion of the power supplied to a pump that actually used to move
water. It is the amount of work needed to move a flow of water against a specified head. This
formula is provided for calculating water horsepower. Water horsepower is the amount of power
required to lift water.
3,960
feet) , nute)(head gallons/mi (flow,
= HP , Horsepower Water
Sample Problem: Water is pumped at a rate of 100 gallons per minute against a total head
of 75 feet. Calculate the water horspower required to lift the water.
Write down the formula.
3,960
feet) , nute)(head gallons/mi (flow,
= HP , Horsepower Water
Make a table of data.
flow, gallons/minute = 100 gallons/minute
head, feet = 75 feet
Plug the data into the formula.
3,960
75feet) s/minute)( (100gallon
= HP , Horsepower Water
Multiply the numbers above the line.
3,960
7,500
= HP , Horsepower Water
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
HP 1.9 or 1.89393939 = HP , Horsepower Water


Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest tenth of a horsepower (one decimal place).
1. Calculate the water horsepower required for a pump to deliver 375 gallons per minute against
a total head of 50 feet.
2. Determine the water horsepower required to pump 400 gal/min against a total head of 175
feet.
3. A pump delivers a flow of 415 gal/min. The total head is 250 feet. What is the water
horsepower?
4. Calculate the water horsepower required for a pump to deliver 430 gallons per minute against
a total head of 325 feet.
5. Determine the water horsepower required to pump 450 gal/min against a total head of 425
feet.
6. A pump delivers a flow of 480 gal/min. The total head is 575 feet. What is the water
horsepower?

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7. Calculate the water horsepower required for a pump to deliver 500 gallons per minute against
a total head of 675 feet.
8. Determine the water horsepower required to pump 520 gal/min against a total head of 775
feet.
9. A pump delivers a flow of 540 gal/min. The total head is 875 feet. What is the water
horsepower?
10. A pump has an efficiency of 90 %. The motor has an efficiency of 93 %. The pump delivers
water at a rate of 550 gallons per minute against a total head of 925 feet. What is the water
horsepower for this pump?
11. The motor on a pump has an efficiency of 92 %. The pump has an efficiency of 86 %. The
pump delivers water at a rate of 575 gallons per minute against a total head of 1,050 feet.
What is the water horsepower for this pump?
12. What would the water horsepower required to move a flow of 600 gal/min against a total
head of 1,175 feet be if the motor efficiency is 90 % and the pump efficiency is 90%?

Answers to Practice Problems
1. 4.7 whp 4. 35.3 whp 7. 85.2 whp 10. 128.5 whp
2. 17.7 whp 5. 48.3 whp 8. 101.8 whp 11. 152.5 whp
3. 26.2 whp 6. 69.7 whp 9. 119.3 whp 12. 178.0 whp



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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 133


Brake Horsepower, bhp
Brake horsepower can be calculated using this formula.
%) , efficiency mp (3,960)(pu
ft) ead, gal/min)(h (flow,
= HP , Horsepower Brake
Sample Problem: A booster pump delivers water at a rate of 820 gal./min. against a total
head of 165 feet. The pump has an efficiency of 87% and the motor has an efficiency of 90%.
What is the brake horsepower for this pump?
Write down the formula.
%) , efficiency mp (3,960)(pu
ft) ead, gal/min)(h (flow,
= HP , Horsepower Brake
Make a table of data.
flow, gal./min. = 820 gal./min.
head, ft. = 165 ft.
pump efficiency, % = 87%/100% = 0.87
Plug the data into the formula.
87) (3,960)(0.
n)(165ft) (820gal/mi
= HP , Horsepower Brake
Multiply the numbers above the line (numerator).
87) (3,960)(0.
135,300
= HP , Horsepower Brake
Multiply the numbers below the line (denominator).
3,445.2
135,300
= HP , Horsepower Brake
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
HP 39.3 or 39.27203 = HP , Horsepower Brake


Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest tenth of a horsepower (one decimal place).
1. Calculate the brake horsepower required for a pump to deliver 400 gallons per minute against
a total head of 175 feet, the pump efficiency is 85 %, and and the motor efficiency is 92 %.
2. Determine the brake horsepower required to pump 595 gal/min against a total head of 1,150
feet, the pump has an efficiency of 85 %, and the motor efficiency is 89 %.
3. A pump delivers a flow of 490 gal/min. The total head is 625 feet. The pump has an efficiency
of 87 %. The motor efficiency is 87 %.What is the brake horsepower?

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
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4. Calculate the brake horsepower required for a pump to deliver 570 gallons per minute against
a total head of 1,025 feet if the pump has an efficiency of 84 %, and the motor efficiency is 92
%.
5. Determine the brake horsepower required to pump 585 gal/min against a total head of 1,100
feet if the pump has an efficiency of 83 %, and the motor efficiency is 87 %.
6. A pump delivers a flow of 405 gal/min. The total head is 200 feet. The pump has an efficiency
of 86 %. The motor efficiency is 93 %.What is the brake horsepower?
7. Calculate the brake horsepower required for a pump to deliver 555 gallons per minute against
a total head of 950 feet if the motor efficiency is 89 %, and the pump has an efficiency of 81
%.
8. Determine the brake horsepower required to pump 410 gal/min against a total head of 225
feet, if the pump has an efficiency of 87 %, and the motor efficiency is 94 %.
9. A pump delivers a flow of 575 gal/min. The total head is 1,050 feet. The pump has an
efficiency of 81 %. The motor efficiency is 85 %.What is the brake horsepower?
10. A pump has an efficiency of 88 %. The motor has an efficiency of 88 %. The pump delivers
motor at a rate of 495 gallons per minute against a total head of 650 feet. What is the brake
horsepower for this pump?
11. The motor on a pump has an efficiency of 90 %. The pump has an efficiency of 86 %. The
pump delivers motor at a rate of 425 gallons per minute against a total head of 300 feet. What
is the brake horsepower for this pump?
12. What would the brake horsepower required to move a flow of 470 gal/min against a total
head of 525 feet be if the motor efficiency is 83 % and the pump efficiency is 83 %?


Answers
1. 20.8 bhp 4. 175.6 bhp 7. 164.3 bhp 10. 92.3 bhp
2. 203.3 bhp 5. 195.8 bhp 8. 26.8 bhp 11. 37.4 bhp
3. 88.9 bhp 6. 23.8 bhp 9. 188.2 bhp 12. 75.1 bhp


The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 135


Motor Horsepower, mhp
Motor horsepower is defined as the horsepower which is equivalent to the electric power
(watts) supplied to the motor. Motor horsepower can be calculated using this formula.
%) , horsepower %)(motor , efficiency mp (3,960)(pu
ft) ead, gal/min)(h (flow,
= HP , Horsepower Motor
Sample Problem: A booster pump delivers water at a rate of 820 gal./min. against a total
head of 165 feet. The pump has an efficiency of 87% and the motor has an efficiency of 90%.
What is the motor horsepower for this pump?
Write down the formula.
%) , horsepower %)(motor , efficiency mp (3,960)(pu
ft) ead, gal/min)(h (flow,
= HP , Horsepower Motor
Make a table of data.
flow, gal./min. = 820 gal./min.
head, ft. = 165 ft.
pump efficiency, % = 87%/100% = 0.87
motor efficiency, % = 90%/100% = 0.90
Plug the data into the formula.
87)(0.90) (3,960)(0.
n)(165ft) (820gal/mi
= HP , Horsepower Motor
Multiply the numbers above the line.
87)(0.90) (3,960)(0.
135,300
= HP , Horsepower Motor
Multiply the numbers below the line.
3,100.68
135,300
= HP , Horsepower Motor
Divide the number above the line by the number below the line.
HP 43.6 or 43.65589 = HP , Horsepower Motor


Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest tenth of a horsepower (one decimal place).
1. Calculate the motor horsepower required for a pump to deliver 400 gallons per minute against
a total head of 175 feet, the pump efficiency is 85 %, and and the motor efficiency is 92 %.
2. Determine the motor horsepower required to pump 595 gal/min against a total head of 1,150
feet, the pump has an efficiency of 85 %, and the motor efficiency is 89 %.
3. A pump delivers a flow of 490 gal/min. The total head is 625 feet. The pump has an efficiency
of 87 %. The motor efficiency is 87 %.What is the motor horsepower?

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
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4. Calculate the motor horsepower required for a pump to deliver 570 gallons per minute against
a total head of 1,025 feet if the pump has an efficiency of 84 %, and the motor efficiency is 92
%.
5. Determine the motor horsepower required to pump 585 gal/min against a total head of 1,100
feet if the pump has an efficiency of 83 %, and the motor efficiency is 87 %.
6. A pump delivers a flow of 405 gal/min. The total head is 200 feet. The pump has an efficiency
of 86 %. The motor efficiency is 93 %.What is the motor horsepower?
7. Calculate the motor horsepower required for a pump to deliver 555 gallons per minute against
a total head of 950 feet if the motor efficiency is 89 %, and the pump has an efficiency of 81
%.
8. Determine the motor horsepower required to pump 410 gal/min against a total head of 225
feet, if the pump has an efficiency of 87 %, and the motor efficiency is 94 %.
9. A pump delivers a flow of 575 gal/min. The total head is 1,050 feet. The pump has an
efficiency of 81 %. The motor efficiency is 85 %.What is the motor horsepower?
10. A pump has an efficiency of 88 %. The motor has an efficiency of 88 %. The pump delivers
motor at a rate of 495 gallons per minute against a total head of 650 feet. What is the motor
horsepower for this pump?
11. The motor on a pump has an efficiency of 90 %. The pump has an efficiency of 86 %. The
pump delivers motor at a rate of 425 gallons per minute against a total head of 300 feet. What
is the motor horsepower for this pump?
12. What would the motor horsepower required to move a flow of 470 gal/min against a total
head of 525 feet be if the motor efficiency is 83 % and the pump efficiency is 83 %?

Answers
1. 22.6 mhp 4. 190.9 mhp 7. 184.7 mhp 10. 104.9 mhp
2. 228.4 mhp 5. 225.0 mhp 8. 28.5 mhp 11. 41.6 mhp
3. 102.2 mhp 6. 25.6 mhp 9. 221.4 mhp 12. 90.4 mhp

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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 137


Brake Horsepower
The brake horsepower can be determined if the water horsepower and the percent pump
efficiency are known. This formula can be used to calculate brake horsepower.
Efficiency pump %
HP water
= HP Brake
Sample Problem: Determine the brake horsepower if the water horsepower is 50 HP and
the pump efficiency is 78%.
Write down the formula.
Efficiency pump %
HP water
= HP Brake
Make a table of data.
water HP = 50 HP
% pump efficiency = 78% = 0.78
Plug the data into the formula.
0.78
HP 50
= HP Brake
Do the arithmetic.
HP 64 or 64.102564 = HP Brake



Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest whole number.
1. What would the brake horsepower be if the water horsepower is 37 HP and the pump
efficiency is 74%?
2. Calculate the brake horsepower if the pump efficiency is 77% and the water horsepower is 52
HP.
3. Determine the brake horsepower if the water horsepower is 75 HP and the pump efficiency is
70%.
4. The water horsepower is 62 HP. The pump efficiency is 75%. What is the brake horsepower?
5. What would the brake horsepower be if the pump efficiency is 76% and the water horsepower
is 150 HP?
6. Calculate the brake horsepower if the water horsepower is 31 HP and the pump efficiency is
73%.
7. Determine the brake horsepower if the pump efficiency is 72% and the water horsepower is 17
HP.
8. The pump efficiency is 79%. The water horsepower is 92 HP. Determine the brake
horsepower.

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9. What would the brake horsepower be if the water horsepower is 46 HP and the pump
efficiency is 82%?
10. Calculate the brake horsepower if the water horsepower is 39 HP and the pump efficiency is
78%.
11. The raw water pumps deliver 1,500 gallons per minute against 450 feet of head. The pump
efficiency is 75%. The motor efficiency is 87%. The motor horsepower is 261 HP. The water
horsepower is 170 HP. What is the brake horsepower?
12. Determine the brake horsepower if the water horsepower is 117 and the pump efficiency is
78%.

Answers
1. 50 HP 4. 83 HP 7. 24 HP 10. 50 HP
2. 68 HP 5. 197 HP 8. 116 HP 11. 227 HP
3. 107 HP 6. 42 HP 9. 56 HP 12. 150 HP


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Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 139


Motor Horsepower
Motor horsepower can be calculated using brake horsepower and % motor efficiency. This
formula can be used to calculate motor horsepower.
efficiency motor %
HP brake
= HP Motor
Sample Problem: What would the motor horsepower be if the brake horsepower is 75 HP
and the motor efficiency is 89%?
Write down the formula.
efficiency motor %
HP brake
= HP Motor
Make a table of data.
brake HP = 75 HP
% motor efficiency = 89% = 0.89
Plug the data into the formula.
0.89
HP 75
= HP Motor
Do the arithmetic.
HP 84 or 84.2696629 = HP Motor

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest whole number.
1. The brake horsepower for a pump and motor is 125 HP. The motor efficiency is 90%.
Calculate the motor horsepower.
2. What would the motor horsepower be if the brake horsepower is 50 HP and the motor
efficiency is 87%?
3. Determine the motor horsepower if the motor efficiency is 85% and the brake horsepower is
25 HP.
4. Calculate the motor horsepower if the motor efficiency is 82% and the brake horsepower is 95
HP.
5. The efficiency of a motor is 86%. The brake horsepower is 110 HP. What is the motor
horsepower?
6. What would the motor horsepower be if the motor efficiency is 83% and the brake horsepower
is 20 HP?
7. A motor has an efficiency of 81%. The brake horsepower is 200 HP. Calculate the motor
horsepower.
8. The brake horsepower for a pump and motor is 45 HP. The efficiency of the motor is 88%.
Determine the motor horsepower for the pump and motor.

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9. A water treatment plant has two raw water pumps. Each raw water pump delivers a flow of
750 gallons per minute against a total head of 150 feet. The brake horsepower for each pump
is 36 HP. The efficiency of each motor is 84%. Determine the motor horsepower for the raw
water pumps.
10. Each of the high service pumps at a water treatment plant delivers a flow of 1,250 gallons per
minute against a total head of 350 feet. The brake horsepower for each pump is 135 HP. The
efficiency of each motor is 85%. What is the motor horsepower for each pump?
11. Determine the motor horsepower if the brake horsepower is 89 HP and the motor efficiency
is 83%.
12. Calculate the motor horsepower if the motor efficiency is 91% and the brake horsepower is
65 HP.

Answers
1. 139 HP 4. 116 HP 7. 247 HP 10. 159 HP
2. 57 HP 5. 128 HP 8. 51 HP 11. 107 HP
3. 29 HP 6. 24 HP 9. 43 HP 12. 71 HP















The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 141


Wire-to-Water Efficiency
This formula is provided for calculating the wire to water efficiency for a pump and motor.

Wire-to-Water Efficiency = (% motor efficiency)(% pump efficiency) X 100

Sample Problem: A motor has an efficiency of 86%. The pump that it drives has an
efficiency of 80%. What is the wire-to-water efficiency of the pump and motor?
Write down the formula.
Wire-to-Water Efficiency = (% motor efficiency)(% pump efficiency) X 100
Make a table of data.
% motor efficiency = 86% = 0.86
% pump efficiency = 80% = 0.80
Plug the data into the formula.
Wire-to-Water Efficiency = (0.86)(0.80) X 100
Do the arithmetic.
Wire-to-Water Efficiency = 68.8%



Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest percent.

1. A motor has an efficiency of 96%. The pump which it drives has an efficiency of 91 %. What
is the wire-to-water efficiency of this pump in percent?
2. Calculate the wire-to-water efficiency for a motor which has an efficiency of 95% and the
pump has an efficiency of 90%.
3. Determine the wire-to-water efficiency for a pump which has an efficiency of 84% if the
motor has an efficiency of 89%.
4. What would the wire-to-water efficiency be for a pump and motor if the motor has an
efficiency of 92% and the pump has an efficiency of 87%?
5. A motor has an efficiency of 86%. The pump which it drives has an efficiency of 81 %. What
is the wire-to-water efficiency of this pump in percent?
6. Calculate the wire-to-water efficiency for a motor which has an efficiency of 82% and the
pump has an efficiency of 77%.
7. Determine the wire-to-water efficiency for a pump which has an efficiency of 72% if the
motor has an efficiency of 94%.
8. What would the wire-to-water efficiency be for a pump and motor if the motor has an
efficiency of 90% and the pump has an efficiency of 89%?

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9. A motor has an efficiency of 85%. The pump which it drives has an efficiency of 84 %. What
is the wire-to-water efficiency of this pump in percent?
10. Calculate the wire-to-water efficiency for a motor which has an efficiency of 79% and the
pump has an efficiency of 78%.
11. Determine the wire-to-water efficiency for a pump which has an efficiency of 74% if the
motor has an efficiency of 91%.
12. What would the wire-to-water efficiency be for a pump and motor if the motor has an
efficiency of 88% and the pump has an efficiency of 71%?

Answers

1. 87% 4. 80% 7. 68% 10. 62%
2. 86% 5. 70% 8. 80% 11. 67%
3. 75% 6. 63% 9. 71% 12. 62%

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 143


% Efficiency
This formula is given for calculating the percent efficiency for a pump and motor.
100 X
supplied HP
output HP
= Efficiency %
Example: The power output for a pump and motor is 100 horsepower. The power input to
the pump and motor is 133 horsepower. What is the efficiency for the system in percent?
Write down the formula.
100 X
supplied HP
output HP
= Efficiency %
Make a table of data.
HP output = 100 HP
HP supplied = 133 HP
Plug the data into the formula.
Plug the data into the formula.
100 X
HP 133
HP 100
= Efficiency %
Divide the horsepower output by the horsepower supplied.
% Efficiency = 0.7518796 X 100
Do the multiplication.
% Efficiency = 75.18796 or 75%

Practice Problems

Round your answers to the nearest whole number.

1. Determine the percent efficiency if 101 HP are supplied to a motor and the output is 89 HP.
2. Calculate the percent efficiency for a pump and motor if the power supplied is 100 HP and the
power output is 75 HP.
3. What would the percent efficiency for a motor and pump be if the HP output is 35 HP and HP
supplied is 47 HP?
4. 49 horsepower are supplied to a pump and motor. The output of the pump and motor is 37 HP.
Determine the percent efficiency of the pump and motor.
5. What would the percent efficiency for a pump and motor be if 57 horsepower are supplied to
the motor and the power output of the pump is 42 horsepower?
6. The power supplied to a motor is 87 HP. The power output for the pump is 69 HP. Calculate
the percent efficiency for the pump and motor.
7. Calculate the percent efficiency for a pump and motor if 96 HP are supplied to the motor and
the pump output is 83 HP.

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8. Determine the percent efficiency for a motor and pump if the power supplied to the motor is
177 HP and the pump output is 156 HP.
9. The power supplied to a motor and pump is 210 horsepower. The output for the pump and
motor is 179 horsepower. What is the percent efficiency for the pump and motor?
10. The power supplied to a pump and motor is 50 HP. The power output for the pump and
motor is 42 HP. Determine the % overall efficiency for the pump and motor.
11. What would the wire-to-water efficiency be for a motor and pump if 93 horsepower are
supplied to the motor and the pump output is 76 horsepower?
12. The power output for a pump is 25 horsepower. The power supplied to the motor is 31
horsepower. Calculate the wire-to-water efficiency for the pump and motor.

Answers to Practice Problems

1. 88% 4. 76% 7. 86% 10. 84%
2. 75% 5. 74% 8. 88% 11. 82%
3. 74% 6. 79% 9. 85% 12. 81%

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 145


% Efficiency, overall
The Training Center will give you this formula for calculating the overall efficiency, in
percent, for a pump and motor.
100 X
HP motor
HP water
= overall , Efficiency %
Example: The motor horsepower is 81 HP. The water horsepower is 68 HP. What is the %
overall efficiency?
Write down the formula.
100 X
HP motor
HP water
= overall , Efficiency %
Make a table of data.
Water HP = 68 HP
Motor HP = 81 HP
Plug the data into the formula.
100 X
HP 81
HP 68
= overall , Efficiency %
Divide the water HP by the motor HP.
% Efficiency, overall = 0.8395061 X 100
Do the arithmetic.
% Efficiency, overall = 83.95061 or 84%

Practice Problems

Round your answers to the nearest whole number.
1. The water horsepower for a pump is 45 HP. The motor horsepower is 59 HP. What is the
percent overall efficiency for the pump and motor?
2. Calculate the overall efficiency in percent for a motor and pump if the motor horsepower is 96
HP and the water horsepower is 81 HP.
3. Determine the overall efficiency in percent for a pump and motor if the water horsepower is
15 HP and the motor horsepower is 21 HP.
4. What would the overall efficiency in percent be for a motor and pump if the motor horsepower
is 86 HP and the water horsepower is 70 HP?
5. The motor horsepower for a pump is 112 HP. The water horsepower is 89 HP. Determine the
overall efficiency for the pump and motor in percent.
6. Determine the overall efficiency in percent for a pump and motor if the motor horsepower for
the system is 67 HP, and the pump output is 52 water horsepower.
7. Calculate the percent overall efficiency for pump and motor when the motor horsepower is 89
HP and the water horsepower is 70 HP.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
146 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


8. The motor horsepower is 12 HP and the water horsepower is 8 HP. Calculate the overall
efficiency in percent.
9. Each of the raw water pumps at a water treatment plant require 212 motor horsepower to
pump raw water. The output (water horsepower) for each pump is 178 HP. What is the overall
efficiency for each pump in percent?
10. Determine the efficiency in percent for a motor and pump if the motor horsepower is 97 HP
and the pump output is 78 water horsepower.
11. Calculate the wire-to-water efficiency in percent for a pump and motor if the input to the
motor (motor horsepower) is 77 motor horsepower, and the output (water horsepower) for the
pump is 56 HP.
12. The largest finished water pump at a water treatment plant has a power input (motor
horsepower) of 279 HP. The power output (water horsepower) for the pump is 212 HP. What
is the wire-to-water efficiency in percent for the finished water pump?

Answers
1. 76% 4. 81% 7. 79% 10. 80%
2. 84% 5. 79% 8. 67% 11. 73%
3. 71% 6. 78% 9. 84% 12. 76%

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 147


% Pump Efficiency
The pump efficiency in percent can be determined if the water horsepower and the brake
horsepower for the pump are known. This formula can be used to determine the % pump
efficiency.
100 X
HP brake
HP water
= Efficiency Pump %
Example: Calculate the efficiency in percent for a pump if the water horsepower is 75 HP
and the brake horsepower is 89 HP.
Write down the formula.
100 X
HP brake
HP water
= Efficiency Pump %
Make a table of data.
water HP = 75 HP
brake HP = 89 HP
Plug the data into the formula.
100 X
HP 89
HP 75
= Efficiency Pump %
Do the division.
% Pump Efficiency = 0.8426966 X 100
Do the multiplication.
% Pump Efficiency = 84.26966 or 84%

Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest whole number.

1. The brake horsepower for a pump is 110 HP. The water horsepower is 87 HP. What is the
pump efficiency in percent?
2. Calculate the efficiency in percent for a pump if the water horsepower is 27 HP and the brake
horsepower is 36 HP.
3. Determine the efficiency of a pump in percent if the brake horsepower is 86 HP and the water
horsepower is 73 HP.
4. What would the efficiency in percent be for a pump if the brake horsepower is 96 HP and the
water horsepower is 77 HP?
5. The brake horsepower for a booster pump is 75 HP. The water horsepower is 59 HP. Calculate
the efficiency of the booster pump in percent.
6. The water horsepower for a raw water pump is 179 HP. The brake horsepower for the pump is
208 HP. Determine the efficiency in percent for the raw water pump.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
148 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


7. Calculate the efficiency for a pump in percent if the brake horsepower is 97 HP and the water
horsepower is 80 HP.
8. Determine the pump efficiency in percent if the water horsepower is 60 HP and the brake
horsepower is 72 HP.
9. The brake horsepower supplied to a pump is 87 HP. The water horsepower supplied by the
pump is 71 HP. Determine the pump efficiency in percent.
10. Determine the efficiency of a pump in percent if the water horsepower for the pump is 92 HP
and the water horsepower is 80 HP.
11. A pump requires 91 brake horsepower to provide 72 water horsepower. What is the
efficiency of the pump in percent?
12. 115 water horsepower is supplied by a pump. The brake horsepower supplied to the pump is
140 HP. Determine the efficiency of the pump in percent.

Answers
1. 79% 4. 80 % 7. 82% 10. 87%
2. 75% 5. 79% 8. 83% 11. 79%
3. 85% 6. 86% 9. 82% 12. 82%

The Training Station Tennessee Association of Utility Districts
Copyright 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD. 149


% Motor Efficiency
If the brake horsepower and motor horsepower are known, this formula can be used to
calculate the motor efficiency in percent.
100 X
HP motor
HP brake
= Efficiency Motor %
Sample Problem: Determine the motor efficiency in percent if the brake horsepower is 97
HP and the motor horsepower is 115 HP.
Write down the formula.
100 X
HP motor
HP brake
= Efficiency Motor %
Make a table of data.
brake HP = 97 HP
motor HP = 115 HP
Plug the data into the formula.
100 X
HP 115
HP 97
= Efficiency Motor %
Do the division.
% Motor Efficiency = 0.84347826 X 100
Do the multiplication.
% Motor Efficiency = 84.347826 or 84%


Practice Problems
Round your answers to the nearest whole number.

1. Calculate the motor efficiency in percent if the brake horsepower is 87 HP and the motor
horsepower is 106 HP.
2. Determine the motor efficiency in percent when the brake horsepower is 65 HP and the motor
horsepower is 72 HP.
3. What would the percent motor efficiency be if the motor horsepower is 42 HP and the brake
horsepower is 36 HP?
4. The motor horsepower is 86 HP. The brake horsepower is 76 HP. What is the motor efficiency
in percent?
5. What would the motor efficiency in percent be if the brake horsepower is 152 HP and the
motor horsepower is 173 HP?
6. Determine the percent motor efficiency if the motor horsepower is 100 HP and the brake
horsepower is 87 HP.

Study Guide for Water Treatment Plant Operators
150 2002. All rights reserved. TAUD.


7. Calculate the percent motor efficiency if the brake horsepower is 72 HP and the motor
horsepower is 89 HP.
8. The brake horsepower is 76 HP. The motor horsepower is 92 HP. Calculate the motor
efficiency in percent.
9. What would the motor efficiency be in percent if the brake horsepower is 215 HP and the
motor horsepower is 241 HP.
10. The power supplied to a motor is 116 motor horsepower. The brake horsepower is 89 HP.
Determine the percent motor efficiency.
11. The brake horsepower is 15 HP. The motor horsepower is 21 HP. Calculate the percent
motor efficiency.
12. The motor horsepower is 112 HP. What would the motor efficiency in percent be if the brake
horsepower is 93 HP?

Answers
1. 82% 4. 88% 7. 81% 10. 77%
2. 90% 5. 88% 8. 83% 11. 71%
3. 86% 6. 87% 9. 89% 12. 83%

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