Unit 6.

Selecting processes:
shaping, joining and surface treatment

New approaches to Materials Education - a course authored by Mike Ashby and David Cebon, Cambridge, UK, 2008
MFA and DC 2008

Outline
!

Processes and their attributes

! Screening by attributes ! Selecting shape-forming processes ! Selecting joining processes ! Selecting surface-treatment processes ! Exercises

Manufacturing processes

Mould

Granular Polymer Nozzle Cylinder

Primary shaping
Casting Molding PM methods

Secondary shaping
Screw

Heater

Machining Drilling Cutting Machining

Injection moulding
No.8-CMYK-5/01

Joining
Welding Adhesives Fasteners

Surface Treating
Painting Polishing Heat treating Welding Painting
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Data organisation: the PROCESS TREE

Kingdom

Family

Class
Casting

Member

Attributes

Difficult !

Joining

Compression Rotation Injection RTM Blow

RTM Blow Material molding Injection molding Material

Shape Material Shape Size Range Shape Size Range Min. section Size Range Min. section Tolerance Min. section Tolerance Roughness Tolerance Roughness Economic batch Roughness Economic batch Documentation Economic batch Documentation -- specific Documentation -- specific -- general -- specific -- general -- general

Deformation Molding Composite

Process
data-table

Shaping

Surfacing

Powder

Rapid prototyping

Each family has attributes that differ.

Process records

Shape classification
Some processes can make only simple shapes, others, complex shapes.

!!

Wire drawing, extrusion, rolling, shape rolling: prismatic shapes

Stamping, folding, spinning, deep drawing: sheet shapes

!!

!!

Casting, molding, powder methods: 3-D shapes

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Structured data for injection moulding*

Injection moulding (Thermoplastics)
INJECTION MOULDING of thermoplastics is the equivalent of pressure die casting of metals. Molten polymer is injected under high pressure into a cold steel mould. The polymer solidifies under pressure and the moulding is then ejected.

Shape
Circular Prism Non-circular Prism Solid 3-D Hollow 3-D True True True True

Economic Attributes
Economic batch size Relative tooling cost Relative equipment cost 1e+004 - 1e+006 high high

Physical attributes
Mass range Roughness Section thickness Tolerance Discrete Prototyping 0.010.2 0.4 0.1 25 1.6 6.3 1 kg !m mm mm

Cost modeling
Relative cost index

fx

Process characteristics
True False

+ links to materials

Typical uses
Injection molding is used """.

Key physical factors in choosing a shaping process (economics always important)

6

*Using the CES EduPack Level 2 DB

Unstructured data for injection moulding*

The process. Most small, complex plastic parts you pick up childrens toys, CD cases, telephones are injection moulded. Injection moulding of thermoplastics is the equivalent of pressure die casting of metals. Molten polymer is injected under high pressure into a cold steel mould. The polymer solidifies under pressure and the moulding is then ejected. Various types of injection moulding machines exist, but the most common in use today is the reciprocating screw machine, shown schematically here. Polymer granules are fed into a spiral press like a heated meat-mincer where they mix and soften to a putty-like goo that can be forced through one or more feed-channels (sprues) into the die.

Mould

Granular Polymer Nozzle Cylinder

Heater

Screw

No.8-CMYK-5/01

Design guidelines. Injection moulding is the best way to mass-produce small, precise, plastic parts with complex shapes. The surface finish is good; texture and pattern can be moulded in, and fine detail reproduces well. The only finishing operation is the removal of the sprue. The economics. Capital cost are medium to high; tooling costs are high, making injection moulding economic only for large batch-sizes (typically 5000 to 1 million). Production rate can be high particularly for small mouldings. Multicavity moulds are often used. The process is used almost exclusively for large volume production. Prototype mouldings can be made using cheaper single cavity moulds of cheaper materials. Quality can be high but may be traded off against production rate. Process may also be used with thermosets and rubbers. Typical uses. The applications, of great variety, include: housings, containers, covers, knobs, tool handles, plumbing fittings, lenses, etc. The environment. Thermoplastic sprues can be recycled. Extraction may be required for volatile fumes. Significant dust exposures may occur in the formulation of the resins. Thermostatic controller malfunctions can be extremely hazardous.
*Using the CES EduPack Level 2 DB
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Finding information with CES

File Edit View Select Tools

Toolbar

Browse

Select

Search

Print

Search web

Table: ProcessUniverse Subset: Edu Level 2

Find what? Which table?

SLS RTM Processes

ProcessUniverse

+ + +

Joining Shaping Surface treatment

Selection of processes
Process selection has the same 4 basic steps

!!

Step 1 Translation: express design requirements as constraints & objectives Step 2 Screening: eliminate processes that cannot do the job Step 3 Ranking: find the processes that do the job most cheaply Step 4 Documentation: explore pedigrees of top-ranked candidates

Selection by series of screening stages

Browse Select Search
Material Ceramic Hybrid Metal Polymer
Ferrous Non-ferrous

1. Selection data
Edu Level 2: Processes - shaping Shape

2. Selection Stages
Graph Limit Tree

Circular prismatic Non-circular prismatic Flat sheet etc

Physical attributes

Results
X out of 60 pass

Mass range Tolerance Roughness

0.2

0.3 kg 0.5 mm 100 m B1 > B > B2

Process 1 Process 3 Process 4 Process 5

"""..

Batch size B

Process 2

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Spark-plug insulator: translation

Insulator

Translation of design requirements Function Constraints

"! "! "!

Body shell

Insulator Material class Shape class Mass Section Tolerance Roughness Batch size Alumina 3-D, hollow 0.05 kg 3 - 5 mm < 0.5 mm < 100 m >2,000,000

Central electrode

Design requirements
Make 2,000,000 insulators from alumina with given
"! shape "! dimensions "! tolerance "! surface

"! "! "! "!

and

roughness

Free variable

Choice of process

11

Spark-plug insulator: screening

Insulator Body shell Central electrode

Select Level 2: Shaping processes

Ceramics Alumina B-carbide Silicon W-carbide

Materials

Hybrids Metals Polymers

Translation Constraints
"! "! "! "! "! "! "!

Physical attributes
Mass range Range of sect. thickness Tolerance 0.04 3

Material class Alumina Shape class 3-D, hollow Mass Section Tolerance Roughness Batch size 0.05 kg 3 5 mm < 0.5 mm < 100 m >2,000,000

Roughness

0.06 kg 5 mm

0.5 mm 100 m

Economic attributes
Economic batch size 2e6

Shape
Hollow, 3 D

b
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The selection: two shaping processes

Powder pressing and sintering

Powder injection molding

13

Data organisation: joining processes

Kingdom Family Class Member
Braze Adhesives Solder Gas Arc e -beam ...

Attributes Gas welding Gas welding Material Gas welding

Material Joint geometry Material Joint geometry Size Range Joint geometry Size Range Section Sizethickness Range Section thickness Relative cost ... Section thickness Relative cost ... Documentation Relative cost ... Documentation Documentation

Joining

Welding Fasteners

Processes

Shaping Surface treatment

"! Lap "! Butt

Joint geometry

"! Sleeve "! Scarf "! Tee

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A joining record*
Gas Tungsten Arc (TIG)
Tungsten inert-gas (TIG) welding, the third of the Big Three (the others are MMA and MIG) is the cleanest and most precise, but also the most expensive. In one regard it is very like MIG welding: an arc is struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the work piece, shielded by inert gas (argon, helium, carbon dioxide) to protect the molten metal from contamination. But, in this case, the tungsten electrode is not consumed because of its extremely high melting temperature. Filler material is supplied separately as wire or rod. TIG welding works well with thin sheet and can be used manually, but is easily automated.

Joint geometry
Lap Butt Sleeve Scarf Tee True True True True

Materials
Ferrous metals

True
non-restricted True False 0.7 - 8 mm

Physical Attributes
Component size Watertight/airtight Demountable Section thickness

Economic Attributes
Relative tooling cost Relative equipment cost Labor intensity low medium low

+ links to materials

Typical uses
TIG welding is used """.

Documentation
*Using the CES EduPack Level 1 DB

Key physical factors in choosing a joining process

15

Data organisation: joining and surface treatment

Kingdom Family
Joining

Class

Member

Attributes Anodize Anodize Anodize Material

Processes

Shaping Surface treatment

Heat treat Paint/print Coat Polish Texture ...

Electroplate Anodize Powder coat Metallize...

Material Material Why treatment? Why treatment? Function of Coating thickness treatment Coating thickness Surface hardness Coating thickness Surface hardness Relative cost ... Surface hardness Relative cost ... Documentation Relative cost ... Documentation Documentation

Process records
"! Increased hardness "! Thermal insulation "! Electrical insulation "! Color "! Texture "! Decoration !.
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Function of treatment

"! Wear resistance "! Fatigue resistance "! Corrosion resistance "! Oxidation resistance

A surface-treatment record*
Induction and flame hardening
Take a medium or high carbon steel -- cheap, easily formed and machined -- and flash its surface temperature up into the austenitic phase-region, from which it is rapidly cooled from a gas or liquid jet, giving a martensitic surface layer. The result is a tough body with a hard, wear and fatigue resistant, surface skin. Both processes allow the surface of carbon steels to be hardened with minimum distortion or oxidation. In induction hardening, a high frequency (up to 50kHz) electromagnetic field induces eddy-currents in the surface of the workpiece, locally heating it; the depth of hardening depends on the frequency. In flame hardening, heat is applied instead by hightemperature gas burners, followed, as before, by rapid cooling.

Function of treatment
Fatigue resistance Friction control Wear resistance Hardness

Economic Attributes
Relative tooling cost Relative equipment cost Labor intensity Very good 300 - 3e+003 !m 727 - 794 K 420 - 720 Vickers low medium low

Physical Attributes
Curved surface coverage Coating thickness Processing temperature Surface hardness

Documentation

links to materials

Typical uses
Induction hardening is used "..

Key physical factors in choosing a surface treatment

17

*Using the CES EduPack Level 2 DB

The main points

! Processes can be organised into a tree structure containing records

for structured data and supporting information

! The structure allows easy searching for process data

! Select first on primary constraints
! Shaping: ! Joining:

material, shape and batch size material(s) and joint geometry

! Surface treatment: material and function of treatment

! Then add secondary constraints as needed.

!!

Documentation in CES, and http://matdata.net

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Exercises: Browsing processes

File Edit View Select Tools

5.1 Find, by browsing, the Level 2 record for the shaping process Resin transfer molding (RTM) in Shaping: Composite forming. What products, typically, is it able to make? 5.2 Find the Level 2 record for shaping process Abrasive jet machining and cutting in Shaping: Machining: non-conventional machining. Can it be used to cut glass? 5.3 Find the Level 2 record for the joining process Friction-stir welding in Joining: Mechanical welding. How does the process work? 5.4 Find the Level 2 record for the surface coating process Metal flame spraying in Surface treatment: Surface coating. What are its principal uses?

Browse

Select

Search

Table: Table: ProcessUniverse ProcessUniverse Subset: Subset: Edu Edu Level Level 2 2
ProcessUniverse

+ + +

Joining Shaping Surface treatment

19

Exercises: Searching for processes

5.5 Find, by searching, the record for the rapid prototyping process with the trade name SLS. What classes of material can it handle?

File

Edit

View

Select

Tools

Browse

Select

Search

5.6 Find, by searching, the record for Flexible adhesives. Which polymers are used for flexible adhesives?

Find what:

SLS

Look in table: ProcessUniverse

5.7 Find, by searching, the record for Vitreous enameling. What Functions can it perform?

20

Exercise : Selecting shaping processes

5.8 A process is required to mold ABS components with a solid 3-D shape in large numbers: it should be economic at a batch size of 1,000,000 or more. Use the CES Level 2 Shaping data-table to find possible candidates. "! Material: ABS (TREE stage) "! Process: Molding (second TREE stage) "! Shape: 3-D solid (LIMIT stage) and Economic batch size > 106 (LIMIT stage)
Browse Select Search

1. Selection data
Edu Edu Level Level2: 2: Processes Processes -- shaping shaping

2. Selection Stages
Graph Shape
Solid 3-D Process

Limit

Tree
Cast Deform Molding Composite Powder Prototype

Joining Shape Surface

Economic attributes
Economic batch size > 10 6

Ceramic Material Hybrid Metal Polymer

Results:
#! Compression molding #! Injection molding, thermoplastics

ABS CA Nylon PC PE PP!!

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Exercise : Cutting CFRP sheet

5.9 A process is required to cut flat 4mm CFRP sheet for the face-sheets of a light-weight sandwich panel. Using the Level 2 Shaping data-table to select it. The requirements are "! "! "! "! Material: CFRP Shape: flat sheet Section thickness: 4mm Process characteristics: Cutting (TREE stage) (LIMIT stage) (LIMIT stage) (LIMIT stage)
Browse Select Search

1. Selection data
Edu Edu Level Level2: 2: Processes Processes -- shaping shaping

2. Selection Stages
Graph Shape
Flat sheet Material

Limit

Tree
Ceramic Hybrid Metal Polymer

CFRP DMC GFRP SMC !!

Physical attributes
Section thickness <>4 mm

Process characteristics
Cutting processes

Results:
#! Abrasive jet machining and cutting #! Band sawing #! Laser cutting #! Water-jet cutting

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Exercise: Joining metal sheet

Gillette Sensor 3 razor
Browse Select Search

1. Selection data
Edu Edu Level Level2: 2: Processes Processes -- joining joining

2. Selection Stages
Graph Limit Tree

Materials to be joined

5.10. A process is required to join 0.6 mm steel blades onto aluminum sheet carriers to form a lap joint. Use the Level 2 Joining data-table to find them. The requirements are "! "! "! "! Materials to be joined: metals Joint geometry: lap joint Section thickness: 0.6 mm Demountable: No (X)

Metals

Joint geometry
Lap joint

Physical attributes
Section thickness <> 0.6 mm

Function

All done with a LIMIT stage

Demountable

Results:
#! #! #! #!

The reality: Laser spot welds

Brazing Power beam (laser, electron beam) Resistance welding Rivets and staples

Blades

#! Ultrasonic welding

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Exercise: Surface treatment of gears

Enhancing performance of gears
Browse Select Search

1. Selection data
Edu Edu Level Level2: 2: Processes Processes -- surface surface

2. Selection Stages
Emerson Transmission Corp

Graph Function of treatment

Wear resistance Fatigue resistance

Limit

Tree
Ceramic Material Hybrid Metal Polymer
Ferrous Non-ferrous

5.11. A process is required to improve the wear resistance and fatigue resistance of steel gears. The requirements are "! Materials: steel "! Purpose of treatment: wear resistance fatigue resistance "! Curved surface coverage: very good

Physical attributes
Curved surface coverage: v. good

Results:
#! Carburizing and carbo-nitriding #! Nitriding #! Induction hardening and flame hardening
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