THE HISTORY OF THE UTE INDIAN TRIBE

Dawn Bonker

History 2800 Utahs Diverse Heritage Ken C. Hansen, M.A. December 4, 2013

Bonker 2 The Ute Indian Tribe made their home in the vast areas of Utah, Colorado, and Arizona prior to the westward migration movement. The Utes hunted, fished, and gathered food in the forests and mountains for their tribes and families. The Ute people had strong traditional values that bound them to the land and held ceremonies that celebrated their coexistence with nature. There were many unjust acts taken against the Native Americans that already called the United States their home, well before the white man ever set foot on this soil. The Ute Indian Tribes entrance into the Four Corners Region are uncertain; historians speculate the movement into the area took place around the beginning of the Christian era, and the second movement more than a thousand years later around AD 1150, displacing the preexisting Fremont Culture. Some archeologists suggest the date of entry during the 1330s. However, most agree that the Utes were in San Juan County and their historic setting by the 1500s. The Ute region consists of southeastern Utah and southwestern Colorado along the Rio Grande and out onto the Great Basin. The seven original Ute bands were from the Mouache, the Parianuche, the Yampa, the Capote, the Weeminuche, the Tabeguache, and the Uintahs. The Mouache band lived on the eastern slopes of the Rockies, from Denver, south to near Las Vegas, New Mexico. The Capote band inhabited the San Luis Valley in Colorado near the headwaters of the Rio Grande. The Weeminuche occupied the valley of the San Juan River. The Tabeguache lived in the valleys of the Gunnison and Uncompahgre Rivers in Colorado. The Parianuche lived along that river in Colorado and Utah. The Yampa band inhabited the Yampa River Valley and adjacent land. The Uintah Utes inhabited the Uintah Basin, including the Great Salt Lake Basin. These seven groups of Utes were broken up into small family units for a large portion of each year. It was necessary to do this because food was scarce and it took a large area in the

Bonker 3 mountains to support a small number of people. Each family unit had to have a great deal of room since food-gathering couldnt be done so well in large groups. There are earlier findings the people lived in wickiups, which were built of pion and juniper branches. Later the Utes adopted the dwellings of bark-covered teepees.1 The Ute people were hunters and gatherers from early spring until late in the fall, these family units of Utes would hunt for deer, elk, antelope, and other animals. They would also gather seeds of grasses, wild berries, and fruits; occasionally they would plant corn, beans, and squash in mountain meadows and harvest them in the autumn. Late in the fall, the family units would begin to move out of the mountains into sheltered areas for the winter months. Typically, the families of a particular band of Utes would live close together during the winter. Through the winter they would hold marriage contracts and special social gatherings. In the early spring the Utes would hold the Bear Dance, it is the most ancient ceremony celebrated among the tribes. The origin of the Ute Bear Dance: "Relates back to an early time when two brothers were out hunting in the mountains and as they became tired, they laid down to rest. One of the brothers noticed a bear standing upright facing a tree and it seemed to be dancing and making a noise while clawing the tree. The songs and dance according to legends show respect for the spirit of the bear and the respect to the bear spirit makes one strong." 2 The traditional teachings of these people have deep cultural beliefs that tie them to the land. The Utes did not have a symbolic god, a ceremonial cycle, an extensive awareness of sickness or cures, or a singular understanding of life. Although the people were very spiritual and religious in nature, they believed the physical world was a place filled with power. The Ute land is divided into zones; mountains and higher elevations are "upper earth", the slopes and foothills are "middle earth", and valley and canyon bottoms "lower earth". In addition, there are five colors associated with the three levels and are designated to the animal wildlife that occupy

Bonker 4 within. The sky is white for the domain of the Eagle, mountaintops are yellow and home of the Mountain Lion, the slopes are blue/green/gray representing the Wolf, lower basins are red for the Weasel, and the underworld is black which Rattlesnakes dwell. The Ute families would adopt these animals and use them as symbols of strength.3 The Utes tell legends of Sinauf, a god that was half man and wolf. Sinauf and its brothers the wolf and coyote kept the world in balance. The Story of Sinauf: In preparation for a long journey, Sinauf made a magical bag that he filled with sticks. All the sticks were different, and when placed in the bag they became people. As Sinauf put more sticks in the bag, the people became noisy. Sinaufs brother Coyote grew curious from the noise, so he cut a little hole in the bag with his flint knife and peeked in. He laughed at the strange new creations and their many songs and languages. When Sinauf was ready to begin his journey to the high mountain Una-u-quich, he threw the magic bag over his shoulder. As he walked, the people in the bag began jumping out of the hole in small groups, forming families, bands, and tribes. When Sinauf reached the high mountain, he noticed the hole in the bag and how light it had become. Only the people at the very bottom were left in the bag. Sinauf lifted them out of the bag and said, My children, I will call you Utikas, and you shall roam these beautiful mountains. Be brave and strong. He then carefully put each in a special place."4 The Ute name means Land of the Sun, from which the state of Utah's was derived from. Ute dialects belong to the Southern Numic sub-branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family. It is assumed that is was branched from the language of the Shoshone Indians about the time of the birth of Christ. The seven original groups were separate, although they were bound together by language. The Ute language was broken into regions; the Yutish Genus or Eastern Numic is spoken by Utes in eastern Utah and western Colorado, the Northern Ute dialect is known as Chemehuevi, and the Southern Ute dialect is called Kaiba.5 Before the introduction of horses to their lifestyle, the families would live primarily independent of each other. Unless, there was an abundance of food then they would gather together. Activities among the families were limited; however the leader known as the "Chief"

Bonker 5 was consulted if needed. Men and women who were known for their spiritual powers, healing capabilities, and hunting and warfare were also consulted. The men of the groups had daily tasks of hunting, fishing, making bow and arrows, and rope. Some of the men were appointed as Shaman, who was a person known for their abilities to have influences on the good and the evil of the world. A few of the men were song-singers and temporary leaders for the tribe. The men who showed abilities of hunting and defense were greatly admired by the Ute people. They would read the stars and geography of the land as they traveled the circuit of the territory. The women of the tribes were in charge of gathering and preparing the food for the people, sewing clothes and repairing the shelters, carrying water and wood, and preparing medicinal remedies for the sick. The children typically were amused by songs and stories, played with toys, and loved by the people of the tribe. Life changed dramatically for the Ute Indians when southern and eastern bands obtained horses from the Europeans, when they embarked upon the Ute land in 1550. The Utes were considered horse nomads, and it is believed that the Ute Indians were the first to use horses in their everyday lifestyle. In the beginning there were few that came and treated the Utes with kindness. However, in time the Europeans demanded more of the people and wanted the land and its resources. They also brought with them new disease, whiskey, unjustified killing, worthless item of civilization, and broken promises. The Utes were skilled warriors who mostly fought with neighboring tribes for gain and revenge. Before a raid was made they would organize into war parties which consisted of warriors, medicine men, and a war chief that led the group. In preparation for battle Ute warriors would often not eat, indulge in sweat lodge ceremonies, and paint their faces and horses for special symbolic meanings. The Utes were skilled horsemen and could make quick maneuvers

Bonker 6 on horseback while in combat. The Utes used a variety of weapons including lances, bows, tomahawks, war clubs, and knives, as well as rifles, shotguns, and pistols which were obtained through raiding or trading. The enemies of the Ute included tribes to the north of Ute territory; Cheyenne, Crow, Shoshone, Blackfoot, and Arapaho. To the East and southwest of Ute territory they fought with the Sioux, Pawnee, Osage, Kiowa, Comanche, and Plains Apache. To the west and south they encountered Navajo, Paiute, and Western Shoshone. The Utes traded and had good relations with Pueblo people such as the Taos and were allies with the Jicarilla which shared much of the same territory.6 The first Europeans to arrive were the Spaniards who traveled into the area in search of gold. This Spanish expedition that reached Ute land was led by Francisco Coronado in 15391542, looking for the legendary cities of Cibola, which was supposed to hold many riches. During this expedition Coronado most likely did not come across any Utes. However, they may have heard of them from their southern neighbors. In 1604, an expedition directed by Juan de Onate who had met an Indian which had told him of a land and a lake of Copala, located north and we The Spaniards later called this legendary area El Gran Teguayo. This area was the land of the Utes, and the Lake of Copala may have been Utah Lake. The earliest records of the Spaniards with the Ute people were found in published reports of the Onate expedition of 1626. Fray Geronimo Salmeron wrote that the Pueblo people told him of visits before 1598 of a group of Indians called Guaguatu or Guaputa. The friar referred to them as Quasuatas, a form of the word Yutas, by which he and later Spanish writers called all Indians who spoke the Shoshoean dialect. This is how the People came to be called Utes.

Bonker 7 The first recorded conflict between the Spaniards and the Utes took place in 1638 when the Governor Luis de Rosas of Santa Fe reported the captured of eighty "Utikahs." The Spaniards forced them to labor in workshops in Santa Fe. The Spaniards came to Gunnison Valley in 1670; the first peace treaty was sign between the Utes and Spanish officials. In the search for gold, Juan de Rivera made the separate expeditions from Taos through southwestern Colorado to the Gunnison River during 1761 and 1765. Although he was unsuccessful in acquiring gold, he was able to establish trade with the Utes and other Native Americans during his travels.7 On July 29, 1776, two Franciscan priest, Silvestre Velez de Escalante and Francisco Atanasio Dominguez, set out on an expedition to find a route from New Mexico to the Spanish missions in Monterey, California. The journey would take them via Colorado and Utah through Indian domain providing an opportunity to possibly convert the natives to Catholicism. The priests kept a detailed journal and in August, they found and recorded Anasazi ruins in southwestern Colorado. They reached Utah Lake by September and had documented about the geography and vegetation in the area. In addition, they wrote about the Ute and Paiute Indians. September 30, 1776: Journal Entry Very early twenty Indians arrived at the camp together with those who were here yesterday afternoon, wrapped in blankets made of the skins of rabbits and hares. They remained conversing with us, very happily, until nine in the morning, as docile and affable as the preceding ones. These people here have much heavier beards than the Lagunas. They have holes through the cartilage of their noses and they wear as an ornament a little polished bone of deer, fowl or some other animal thrust through the hole. In features they look more like Spaniards than like the other Indians hitherto known in America, from whom they are different in the foregoing respects. They speak the same language as the Timpanogotzis. 8 They did not make the full journey to California, due to hardships encountered and returned to New Mexico by way of Arizona. Their route became the Old Spanish Trail from Santa Fe, New Mexico and documentation and assisted future travelers.9

Bonker 8 In 1849, the United States signed a peace treaty with the Ute tribe in Abiquiu. This was a means for the US government to take control of the Ute tribe and other nomadic tribes and eventually place them on a reservation. At this time there were between four to five thousand Utes living in Northwestern New Mexico.10 Brigham Young and the Mormon settlers came westward to the Great Basin region of Utah, seeking refuge from persecution of their religion. They regarded the Native Americans as equals and would take them in as converts to the religion if so desired. The interactions with the Utes were friendly until they were finding themselves with limited resources. Young had proposed the Great Basin as the Latter-day Saints' new home. He wanted church members to grow closer as they continually built Zion, and he wanted outsiders to stay away from inhabiting the area because it was rugged and not too appealing to others. Although, Young's plan did not take into consideration that Native Americans already were using the Great Basin's resources. The settlers were using precious resources by fencing off productive land, as well as using streams and rivers, thus creating tension between the Mormons and the Utes.
11

In 1850, the Ute leader Wakara, known by the Mormons as Walker, invited Brigham Young to meet with him at the annual Indian Trade gathering in Utah Valley. Since the Utes were being attacked and raided by the Shoshone, Wakara requested assistance from the Mormon militia in retaliation against them. Young refused to aid them in their attack. This frustrated Chief Wakara; he gathered his warriors and waged war against the Shoshone. Upon their return Wakara wanted to continue north to the Mormon settlement in Provo for an attack. Chief Sowiette talked them down from the invasion.

Bonker 9 The Walker War: In 1853, there was a fight between a Ute Indian man and Mormons over a trade of flour and fish. The Ute man was killed and so happened to be one of Wakara's relatives. The Mormons refused to turn over the killers to Wakara for punishment. This angered the Ute tribe, since Indians that had killed Mormons were always relinquished. This created animosity among the Mormons and Utes which turned into the Walker War. Wakara led his band of Utes in a series of raid against the Mormon settlements and stole food and livestock. In response to the Ute's attacks, the Utah Territorial Mormon militia was organized to fight back, with the support of church officials. Against the general orders a Mormon militia unit attacked a Ute camp near Goshen, killing four or five Indians. The Utes that survived the attack did so by hiding in the marshes and waited for the militia to leave. A group of Ute Indians approached Nephi for refuge when the townspeople shot them. One eyewitness wrote, "Nine Indians coming into our camp looking for protection and bread with us.... were shot down without one minute's notice."12 Another eyewitness writes, "They were shot down like so many dogs, picked up with pitchforks [put] on a sleigh and hauled away."13 In 1854, the Walker War ended when the Ute warriors realized that they were outmanned and surpassed in fire power. Upon returning from the Navajo country, Wakara also agreed that peace with the Mormons would be for the best. He would ask for a settlement of food, guns, and ammunition. The peace negotiations were held at Chicken Creek. At the beginning, Wakara did not want to leave his tent then Brigham Young entered. He proceeded to lay his hands on Wakara's ill daughter and blessed her. At that point, Wakara felt acceptance of his defeat.14

Bonker 10 This was not the only conflict that arose between the Ute Indian Tribe and the Mormon settlers. The next even was the "Black Hawk War", the event of this war started about April 9, 1865. This war proved to be the longest and most destructive war in between pioneer immigrants and Native Americans in Utah history. Black Hawk War: It began in Manti, Utah, when a few Ute Indians and Mormon settlers were arguing over fifteen head of cattle that were owned by the settlers and had been slaughtered and eaten by Ute Indians. The settlers retaliated and made accusations that the Indians were heathens and nonChristians, as well as insulted a Ute Indian by the name of Nooch. He was known as Black Hawk to the settlers, as Brigham Young gave him that name. The Utes then promised revenge on the Mormons, in a few days they played out their attack. The Ute warriors led by Black Hawk raided the Mormon settlements and stole hundreds of cattle from the settlers, and five men were killed. These attacks on the settlers continued throughout the year, stealing and harassing the Mormons. Black Hawk was not supported by all of the tribe members except for a few to partake in his acts of cruelty, however he was able to get some support from the neighboring Paiute and Navajo tribe members in the area. "Every endeavor should be mad and every precaution used to protect yourself and your settlements against the attacks of such treacherous foes . . . It is only by being constantly vigilant that you can ensure the safety of the people and the preservation of their property against these surprises and sudden attacks." Brigham Young15 On September 19, 1865, while Major Warren S. Snow and his troops were out hunting for Indians they stopped by Circleville for the night, the next day they departed and proceeded to Wayne County were they fought with some Indians in the area. The Utes heard word of this and

Bonker 11 raided the town of Circleville and stole their cattle while the townspeople took shelter in the town's meeting hall. The next day the people of Circleville went to a Paiute Indian tribe camp and took sixteen men, along with some women, and children. The Indian men struggled to free themselves and were killed in doing so. The settlers did not want this information of the killings to spread, so they brought each woman and child out one at a time and shot them. This was known as the "Circleville Massacre" and proved to be a key event in the Black Hawk War. The fighting and raiding continued over several years, even though Black Hawk and the Mormons signed a peace treaty in 1868. Before Black Hawk died in 1870, after being struck by a bullet during one of the fights in the previous year which made him very ill, he was able to visit the Mormon village and apologize for all the suffering the war had caused. Finally in 1872, after Brigham Young convinced the US Government to help with the Indian situation in Utah federal troops were ordered to engage the Indians and the war was ended. Near the end of the Black Hawk War, Brigham Young said, "I will say to our government if they could hear me, You need never fight the Indians, but if you want to get rid of them try to civilize them. How many were here when we came? At the Warm Springs, at this little grove where they would pitch their tents we found perhaps three hundred Indians: but I do not suppose that there are three of that band left alive now. There was another band a little south, another north, another further east; but I do not suppose there is one in ten, perhaps not one in a hundred, now alive of those who were here when we came. Did we kill them? No, we fed them . . . We brought their children into our families, and nursed and did everything for them it was possible to do for human beings, but die they would. Do not fight them, but treat them kindly. There will then be no stain on the Government, and it will get rid of them much quicker than fighting them." 16 The federal goverment's progam to move Ute Indians to reservations started in the 1860's. Land was set aside and most Indians were reluctant to leave their traditional land. The goverment would establish agencies on the land and Indians that were assigned were known by

Bonker 12 the agency name, therefore the Ute Indians which resided at the Uintah Valley Agency were called the Uintahs.. Some Northern Ute bands continued to resist reservation life, their efforts became futile and they secumb the reservation life. In 1881, the federal goverment focibly removed the Yamparka and Parianuc Utes from Colorado to the Uintah Reservation. In 1882, the federal goverment created the Uncompahgre Reservation, known as the Ouray. This became the home for the Taviwac (Uncompahgre) Utes in a remote and dry area. The two reservations were consolidated in 1886.17 The United States federal government began the policy of allotting American Indian land as early as 1798. Several treaties with Indian tribes included provisions that stated land would be divided among individual tribal members. After 1871 however, Congress declared that no further treaties would be made and all future dealings with Indian nations would be conducted through legislation. Although, Congress passed a few acts that allotted land on specific Indian reservations, there was no broad vehicle to allot lands to individual Indians across the U.S. Eventually, there was a push for a national federal policy to break up Indian land and assimilate Indian people. There were several reasons that allotment proponents supported the policy. First, many of them considered the Indian way of life and collective use of land to be communistic and backwards. They also saw the individual ownership of private property as an essential part of civilization that would give Indian people a reason to stay in one place, cultivate land, disregard the cohesiveness of the tribe, and adopt the habits, practices, and interests of the American settler population. Furthermore, many thought that Indian people had too much land and they were eager to see Indian lands opened up for settlement as well as for railroads, mining, forestry. and other industries.

Bonker 13 The Allotment advocates eventually succeeded in convincing the federal government to adopt the policy nationally. In 1887, Congress passed the General Allotment Act, which authorized the president, Grover Cleveland at that time, to survey Indian tribal land and divide the area into allotments for individual Indians and families. The Allotment Act was known as the Dawes Act, named for Senator Henry Dawes of Massachusetts who was the lead advocate. Members of the selected tribe or reservation were either given permission to select pieces of land, typically around 40 to 160 acres in size, for themselves and their children. If the amount of reservation land exceeded the amount needed for allotment, the federal government could negotiate to purchase the land from the tribes and sell it to non-Indian settlers. As a result, 60 million acres were either given up outright or sold to the government for non-Indian homesteaders and corporations as surplus land. Amendments to the General Allotment Act also made it easier for Indian land to pass into non-Indian hands. For example, in 1902 legislation known as the Dead Indian Act, was passed that allowed Indian landowners to sell lands they inherited even if they were still in trust. In 1906, the Burke Act was passed, which authorized the secretary of the interior to decide whether an Indian person was of sound mind and skill to manage his or her lands. If the Indian person was deemed not stabe, the secretary could take the land out of trust and the land would become taxable. The secretary of the interior was authorized to do this with or without the knowledge and against the wishes of the allottee. Thus, many Indian people ended up having their land sold in tax forclosure auctions because they owed taxes on land they thought was in trust. The Act of May 29, 1908, secretary of the interior was also given power to sell the allotments of deceased Indian landowners if he deemed the heirs incompetent. In the end, 27 million acres of Indian land were lost as a result of these acts.

Bonker 14 So much Indian land was passing out of Indian hands that even the U.S. government became alarmed. In 1928, a government report entitled The Problem of Indian Administration, also known as the Mirriam Report, sharply criticized the policy of allotment and the U.S. Indian Service in general. The report provided undeniable evidence of the destructiveness of federal Indian policy and spurred significant changes in the federal administration of Indian affairs. In 1934, the Wheeler-Howard Act better known as the Indian Reoganization Act, was passed ending the process of allotment on Indian lands in the United States, and ensuring that all remaining trust allotments would stay in trust indefinitely. It did not prevent land from passing out of trust when it was inherited by a non-Indian heir or when an allotment owner petitioned the secretary to terminate the trust status of the allotment or remove restrictions upon alienation. Allotment not only caused 90 million acres of Indian land to be removed from Indian ownership and control, its impact continues to have serious consequences, such as the increasingly fractionated ownership of Indian land title, checkerboard ownership patterns on many reservations, and loss of access to important sacred sites.18 However, The Indian Reorganization Act did return thousands of acres of land the federal goverment retained responsibilty for the protection of Indian lands and resourses. The return of former Indian lands began through purchases of tribal funds held in trust, and compensation for some lost land also was made. Increased means for economic development with credit becoming available gave way to the beginning of tribal businesses, especially the development of natural resources such as oil and gas reserves. This also gave the Utes a greater voice in planning public water projects, however the share of water often turned out to be less than expected. The Ute people are now primarily living in Utah and Colorado. There are three Ute tribal reservations; Southern Utes Tribes are in Colorado and the Ute Mountain Tribes which is in

Bonker 15 Colorado and extends into Utah and New Mexico. The Uintah-Ouray is located in Northeastern Utah and is approximately 150 miles east of Salt Lake City. The reservation is 4.5 million acres and is located within a seven-county area; Uintah, Duchesne, Wasatch, Grand Carbon, Utah, and Emery counties. It is the second largest Indian Reservation in the United States, second only to the Navajo Indian Reservation. The Northern Ute Tribes currently have over 3,000 tribal members which live on the Uintah and Ouray Reservation. The Reservation Tribal headquarters are located in Fort Duchesne in Uintah County, and operates under their own tribal government.19 Throughout the years their cultural traditions have changed dramatically. Before the immigrant settlers embarked upon the Ute people, they were small tribes and family units who peaceably gathered food in their heritage land. They had strong ties to the land of their forefathers. To this day, although many of these traditions have disappeared, every spring the "Bear Dance" is still preformed and pow wows are held during the celebrational seasons. Modern day society has had an enormous impact on their daily lives and their families. Unfortunately, the Ute tribal language is not commonlly spoken with the exception of the Elders and the Shaman. Today the reservations have gas stations, restaurants, grocery stores, businesses, and even fast food chains. Many changes to the Ute Tribe's way of life are a reflection of the pioneer movement west. This migration caused a shortage of food and water resorces that led to many disputes amoung the Mormon settlers and eventually the federal government. Beginning with small disputes over cattle and with the lack of justice, the distrust grew and escalated into a series of small wars. The "Walker War" being the first war between the Mormon settlers and the Utes. Steadily as the bigotry and distrust escalated, the wars became more severe eventually leading to

Bonker 16 the "Blackhawk War." During the 1850's and 1860's, these disputes eventually attracted the attention of the federal government. In 1872, the war was ended and the government's program to move the Utes into reservations was set in stone. Many years before the Ute tribe was even discovered there was many similarities in the diplomacy between the early immigrants that first settled the Thirteen colonies. Many parallels can be drawn between the Apache and Sioux tribes from the east, as well as the French and Indian War. In which tensions could not be settled diplomatically, resulting in a virtual holocaust of these tribes and cultures which hang from a loose thread to this day, barely clinging to their original traditions. Land was stolen and tribes were forced to migrate hundreds of miles from their homelands. Eventually, this ended in a massacre of thousands and the starvation of many more innocent Native Americans who rightfully owned the land of their heritage. In conclusion, as we study the history of these small tribes and their traditions. We learn how much effect immigration can have on a culture. Even one as all consuming as the Ute Indian Tribe. We as a nation have destroyed and corrupted land and cultures that did not legally belong to us. In my opinion, the Utes like other native tribes should have been selling the land to the "Federal Government." Although, this Federal Government that virtually took over the land by force should have had no legal jurisdiction over any of the native lands and cultures. The feeling of entitlement was because of skin color or cultural difference that caused racism, destruction, and war in many countries and cultures. The events that took place among the Mormon settlers, the Federal Government, and the Ute tribes was based on just those ideas of unjustified feelings, self entitlement, and racism which have destroyed the Ute Indian's traditions and lifestyle.

Bonker 17

Notes

1. Robert S. McPherson, "White Mesa Ute Origins and Puwa-v: Creating the World, Empowering the Universe." In As If the Land Owned Us, (Salt Lake City, Utah: The University of Utah Press, 2009). 14-16 2. Dana Kopf. History of the Southern Ute. Last modified 2013. Accessed November 2013. http://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/. 3. Robert S. McPherson, "White Mesa Ute Origins and Puwa-v: Creating the World, Empowering the Universe." In As If the Land Owned Us, (Salt Lake City, Utah: The University of Utah Press, 2009). 18-19 4. Utah Department of Heritage and Arts. Utah American Indian Digital Archive. Last modified 2008. Accessed November 2013. http://www.utahindians.org/archives/ute.html. 5. ibid. Utah Department of Heritage and Arts. 6. The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Wikipedia: Ute People. Last modified November 24, 2013. Accessed November 24, 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ute_people 7. ibid. Utah State Historical Society. 8. Indian Country Today Media Network, LLC. Native History: Spanish Priests First Europeans to See Anasazi Ruins. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 2013. http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2013/07/29/native-history-spanish-priests-begincatholic-conversion-natives-150636. 9. ibid. The Wikimedia Foundation. 10. Lesley Poling-Kempes/The University of Arizona Press. Valley of the Shining Stone: The Story of Abiquiu. Last modified 1997. Accessed September 2013. http://books.google.com/book 11. One Online Nevada Encyclopedia. Mormons and Native Americans: Historical Overview. Last modified June 19, 2012. Accessed November 25, 2013. http://www.onlinenevada.org/articles/mormons-and-native-americans-historical-overview 12. Obijwa/ WordPress. Utah's Walker War: Native American Netroots. Last modified September 20, 2010. Accessed November 2013.

Bonker 18

http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/680 13. Obijwa/ WordPress. Utah's Walker War: Native American Netroots. Last modified September 20, 2010. Accessed November 2013. http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/680 14. Ibid. Obijwa. 15. John Alton Peterson, "Beginnings and the Uneasy Triangle." In Utah's Black Hawk War, (Salt Lake City, Utah: The University of Utah Press, 1998), 16-41. 16. John Alton Peterson, "The Circleville Massacre and the Battle of Gravelly Ford." In Utah's Black Hawk War, (Salt Lake City, Utah: The University of Utah Press, 1998), 243-270. 17. Virginia McConnell Simmons, "Attempts to Create Reservations." In The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico, Boulder, Colorado: The University Press of Colorado, 2000. 131-156. 18. Ibid, McConnell Simmons."Disorder and Chaos." 221-239. 19. Ibid, McConnell Simmons. "Today's Ute Indians." 246-258.

Bonker 19

Bibliography Dana Kopf. History of the Southern Ute. Last modified 2013. Accessed November 2013. http://www.southernute-nsn.gov/history/.

Indian Country Today Media Network, LLC. Native History: Spanish Priests First Europeans to See Anasazi Ruins. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 2013. http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2013/07/29/native-history-spanish-priestsbegin-catholic-conversion-natives-150636.

Lesley Poling-Kempes/The University of Arizona Press. Valley of the Shining Stone: The Story of Abiquiu. Last modified 1997. Accessed September 2013. http://books.google.com/books.

McConnell Simmons, Virginia. "Attempts to Create Reservations." In The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico, 131-56. Boulder, Colorado: The University Press of Colorado, 2000.

McPherson, Robert S. "White Mesa Ute Origins and Puwa-v: Creating the World, Empowering the Universe." In As If the Land Owned Us, 14-21. Salt Lake City, Utah: The University of Utah Press, 2009. Obijwa/ WordPress. Utah's Walker War: Native American Netroots. Last modified September 20, 2010. Accessed November 2013. http://nativeamericannetroots.net/diary/680. One Online Nevada Encyclopedia. Mormons and Native Americans: Historical Overview. Last modified June 19, 2012. Accessed November 25, 2013. http://www.onlinenevada.org/articles/mormons-and-native-americans-historicaloverview. Peterson, John Alton. "The Circleville Massacre and the Battle of Gravelly Ford." In Utah's Black Hawk War, 243. Salt Lake City, Utah: The University of Utah Press, 1998. "Public Relations." The Ute Indian Tribe. Last modified 2010. Accessed November 2013. http://www.utetribe.com/memberServices/publicRelations/publicRelations.html.

Bonker 20

"Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation." Wikipedia. Last modified November 13, 2013. Accessed November 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uintah_and_Ouray_Indian_Reservation. Utah Department of Heritage and Arts. Utah American Indian Digital Archive. Last modified 2008. Accessed November 2013. http://www.utahindians.org/archives/ute.html. Utah State Historical Society. History To Go: The Northern Utes of Utah. Last modified 2013. Accessed October 2013. http://historytogo.utah.gov/people/ethnic_cultures/the_history_of_utahs_american_indian s/chapter5.html. The Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Wikipedia: Ute People. Last modified November 24, 2013. Accessed November 24, 2013. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ute_people.