Principles of English II

Mr. Paap
 Parts of Speech description

1. Noun – a word that names a person, place, thing, or an idea.

EX: student, community, poem, hunger

a. Proper Nouns are specific names.

EX: Mr. Paap, Arizona, Carson Junior High School, Sears

2. Pronouns – words that take the place of nouns

EX: he, she, me, I, we, they, who, them

3. Adjectives – words that DESCRIBE nouns & pronouns

EX: young, beautiful, blue, tall, old, goofy

a. ARTICLES – a, an, & the are adjectives

4. Verbs –
a. Action verbs – words that DO.
EX: run, yell, scream, cry, hop, write, listen

b. Linking verbs – words that link/join the subject & the predicate – no
action
EX: be, feels, was were, are

5. Adverbs – words that describe verbs, adjectives or other adverbs.

EX: today, well, carefully, intensely, never, almost, next

6. Conjunctions – CONNECT words to show how they are related

EX: and, but, or, nor, yet, for neither, both

7. Interjections – words that show strong emotion

EX: ARGH! I forgot my homework

8. Prepositions – a word that introduces a phrase and shows the relationship between
the object of the phrase and some other word in the sentence.

about amid but inside out toward

above before by into outside under
across behind down like over underneath
after below during near past until
against beneath except or since up
along beside for off through upon
among between from on throughout with
around beyond in onto to within
at without
Feelings Quality Abstract

love expectation religion

sad greatness choice
happy trust mystery
fear loyalty prejudice
anger obedient expectation
joy cheerful spirit
despair reverent youth
surprise leadership life
trust fellowship death
serenity relationship conflict
grief fragile character
somber honesty luck
excitement friendship values
selfish justice miracle
confusion ignorance labor
hope knowledge desire
stress youth serendipidy
disappointment success
courage helpful
hatred dishonest
somber strength
gratitude dexterity
pride feeble
generous
frustration
kindness
isolation
contempt
suspense
shame
 Name ___________________________
Plural vs. Possessive Nouns
Period ___________________________

Each space in the paragraph below is preceded by an

"opportunity for error" in the formation of plurals or
possessives. If the word is correct, write a C in the space; if it is
incorrect, write an I.

THE FAMILY REUNION

My friend's , the Rodriguez's , had a big family reunion last summer. They hadn't been

together since the late 1980's , according to Carmen, and there were many cousins she

hadn't seen since then and some new baby's she'd never met before. "Aunt Flo and

Uncle Silvio's family had really grown," she said. Flo, who already had five kids of her

own, had divorced and remarried and Flo's and Silvio's kids -- like a bunch of elves

-- filled a minivan and two taxis . Fortunately, Flo and Silvio have PhD's in

psychology with good incomes to match. "We should've leased busses for everyone,"
Carmen added.

They had their big dinner down at that place owned by Joe Pagani, Paganis Ristorante,

Illinois's most popular and expensive restaurant. It was jammed and familys kept

arriving in bunch's until some people ended up sitting on box's and benches . The

waitresses went crazy keeping up with the order's , especially with kids ordering from

the childrens' menu. When it came time to pay the bill, they couldn't find Agnes's

purse, and she had collected all the money. They had a lot of laughes about washing

all those dish's until Uncle Antony found his baby girl, Eutrusca, curled up under his chair,

sound asleep, using Agneses' bag for a pillow. Eutrusca hadn't waited for her grandpas

long after-dinner speech to put her to sleep.

A pronoun is a word that stands for a noun.

Here are the ways we use pronouns

¾ to name specific people or things: You look like him.
¾ to point to non-specific people or things: Everyone enjoyed the party, but nobody
remembered to thank the hostess.
¾ to point to something: This is the dress I want.
¾ to refer back to the subject: Bruce hurt himself.
¾ to show mutual action: Ryan and Wesley were wrestling and hurt each other.
¾ to add emphasis: I myself love intensive pronouns.
¾ to ask a question: Who is that?
¾ to show ownership: That's not yours; its mine!

A pronoun takes the place of a noun. The antecedent is the noun that the pronoun takes the place
of or stands for.
Example:
I am Kristen.
I is the pronoun. Who or what does it stand for? It stands for Kristen.
The antecedent of I is Kristen.

Tucker gave his sister her doll.

His is a pronoun. Who does it stand for? It stands for Tucker, so the
antecedent of his is Tucker. The word her is also a pronoun and it stands
for sister. The antecedent of her is sister.

The pronoun almost always refers to the noun closest to it. If you put pronouns in odd places, it's
hard to tell what the antecedent is.

Common pronouns

Personal pronouns: (First person) I, me, my, mine, we , us our, ours,

(Second Person) you, your, yours, he, him, his, she,
(Third Person) her, hers, it, its, they, them, their, theirs.

Indefinite pronouns (An indefinite pronoun does not refer to a definite person, place, thing, or idea.)
all, both, few, nobody, other, any, either, more, none, several, anyone,
everything, much no one, some

Interrogative pronouns (introduces a question) what, which, who, whom, whose

1. Pronouns must AGREE in NUMBER with the noun they replace.

If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun, you have to use a singular pronoun.

Example:
Right If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a parking sticker.

Wrong If people want to stay healthy, you must eat well and watch your waistline.
(people is third person; you and your are second person.)

Wrong Each girl wants to look be beautiful on their prom night.

(girl is singular; their is plural)

Remember: The words Everybody, anybody, anyone, each, neither, nobody, someone, a person,
are some of the singular pronouns that take the place of singular nouns.

2. Pronouns must AGREE in PERSON.

If you are writing in the "first person" (I), don't confuse your reader by switching to the
"second person" (you) or "third person" (he, she, they, it, etc.). Similarly, if you are using the
"second person", don't switch to "first" or "third".

Example: When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her homework
ready.

(NOT: When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.)

3. Pronouns must REFER CLEARLY to a specific noun.

Don't be vague or ambiguous.

Example: Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged. (Is "it" the
motorcycle or the tree?)

I don't think they should show violence on TV. (Who is "They"?)

Vacation is coming soon, which is nice. (What is nice, the vacation or the fact that it is
coming soon?)
Adjectives are describing words that give us information about a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase.
Adjectives modify or affect the meaning of nouns and pronouns and tell us which, whose, what kind,
and how many about the nouns or pronouns they modify. They come before the noun or pronoun they
modify except for the predicate adjective which comes after a linking verb and modifies the subject.
There are seven (7) words in the English language that are always adjectives. They are the articles a,
an, and the and the possessives my, our, your, and their. (The possessives are from the possessive
pronoun list but are always used with nouns as adjectives.) Being only seven in number, you should
memorize them so they are immediately recognized as adjectives.
Basic adjectives (definitely not a complete list)

which whose what kind how many

that his/her blue, green (color) 1, 3, 33, 1,000
this theirs new, old, wet, used (type or age) (number)
a, an someone, English, Austrian (origin) some, none
the somebody square, short (shape) more, many
those no one, nobody big, small (size) any, all
which its, ours beautiful, costly (description) fewer
what my, your amazed, frightened (attached by a linking several
upper, lower Bob’s verb and followed by a preposition) another

Articles
Two types of articles: definite (the) and indefinite (a or an)
We use "definite" to mean sure, certain. "Definite" is particular.
We use "indefinite" to mean not sure, not certain. "Indefinite" is general.
When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the. When we are talking about one thing in
general, we use a or an.
Think of the sky at night. In the sky there is 1 moon and millions of stars. So normally we could say:

ƒ I saw the moon last night.

ƒ I saw a star last night.
Comparisons
Adjectives that have one syllable usually take -er and -est. Adjectives that have two syllables and end
in y (early), ow (narrow), and le (gentle), can also take -er and -est. Almost all other adjectives with
two or more syllables require the use of more and most. The rules are indicated in the chart below:

Number of Syllables Unchanged Comparative Superlative

1 fast faster fastest
2 happy happier happiest
complex more complex most complex
3 or more beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
English also has a few adjectives whose comparative and superlative forms are irregular:

Positive Comparative Superlative

good better best
bad worse worst
little littler, less littlest, least
far farther, further farthest, furthest

Where do we put adjectives in a sentence?

Adjective Before Noun
We sometimes use more than one adjective before the noun:
ƒ I like big black dogs.
ƒ She was wearing a beautiful long red dress.
What is the correct order for two or more adjectives?
1 The general order is: opinion, fact:
a nice French car (not 'a French nice car')
('Opinion' is what you think about something. 'Fact' is what is definitely true about something.)
2 The normal order for fact adjectives is size, age, shape, color, material, origin:
ƒ a big, old, square, black, wooden Chinese table
3 Determiners usually come first, even though they are fact adjectives:
ƒ articles (a, the)
ƒ possessives (my, your...)
ƒ demonstratives (this, that...)
ƒ quantifiers (some, any, few, many...)
ƒ numbers (one, two, three)
Here is an example with opinion and fact adjectives:

adjectives noun

determiner opinion fact

age shape color

Two nice old round red candles.

When we want to use two color adjectives, we join them with 'and':
ƒ Newspapers are usually black and white.
ƒ She was wearing a long, blue and yellow dress.
We can use an adjective after certain verbs. Even though the adjective is after the verb, it does not
describe the verb. It describes the subject of the verb (usually a noun or pronoun). For example:
subject verb adjective

• Ram is English.
• Because she had to wait, she became impatient.
• Is it getting dark?
• The examination did not seem difficult.
• Your friend looks nice.
• This towel feels damp.
• That new film doesn't sound very interesting.
• Dinner smells good tonight.
• This milk tastes sour.

Some other examples of adjectives:

colors descriptions comparisons pronouns adjective

& phrases
possessives
blue beautiful new/newer/newest his The boy, who
dark new old/older/oldest hers never told a lie,
yellow ugly good/better/best family’s said it was the girl
dim vivacious quick/quicker/quickest Anderson’s in the pigtails.
bright rectangular nice/nicer/nicest company’s
colorful Asian impatient/ teacher’s Raise your hand if
faded historical more impatient/ my you have fewer
tarnished large most impatient your than three years
highlighted funny bad/worse/worst theirs of experience.

**REMEMBER: Adjectives are words or phrases that modify a noun, pronoun, or noun
phrase. Words that modify adjectives are adverbs.

For example:

She knights intricately patterned mittens.

The adverb intricately modifies the adjective patterned which modifies the noun mittens.
 Articles

Student:
Do you know what the 3 articles are? ______________, ______________, & _______________

An ARTICLE is the most commonly used __________________________________ .

The 3 articles are ______________, ___________________, & ___________________ .

Rules to Remember!!

Indefinite articles (a, an) they refer to someone or something in general.

1. Us the article A before words that begin with a _____________________ sound.

o (your example) _________________________________________________________ .

2. Use the article An before words that begin with a _______________ , or

consonant words having a vowel sound.

o (your example) _________________________________________________________ .

Definite articles (the) refers to someone or something in particular.

3. When the article "The" comes before a word beginning with a consonant,

pronounce the article THE . . . ____________ (tha)

___________________________________________________________________________

4. When the article "the" comes before a word beginning with a vowel sound,

pronounce the article THE . . . __________ (thee)

___________________________________________________________________________

* Articles are the most commonly used adjectives!!

 Name
____________________

Date

NOTE: Every sentence has at least one verb.

A verb expresses action or a state of being. Verbs can be action verbs or linking verbs.

Examples: Action verbs Linking verbs

run is may be
dance was can be
sing were will be
study have been looks
talk be am
climb are seem
debate should have been turn
fall appear taste
drink become remain

Directions: Underline all the action verbs once and the linking verbs twice in the following
paragraphs.

Paragraph 1
It was in that class that I fell in love with my corner gal who looked like Hayley Mills,
except she was not as boyish. I was primed to fall in love because of the afternoon movies I
watched on television, most of which were stories about women and men coming together,
parting with harsh feelings, and embracing in the end to marry and drive big cars.

Paragraph 2
He did not answer. When he went away, I remember that a new moon hung over the mountains,
and I watched him go in silence up the hill. I expected him the next day, but he did not come.
The details of packing my personal belongings, loading my car, arranging the bed over the seat,
where the dog would ride, occupied me until late in the day. I closed the cabin and started the
car, noticing that the sun was in the west and I should do well to be out of the mountains by night
fall. I stopped by the orphanage and left the cabin key and money for my light bill with Miss
Clark.
 Linking Verbs

A linking verb is a verb that expresses a state of

being. A linking verb connects the subject of a
sentence with a word in the predicate that
identifies or describes the subject.

Linking Verbs - Be

am has been may be

is have been might be
are had been can
was will be should be
were shall be would have
been

Other linking verbs

appear grow seem stay

become look smell taste
feel remain sound turn
prove

Some words may be linking or action verbs

depending on how they are used.
Example:
Amy looked through the telescope.
Amy looked pale.
 FINDING SUBJECTS AND VERBS
Underline the verbs twice and the subjects once.

1. He depends on her in times of need.

2. Watch your step.

3. The insurance agent gave her sound advice.

4. On the table was her purse.

5. In the newspaper, an interesting article appeared.

6. Look before you leap.

7. Across the road lived her boyfriend.

8. We are forced to inhale and exhale this smog-filled air.

9. In the gutter, I found a shiny new dime.

10. Around every cloud is a silver lining.

11. Every one of the roses bloomed.

 Name _________________

Date _________________

Period _________________
Verbs must agree with their subject (nouns) in number.

Directions: From the choices provided. After each sentence select a word that would
correctly complete the sentence.

1. The piano as well as the pipe organ ____________ to be tuned for the big concert.
A. has B. have
2. The mayor together with his two brothers ____________ going to be indicted for
accepting bribes.
A. are B. is
3. Neither of my two suitcases ____________ adequate for this trip.
A. is B. are
4. There ____________ a list of committee members on the head-table.
A. are B. is
5. Everybody in the class ____________ done the homework well in advance.
A. has B. has
6. The jury ____________ their seats in the courtroom.
A. take B. takes
7. Neither the teacher nor the students ____________ to understand this assignment.
A. seem B. seems
8. ____________ either my father or my brothers made a down-payment on the house?
A. Has B. Have
9. Hartford is one of those cities which ____________ working hard to reclaim a riverfront.
A. is B. are
10. Some of the grain ____________ gone bad.
A. have B. has
11. John or his brother ____________ going to be responsible for this.
A. are B. is
12. A few of the students ____________ doing so well they can skip the next course.
A. are B. is
13. Either the Committee on Course Design or the Committee on College Operations
____________ these matters.
A. decide B. decides
14. One of my instructors ____________ written me a letter of recommendation.
A. have B. has
 Name _____________________

Date _____________________

Period ______

Directions:
Identify the verb in each of the following sentences. Then label each verb as either an action verb or a
linking verb. If the verb is a linking verb, give the two words that it connects.

Examples:
1. We sent our dog to obedience school.
1. sent - action verb

2. Some breeds are extremely nervous.

2. are - linking verb; breeds, nervous.

1. Everyone felt sorry about the misunderstanding.

2. In daylight, the sweater looks blue.

3. The temperature plunged to almost ten degrees below zero.

4. The museum exhibited Inuit sculptures of whales and seals.

5. Loretta felt her way carefully through the dark, quiet room.

6. The city almost always smells musty after a heavy summer storm.

7. Dakar is the capital of Senegal.

8. The firefighter cautiously smelled the burned rags.

9. Antonia Novello was the Surgeon General of the United States.

10. They looked handsome in their party clothes.

 Linking Verbs Quiz

Directions: Identify the linking verb(s) in each of the following sentences. Write the verb on
the line provided.

1. J.K. Rowling is an author. _______________

2. The students remained quiet through the lesson on linking verbs. _______________
3. Jesus looked pale and green after lunch. _______________
4. It looks like rain today. _______________
5. The sky appears to be sunny and warm. _______________
6. Her child grew over the summer! _______________
7. The hot, cinnamon apple pie smells delicious. _______________
8. Everyone felt sad at the end of the movie. _______________
9. The band sounds great tonight. _______________
10. Harold and George were restless at the assembly. _______________
11. M*A*S*H was my favorite television show. _______________
12. Susan’s brother is an Air Force pilot. _______________
13. I felt nervous the first day of school. _______________
14. It looks like another great semester is ahead of us. _______________
15. The circus is in town. _______________
16. Josh seems upset about having to do homework tonight. _______________
17. It should be an exciting year for the Freshmen Football team. _______________
18. The Principal looks out for what is best for his students. _______________
19. It has been a while since I read Lord of the Rings. _______________
20. My little brother’s feet smells like a swamp! _______________
21. I can succeed. _______________
22. She feels like dancing at the party. _______________
23. This has been a very helpful practice. _______________
24. Linking verbs are not difficult to understand. _______________
25. I will do my homework and study vocabulary words tonight. _______________
 Action Verb Practice Sheet

Directions: Identify the action verb(s) in each of the following sentences. Write the verb(s)
on the line provided

1. For a science project, Zeek built an Aztec sundial. _______________

2. Ms. Santos Carefully explained the problem again. _______________
3. I enjoy soccer more than any other sport. _______________
4. The hiker plummeted 12 feet and landed in a patch of poison sumac. _______________
5. Mike’s skateboard skidded on the pavement. _______________
6. Mrs. Morrow showed us the recipe for chocolate covered crickets. _______________
7. To avoid clumps, mix all of the ingredients slowly. _______________
8. The heavy Los Angeles traffic delayed us. _______________
9. For the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur, Rachel gave a special prayer. _______________
10. The early Aztecs worshiped the sun. _______________
11. I saw the movie Tomb Raider last week. _______________
12. Everyone boogied at our wedding. _______________
13. Oh no! My father volunteered to chaperone our senior prom! _______________
14. Mary Lou invited me to the meeting. _______________
15. She runs four miles every morning. _______________
16. Derrick greeted the visitors. _______________
17. Felicia painted her entire room black and bought a black light too. _______________
18. Her parents asked Sam for help with their computer. _______________
19. His Grandfather wrestled with the garbage can lid. _______________
20. Ricardo sang in the car as he drove to the concert. _______________
21. Mickey Mouse waved to me at Disney Land. _______________
22. Shakira’s dog tore up the living room rug. _______________
23. The teacher waited for the class to stop talking before he continued. _______________
24. The students complained about the worksheet they had to do. _______________
25. We practiced action verbs in class today. _______________
 Name ________________________

An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb and tells these
things:

1. where: there, here, outside, inside, away

2. when: now, then, later, immediately, yesterday
3. how: quickly, slowly, stupidly, gracefully, effortlessly
4. how often or how long: frequently, never, twice, sometimes
5. how much: hardly, extremely, minimally, greatly, too, more

Difference between an adjective and an adverb is that an adjective modifies a noun

or pronoun only while an adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Adjective Adverb
sad sadly
kind kindly
quick quickly
tender tenderly
artistic artistically (irregular spelling -ally)
noisy noisily )irregular spelling y becomes i

Which is correct, the adverb or the adjective?

1. This is a (large, largely) house.
2. I am (extreme, extremely) tired.
3. He looked (stupid, stupidly).
4. This sentence is written awfully (bad, badly).
5. I am (real, really) sure that this is a (real, really) diamond, not a fake.
 A conjunction is a word that links words, phrases, or clauses.

There are three types of conjunctions:

coordinating conjunctions join two sentences together.

The chart shows the types of

F A N B O Y S
coordinating conjunctions. If
you can remember the word for and nor but or yet so
FANBOYS you will be able to
remember coordinating
conjunctions.

correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs. They join similar elements. When joining
singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or
plural.
both. . . .and as in: Both the students and the teachers enjoyed the presentation.
not only . . . but also as in: Not only was the test long, but also very difficult.
either . . . or as in: We will either win the war or die trying!
neither . . . nor as in: Neither the local police nor the FBI could solve the murder.
whether . . . or as in: Whether you try hard or not, you still need to pass this class.

A subordinating conjunctions (sometimes called a dependent word or subordinator) comes at the

beginning of a subordinate (or Dependent) clause and establishes the relationship between the
dependent clause and the rest of the sentence. It also turns the clause into something that depends on
the rest of the sentence for its meaning.
He took to the stage as though he had been preparing for this moment all his life.
Because he loved acting, he refused to give up his dream of being in the movies.
Unless we act now, all is lost.
Notice that some of the subordinating conjunctions in the table below — after, before, since — are
also prepositions, but as subordinators they are being used to introduce a clause and to subordinate the
following clause to the independent element in the sentence.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions

after because in order that than when
although before now that that whenever
as even if once though where
as if even though rather than till whereas
as long as if since unless wherever
as though if only so that until while
Interjections are words that show emotions. This is the only part of speech that
is not dependent upon any other part of speech and can be deleted in its entirety
and the sentence will still maintain its meaning – but it may not show the
emotions associated with the interjection.

Interjections add color and personality to writing and are usually followed by an
exclamation point. They should not be abused, though. People use interjections
a lot when they speak, showing emotions. Slang, derogatory, and “street
language” is full of interjections, which are not usually appropriate for an
English class. However, in your writing (outside of class) these elements may
add realism and validity to your writing.

Sample interjections may include:

Wow!
Wow! I just passed my English final!

Oh my god!
Oh my god! Can you believe what she’s wearing?!

Aarrgghh!
I just totally bombed my driving test. Aarrgghh!

Ouch!
Ouch! I just stepped on a cactus!

Yah whooo!
Yah whooo! I am going skiing for Spring Break!

Oh, (not always followed by an exclamation point)

Oh, I didn’t see you standing there.

other examples:

I don’t know what the heck you are talking about!

No, you shouldn’t have done that.
Man! I knew I should have studied.
Yo, Brian, wait up for me.
Ah, is the answer Julius Ceaser?
RULE Prepositions are the words that we use to indicate location. Usually, prepositions show
this location in the physical world.

The cat is above the desk.

The cat is below the desk.
The cat is on the desk.
The cat is behind the desk.
The cat is in the desk.
The cat is beneath the desk.
The cat is next to the desk.
The cat is in front of the desk.
The cat is near the desk.
The cat is underneath the desk.

RULE Prepositions can show location in time.

At midnight, Jill went outside.

In the spring, Jack went up the hill.
During the night, they met by the well.
After they fetched the water, they both fell down.
Before they reached the bottom, Jack broke his crown.

RULE Prepositions usually introduce prepositional phrases.

Preposition + optional modifiers + noun or pronoun = a prepositional phrase

Examples:
At school

at = preposition ] [ school = noun

under the stove

under = preposition ] [ the = modifier ] [ stove = noun

in the crumb-filled, rumpled sheets

in = preposition ] [ the, crumb-filled, rumpled = modifiers ] [ sheets = noun

Directions: Using the table, write about concerning onto
each sentence using a prepositional above despite on top of
phrase. according to down out
across during out of
after except outside
Example:
against except for over
along excepting past
The boy hit the ball.
along with for regarding
The boy hit the ball on the roof.
among from round
apart from in since
1. We came home.
around in addition through
as to throughout
____________________________
as for in back of till
at in case of to
2. They danced all night.
because of in front of toward
before in place of under
____________________________
behind inside underneath
below in spite of unlike
3. I could see the mountains.
beneath instead of until
beside into up
____________________________
between like upon
beyond near up to
4. He sits at the front desk.
but* next with
____________________________
by of within
by means of off without
5. The cat ran.
on
_____________________________

Directions: Circle the prepositional phrases in the following sentences.

1. On Saturdays, we often eat a late breakfast.

2. Inside, the house was very cold.

3. The manager recommended Jim for the new position.

4. The evidence in this case is quite clear.

5. We acted quickly at the first warning of the flood.

6. Nine of the team members left their uniforms on the bus.

7. My new suit will be ready after 2:00 P.M. Thursday.

8. Marsha has been working on her speech for five days now.