Chapter 8 : Climate

Climate

The difference between weather and climate is simple The weather outside is the weather Climate is the long term trend of temperature and precipitation for an area This is accumulated by data collected over the span of a year Stations are set up around a city These stations collect data on precipitation, wind, temperature, humidity and pressure Classification systems are used to define the globe according to climatic trends These are simple tools that can help us understand each region, As we understand climatic regions, we can also understand the flora and fauna of an area. This data is collected and presented as a graph The Climograph gives an average overall image of the climate of an area Temperature - the red line, precipitation - bars

Climate Climatic classification systems are based on much more information than precipitation and temperature although they are part of the equation The most popular classification is the Koppen-Geiger system (P 135) First letter - temperature; second letter precipitation (Dont bother memorizing this chart) Koppen group and Types Eco region and equivalents A- Tropical Humid Climates Humid Tropical Domain (400) Tropical wet (Af) Rainforest Division (420) Tropical wet-dry (Aw) Savanna Division (410) B- Dry Climate Dry Domain (300 Tropical/subtropical semiarid (BSh) Tropical/subtropical steppe division (310) Tropical/subtropical and (BWk) Tropical/subtropical desert division (320) Temperate semiarid (BSk) Temperate Steppe Division (330) Temperate arid (BWk) Temperate Desert Division (340) C- Subtropical Climates Humid Temperate Domain (200) Subtropical dry summer (Cs) Mediterranean Division (260)
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Humid subtropical (Cf) D- Temperate Climates Temperate oceanic (Do) Temperate continental, warm summer (Dca) Temperate continental, cool summer (Dcb) E- Boreal climates Subarctic (E) F- Polar climates Tundra (Ft) Ice cap (Fi)

Subtropical Division (230) Prairie Division (250) Marine Division (240) Hot Continental Division (220) Prairie Division (250) Warm Continental Division (210) Prairie Division (250) Polar Domain (100) Subarctic Division (130) Tundra Division (130)

(PA) The text shows a very simplified version of the classification system on page 136 - pay attention to this This is based on the Koppen system but much more simplified

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These classification systems can say much about the area including the type of animals that inhabit the region Now we are going to practice making a climograph Use the data on page 167 and make climographs for each station Climate is of course influenced by the amount of (1)solar radiation that the earth receives (a)The curvature of the earth, (b)the nature of the surface of the land, (c)the amount of water nearby All of these can affect the amount of solar radiation Other factors that influence climate are (2)winds and (3)currents The global wind system helps distribute air masses around the earth Hot or warm air is not as dense as cooler air
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This difference helps create the winds Air will move towards area of less density to fill in the gap Wind systems are the result of air masses trying to equalize or balance the pressure systems When warm air rises, it leaves a vacancy that denser air will rush to fill The greater the difference in pressure, the stronger the winds will be This difference is called the pressure gradient If the earth were featureless plain, the global wind patterns would be simplified The diagram on page 142 shows how this would look Basically, the intensity of the solar radiation on the center (equatorial part of the earth would create low pressure systems with the warm moist air rushing to the top of the troposphere As the air moved towards the poles, it would cool, gain density and fall creating an area of high pressure The winds would all flow towards the equator to replace the rising warm air The earth however is not featureless The seas, oceans, mountains and other land forms all combine to change the amount of solar energy the earth receives This changes the temperature which warms or cools the air The spinning of the earth also has an influence The Coriolis effect also plays into the equation However, once we understand the basics of the wind patterns, we can then chart the major influences of the winds. This understanding allows us to chart the major wind patterns

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The trade winds are such constant wind patterns The influence of the moisture in the air also affects the winds Since warmer air can hold more moisture, this moisture can accelerate the effects of the wind There are also the upper atmosphere wind systems known as the jet stream Although the jet stream is high in the upper atmosphere, its effects are felt on the surface The jet stream is like a tube of super-fast air that flows around the globe The jet stream flows much like a river It meanders (river flow) This meander can have great influence in the surface weather The dip of the jet stream deep towards the equator has caused unsettled conditions One year it brought snow to Rome in the late Spring Another time it caused severe thunderstorms in December in mid-west of the USA The jet stream also influences the development of cyclones and anticyclones on the earth's surface Cyclones are areas of low pressure systems As the air rises rapidly, it is filled in by inrushing cooler air This generates a spin When a high pressure system (anticyclone) develops, the falling denser air displaces the air below forcing the winds to flow out and away. The direction of the spin is also relevant. As can be seen in the diagram, cyclones in the Northern Hemisphere flow anti-clockwise While anticyclones in the Northern Hemisphere generate a spin in a clockwise direction In the southern hemisphere this is reversed Cyclones and anticyclones generate many of the changes to our weather patterns on earth Wind then, helps to regulate the temperatures on the surface of the earth They contribute to the mixing of the air masses and allow for the distribution of heat Another major influence is the ocean currents From England's location on the latitudes of the earth it is unusual for it to have achieved such a strong agricultural revolution home to lush forests and large farms The ability of England to have such a vibrant agricultural capability lay in its location to a major heat distributor
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From the map one can see that the warm current of the North Atlantic Drift carries warm water to the coast of the British Isles. When warm moist air meets cooler surface air, it generates precipitation The precipitation created by this current The precipitation created by this current led to the lush forests of England's past It was also responsible for the trademark fog of England. The ocean currents act like the engine that drives global weather patterns The warm currents flow north, cool down, and sink flowing back towards the south Ocean currents are amazing at regulating the earths' temperature They are able to move so quickly because their make-up is different from the ocean around them Ocean currents have a different chemical composition and temperature that keeps them unique from the surrounding water Water bodies have a regulating effect on land surfaces If the water body is constantly moving, the effect it will have on the land will depend on whether the water is cold or warm Warm water (as in the North Atlantic Drift) will contribute to the atmospheric moisture which will warm the land The west coast of many continents suffer from a lack of precipitation due to the cold temperature of the ocean beside it. This is the case in California, Namibia and much of the west coast of Africa, and Chile Effectively these areas become coastal deserts In the case of large lakes, the lake will modify the temperature of the surrounding land Water takes longer to heat up and longer to cool down
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In deep lakes, the effect can lead to severe seasons I.e. Chicago, Toronto, Detroit Land is heated up by conduction, water and air is heated up by convection Large land masses like the Asian continent absorb a lot of heat during the summer months This results in many low pressure systems drawing wind in from the south Pacific The insolation continues to feed this as long as the earth's tilt is in the optimum position The inability of land to retain heat means that in the winter, the land mass cools very quickly This rapid cooling draws strong winds from the cooler water bodies This changes the direction of the winds and creates the phenomenon known as the monsoon. The summer monsoons create torrential rainfall as the air is laden with moisture This seasonal change occurs everywhere but is more pronounced in Asia Asia has a distinct monsoon reason when the locals know what to expect.

Altitude As we rise in the atmosphere the temperature has a tendency to decrease The rate of change in temperature in the atmosphere is called the environmental lapse rate The temperature change begins at the ground (or sea level) and continues on to the top of troposphere The rate at which it changes is the environmental lapse rage. In general, the ELR is based on the calculation of 6.4 C for every 1000 m Understanding this calculation one can determine the degree to which the temperature will decreased on a mountain as one rises on said mountain
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Does the environmental lapse rate ever change? The ELR changes based on location, time or year, cloud cover, which are all based on solar radiation. There are three factors which can affect the ELR These are: Heating and cooling of the lower atmosphere. This can be affected by the type of ground cover, the ability of the ground to absorb solar radiation and other factors The advection of cold and warm air at different altitudes. Air masses can affect the ELR by increasing the cooling factor or slowing it down Advection of a new air mass with a different ELR. The conflict between two air masses will influence the ELR.

Sensible Heat Flux

The day is at its warmest in the mid-afternoon, when both the surface and the lower atmosphere have warmed. At night, the surface can cool more rapidly than the air above creating a temperature The warming is the sensible heat flux Sensible heat flux is the process where heat energy is transferred from the Earth's surface to the atmosphere by conduction and convection The heat energy then can move horizontally by atmospheric circulation Sensible heat flux can be expressed by the amount of heat transmitted per unit of area per unit of time The SHF is useful in the water cycle, the energy cycle, weather forecasting and in understanding global climate change Both air currents and ocean currents move heat Energy is stored as "latent heat" in the Diagram of latent heat transport: atmosphere the transport of latent heat plays an important role in the redistribution of heat on the surface of the earth In the surface waters of the ocean it is stored as "sensible heat" Cloud replaces latent heat when Sensible heat is the energy associated it precipitates in the higher with the temperature of a body; it is latitudes greater in a warm bod than a cold one. Warm water that is heated in the tropics can cooled in high latitudes brings Cloud carries its heat to higher sensible heat pole ward latitudes The density of the air at the earth's surface allows it to absorb much more energy As the air gets "thinner" the higher it goes, the spreading of the molecules means the air is cooler. Evaporation leads to cloud Mountains then, have a direct influence formation in the tropics and on the atmosphere heat sub-tropics thus capturing heat Air masses that meet mountains are forced to rise
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As air parcels move up a mountain, they encounter less resistance As the air expands, it cools The air molecules themselves do not lose any energy (heat) The cooling occurs due to the thinning of the air Air molecules are father apart This effect increases with altitudes The rate at which it cools is called the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (For unsaturated air) No heat is lost from the air molecules themselves (no heat lost) The calculation is approx. 10 C for every 1000 m of vertical rise As the air mass is further dissipated, its ability to hold water vapor decreases. The Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (For saturated air) describes the decrease in temperature when water vapor has expended much of the energy in the molecules forcing condensation of some form The text calculates the WALR at 3 C for every 1000 meters When the air mass loses its energy after condensation at the mountain top, the air mass still has its "mass" When it reaches the leeward side of the mountain that air mass will rush down the mountain side Since the mass as lost its moisture and hence, its energy, it is a dry air mass These unseasonably strong dry winds are known in Canada as a Chinook In Switzerland the Fohn, Germany the Sirocco In any case these winds can cause weather challenges on the land below the mountain A strong Chinook can make snow one foot deep almost vanish in one day Chinook winds have been observed to raise winter temperature, often from below -20 C (-4 F) to as high as 10-20 C (50-58 F) for a hours or days, then temperatures plummet to their base levels

Local influences As was mentioned before, there are many other factors that can influence temperature Proximity to a body of water
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Amount of urban growth (concrete) Height of buildings These can be all influence the temperature and thereby, the weather Proximity to water is a great influence Land heats up quickly and cools down quickly Water on the other hand, takes much longer to heat up since the rays of the sun penetrate much deeper. Water also retains this heat energy longer as well, releasing it slowly (PA) Sea breezes are the result of this imbalance

Atmospheric Stability Air is in stable equilibrium when after being lifted or lowered, it tends to return to its original position - resists upward and downward air motions Air Parcel - balloon like blob of air As air rises its pressure decreases and it expands and cools As air sinks pressure increases and it is compressed and warms Adiabatic Process

Expand -s and cools

Compres -ses and warms

Air parcels

If an air parcel expands and cools, or compresses and warms, with no interchange of heat with its outside surroundings the situation is called an adiabatic process Dry Adiabatic lapse rate - 10 C per 1km or 5.5 F per 1000 feet (applies to unsaturated air)
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Moist adiabatic lapse rate - ~6 C per 1 km or 3.3 F per 1,000 ft (applies to saturated air). Not a constant. Varies greatly. This number is used to keep things simple.

Determining stability

Determine stability by comparing the temperature of a rising parcel to that of its surrounding environment It is colder than its environment it will be denser (heavier) and tend to sink back to its original level. This is called stable air because the parcel resists moving away from its original position If the parcel is warmer (less dense) than its environment, it will continue to rise until it reaches the same temperature of its environment. This is called unstable air because the parcel continues to move away from its original position

Stable air

Environmental Lapse Rate- Rate at which the air temperature of the environment would be changing if we were to climb upward into the atmosphere Absolutely stable - the lifted parcel of air is colder and heavier than air surrounding it (its environment) Stable air strongly resists upward vertical motion, it will, if forced to rise, tend to spread out horizontally Atmosphere is stable when the environmental lapse rate is small- when there is relatively small difference in temperature between the surface air and the air aloft The atmosphere stabilizes as the air aloft warms or as the air near the surface cools
Temperature of environment (C)

Temperature of environment (C)

Temperature of lifted unsaturated air (C) (dry rate)

Temperature of lifted unsaturated air (C) (moist rate)

(a)Lifted, unsaturated air at each level is colder and heavier than the air around it. If given the chance, the parcel would return to its original position, the surface.

(b)Lifted, saturated air at each level is colder and heavier than the air around it. If given the chance, the parcel would return to its original position, the surface.

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Unstable air

Atmosphere is unstable when the air temperature decreases rapidly as we move up into the atmosphere Absolutely unstable atmosphere - when considering both moist and dry air - the rising air is warmer than the environmental air around them Atmosphere becomes unstable when: Daytime solar heating of the surface An influx of warm air brought in the wind near the surface Air moving over a warm surface

Convection and Clouds

Some areas of the earth surface absorb more sunlight than others, and thus heat up more quickly (Discuss examples) Thermal - a hot bubble of air that breaks away from the surface and rises, expanding and cooling as it ascends As a thermal rises, it mixes with cooler, drier air aloft and gradually losses it identity. But, if it cools to its saturation point, the moisture inside will condense and the thermal becomes a cumulus cloud

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