Buletin Stiintific nr2 2008

UNIVERSITATEA TEHNIC DE CONSTRUCII BUCURETI
BULETINUL TIINIFIC
BULETINUL TIINIFIC
AL UNIVERSITII TEHNICE DE CONSTRUCII BUCURETI
NR.2/2008
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CUPRINS STUDII
Rspunsul structurilor cu un nivel dotate cu amortizori cu mas acordat n condiiile seismice din Romnia - Ghindea Cristian ............................................................ 5 Legtura dintre managementul calitii n construcii i reducerea riscului Nafees Ahmed Memon................................................................................................................. 16 Predicia strii mbrcmintei rutiere utiliznd metode numerice Bogdan Tudor, Rodian Scnteie................................................................................................... 32 Modelele terenului de fundare pentru mbrcaminti rigide. Vasile Cornea...................... 41 Evaluarea calitii apei n zonele costiere Alexandra Crmizoiu........................................ 51 Realizarea bazei de date a unui sistem informatic cadastral din Republica Moldova Nistor Livia .................................................................................................................................. 59 Evaluri prin incercri de rezisten la solicitri termomecanice ale aliajelor pentru structuri aerospaiale - Indira Andreescu ...................................................... 67 Reducerea emisiilor la motoarele ecologice pentru camioane si utilaje de constructii (I) Srbu Laureniu............................................................................................ 74 Influena coninutului armonic al curenilor asupra sarcinii admisibile a conductoarelor electrice Mircea Roca................................................................................... 82 Un model fizic de ardere a particulei de rumegu n suspensie Ioana Mogo .................... 97 Modelarea hidraulic a reelei de canalizare. Studiu de caz: municipiul Buzu Alexandru Lungu, Victor Octavian Luca..................................................................................... 105 Modelarea i optimizarea deciziilor pentru conducerea tiinific a activitii operatorului de alimentare cu ap i canalizare - Claudiu Albu ........................................... 111
Rspunsul structurilor cu un nivel dotate cu amortizori cu mas acordat n condiiile seismice din Romnia
One Story Buildings Endowed With Tuned Mass Dampers Seismic Response for Romanian Earthquake Condition
Cristian Ghindea, asist. univ. ing., Universitatea Tehnica de Construcii Bucureti (Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest), Catedra de Rezistena Materialelor (Strength of Materials Department), e-mail: ghindea@utcb.ro
1. Introducere Pentru obinerea unui nivel acceptabil de performan al cldirilor, n cazul unei micri seismice, n proiectarea convenional se utilizeaz capacitatea structurii de rezistenta de a absorbi i disipa energie. Aceasta disipare de energie nu se poate produce fr admiterea unui anumit grad de degradare a structurii. Un exemplu ar fi apariia articulaiilor plastice la capetele grinzilor i la bazele stlpilor, elemente care au un rol important ns i in sistemul pentru preluarea ncrcrilor gravitaionale. La nivel mondial, tot mai multe cldiri sunt proiectate s reziste la aciunea seismic utilizndu-se un concept relativ nou, i anume acela de a introduce n structur dispozitive speciale cu rolul de a absorbi i/sau disipa energia indus n structur de micarea seismic. Dispozitivele de amortizare cu mas acordat (TMD - Tuned Mass Damper) se ncadreaz n aceast categorie de dispozitive speciale. n alte ri, au fost folosite cu succes aceste dispozitive pentru reducerea vibraiilor structurilor cu rspuns dinamic caracterizat de contribuia unui anumit mod de vibraie [1]. Studiul are in vedere urmrirea rspunsului structurilor dotate cu sisteme de amortizare cu masa acordat n condiiile speciale date de seismicitatea teritoriului Romniei. Datorit necesitii acordrii dispozitivului de amortizare cu un mod de vibraie predominant al structurii [2] s-au analizat trei structuri cu un singur nivel, acestea fiind echivalate cu trei sisteme cu 1 GLD. Caracteristicile dinamice ale sistemelor cu 1 GLD au fost determinate n funcie de caracteristicile dinamice ale micrilor
1. Introduction To obtain a reasonable performance level, for conventional seismic design are used the damping and dissipation capacities of the lateral resistant structure. This admits a certain degree of deterioration of the structure. Such an example is the appearance of plastic hinges in beams and at the base of the columns, elements with an important role in supporting the gravitational loads. Globally, more buildings are designed to resist to seismic loads using a relatively new concept which presupposes to include in the structure some special devices to damp or/and dissipate the earthquake induced energy. The Tuned Mass Damper (TMD) devices can be included in this special category of devices. In other countries this devices were successfully used for vibration reduction in structures with dynamic response characterized by one vibration period [1]. This paper pursues to obtain the dynamic response of buildings endowed with tuned mass dampers for the special earthquake conditions of Romanias countryside. Because of the necessity of the device to be tuned with the predominant vibration period of the structures [2] three one story buildings were analysed. All the buildings were modeled as a SDOF system. The dynamic characteristics of the SDOF systems were chosen in accordance with the dynamic characteristics of the considered earthquake records. To characterize the response we took the following cases: - the structure without the dampening system was equated with a SDOF system (fig. 1.1), and
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Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008
Fig. 1.1 Sistem cu 1 GLD SDOF system
Fig. 1.2 Sistem cu 2 GLD (sistem cu 1 GLD + amortizor cu masa acordata) Two-DOF system (SDOF system + TMD)
seismice considerate. Pentru caracterizarea rspunsului s-au considerat: - structura fr sistemul de amortizare, echivalat cu un sistem cu 1 grad de libertate dinamica (figura 1.1), i - structura cu TMD, echivalat cu un sistem cu doua grade de libertate (figura 1.2). Un grad de libertate corespunznd sistemului iniial si cel de al doilea grad de libertate corespunznd sistemului de amortizare. Rezolvarea acestei probleme a pornit de la ecuaia de echilibru dinamic caracteristic unui sistem cu 1 GLD i, respectiv, de la ecuaiile de micare ale sistemului cu masa acordata [3]. Ecuaia de echilibru dinamic pentru 1 GLD: &(t ) + Cx & (t ) + Kx(t ) = Mu &&g (t ) M& x (1.1) Sistemul de ecuaii de echilibru dinamic pentru 2 GLD: - pentru sistemul secundar: &(t ) + & &(t )] + cd y & (t ) + k d y (t ) = md u &&g (t ) m d [& y x (1.2) - pentru sistemul principal: &(t ) + Cx & (t ) + Kx(t ) cd y & (t ) k d y(t ) = Mu &&g (t ) M& x (1.3) unde: M , md - masa sistemului de baz i, respectiv, masa sistemului de amortizare; C , cd - coeficientul de amortizare al sistemului de baz i, respectiv, al sistemului de amortizare; K , k d - rigiditatea sistemului de baz i, respectiv, rigiditatea sistemului de amortizare; & &(t ), x & (t ), x(t ) - acceleraia, viteza i deplasarea x relativ corespunztoare sistemului de baz; & &(t ), y & (t ), y (t ) - acceleraia, viteza i deplasarea y relativ corespunztoare sistemului de amortizare;
6
- the structure with TMD was equated with a Two-DOF. One degree of freedom substitutes the initial system and the second DOF substitutes the dampening system. The response was obtained by starting from the equation of motion of the SDOF and, from the equations of motion system for the Two-DOF system [3] respectively The equation of motion for SDOF system: &(t ) + Cx & (t ) + Kx(t ) = Mu &&g (t ) M& x (1.1) The equations of motion system for TwoDOF system: - for the secondary system: &(t ) + & &(t )] + cd y & (t ) + k d y (t ) = md u &&g (t ) m d [& y x (1.2) - for the principal system:
&(t ) + Cx & (t ) + Kx(t ) cd y & (t ) k d y(t ) = Mu &&g (t ) M& x
(1.3) where: M , md - the mass of the principal system and, the mass of the damping system, respectively; C , cd - the damping coefficient of the principal system and, the damping coefficient of the damping system, respectively; K , k d - stiffness of the principal system and, the stiffness of the damping system, respectively; & &(t ), x & (t ), x(t ) - relative acceleration, velocity x and displacement of the main system; & &(t ), y & (t ), y (t ) - relative acceleration, y velocity and displacement of the damping system;
&&g (t ) - acceleraia terenului. u

Rezolvarea ecuaiilor dinamice de echilibru s-a realizat cu ajutorul metodei Newmark de integrare a ecuaiilor difereniale pas cu pas [4]. Pentru integrare s-a considerat acceleraia liniar, iar parametrii corespunztori, specifici metodei de integrare Newmark, au fost alei astfel: = 0.5 i = 1 6 . 2. Descrierea micrii seismice i alegerea cazurilor de studiu
&&g (t ) - ground acceleration; u

The time-stepping solution was reach using the Newmarks method of integration for the differential equation system [4]. In this case the linear acceleration method is considered, for which the Newmark integration parameters were = 0.5 and = 1 6
2. Earthquake Motion Characterization and Studies
S-au analizat ase nregistrri corespunztoare a trei micri seismice importante din sursa Vrancea. Caracteristicile nregistrrilor precum i locaiile unde s-au efectuat acestea se regsesc n tabelul 2.1. n scopul determinrii perioadelor critice sau realizat spectre Fourier pentru fiecare nregistrare n parte (figura 2.12.6).
For three important earthquake motions from Vrancea source six corresponding records were analyzed. Table 2.1 shows the characteristics of the records and the recording sites. To show the critical vibration period, for each record, the Fourier Spectra were made (figure 2.12.6)
Tab. 2.1 nregistrri micri seismice Earthquakes acceleration records
nregistrare Record Acc. 1 Acc. 2 Acc. 3 Acc. 4 Acc. 5 Acc. 6
Locaie Recording Site INCERC Bucureti INCERC Bucureti IMGB Bucureti Focani Mgurele INCERC Bucureti
Sursa, componenta Source, component Vrancea, NS Vrancea, NS Vrancea, NS Vrancea, NS Vrancea, NS Vrancea, NS
Data Date 04.03.1977 30.08.1986 30.08.1986 30.08.1986 30.05.1990 30.05.1990
t
0.005 s 0.01 s 0.005 s 0.01 s 0.01 s 0.005 s
Durat Duration 65.37 s 25.94 s 42.92 s 21.68 s 57.56 s 52.485 s
n tabelul 2.2 sunt redate caracteristicile importante pentru fiecare din nregistrrile luate n discuie. Urmrind rezultatele obinute n urma analizrii spectrelor Fourier pentru cele ase nregistrri, s-au considerat trei sisteme cu un grad de libertate dinamic ale cror perioade proprii de vibraie s se gseasc n vecintatea perioadelor de rspuns maxim ale micrilor seismice analizate. Pentru acestea s-a considerat ca masa ( M ) i coeficientul de amortizare critic ( ) sunt constante, singurele variabile fiind perioada proprie de vibraie ( T ) i, implicit,
Table 2.2 shows the important dynamic characteristics for every record. After the analyses of the Fourier Spectra three SDOF systems resulted. Those systems have the fundamental vibration period in the neighborhood of the peak response period of the accounted earthquake records. For those systems, the mass ( M ) and the critical damping coefficient ( ) were considered as constant, the only variables being the vibration period ( T ) and, the stiffness of the system ( K ), respectively.
Spectrul Fourier
400
Spectrul Fourier 160 140 120 100 SFA 80 60 40 20 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
T [s]
350
300
250
SFA
200
150
100
50
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 T [s]
INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS
Fig. 2.1 Spectrul Fourier pentru Acc. 1 Fourier Spectra for Acc. 1
Spectrul Fourier 140 160 140 120 120 100 100 80 SFA SFA 80 60 40 20 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 T [s] 0.1
Spectrul Fourier
60
40
20
0 IMGB Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS
0.5
0.9
1.3
1.7
2.1
2.5
2.9
3.3
3.7 T [s]
Focsani, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS
Spectrul Fourier 140
90 80 70
Spectrul Fourier
120
100
60
80 SFA
SFA
50 40 30 20
60
40
20
10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 T [s]
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 T [s]
Magurele, seism Vrancea 30.05.1990,componenta NS
rigiditatea sistemului ( K ). Aceste sisteme sunt descrise n tabelul 2.3.

3. Studiu parametric
Table 2.3 shows the properties of analyzed systems.

3. Parametric Study
Prima etapa a studiului parametric a vizat determinarea influenei diverselor caracteristici ale sistemului de amortizare asupra comportrii de ansamblu a structurii cu TMD. S-a analizat structura de tip A sub
The purpose of the first stage of the study was to determine the influence of different characteristics of the damping system on the general behavior of the system with TMD. Type A structure have been analyzed under a
Tab. 2.2. Caracteristici importante ale micrilor seismice Important earthquake record characteristics nregistrare Record Acc. 1 Acc. 2 Acc. 3 Acc. 4 Acc. 5 Acc. 6 Caracteristici principale Principal characteristics T [s] ASF 1.64 340.70 1.36 139.39 1.64 119.21 0.43 151.57 1.61 120.90 2.21 83.09 Alte perioade importante Other important vibration periods T=2.41s, ASF=261.8 T=1.46 s, ASF=100.2 T=1.21 s (ASF=141.32);T=0.89 s, (ASF=131.26) T=1.34 s, ASF=103.32 T=0.99 s (ASF=78.66); T=1.32 s (ASF= 70.83) Tab. 2.3 Sisteme cu un GLD SDOF Systems Sistem System Cazul A Case A Cazul B Case B Cazul C Case C T [s] 1.60 s 1.35 s 1.00 s M [t] 50 t 50 t 50 t
0.05 0.05 0.05
aciunea micrii seismice descrise de accelerograma 1 (nregistrare INCERC Bucureti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977, componenta NS), parametrii sistemului de amortizare care au fost variai, fiind masa ( md ) i coeficientului de amortizare critic ( d ) al TMD-ului. n tabelul 3.1 sunt prezentate denumirile cazurile analizate n aceast etap, precum si caracteristicile detaliate. Comparaia rspunsurilor sistemului fr TMD i a sistemului cu TMD s-a realizat prin reprezentarea variaiei n timp a deplasrilor relative la nivelul sistemului cu 1 GLD cu sau fr TMD.
load described by accelerograme 1 (recorded at INCERC Bucharest, Vrancea Source, 4.03.1977, N-S component). The variables of the TMD system were the mass ( md ) and the critical damping coefficient ( d ). Table 3.1 shows the titles of the analyzed cases and the detailed description of the characteristics. The comparison between the structure without TMD and the structure with TMD was carried out by showing the time-history of the relative displacement of the first DOF with or without TMD.
Tab 3.1. Cazuri analizate pentru sistemul cu TMD Analysis cases for TMD system Sistem 1GLD TMD s d Caz Ts Td Ms md (t) (s) (%M (s) ) s (%) (%) nregistrare INCERC Bucureti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS (Acc.1) INCERC Bucharest Record, source Vrancea, 4.03.1977, NS component (Acc. 1) 1. A.I.1 50 1.60 5% 1% 1.60 5% 2. A.I.2 50 1.60 5% 2% 1.60 5% 3. A.I.3 50 1.60 5% 5% 1.60 5% 4. A.II.1 50 1.60 5% 1% 1.60 10% 5. A.II.2 50 1.60 5% 2% 1.60 10% 6. A.II.3 50 1.60 5% 5% 1.60 10% 7. A.III.1 50 1.60 5% 1% 1.60 15% 8. A.III.2 50 1.60 5% 2% 1.60 15%
Urmrind variaia deplasrilor la nivelul structurii pentru cele nou cazuri analizate, concluziile preliminare nu sunt diferite de cele ntlnite n literatur [1] ca fiind caracteristice si altor tipuri de micri seismice: - O mai bun comportare o au sistemele avnd masa adiionala de 2% si, respectiv, de 5%, din masa sistemului de baza. Mrirea masei adiionale de la 2% la 5%, aduce un aport benefic la reducerea amplitudinilor sistemului de baz, dar acest lucru presupune o cretere semnificativ a ncrcrilor verticale care acioneaz asupra structurii (figurile 3.13.3); - Creterea amortizrii sistemului TMD nu ajut la micorarea amplitudinilor maxime, ci doar la o atenuare a micrii mai rapid, n numite limite ale amortizrii (figurile 3.43.6).
INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS 0.4
From the representation of the structure displacements in all nine analyzed cases, the conclusions were no different from the ones met in the literature [1] for other types of earthquake motions: - The systems with 2%, respectively, 5% TMD mass are more suitable than the others. Increasing the mass from 2% to 5% brings a favorable contribution to the reduction of the amplitudes of the main system displacement, but also presumes a significant increase of the vertical loads acting on the structure (figures 3.13.3); - TMD damping rise does not help to reduce the peak amplitudes, it only attenuates faster the motion at certain levels of the damping (figures 3.43.6).
INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS 0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2 Deplasare structura [m]
0.2 Deplasare structura [m]
0.1
0.1
0 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
0 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
-0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.4 GLD A.I.1 A.I.2 A.I.3 t [s]
-0.4 GLD A.II.1 A.II.2 A.II.3
t [s]
Fig. 3.1 Sistem fr TMD i sistemele cu d = 5% System without TMD and systems with d = 5% [A.I.1 ( m d = 1% M ), A.I.2 ( m d = 2% M ), A.I.3 ( m d = 5% M )]
Fig. 3.2 Sistem fr TMD i sistemele cu d = 10% System without TMD and systems with d = 10% [A.II.1 ( m d = 1% M ), A.II.2 ( m d = 2% M ), A.II.3 ( m d = 5% M )]
INCERCBucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS 0.4
0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 Deplasare structura [m] 0.1 Deplasare structura [m] 0.1 0 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
0 16 -0.1 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
-0.1 -0.2
-0.2
-0.3 -0.3 -0.4 -0.4 GLD A.III.1 A.III.2 A.III.3 t [s] GLD A.I.1 A.II.1 A.III.1 t [s]
Fig. 3.3 Sistem fr TMD i sistemele cu d = 15% System without TMD and systems with d = 15% [A.III.1 ( m d = 1% M ), A.III.2 ( m d = 2% M ), A.III.3 ( m d = 5% M )]
Fig. 3.4 Sistem fr TMD i sistemele cu m d = 1% M System without TMD and systems with m d = 1% M [A.I.1 ( d = 5% ), A.II.1 ( d = 10% ), A.III.1 ( d = 15% )]
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INCERCBucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS 0.4 0.4
INCERCBucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS
0.3 0.2 Deplasare structura [m] Deplasare structura [m]
0.3
0.2
0.1 0 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
0.1
0 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
-0.1 -0.2
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3 -0.4 GLD A.I.2 A.II.2 A.III.2 t [s]
-0.3
-0.4 GLD A.I.3 A.II.3 A.III.3 t [s]
Pentru grade de amortizare mai ridicate efectul sesizat anterior se diminueaz (figura 3.4 si 3.5). Datorita observaiilor de mai sus, numrul de cazuri prevzute pentru analiza a fost restrns. S-a considerat ca sistemul de amortizare cu cea mai raionala comportare este sistemul cu masa adiionala de 2% din masa sistemului principal, avnd coeficientul din amortizarea critica de 5%.
For a bigger damping the attenuation is weaker (figures 3.4 and 3.5) As a result of the earlier observations, the number of cases in the parametric study has decreased. The favorable damping system considered has 2% mass, reported to the main system mass, and 5% critical damping coefficient.
Tabelul 3.2. Cazuri analizate pentru sistemul cu TMD Analysis cases for TMD system
Sistem 1GLD TMD SDOF System s md Ts Ms Td (t) (s) (%M (s) ) s (%) nregistrare INCERC Bucureti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS (1) INCERC Bucharest Record, source Vrancea, 4.03.1977, NS component (1) 1. A.I.2 50 1.60 0.05 2 1.60 2. B.I.2 50 1.35 0.05 2 1.35 3. C.I.2 50 1.00 0.05 2 1.00 nregistrare INCERC Bucureti, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS (2) INCERC Bucharest Record, source Vrancea, 30.08.1986, NS component (2) 4. A.I.2 50 1.60 0.05 2 1.60 5. B.I.2 50 1.35 0.05 2 1.35 6. C.I.2 50 1.00 0.05 2 1.00 nregistrare IMGB Bucureti, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS (3) IMGB Bucharest Record, source Vrancea, 30.08.1986, NS component (3) 7. A.I.2 50 1.60 0.05 2 1.60 8. B.I.2 50 1.35 0.05 2 1.35 9. C.I.2 50 1.00 0.05 2 1.00 nregistrare Focani, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS (4) Focani Record, source Vrancea, 30.08.1986, NS component (4) 10. A.I.2 50 1.60 0.05 2 1.60 11. B.I.2 50 1.35 0.05 2 1.35 12. C.I.2 50 1.00 0.05 2 1.00 nregistrare Mgurele, seism Vrancea 30.05.1990,componenta NS (5) Caz Case Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008
d
(%) 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
11
Mgurele Record, source Vrancea, 30.05.1990, NS component (5) 13. A.I.2 50 1.60 0.05 2 1.60 14. B.I.2 50 1.35 0.05 2 1.35 15. C.I.2 50 1.00 0.05 2 1.00 nregistrare INCERC Bucureti, seism Vrancea 30.05.1990,componenta NS (6) INCERC Bucharest Record, source Vrancea, 30.05.1990, NS component (6) 16. A.I.2 50 1.60 0.05 2 1.60 17. B.I.2 50 1.35 0.05 2 1.35 18. C.I.2 50 1.00 0.05 2 1.00
0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
n tabelul 3.2 sunt prezentate cazurile studiate in etapa a II-a a studiului parametric. Cele mai importante rezultate sunt prezentate n figurile 3.7 3.12.
Table 3.2 shows the cases analyzed in the second stage of the study. Figures 3.7 3.12 shows the representative results of the analysis.
INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS 0.4 0.3
0.3 0.2 0.2 Deplasare structura [m] 0.1
0.1
0 16 -0.1 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Deplasare structura [m]
0 16 -0.1 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
-0.2 -0.2 -0.3 -0.3 fara tMD cu TMD t [s] fara TMD cu TMD t [s]
-0.4
Fig. 3.7 Sistem fr /cu TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.60 s ]; System without/with TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.60 s ] INCERC Bucureti, Vrancea 4.03.1977, NS (1.64s)
Fig. 3.8 Sistem fr /cu TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.30s ]; System without/with TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.30s ] INCERC Bucureti, Vrancea 4.03.1977, NS (1.64s)
INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS 0.15 0.1
0.075 0.1 0.05 Deplasare structura [m] Deplasare structura [m] 0.05
0.025
0 16 -0.05 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
-0.025
-0.05 -0.1 -0.075 -0.15 fara TMD cu TMD
t [s]
-0.1 fara TMD cu TMD t [s]
12
INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 Deplasare structura [m] 0.04 0.02 0 -0.02 -0.04 -0.06 -0.08 -0.1 -0.12 -0.14 t [s] fara TMD cu TMD -0.15 -0.1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Deplasare structura [m] 0.05 0.1 0.15
Focsani, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS
0 8 -0.05 10 12 14 16 18 20
fara TMD
cu tMD
t [s]
Focsani, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08 Deplasare structura [m] 0.04 0.02 0 -0.02 8 -0.04 -0.06 -0.08 -0.1 -0.12 -0.14 -0.16 -0.18 fara TMD cu tMD t [s] -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 10 12 14 16 18 20 Deplasare structura [m] 0.06 0.01 0 0.02 0.04 0.03
Fig. 3.12 Sistem fr /cu TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.60s ]; System without/with TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.60s ] Focani, Vrancea 30.08.86, NS (0.43s; 1.21s; 0.89s)
15 -0.01 -0.02
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
fara TMD
cu TMD
t [s]
Fig. 3.13 Sistem fr /cu TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.30s ]; System without/with TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.30s ] Focani, Vrancea 30.08.86, NS (0.43s; 1.21s; 0.89s)
Fig. 3.14 Sistem fr /cu TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.00s ]; System without/with TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.00s ] INCERC Bucureti, Vrancea 30.05. 90, NS (2.21s; 0.99; 1.32s)
4. Concluzii i direcii de studiu
4. Conclusion and Future Studies
Dup analiza comparativa a rspunsului structurilor analizate n cazurile expuse anterior se pot trage urmtoarele concluzii: - Raportat la rspunsul sistemului fr TMD se observ c sistemul de amortizare nu intr in lucru, n mod semnificativ, dect dup ocul maxim al seismului. Reducerea de amplitudine a deplasrii n momentul ocului maxim este neglijabil (maxim 5%). Exist ns anumite cazuri n care ocurile maxime apar cu o scurta ntrziere, acestea fiind precedate de o micare important care activeaz TMD-ul (figura 3.13). n acest caz reducea rspunsului dinamic este de aproximativ 25%; - Dup ocul principal, care n majoritatea micrilor studiate se produce nc de la nceput, reducerea amplitudinilor oscilaiilori depinde de coninutul de frecvene al micrii seismice. Dac micarea seismic
After the analysis of the structural response for the studied cases, the conclusions are: - Referring to the response of the system without TMD, we may observe that the damping device runs significantly only after the peak impulse of the earthquake. Displacement amplitude reduction at the peak earthquake impulse can be neglected (maximum 5%). There are some cases in which the peak impulses are delayed being preceded by an important oscillation which acts on the TMD (figure 3.13). In this case the peak reduction is about 25%; - After the first impact, which in almost all cases occurs at the beginning of motion, amplitude reduction depends on the frequency content of the earthquake motion. If the earthquake has the important response near the tuned period of the system with
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are un rspuns important in apropierea perioadei de acordare a sistemului cu TMD atunci reducerea deplasrilor dup ocul iniial este considerabil ntre (20-50%) (de exemplu: figurile 3.7, 3.10, 3.13, 3.14); - n cazul n care micarea seismic nu se acordeaz la rndul su cu sistemul i cu TMDul, rspunsul sistemului cu TMD poate s fie aproximativ acelai sau mai mare in comparaie cu sistemul fr TMD (de exemplu: figurile 3.8, 3.9, 3.12). Un caz deosebit este prezentat n figura 3.12 unde aproape pe toata durata excitaiei seismice, structura cu TMD are un rspuns mai mare dect cel al structurii fr TMD. - Comparnd cazurile analizate mai sus, se mai poate observa banda ngust de frecvente in care sistemul cu TMD se poate acorda cu micarea seismica (pentru o diferen de aproximativ 0,20 s 0,30 s rspunsul se denatureaz drastic) (de exemplu aa cum se poate observa n figurile 3.8, 3.11,3.12) Structurile reale au mai mult de un grad de libertate dinamic. Pentru obinerea unor concluzii mai acoperitoare trebuie studiat efectul sistemelor de amortizare cu mas acordat asupra unor sisteme cu mai multe grade de libertate. Astfel rezult necesitatea dezvoltrii unui studiu n aceast direcie. ns datorit gradului de incertitudine din punctul de vedere al micrii seismice trebuie avut in vedere ca la o evaluare mai amnunit a modului de comportare a sistemelor de amortizare cu mas acordat, pe lng micrile nregistrate care ne stau la dispoziie s se foloseasc i o serie de micri generate artificial, compatibile cu spectrul de proiectare descris n normativele n vigoare. Studiul a fost realizat cu finanare UEFISCUCNCSIS n cadrul programului PNII, contract nr. 67/2007
TMD then the reduction can be taken into account (20-50%) (for example: figures 3.7, 3.10, 3.13, 3.14); - For the case in which the earthquake motion is not tuned with the main system and with the TMD the response can be similar or greater than the response of the structure without TMD (for example: figures 3.8, 3.9, 3.12). In figure 3.12 a special case is showed for which the response of the structure with TMD is greater than the response of the structure without TMD almost from the start to the end of motion. - By comparing the presented cases one can notice the thin frequency domain in which the TMD system can be tuned with the earthquake motion (for about 0.20 s 0.30 s the response can be drastically tainted)( for example: figures 3.8, 3.11,3.12). Real structures have more than one degree of freedom. For a more general conclusion it is necessary to study the effect of the tuned mass damper on some MDOF systems. So the necessity to develop the study results also in this direction. Regarding the incertitude of the earthquake motion, for the TMD system studies it is necessary to take into account, besides the recorded accelerograms, some artificial generated accelerograms also, that are compatible with the design spectra available. This study was made with resources from UEFISCU-CNCSIS, as a part of a PNII Program, contract no. 67/2007.
La rponse des structures un tage dotes damortisseurs avec masse accorde dans les conditions sismiques de Roumanie Rsum Les dispositifs damortissement avec masse accorde font partie de la catgorie des dispositifs spciaux dattnuation des effets du mouvement sismique ou des structures. Ils sont constitus, en principe, dun poids, dun ressort ainsi que dun amortisseur, relis une structure, et dont le rle est la rduction de la rponse dynamique. La frquence de lamortisseur est accorde une frquence de la structure ; par consquent, quand celle-ci est stimule
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une rsonance se produira, en contretemps avec le mouvement sismique. Lnergie est dissipe par la force dinertie de lamortisseur, qui actionne sur la structure. La mise en place de ce dispositif en fonction des conditions sismiques de Roumanie ne saurait tre accomplie sans une tude dtaillee afin dtablir la rponse des structures avec masse accorde [Tuned Mass Damper] sur une action sismique caractristique de notre pays. Ltude souhaite procder lobservation du comportement de quelques structures un tage dotes damortisseurs masse accorde par rapport divers mouvements sismiques importants, enregistrs suite au tremblement de terre ayant eu lieu dans la source de Vrancea. La dtermination de la rponse pour une structure un tage se fait selon lquivalence avec un systme un degr de libert. Les caractristiques dynamiques du systme sont dtermines an fonction du mouvement sismique. Bibliografie References [1] MOUTINHO, C., CUNHA, A., CAETANO, E.,. Anlise Experimental de TMDs para a Atenuao da Resposta Ssmica de Estruturas de Edifcios. Portugalia : SSMICA 2004: 6 Congresso Nacional de Sismologia e Engenharia Ssmica, 2004. [2] L. CALADO, J.M. PROENA, A. PANO. Innovative materials and techniques for seismic protection. s.l: PROHITECH, 2004. Vol. Earthquake Protection of Historical Buildings by Reversible Mixed Technologies. WP5_proj.no.INCO-CT-509119. [3] J. CONNOR, Introduction to Structural motion control. s.l. : Prentice Hall, 1999. ISBN 0130091383. [4] ANIL K. CHOPRA, Dynamics of Structures. Third Edition, Prentice Hall, 2007. ISBN 013156174x. Dispozitivele de amortizare cu mas acordat fac parte din categoria dispozitivelor speciale de atenuare a efectelor micrii seismice asupra structurilor, fiind constituite, n principiu, dintr-o greutate, un resort si un amortizor ataate unei structuri cu rolul de a-i reduce rspunsul dinamic. Frecventa amortizorului este acordata la o anumita frecventa a structurii n aa fel nct atunci cnd este excitat, amortizorul va oscila defazat cu micarea structurii. Energia este disipata de fora de inerie a amortizorului care acioneaz asupra structurii. Implementarea acestor dispozitive n condiiile seismice ale Romniei nu se poate face fr un studiu amnunit privind rspunsul structurilor cu TMD la aciunea seismic caracteristic rii noastre. Studiul i propune s urmreasc comportarea unor structuri cu un nivel dotate cu amortizori cu mas acordat la diverse micri seismice importante, nregistrate, ca urmare a cutremurelor produse n sursa Vrancea. Determinarea rspunsului structurii cu un nivel se face prin echivalarea acesteia cu un sistem cu 1 GLD ale crui caracteristici dinamice sunt determinate n funcie de aciunea seismic.
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Legtura dintre managementul calitii n construcii i reducerea riscului
Linking quality management in construction with seismic risk reduction
Nafees Ahmed Memon, dr. ing., Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti (Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest), e-mail: memon_nafees@yahoo.com
1. Introducere
1. Introduction
Daunele cauzate de recentele cutremure din Pakistan, Indonezia, Iran, India i Turcia au atras atenia asupra vulnerabilitii sociale i economice n continua cretere datorat riscurilor seismice. Numrul mare de pierderi umane continu s existe, iar pierderile economice sunt ntro cretere dramatic. n urmtorii 20 de ani este de ateptat ca populaia unora dintre cele mai srace orae ale lumii s ajung egal cu cea a Indiei i Chinei, nsumate, iar oamenii s fie nevoii s triasc, s nvee, i s muncesc n aceste aglomerri urbane. Avnd n vedere lipsa resurselor i caracterul imperios de a construi, calitatea construciilor va continua s scad dac nimic nu se va schimba rapid. Acest lucrare face legtura dintre implementarea Sistemelor de Management al Calitii n societile de construcii precum i procesele de construcie, pe de-o parte, i reducerea riscului seismic, pe de cealalt parte. Ea sugereaz msurile necesare ce trebuie adoptate n diferite stadii ale duratei unui proiect de construcii pentru a mbuntii calitatea construciilor i a reduce, n consecin, riscul pierderilor mai sus menionate. Ea subliniaz de asemenea i avantajele implementrii sistemelor de management al calitii n organizarea construciei.
2. Importana studiului
The damages caused by recent earthquakes in Pakistan, Indonesia, Iran, India and Turkey have brought attention to the increasing social and economic vulnerability to seismic risks. There continue to be large human losses from earthquakes and the economic losses are rising dramatically. In the next 20 years the combined population of todays India and China is expected to appear in some of the worlds poorest cities and will need places to live, learn, and work. Given the lack of resources and the urgency to build, the quality of construction will, unless something changes quickly, continue to decline. This paper links the implementation of Quality Management Systems in construction companies and construction process with seismic risk reduction. It suggests necessary measures to be taken at different stages in the life cycle of a construction project in order to improve the quality of constructions and consequently reduce the risk of damages. It also highlights the advantages of implementing quality management systems in construction organization.
2. Importance of study
Lumea s-a confruntat de nenumrate ori cu imense pierderi din cauza cutremurelor. Seismele au cauzat pe lng imense pierderi omeneti, i importante pierderi financiare sub form de structuri prbuite. Daunele recentelor cutremure din Pakistan, Indonezia, Iran, India i Turcia au atras atenia asupra vulnerabilitii sociale i economice n
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The world has been facing huge losses on account of earthquakes time by time. The earthquakes not only cause huge losses of human lives but a significant financial loss also results in the shape of collapsed structures. The damages caused by recent earthquakes in Pakistan, Indonesia, Iran, India and Turkey have brought attention
continu cretere datorat riscurilor seismice. Numrul mare de pierderi umane continu s existe, iar pierderile economice sunt ntro cretere dramatic. n plus, n rile srace, riscurile datorate producerii cutremurelor sunt mari i n continu cretere. n urm cu cincizeci de ani, att n oraele dezvoltate ct i n cele slab dezvoltate, ameninate de posibilitatea producerii de cutremure, numrul de locuitori era acelai. Astzi, sunt de cinci ori mai muli oameni n orae slab dezvoltate dect n cele dezvoltate. Acum cincizeci de ani, rezistena la cutremur a cldirilor din oraele dezvoltate era mai bun dect cea din oraele subdezvoltate, i ea s-a mbuntit n mod constant, n timp ce n oraele slab dezvoltate s-a nrutit constant. n urmtorii 20 de ani, se estimeaz ca populaia global va crete cu 2 miliarde. Din acele 2 miliarde, doar 50 de milioane vor reveni rilor industrializate iar restul, rilor n curs de dezvoltare. Din cauza migraiei interne, din zona rural n cea urban, populaia oraelor din rile n curs de dezvoltare este probabil s creasc la rndul ei cu 2 miliarde n aceast perioad (Brian E. Tucker, 2004). Avnd n vedere faptul c n urmtorii 20 de ani se estimeaz c populaia unora dintre cele mai srace orae ale lumii va ajunge egal cu cea a Indiei i Chinei, nsumate, iar oamenii vor fi nevoii s triasc, s nvee, i s munceasc n aceste aglomerri urbane [1]. Avnd n vedere lipsa resurselor i caracterul imperios de a construi, calitatea construciilor va continua s scad dac nimic nu se va schimba rapid. Sigurana mediului construit este un drept fundamental. Declaraia Comisiei Naiunilor Unite i a Drepturilor Omului prevede urmtoarele : Toate persoanele au dreptul la o locuin adecvat, dreptul de a deine o proprietate i a tri ntrun mediu sigur, sntos i ecologic (raportul UNCHR,1994). Experienele ultimelor cutremure, n special n rile n curs de dezvoltare, au demonstrat c suntem departe de a atinge aceste deziderate.
to the increasing social and economic vulnerability to seismic risks. There continue to be large human losses from earthquakes and the economic losses are rising dramatically. In addition to this, earthquake risk in poor countries is large and rapidly growing. Fifty years ago, the population of the worlds largest earthquake-threatened cities was equally divided between rich and poor countries. Today, there are five times as many people in poor as in rich earthquakethreatened cities. Fifty years ago, the earthquake resistance of buildings in rich countries was better than that of buildings in poor countries, and since then it has steadily improved, while that in poor countries has steadily worsened. In the next 20 years, the worlds population is likely to increase by 2 billion. Of that 2 billion, only 50 million will be added to industrialized countries, the rest to developing countries. Because of internal migration, from the countryside to cities, the urban population of developing countries is likely to increase by itself by 2 billion people over this period (Brian E. Tucker, 2004). Imagine that in the next 20 years the combined population of todays India and China is likely to appear in some of the worlds poorest cities and will need places to live, learn, and work [1]. Given the lack of resources and the urgency to build, the quality of construction will, unless something changes quickly, continue to decline. Safety in the built environment is a fundamental right. The declaration of United Nations Commission on Human Rights states that, All persons have the right to adequate housing, land tenure and living conditions in a secure, healthy and ecologically sound environment (UNCHR report, 1994). Experiences in recent earthquakes, particularly in developing countries, conclusively demonstrate that we are far from reaching
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Prpastia dintre rile dezvoltate i n curs de dezvoltare se lrgete: n secolul douzeci, patru din cinci decese cauzate de cutremure au avut loc n rile n curs de dezvoltare. n anul 1950, dou din trei persoane proveneau din oraele din zone seismice, n curs de dezvoltare, n timp ce n 2000, raportul era de nou la zece (Geohazards International, 2004). Odat cu creterea populaiei globale, n special n rile n curs de dezvoltare, aceast vulnerabilitate devine din ce n ce mai pronunat. Potrivit Naiunilor Unite, n 2000, o jumtate din populaia globului tria n zone urbane ce acoper 3% din teritoriu, o alarmant cretere a densitii. Pn n 2015, Naiunile Unite estimeaz c 23 de orae vor avea o populaie ce va depi zece milioane, i din acestea 6 vor fi localizate n ri n curs de dezvoltare. Din primele zece aglomerri urbane preconizate pentru 2015, opt sunt orae cu risc seismic de la moderat la ridicat. Cele zece sunt: Tokio, Mumbai, Dhaka, Karachi, Mexico City, New York, Jakarta i Calcutta [23]. Un cutremur major n unul dintre aceste orae, n special ntrun ora cu infrastructur fragil i cldiri vulnerabile, poate cauza distrugeri majore i un numr mare de mori. n rile n curs de dezvoltare nu numai populaia urban devine din ce n ce mai vulnerabil, dar este n cretere i numrul de dezastre. Avnd n vedere creterea numrului de locuitori, a vulnerabilitii i a numrul de dezastre n ntreaga lume este necesar pentru rile n curs de dezvoltare s ia msuri de micorare a dezastrelor seismice. Una dintre aceste msuri este s fie mbuntit calitatea construciilor aa cum este subliniat n acest articol.
3. Calitatea precar a construciilor principal cauza a pierderilor umane i financiare
this goal. The gap between developed and developing countries is widening: four of every five deaths caused by earthquakes in the twentieth century occurred in developing countries. Of people living in earthquake threatened cities in 1950, two of every three were in developing countries; in 2000, nine of ten were in developing countries (Geohazards International, 2004). As the worlds population grows, particularly in developing countries, this vulnerability becomes even more pronounced. According to the United Nations, in 2000, one-half of the worlds population lived in urban areas crowded into 3% of the land area, an alarming increase in population density. By 2015, the United Nations estimates that 23 cities will have populations exceeding ten million, and of those, all but 4 will be in less developed countries. Of the top ten urban agglomerations projected for 2015, eight are cities with a known moderate to high seismic risk, including Tokyo, Mumbai, Dhaka, Karachi, Mexico City, New York, Jakarta, and Calcutta [23]. A major earthquake in one of these cities, particularly in a city with a vulnerable building stock and fragile infrastructure, could cause major devastation and a significant number of deaths. Not only are urban populations in developing countries becoming increasingly more vulnerable, but also the number of disasters is increasing. Considering the increase in population, vulnerability and number of disasters around the world it is necessary for the developing countries to take proactive measures for earthquake disaster mitigation. One of the important proactive measures in this perspective is to improve the quality of constructions as emphasized in this article.
3. Poor construction quality- the major cause of human & financial losses
Literatura de specialitate n domeniul mai sus menionat arat c precara calitate a construciilor a fost principala cauza a
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Literature review in the above mentioned area reveals that poor construction quality was the major cause of human and financial
pierderilor umane i financiare n cutremurele devastatoare ce au avut loc n Pakistan, India i Turcia. Studiile i rapoartele de cercetare referitoare la zona afectat de ctre cutremurul din Pakistan dezvluie faptul c principala cauz a deceselor i a pierderilor de proprieti i imobile n cutremurul din Kashmir a fost calitatea precar a construciilor [12][24][28]. Raportul pentru Cutremure Speciale (Raportul EERI Special Earthquake) (December 2005) cu privire la cutremurul din Kashmir relateaz urmtoarele: practic calitatea precar a construciilor a cauzat numrul mare de calamiti. Avnd n vedere acest adevr, este o imens nevoie s se aplice Practicile de Management al Calitii n sectorul construciilor pentru a mbunti calitatea construciilor i n consecin pentru a reduce riscul unor viitoare pierderi umane i financiare.
4. Obiective
losses in devastating earthquakes which occurred in Pakistan, India and Turkey. The surveys and research reports of earthquake affected area in Pakistan reveal that one of the major causes of heav death toll and property loss in Kashmir earthquake is poor construction quality [12][24][28]. The EERI Special Earthquake Report (December 2005) on Kashmir earthquake describes that: basically the poor quality building construction caused the large number of fatalities.
Considering the above fact, there is an immense need to apply Quality Management Practices in the construction sector in order to improve the construction quality and consequently reduce the risk of human and financial losses against future earthquakes.
4. Objective
Principalul obiectiv al acestei lucrri este de a evidenia aspectele legate de cum pot fi micorate riscurile n construcii. n acest context, lucrarea de fa face legtura dintre implementarea sistemelor de management al calitii n companiile de construcii i procesul de construcie, pe de-o parte, i reducerea riscului seismic, pe de alt parte.
5. Durata de via a unui proiect de construcii
The main objective of this paper is to highlight the aspect that how risk can be reduced in construction. In this context, this paper links the implementation of Quality Management Systems in construction companies and construction process with seismic risk reduction.
5. Life cycle of a construction project
Institutul de Management al Proiectelor (Project Management Institute) (PMI 2000) definete durata de via a proiectului (Project Life cycle) (PLC) astfel: succesiunea continu a fazelor unui proiect de la nceput sau pn la finalizare [2]. Din punct de vedere al beneficiarului, durata de via a proiectului unei construcii poate fi ilustrat schematic ca n figura 1.
The Project Management Institute (PMI 2000) defines the Project Life cycle (PLC) as: the steady progression of a project from its beginning to its completion [2]. From the perspective of an owner, the project life cycle for a constructed facility may be illustrated schematically in figure 1.
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Cererea pieii sau Alte nevoi/ Market demands or Precieved needs Planificarea conceptual i Studiu de fezabilitate/ Conceptual planning and Feasibility study Proiectare i Inginerie/ Design and Engineering Achiziie i Execuie Procurement and Construction
Definirea obiectivelor proiectului i a scopului su/ Definition of project objectives and Scope Plan conceptual i Proiectare preliminar/ Conceptual plan or Preliminary Design Planuri de Proiectare i Prescripii / Construction plans and specification
Darea in Folosin/ Startup for occupancy
Finalizarea construciei/ Completion of Construction
Utilizarea i ntreinerea/ Operation and maintenance ncheierea funciunii/ Disposal of facility
Luarea n primire a facilitii/ Acceptance of facility ndeplinirea duratei de via/ Fullfilment of Useful Life
Fig. 1: Principalele stadii din durata de via unui proiect de construcii Main stages of the life cycle of a construct project
n esen, un proiect este conceput n timp util pentru a corespunde cererilor pieei sau nevoilor. Mai multe posibiliti pot fi considerate n faza de planificare conceptual a proiectului, iar fezabilitatea tehnologic i economic a fiecrei alternative este evaluat i comparat n vederea selectrii celui mai bun proiect. Schemele financiare ale fiecrei variante propuse trebuie analizate, i proiectul este planificat n concordan cu timpul necesar finalizrii lui i cu circuitul financiar disponibil. Dup ce scopul proiectului a fost definit cu precizie, proiectarea detaliat va furniza planul proiectului, iar estimarea costului final va sta la baza controlului costurilor. n fazele de achiziie i construcie, furnizarea de materiale i ridicarea construciei pe antier trebuie planificate i controlate cu atenie. Dup terminarea construciei, exist o scurt perioad de funcionare sau testare a construciei cnd aceasta este ocupat pentru prima dat. n cele din urm, managementul facilitii este lsat n atribuiile beneficiarului ce va deine totala
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Essentially, a project is conceived to meet market demands or needs in a timely fashion. Various possibilities may be considered in the conceptual planning stage, and the technological and economic feasibility of each alternative is assessed and compared in order to select the best possible project. The financing schemes for the proposed alternatives must also be examined, and the project is programmed with respect to the timing for its completion and for available cash flows. After the scope of the project is clearly defined, detailed engineering design will provide the blueprint for construction, and the definitive cost estimate will serve as the baseline for cost control. In the procurement and construction stage, the delivery of materials and the erection of the project on site must be carefully planned and controlled. After the construction is completed, there is usually a brief period of start-up or shake-down of the constructed facility when it is first occupied. Finally, the management of the facility is turned over to the owner for full
posesiune pe tot restul vieii cldirii, pn cnd aceasta va fi demolat sau destinaia i va fi schimbat [2].
6. Legtura dintre Managementul Calitii n durata de via a unui proiect de construcii i reducerea riscurilor seismice
occupancy until the facility lives out its useful life and is designated for demolition or conversion [2].
6. Linking Quality Management in the life cycle of a construction project with seismic risk reduction
Managementul Calitii n durata de via a unui proiect de construcii reprezint procesele necesare pentru a asigura faptul c acel proiect va satisface nevoile pentru care a fost iniiat. El cuprinde planificarea calitii, asigurarea i controlul la nivelul diferitelor faze ale duratei de via a proiectului. Caliatea precar a construciei poate fi cauzat de nerespectarea procedurilor de management al calitii n diferite stadii ale duratei de via a proiectului. inta acestei seciuni este de a relaiona proiectul de management al calitii cu reducerea riscului seismic.
6.1 Managementul Calitii n analiza cererilor pieii sau a nevoilor
Quality management in the life cycle of a construction project means the processes required to ensure that the project will satisfy the needs for which it was undertaken. It covers quality planning, assurance and control at various stages of a project life cycle. Poor construction quality may be caused due to overlooking quality management practices at different stages of project life cycle. This section aims to link project quality management with seismic risk reduction.
6.1 Quality management in analyzing market demands or perceived needs
Scopul acestei faze este de a defini obiectivele proiectului i scopul su. O dat ce proprietarul a identificat nevoile unei noi faciliti, beneficiarul trebuie s-i defineasc cerinele i a contureze constrngerile bugetare. Aceasta implic stabilirea n linii mari a caracteristicilor proiectului ca de exemplu locaia, criteriile de performan, mrimea, configuraia, forma, echipamentul, serviciile i alte cerine ale proprietarului necesare pentru a stabili aspectele generale ale proiectului. Caracteristicile proiectului ca de exemplu locaia i performana sunt importante din punctul de vedere al managementului de risc seismic. n timpul seleciei locaiei trebuie avute n minte aspecte legate de amplasmentul geotehnic i de zona seismic. Nevoile societii includ, pe lng altele, structuri cu rezisten seismic. De aceea atenia acordata
The aim of this stage is to define project objectives and scope. Once an owner has identified the need for a new facility, the owner must define the requirements and delineate the budgetary constraints. It involves establishing broad project characteristics such as location, performance criteria, size, configuration, layout, equipment, services and other owner requirements needed to establish the general aspects of the project. Project characteristics like location and performance are important from seismic risk management point of view. While selecting the location geotechnical site consideration and seismic zone of the site should be kept in mind. The perceived needs of the society include safe structures against earthquakes besides other needs. Therefore consideration of above
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parametrilor de mai sus are o importan exceptional n aceast faz a proiectului.
parameters is of paramount importance in this phase of project.
(1) Managementul Calitii n analiza cererilor pieei sau a nevoilor / Quality Management in analyzing market demands or perceived needs (6) Managementul Calitii n nciunii i ntreinerii / Quality Management during operation and maintenance (2) Managementul Calitii la nivelul Planificrii conceptuale i a studiului de fezabilitate / Quality Management at conceptual planning and feasibility study stage
Legtura dintre Managementul Calitii n durata de via a unui proiect de construcii i reducerea riscurilor seismice / Linking Quality Management in the life cycle of a construction project with seismic risk reduction
(5) Managemntul Calitii la stadiul de execuie / Quality Management at construction stage (4) Managementul Calitii la nivelul achiziiilor / Quality Management at procurement stage
(3) Managementul Calitii la nivelul proiectrii i ingineriei / Quality Management at the design and engineering stage
Fig. 2: Legtura dintre Managementul Calitii n durata de via a unui proiect de construcii i reducerea riscurilor seismice Linking Quality Management in life cycle of a construction project with seismic risk reduction
Aplicarea practicilor de management al calitii folosete la realizarea obiectivului de mai sus. Paii recomandai pentru a ndeplini acest obiectiv includ i: Angajarea de profesional calificat i cu experien Asigurarea preciziei datelor n cadrul analizei nevoilor societii/comunitii Luarea n calcul a aspectelor legate de amplasamentul geotehnic i a zonelor seismice Aplicarea principiilor de management al calitii n procesul de mai sus
Application of quality management practices can help in achieving the above objective. Recommended steps to achieve this objective include: Employment of qualified and experienced professionals. Assuring the accuracy of data in analyzing the needs of society/community. Consideration of geotechnical site considerations and earthquake zone. Application of total quality management principles in the above process.
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6.2 Managementul calitii la nivelul planificrii conceptuale i a studiului de fezabilitate Planificarea conceptual se oprete brusc la faza de proiectare detaliat, dei o cantitate considerabil de lucrri preliminare arhitecturale i inginereti sunt necesare. Definirea termenului lucrrii este esenialmente responsabilitatea proprietarului, dei o echip de proiectani poate fi chemat pentru a oferi asisten tehnic i consiliere. Asistena tehnic n selectarea parametrilor de proiectare ca de exemplu ncrcrile seismice i adoptarea standardelor seismice adecvate este de asemenea important pe lng alte consideraii ce trebuie fcute. Paii recomandai n a ndeplini obiectivele includ i: - Adoptarea criteriilor de managementul calitii n selectarea proiectaniilor. - Selectarea codurilor i standardelor adecvate pentru proiectarea structurilor n concordan cu cerinele proiectului. 6.3 Managementul Calitii la nivelul proiectrii i ingineriei
6.2 Quality management at conceptual planning and feasibility study stage
Conceptual planning stops short of the detailed design, although a considerable amount of preliminary architectural or engineering work may be required. The definition of the work is basically the responsibility of the owner, although a design professional may be called in to provide technical assistance and advice. Technical assistance in the selection of design parameters like earthquake load considerations and adoption of proper seismic standards is also important besides other considerations. Recommended steps to assure the objective include: - Applying the quality management criteria in the selection of design professional. - Selection of proper seismic codes & standards for the design of structure in accordance of perceived needs of the project.
6.3 Quality management at the design and engineering stage
Obiectivele acestui nivel sunt Prescripiile i Planurile de Construcie (Construction Plans and Specifications). Aceast faz implic proiectarea arhitectural i de rezisten a ntregului proiect. Ea ajunge la un punct culminant o dat cu planele finale de lucru i prescripiile programului total de construcie. Din punct de vedere al managementului de risc seismic proiectarea detaliat i prescripiile trebuie s fie n conformitate cu cele mai recente coduri seismice. Paii recomandai n acest stadiu sunt urmtorii: Luarea n considerare a condiiilor de mediu din punct de vedere al proiectrii seismice Utilizarea celor mai recente coduri seismice. Precizarea n cadrul prescripiilor tehnice a tehnologiilor folosite
The objectives of this stage are Construction Plans and Specifications. This phase involves the architectural and engineering design of the entire project. It culminates in the preparation of final working drawings and specifications for the total construction program. From the seismic risk management point of view the detailed design and specifications should be in accordance of updated seismic codes. The recommended steps at this stage include: Consideration of specific site condition from seismic design point of view. Use of updated seismic codes. Defining the use of required technology in the technical specification.
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6.4. Managementul calitii la nivelul achiziiilor
6.4. Quality management at procurement stage.
Achiziiile se refer la comandarea i livrarea echipamentelor i materialelor necesare, n special a celor care implic un interval mare de timp pentru livrare. Selectarea celei mai adecvate forme de organizare a proiectrii i a lucrrilor de teren reprezint astzi un aspect fundamental al procesului de achiziie. (Turner, 1997; Ashworth, 2002). Din ce n ce mai mult, echipa beneficiarului include specialiti n domeniul managementului facilitilor (n special cei menii s soluioneze nelmuririle clientului legate de organizare) care trebuie s fie familiari cu amplitudinea de extindere a opiunilor achiziiilor [5] [29]. n cadrul acestui proces, muli cercettori sunt de acord c proiectarea, managementul, i execuia pot fi teoretic considerate pri distincte, dei n realitate exist o oarecare sinergie i suprapunere. (Best and de Valence, 1999; Masterman, 2002; Walker and Hampson, 2003). Pentru acest motiv, categoriile metodelor de achiziie au fost clasificate n trei activiti distincte: (1) Sisteme tradiionale (includ costuri estimate prin adaos, cantiti provizorii); (2) Sisteme proiectare-execuie (includ proiectarea, managementul i execuia); i (3) Sisteme bazate pe management (includ proiectare i administrare; managementul contractrii i managementul construciei).
6.4.1 Selectarea criteriilor adecvate de achiziie
Procurement refers to the ordering, expediting and delivering of key project equipment and materials, especially those that may involve long delivery periods. Selecting the most appropriate organization for design and construction work represents a fundamental aspect of the modern building procurement process (Turner, 1997; Ashworth, 2002). Increasingly, the integrated client team includes facilities management practitioners (particularly those concerned with client strategic issues in the organization) who need to be familiar with the expanding range of procurement options [5] [29]. Within this process, many researchers agree that design, management and construction can theoretically be viewed as discrete parts, although in reality some synergy and overlap does exist (Best and de Valence, 1999; Masterman, 2002; Walker and Hampson, 2003). For this reason, categories of procurement methods have been classified around three distinct activities: (1) traditional systems (including costplus, provisional quantities); and build systems (2) design (including design, management and construction); and systems (3) management-oriented (including design and manage; management contracting and construction management).
6.4.1 Selection procurement criteria of appropriate
Selecia unei ci adecvate de achiziie este o sarcin complex att pentru client ct i pentru consultantul clientului (n special managerilor de faciliti strategice ce lucreaz pentru client) i rmne o enigm pentru muli cercettori, dup cum o arat volumul mare de cercetri efectuate n
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Selecting an appropriate procurement path is a complex and daunting task for both the client and the clients advisers (particularly client strategic facilities managers) and remains an enigma for many researchers, as evidenced by the volume of research conducted in this
acest domeniu (Franks, 1984; Bennett and Grice, 1990; Chan et al., 2001; Cheung, 2001; Masterman, 2002). Este adeseori recomandat ca alegerea traseului de achiziii s se bazeze pe prioritile i obiectivele clientului (Turner, 1997) ct i pe consideraii de rezisten i siguran, economice, de mediu i sociale (Love, 1996). Cel mai des ntlnit criteriu n literatura de specialitate, dedicat alegerii metodelor de achiziie include timpul, precizia preului, flexibilitatea, calitatea, complexitatea, riscul, concurena, responsabilitatea, disputa i arbitrajul (NEDO, 1985; Skitmore and Marsden, 1988; Love, 1998). Din punct de vedere al managementului riscului seismic, calitatea managementului n procesul de achiziie este important odat ce acest proces va asigura cea mai adecvat organizare a proiectrii i execuiei. n afar de asta va ajuta la asigurarea criteriilor de calitate n selecia echipei tehnice a proiectului, a echipamentului i a materialelor. Paii recomandai n procesul de achiziie din punct de vedere al managementului de risc seismic sunt: - Adoptarea unui Criteriu de Evaluare a Achiziiei (Procurement Assessment Criteria (PAC)) adecvat lund n considerare factorii: viteza (timp), precizia preului, flexibilitatea, nivelul calitii, complexitatea, evitarea riscul, concurena preului, responsabilitatea, disputa i arbitrajul. - Selectarea celei mai adecvate organizri pentru a prelua aceste sarcini - Asigurarea criteriilor de calitate n selectarea echipei tehnice a proiectului, a echipamentului i a materialelor.
6.5 Managemntul calitii la stadiul de execuie
subject area (Franks, 1984; Bennett and Grice, 1990; Chan et al., 2001; Cheung, 2001; Masterman, 2002). It is often recommended that the choice of procurement route should be based on the clients objectives and priorities (Turner, 1997) as well as engineering, economic, environmental and social considerations (Love, 1996). The most common criteria found in literature concerning the choice of procurement methods include time, price certainty, flexibility, quality, complexity, risk, price competition, responsibility, and dispute and arbitration (NEDO, 1985; Skitmore and Marsden, 1988; Love, 1998). From the seismic risk management point of view quality management in the procurement process is important as this process will ensure the most appropriate organization for design and construction. Besides this it will help in ensuring the quality criteria in the selection of key project technical staff, equipment and materials. The recommended steps in the procurement process from the seismic risk management point of view are: - Adoption of the appropriate Procurement Assessment Criteria (PAC) considering the factors: speed (time), price certainty, flexibility, quality level, complexity, risk avoidance, price competition, responsibility, and dispute and arbitration. of most appropriate - Selection organizations to undertake the work. - Ensuring the quality criteria in the selection of key project technical staff, equipment and materials.
6.5 Quality management construction stage at the
Execuia este procesul de punere n aplicare a proiectului i de punere n lucru a materialelor i echipamentelor. Ea implic obinerea de mn de lucru,
Construction is the process of physically erecting the project and putting the materials and equipment into place and this involves providing the manpower,
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echipamentele de construcie, materiale, furnizori, supraveghere i management, pentru a realiza obiectivele propuse. Odat ce procesele de proiectare i de achiziie sau ncheiat iar condiiile de asigurare a calitii au fost ndeplinite, urmtorul nivel important este asigurarea calitii n timpul operaraiilor de construcie propriu-zis. Aceasta depinde de un control adecvat al calitii n timpul execuiei proiectului. Din punct de vedere al managementului riscului seismic, controlul calitii n timpul execuiei este de o extrem importan. Unul dintre motivele cele mai importante pentru care structurile au cedat n timpul recentelor cutremure n rile aflate n curs de dezvoltare, a fost lipsa calitii n faza de proiectare sau n faza de execuie ori n ambele. Paii recomandai pentru controlul calitii n faza de execuie sunt: antreprenorilor i - Selectarea subantreprenorilor adecvai. - Echipa tehnic, administrativ ct i muncitorii calificai i necalificai trebuie s fie n concordan cu nevoile proiectului. - Asigurarea calitii materialelor n conformitate cu prescripiile proiectului. - Selectarea i utilizarea tehnologiei i a echipamentului adecvat n procesele de execuie. - Modificarea n timp util a planelor dac acest lucru e necesar. - Transparena n procesul de inspecie. - Luarea de msuri pentru a stopa sau a evita corupia. - Refacerea n timp util a lucrrilor greite. n eviden a non- inerea conformitilor i luarea de msuri necesare rectificrii lor. - Adoptarea unei strategii potrivit creia lucrurile sunt fcute bine de prima dat.
6.6 Managementul calitii n timpul funciunii i ntreinerii
construction equipment, materials, supplies, supervision, and management which are necessary to accomplish the work. Once the design and procurement process has been done according to quality requirements, the next important stage is to ensure the quality during construction operation. This depends upon the proper quality control during execution of the project. From seismic risk management point of view, quality control during the execution is of utmost importance. One major reason of the collapse of structures in recent earthquakes in developing countries is the lack of quality at the design stage or construction stage or on both stages. The recommended steps to control the quality at the construction stage are: Selection of appropriate contractors and subcontractors. Technical staff, administrative staff, skilled workers and unskilled workers should be according to the project needs. Ensuring the quality of materials according to specifications. Selection and use of appropriate technology and equipment in the construction process. Ensuring the timely changes in drawings if required. Transparency in inspection process. Taking necessary measures to stop/avoid corruption. Timely rejection of faulty work. Recording the non-conformances and taking necessary measures for rectification. Adopting the strategy that things are done right the first time.
during
6.6 Quality management operation and maintenance
Acest stadiu este focalizat pe utilizarea facilitilor i ntreinerea ntregii cldiri/

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This stage is focused on the use of facilities and the maintenance of the whole
structuri. n aceast faz sunt incluse de asemenea i posibilele restaurri ale cldirii. Din punct de vedere al managementului de risc seismic, aplicarea managementului calitii n acest stadiu este foarte important. Lipsa controlului calitii n timpul fazei de ntreinere i funciune a facilitilor poate mri riscul apariiei daunelor n timpul cutremurelor. Paii recomandai din punct de vedere al controlului calitii n timpul funciunii i ntreinerii sunt: Asigurarea la intervale regulate de timp a calitii n timpul ntreinerii structurii. Consolidarea structurii pentru a crete/ mbuntii stabilitatea la cutremure, dac este necesar. Studierea deteriorrilor/comportrii structurii n timpul cutremurelor i luarea de msuri de remediere. Analiza din timp n timp a funciunii structurii i conversia funciunii sale pentru a reduce riscul apariiei deteriorrilor cauzate de cutremur dac e necesar. Dac se observ c o viitoare ntreinere sau conversie a facilitilor nu va fi util, atunci structura va trebui dezasamblat iar prile i materialele aflate nc n stare bun, refolosite.
building/structure. In this stage the possible renovations of the building are also included. From the seismic risk management point of view application of quality management is very important during this stage. Lack of quality control during maintenance and operation phase of the facility can increase the risk of damage on account of earthquakes. The recommended step from quality management point of view during the operation and maintenance stage are: Assuring quality during the maintenance of structure at regular intervals. Retrofitting of the structure to increase/ improve its stability against earthquakes if required. Study of the structural losses/behavior in the event of earthquakes and taking remedial measures. Analyzing the function of structure time by time and converting the function of structure to reduce the risk of damages due to earthquakes if required. If it is observed that further maintenance or conversion of the facility will not be useful then the structure should be dismantled and possible parts and materials of the structure should be recycled.
7. Legtura dintre Sistemele de Management al Calitii n organizaiile de construcii i reducerea riscului seismic
7. Linking Quality Management Systems in construction organizations with seismic risk reduction
Trei principali participani/organizaii sunt implicai de obicei n contractele tradiionale de construcii: beneficiarul, proiectantul i antreprenorul. Implementarea sistemelor de management al calitii la nivelul acestor participani poate fi folositoare n mbuntirea i meninerea calitii construciei i n consecin n reducerea riscului seismic. Principalele avantaje ale implementrii sistemelor de management al calitii (ISO
Three main participants/organizations are usually involved in traditional construction contracts: client, designer and contractor. Implementation of quality management system in these organizations can be useful in improving and maintaining the quality of construction and consequently reducing seismic risk. The main advantages of implementing quality management systems (ISO 9000 & TQM) in construction organization from seismic
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9000 & TQM) n organizaiile de construcii din punct de vedere al managementului riscului seismic sunt menionate mai jos:
risk management point of view are given below
Legtura dintre Sistemele de Management al Calitii n organizaiile de construcii i reducerea riscului seismic / Linking Quality Management Systems in construction organizations with seismic risk reduction
1. Avantajele implementrii sistemelor de management al calitii la nivelul beneficiarului / Advantages of implementing Quality management systems at client level 2. Avantajele implementrii sistemelor de management al calitii la nivelul proiectantului (consultantului) / Advantages of implementing Quality Management systems at designer/consultant level
3. Avantajele implementrii sistemelor de management al calitii la nivelul antreprenorilor / Advantages of implementing QM systems at contractor level
Fig.3: Legtura dintre Sistemele de Management al Calitii n organizaiile de construcii i reducerea riscului seismic Linking Quality management systems in construction organizations with seismic risk reduction /
7.1 Avantajele implementrii sistemelor de management al calitii la nivelul beneficiarului:
7.1 Advantages of implementing Quality management systems at client level:
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Angajai calificai i motivai. Accentuarea mbuntirii continue a calitii. Luarea n considerare a standardelor seismice n faza de proiectare. Selectarea consultanilor calificai. Luarea n considerare a criterilor de calitate n timpul selectrii consultanilor i a antreprenorilor. Transparena n procesul de licitaie. Monitorizare adecvat a calitii construciei. Detectarea non-conformitiilor. Redresarea non- conformitiilor.
Qualified and motivated employees. Emphasis on continuous quality improvement. Consideration of seismic standards in design. Selection of qualified consultants. Consideration of quality characteristics during selection of consultants and contractors. Transparency in bidding process. Proper monitoring of construction quality. Detection of non-conformances. Rectifying the non-conformances.
Asigurarea calitii n timpul ntreinerii i a funcionrii. - Conversia/organizarea din timp a facilitilor i reciclarea prilor sau a materialelor refolosibile. 7.2 Avantajele implementrii sistemelor de management al calitii la nivelul proiectantului/consultantului: Echipa tehnic calificat, motivat pentru o mbuntire continu a calitii. Acuratee n a colecta datele necesare proiectrii. Luarea n considerare a celor mai recente coduri i standarde seismice. Acuratee n prescripiile i desenele de proiectare. O mai bun supraveghere a execuiei i a calitii. Control eficient i msuri luate mpotriva corupiei. Relaii bune de lucru cu beneficiarii i antreprenorii.
Ensuring quality during maintenance and operation phase. - Timely conversion/disposal of the facility and recycling of possible parts and materials. 7.2 Advantages of implementing Quality management systems at designer/consultant level: Qualified technical staff with motivation for continuous quality improvement. Accuracy in data collection for design. Proper consideration of updated seismic codes and standards. Accuracy in design drawings and specification. Better supervision of the construction process and quality. Good control and measures against corruption. Good working relation with clients and contractors.
7.3 Avantajele implementrii sistemelor de management al calitii la nivelul antreprenorilor:
7.3 Advantages of implementing Quality management systems at contractor level:
Echipa tehnic i muncitori calificai. Utilizarea tehnologiei i metodei de execuie adecvat. Detectarea adecvat a nonconformitilor. Rectificarea din timp a nonconformitilor. Punerea accentului pe efectuarea corect a sarcinilor din prima ncercare. Producerea construciilor de calitate n conformitate cu prescripiile existente. Finalizarea n timp a proiectului. Luarea de msuri de siguran adecvate pe antier.
Qualified technical and skilled workers. Use of appropriate technology and construction method. Proper detection of non-conformances. Timely rectification of nonconformances. Emphasis on doing the things right the first time. Producing the quality construction according to specification. Timely completion of the project. Provision of proper construction safety measures on construction site.
8. Concluzii
8. Conclusion
Prbuirea structurilor n recentele cutremure din ri ca Turcia, India, i Pakistan au dezvluit faptul c unul dintre motivele principale ale producerii daunelor
The failures of structures in recent earthquakes in countries like Turkey, India and Pakistan reveal that poor construction quality is one of the most important
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a fost calitatea precar a construciilor. Aceasta poate fi cauzat de nerespectarea criteriilor de management al calitii n diferite stadii ale duratei de via a proiectului. Acest lucrare a relaionat managementul calitii unui proiect de construcii i implementarea efectiv a sistemelor de managementul calitii n societiile de construcii cu reducerea riscului seismic. Ea sugereaz luarea msurilor necesare n diferite stadii ale duratei de via a unui proiect de construcii cu scopul de a mbunti calitatea construciei i implicit de a reduce riscul pierderilor umane i financiare cauzate de obicei de calitatea precar n cazul unui cutremur.
reasons in the failure of structures. Poor construction quality may be casued due to overlooking quality management practices at different stages of project life cycle. This paper has linked quality management in life cycle of the construction project and effective implementation of Quality management systems in construction companies with seismic risk reduction. It suggests necessary measures to be taken at different stages in the life cycle of a construction project in order to improve the quality of constructions and consequently reduce the risk of human and financial losses which is usually caused due to poor construction quality in the event of earthquakes
La relation entre quality management in construction et la rduction du risque Rsum Les endommagements causs par des sismes rcents au Pakistan, en Indonsie, en Iran, en Inde et en Turquie ont attir lattention sur la vulnrabilit accrue aux risques sismiques, dun point de vue social et conomique. On continue avoir des pertes humaines cause des sismes. Aussi les pertes conomiques sont importantes. Dans les prochaines 20 annes, on sattend ce que la population combine des Indes et de la Chine daujourdhui fasse partie des plus pauvres du monde. Cette population sera demandeuse de logements, de possibilits denseignement et de travail. En tenant compte de labsence des ressources et de lurgence de construire continuellement, la qualit des constructions se rduira, si des changements ne sont pas effectus. Ce projet-ci fait la liaison entre la mise en place des systmes de management de la qualit dans les entreprises de construction et le processus de rduction du risque sismique. Nous ferons des suggestions ncessaires d tre appliques pour amliorer la qualit des constructions et, par consquent, aptes rduire le risque dendommagement. Dans le mme temps, on souligne les avantages de la mise en place des systmes de management de la qualit dans lorganisation des constructions.
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Predicia strii mbrcmintei rutiere utiliznd metode numerice
Prediction of the Pavement Condition Using Numerical Methods
Bogdan Tudor, drd.ing., director adjunct CESTRIN Bucureti (deputy director, CESTRIN Bucharest), e-mail: bogdan.tudor@cestrin.ro Rodian Scnteie dr.ing., director executiv CERT-CESTRIN (executive director CERT-CESTRIN Bucharest), email: rodian.scinteie@gmail.com
Sistemele de gestiune a mbrcmintei rutiere sunt utilizate pentru a indica lucrri adecvate ce urmeaz a se efectua asupra cii de rulare. Pentru a avea o decizie corect sunt necesare dou lucruri: o evaluarea a efectului imediat al lucrrii asupra parametrilor de stare i evoluia viitoare a sistemului rutier cu i fr intervenia planificat. Pentru descrierea comportamentului viitor se utilizeaz de modele de predicie. Pentru aceasta se utilizeaz descrierea strii prezente a sistemului i utiliznd ecuaii adecvate se efectueaz o proiecie n viitor a caracteristicilor n condiiile concrete de mediu i solicitare. Ecuaiile sunt obinute prin studierea datelor obinute pe sectoare similare n condiii similare. Prezumia fundamental este c structuri ale sistemelor rutiere similare se comport similar n condiii similare. Utilizarea metodelor de predicie pentru determinarea evoluiei mbrcmintei rutiere este o tem de mare actualitate pe plan mondial. Pentru realizarea scopului propus s-a apelat la instrumente moderne oferite de statistic, teoria probabilitilor, teoria fiabilitii, ingineria i tehnologia rutier. Datorit caracterului complex al sistemului structur rutier i a multiplelor sale interaciuni cu mediu ncon-jurtor fizic se poate considera c analiza prediciei de stare are un caracter multidisciplinar.Pornind de la datele disponibile au fost analizate i dezvoltate modele comportamentale pentru neuniformitate (IRI), pentru rugozitate (HS) i pentru capacitatea portant (descris prin deflexiunea Benkelman). Pentru fiecare dintre cele trei modele au fost folosite metode diferite de analiz de regresie. Aceasta a rezultat din comportamentul diferit al datelor. Analiza de regresie a fost condus n fiecare caz pornind de la dou ipoteze de lucru: 1) variabilele independente au efect cumulativ, i 2) au efect multiplicativ.
Pavement management systems are used to indicate the appropriate works to be performed on roads. To have a correct decision, two things are absolutely necessary: an evaluation of the immediate effect of the works on the condition parameters and future evolution of the road system with and without planned intervention. To describe future behavior of the system a prediction model is needed. A model is generally formed by a set of equations which takes into account the description of the present condition and makes a projection in the future of the main parameters based on the concrete environment and demand conditions. Equations are drafted based on studies on data collected on similar sectors with similar conditions. The fundamental assumption is that similar structures in the same conditions perform similarly. The use of prediction methods to determine the evolution of the pavement is a present concern in the world. To achieve the goal of the study, modern instruments from statistics, probability theory, reliability theory, road engineering and technology are available. Due to the complex nature of the road structural system and its multiple interactions with the environment the prediction analysis has a multi-disciplinary character. Starting from the available data, behavior models have been analyzed and developed for evenness (IRI), roughness (HS) and bearing capacity (described by Benkelman deflection). For each of the three models, different methods of regression analysis have been used. This has resulted from the different behavior described by data. Regression analysis has been conducted in two hypothesizes for each case: 1) independent variables have cumulative effect, and 2) independent variables have multiplicative effect.
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1. Modele numerice de evoluie pentru parametrii msurai
1. Numerical Models for the Evolution of Measured Parameters
Datele disponibile au fost analizate utiliznd regresia liniara pentru a evidenia dependena variaiei n timp a parametrilor de stare de variabilele considerate. Modelele astfel obinute sunt utilizate de procedurile de predicie. Conform datelor disponibile i nevoilor decizionale au fost realizate: Modele de evoluie pentru IRI, Modele de evoluie pentru HS, Modele de evoluie pentru deflexiune. Din cauza imposibilitii de dezvoltare a unui model teoretic, a prezenei unui grad de incertitudine cauzat de insuficiena datelor i cunotinelor, precum i a condiiilor impuse pentru fiecare dintre parametri, exist mai multe variante de model. Fiecare model explic ntr-o anumit msur variaia parametrului studiat. Pentru o decizie final ar trebui s existe o relaie liniar ntre valorile prezise i msurate: = aY + b + Y i i unde: valorile estimate prin aplicarea modelului Y i obinut n urma analizei, Yi valorile msurate ale parametrului, a coeficient de scala ( a 1,0 ), b coeficient de poziie ( b 0,0 ), eroarea termen aleator care respect distribuia normal. Pentru fiecare caz n parte trebuie verificat dac a i b sunt suficient de apropiai de valorile prescrise i dac indicatorul de verosimilitate R 2 are o valoare suficient de ridicat ( R 2 1 ). Pentru analiz a fost utilizat EA/Limdep. EA/LimDep ( Econometric Software, Inc.) e un program ce poate fi utilizat pentru calcule statistice, econometrice, analize de regresie.
2. Analiza datelor pentru IRI i HS
Available data have been analyzed using linear regression to underline the dependence of the variation in time of the condition parameters which have been considered. The aggregated models have been used for prediction procedures. According to decision needs and available data the following have been developed: Evolution model for IRI; Evolution model for HS; Evolution model for deflection. Due to the impossibility of developing a theoretical model, the presence of a high degree of uncertainty caused by insufficient data and knowledge, as well as due to the conditions imposed to each parameter, more model variants are possible. Each model explains in lower or higher extent the variation of the studied parameter. For a final decision, a linear relation between the measured and predicted value should exist: (1) where: values estimated by the model resulted Y i from the analysis, Yi measured values of the parameter, a scale coefficient ( a 1,0 ), b position coefficient ( b 0,0 ), error random term which respects normal distribution. For each case a and b should be verified if they are close to the prescribed values and if the coefficient of determination R 2 has a value sufficiently high ( R 2 1 ). EA/Limdep was used for the analysis. EA/Limdep ( Econometric Software, Inc.) is a program fit for statistic and econometric calculations or for regression analysis.
2. Analysis of Data for IRI and HS
Modul de abordare pentru identificarea dependenei IRI i HS de variabilele independente a fost urmtorul: S-a efectuat analiza multiliniar pornind de la ideea unei nsumri a efectelor fiecrui factor de influen:
The approach to identify the dependency of IRI and HS on the independent variables has been as follows: Multi-linear analysis has been performed based on the idea of a cumulative effect of each influence factor:
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= a V +b+ Y j j ,i i
j
(2) Multi-linear analysis hasbeen performed based on the idea of a multiplicative effect of each influence factor: (3) Correlation between predicted values and measured values has been evaluated; The appropriate form has been selected if an acceptable one resulted.
2.1. Evolution Model for IRI
S-a efectuat analiza multiliniar pornind de la premisa unei multiplicri a efectelor fiecrui factor de influen:
= a V +b+ Y j j ,i i
j
A fost evaluat relaia dintre valorile prezise i valorile msurate; A fost selectat forma corespunztoare, dac a rezultat una acceptabil.
2.1. Modelul de evoluie pentru IRI
Variabil dependent a fost variaia uniformit-ii ( IRI ) pe diferite perioade. n final, s-a adoptat o abordare incremental. Astfel, dac se dorete calculul variaiei pentru un numr de ani, se face calculul pentru fiecare an considernd modificrile rezultate n parametri n anii anteriori. Variabilele independente luate n calcul au fost: IRI (valoarea la nceputul fiecrui interval analizat); Timpul; Temperatura la 20 mm n sol; Precipitaiile medii anuale; Grosimea mbrcmintei bituminoase, Grosimea straturilor de balast; Grosimea total a structurii rutiere; Traficul a fost luat n calcul ca valoare medie anual dar i ca valoare cumulat. Deoarece s-a dovedit c grosimile straturilor de balast i grosimea total a structurii rutiere nu prezint semnificaia dorit n analiz, a fost introdus n lista datelor numrul structural modificat (SNP) care ine cont nu doar de geometrie ci i de natura materialelor. Pentru calcul s-a avut n vedere ecuaia propus pentru HDM-4: SNP = 3.2 Benk 0.63 Unde: Benk este deflexiunea Benkelman n mm. Pentru modelul multiplicativ s-a pornit de la includerea tuturor variabilelor (att simpl ct i logaritmul) i s-au reinut cte au fost semnificative (p-value mai mic dect un prag).
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The dependent variable has been the variation of evenness ( IRI ) for different periods. Finally, an incremental approach has been adopted. If the variation should be estimated for more years, the calculation is performed for each year considering the modifications resulted in the previews years. Independent variables have been: IRI (value at the beginning of the analysis interval); Time; Temperature at 20 mm in soil; Average annual precipitation; Thickness of the bituminous pavement, Thickness of the ballast layers; Total thickness of the road system. The traffic has been considered as annual average daily traffic but also as cumulate value. Because it has been proved that ballast and total thickness are not significant in the analysis the modified structural number (SNP) has been included on the list of independent variables. SNP includes not only the geometry but also the nature of the materials. For calculation, the equation proposed by HDM4 has been used: (4) Where: Benk is Benkelman deflexion in mm. For the multiplicative effect the analysis has started by including all available variables (both simple and their logarithm) and retaining as many are significant (p-value less than a threshold).
De exemplu: timpul, logaritmul traficului cumulat, IRI iniial, precipitaiile medii, logaritmul temperaturii, logaritmul grosimii totale, grosimea straturilor bituminoase au fost reinute:
Tab.1 Ieirea LIMDEP pentru IRI LIMDEP output for IRI ONE TIMP L_TC IRI PRECMED L_K L_GT GROSB Coeff. 313.06 -0.46644 1.1754 0.144089 -0.01036 -61.9839 13.2503 -0.26763
As an example: time, logarithm of cumulated traffic, initial IRI, average precipitation, logarithm of temperature, logarithm of total thickness, thickness of bituminous layers have been retained.
Std.Err. 74.5733 0.078136 0.22665 0.051425 0.00153 13.3428 1.61811 0.036959
t-ratio 4.19802 -5.96955 5.18597 2.8019 -6.77093 -4.64551 8.18876 -7.24129
P-value 0.0247 0.0094 0.0139 0.0677 0.0066 0.0188 0.0038 0.0054
Pe baza rezultatului analizei a fost construit ecuaia de evoluie. Aceast ecuaie are forma:
IRI = C0 exp( t t ) TRAFcum
TRAFcum TEMPK
Based on the analysis the evolution equation has been constructed. It has the following form: (5) exp( IRI IRI 0 ) exp( UMIDUMID )
GrosTot GrosTot exp( GrosB GrosB ) Where: IRI variation of IRI on the interval, t time in years; TRAFcum cumulated traffic, IRI 0 IRI at the beginning of the interval, UMID average annual precipitation; GrosTot total thickness of the road structure; GrosB thickness of the bituminous layers; TEMPK average temperature in soil (K). Due to the statistical significance of the test predicted vs. measured values ( R 2 0.7 ) the result could not be retained. For the selected parameters different combi-nations have been analyzed. The following equation for the variation of IRI has been finally obtained: (6)
TEMPK
Unde: IRI Variaia IRI n intervalul de timp, t timpul n ani; TRAFcum Traficul cumulat, IRI 0 Valoarea IRI la nceputul intervalului, UMID Precipitaiile anuale medii; GrosTot Grosimea total a structurii rutiere; GrosB Grosimea straturilor asfaltice; TEMPK Temperatura medie n sol (K). Din cauza condiiilor privind semnificaia statistic acest rezultat nu a putut fi reinut ( R 2 0.7 ). Pentru parametrii selectai au fost analizate diferite combinaii. Dintre acestea s-a reinut urmtoarea dependen a variaiei anuale a IRI:
2
IRI = a0 e Ktraf TRAFb e KSNPSNP e KGrosPavGPav Umid Kprec Tk KTk Unde: TRAFb Traficul mediu pe band; SNP Numrul structural modificat; GPav Grosimea mbrcmintei; Umid Precipitaiile anuale medii; Tk Temperatura la 20mm n sol ; a0 , Ktraf , KSNP , KGrosPav , Kprec , Tk sunt coeficieni obinui n analizei de regresie.
Where: TRAFb average traffic on lane; SNP modified structural number; GPav pavement thickness; Umid average annual precipitations; Tk temperature at 20mm in soil ; a0 , Ktraf , KSNP , KGrosPav , Kprec , Tk are coefficients resulted after the regression analysis.
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A fost efectuat verificarea corelaiei dintre valorile prezise i valorile msurate i s-a obinut urmtoarea imagine:
2.5 Valori prezise
The correlation between the predicted and measured values has been verified as presented in the following picture:
y = 1.054x - 0.0406 R = 0.9621

2
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5 Valori masurate 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
Fig. 1 Verificarea corelaiei dintre valorile msurate i valorile prezise pentru IRI Verification of the correlation between predicted and measured values for IRI
2.2. Modelul de evoluie pentru HS
2.2. Evolution Model for HS
Ca variabil dependent studiat a fost impus variaia HS pe diferite perioade. Pentru modelul cumulativ al HS s-a pornit de la includerea tuturor variabilelor. Pentru fiecare dintre ele s-a considerat variabila ca atare i logaritmul ei. n anumite cazuri selectate intuitiv au fost utilizate combinaii de variabile. Un exemplu, n care au fost incluse HS i traficul mediu anual este prezentat n continuare:
Tab.2. Ieirea LIMDEP pentru HS LIMDEP output for HS ONE HS TRAF Coeff. -0,11286 0,352883 1,95E-05
The dependent variable has considered variation of HS for different periods. The cumulative model for HS started by including all the variables. For each variable the logarithm was also considered. In certain cases combinations of variables have been used. The insignificant variables have been eliminated. An example of a result including the HS and the annual average daily traffic is presented in the following table:
Std.Err. 0,047133 0,078165 7,57E-06
t-ratio -2,3945 4,51457 2,57111
P-value 2,56% 2E-04 0,017
Pe baza rezultatului analizei a fost construit urmtoarea ecuaia de evoluie: HS = C 0 + C1 HS + C 2 TRAFmed Unde: HS Variaia HS n intervalul de timp, HS Valoarea HS la nceputul intervalului, TRAFmed Traficul mediu, C 0 , C1 , C 2 Coeficienii dezvoltai n analiza de regresie. Verificarea corelaiei:
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Based on the result of the analysis the following equation was constructed: (7) Where: HS variation of HS in the interval, HS value of HS at the beginning of interval, TRAFmed average traffic, C 0 , C1 , C 2 coefficients resulted from regression analysis. Verification of the correlation:
Valori prezise
0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 -0.05 0
y = 0.6294x + 0.0459 R = 0.6447

2
Valori masurate 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Fig. 2 HS; Relaia dintre valorile msurate i cele prezise HS; relation between predicted and measured values
p-value are valoare acceptabil pentru fiecare parametru inclus, dar R 2 nu este suficient de mare i aceast formul explic doar ~63% din variaia HS . Rezultatul nu a fost reinut. Urmnd procedura specificat s-au obinut mai multe variante de dependen. Totui, nu s-a reinut nici-una. De aceea s-a considerat c nu sunt suficiente date pentru a obine o formul satisfctoare. n consecin s-a trecut la adaptarea unei ecuaii cunoscute. deja folosite n practic, i s-a efectuat calibrrii coeficienilor la condiiile specifice reelei rutiere pe care s-au fcut msurtorile. Ecuaia are urmtoarea form final: HS = a0 HS * ln(1 + TRAFb ) TRAFb KTrafB
p-value has an acceptable value for each parameter, but R 2 is not big enough and this formula doesnt explain more than 63% of the variation of HS . The result has not been retained. Following the specific procedure, more variants of dependence equations have been obtained. However, none of them could be retained. Therefore, it has been considered that not sufficient data are available to obtain a satisfactory equation. As a result, a known equation, which has already been used in practice, has been selected and the calibration of the coefficients has been performed to adapt it to the specific conditions from Romania. The equation has the final form as follows:
(8) Where:
HS value at the beginning of each year; TRAFb average traffic on lane; a0 , KTrafB coefficients have resulted from the regression analysis. Following the analysis a part of the variation still remains unexplained. This might be corrected calculating a scale coefficient.
Unde:
HS este valoare la nceputul fiecrui an; TRAFb Traficul mediu pe band; a0 , KTrafB sunt coeficieni obinui n analiza de regresie. n urma analizei rmne o parte a variaiei neexplicat. Acest lucru se corecteaz prin calculul unui coeficient de scal.
3. Modelul de evoluie pentru deflexiune
3. Evolution Model for Deflection
Aa cum am observat mai sus avem deja dou modele de calcul a evoluiei din datele disponibile.
As presented earlier, two calculation methods are available for the calculation of the evolution from available data.
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Pentru datele de deflexiune disponibile s-a refcut analiza i s-a constatat c nici-unul dintre modelele anterioare nu corespund necesitilor. De aceea s-a pornit de la ideea c sectoarele de drum pentru care exist date, proiectarea a fost fcut respectnd aceea practic i deci, n conformitate cu normele n vigoare se acoper suficient de bine cerinele de trafic, condiii climatice i natura pmntului. Valoarea iniial a deflexiunii, generat prin proiectare, de asemenea, nu influeneaz semnificativ variaia anual a deflexiunii. Ca urmare, ecuaia obinut are ca variabil independent doar timpul. S-a obinut o relaie polinomial de ordinul 3. Deoarece la momentul iniial variaia este, evident, nul este raional s susinem c nu exist termen liber:
Benk (t ) = a3t 3 + a 2 t 2 + a1t
For available deflection data, the analysis has been performed in both hypothesis and none of the models has been found proper to the needs. Therefore, a new hypothesis has been made: according to the norms, regulations and best practice, the designer has already covered sufficiently well the requirements of traffic, climatic conditions, and soil nature. Also, the initial value of the deflection, generated by project, does not influence significantly the annual variation of deflection. As a result, the final equation has only one independent variable: time. A polynomial relation of the third degree has been obtained. Because at the initial moment the variation is zero it is rational to sustain that no free term exists. The equation has the following form: (9) where: Benk variation of Benkelman deflection (in 0.01mm) t time from the last major intervention (construction, rehabilitation, reconstruction) a1 , a2 , a3 coefficients resulted from regression analysis.
2
Unde: Benk este variaia deflexiunii Benkelman (n 0,01mm) t timpul de la ultima intervenie major (construcie, reconstrucie, reabilitare) a1 , a2 , a3 coeficieni obinui n analiza de regresie.
160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20
3
Variatia deflexiunii (mm/100)
y = 0.17179113x - 1.92281794x + 9.84750061x 2 R = 0.85308627
Timp (ani) 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Fig. 3 Evoluia deflexiunii Evolution of deflection variation
Corelaia dintre valorile calculate i valorile msurate este prezentat n figura urmtoare:
The correlation between the calculated and measured values is presented in the following picture:
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140
Valoare prezisa
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0
y = 0.8487x + 5.8866 R2 = 0.8531
Valoare masurata
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Fig. 4 Verificarea corelaiei dintre valorile msurate i cele prezise ale variaiei deflexiunii Verification of the correlation between predicted and measured values for the variation
Se poate observa o valoare R 2 = 0.85 care este la limit dar acceptabil pentru cazul dat.
4. Concluzii
A value R 2 = 0.85 might be observed which is at limit but still acceptable.

4. Conclusions
Prezenta lucrare ia n studiu o tem de mare importan din domeniul ingineriei rutiere i anume analiza sistemic a evoluiei strii mbrcminilor suple utiliznd informaiile stocate n banca de date. Studiul analizeaz parametrii care influeneaz performanele mbrcmintei: indici de stare tehnic, IRI, HS i deflexiune. Studiul s-a efectuat pe date culese de pe sectoare experimentale pe o durat de peste 7 ani. Acolo unde nu au existat suficiente valori au fost utilizate date de pe alte sectoare similare. Analiza pornete de la premisa c structuri similare, n condiii similare vor avea comportament similar. De aceea rezultatele obinute pentru anumite condiii (clim, trafic etc.) vor putea fi folosite n evaluarea performanelor altor sectoare cu structur similar din alte zone cu condiii asemntoare. Stabilirea cu acuratee a strii tehnice i a riscurilor structurale se constituie ntr-un prim pas spre dezvoltarea i implementarea unui sistem de management al mbrcmintei rutiere eficient. Rezultatele obinute sunt utilizate pentru calibrarea actualei metodologii de lucru bazate pe utilizarea HDM-4, dar i pentru realizarea unui program de simulare i predicie a evoluiei strii mbrcmintei rutiere adaptat condiiilor specifice din Romnia.
The present paper takes into account a very important problem for highway engineering namely the systemic analysis of the evolution of the pavement condition using information from the databank. The study analyzes the parameters that influence the performance of the pavement: technical condition indices, IRI, HS and deflection. The study has been performed on data collected on experimental sector over a 7 years period. Where no sufficient values have been available other data from similar sectors have been used. The analysis starts from the postulate that similar structures, in similar conditions will perform similarly. Hence, the results derived for certain conditions (climate, traffic etc.) could be used to evaluate performances of other similar structures from other areas with similar conditions. Assessment of the accurate prediction models and the structural risks represents a first step for the development and implementation of an effective pavement management system. The results are used to calibrate the present methods based on HDM4, but also to development of a simulation and prediction software for pavements, better adapted to Romanian conditions.
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Rsum Larticle prsente une tude dune grande importance pour le domaine dingnierie routire : lanalyse systmatique dvolution de la condition technique des systmes routiers souples en utilisant les informations prsentes dans la base de donnes. Ltude analyse les paramtres qui peuvent influencer les performances des routes : conditions techniques, IRI, HS, dflexion. Ltude a t effectue sur des donnes collectes auprs de secteurs exprimentaux au cours de 7 annes. On a utilis lanalyse de rgression multi-linale, avec deux hypothses : des effets additifs et des effets multiplicatifs. Lvolution a t vrifie selon les conditions de trafic, la gomtrie des routes et les conditions climatiques. Les rsultats seront utiliss afin de calibrer HDM4 et pour le dveloppement dun logiciel de simulation et de prdiction des conditions. Bibliografie References [1] J. B. Odoki, Henry G. R. Kerali, HDM4 Highway Development & Development, Volume Four, Analytical Framework and Model Descriptions; World Road Association, World Bank, 1999 [2] William H. Greene, Econometric Analysis/LimDep Users Manual, www.prenhall.com/greene/ealimdep.doc
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Modelele terenului de fundare pentru mbrcaminti rigide.
Foundation Pavements.
Models
for
Rigid
Vasile Cornea, drd. Ing, S.C. TELOXIM CON SRL Bucuresti, e-mail: v.cornea@yahoo.com
1. Introducere Dei n literatura de specialitate exist multe modele elaborate , majoritatea pentru mbuntirea modelului Winkler ( Filonenko Borodici, 1940; Heteny, 1946; Pasternak, 1954; Reisner, 1958; Vlasov si Leontiev, 1960; Kerr,1964; Loof, 1965; Jones i alii care completeaz modelul Vlasov i Leontiev, 1977; Vallabhan i alii care modific i mbunataete modelul Vlasov i Leontiev, 1988; ) n practic, s-au folosit n mod obinuit modelele Winkler (Dens Lichid) (DL) i modelul Solidului Elastic (SE), vezi Fig.1.i respectiv Fig.2[1], [2]].
1. Introduction Although in the specialty literature there are many elaborated models, the majority for the improvement of the Winkler model (Filonenko Borodici, 1940; Heteny, 1946; Pasternak, 1954; Reisner, 1958; Vlasov and Leontiev, 1960; Kerr, 1964; Loof, 1965; Jones et al. which complete the model of Vlasov and Leontiev, 1977; Vallabhan et al. which modify and improve the model of Vlasov and Leontiev, 1988 ;) in practice, the model of Winkler (Dense Liquid) and the model of Elastic Solid (ES) have been commonly used, see Fig.1.and respective Fig.2[1], [2].
Fig.1. Modelul de fundare Dens Lichid (DL) Foundation model Dens Liquid (DL)
Fig.2. Modelul de fundare al Solidului Elastic (SE) Foundation model Elastic Solid (ES)
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2. Comparaii intre modelul DL i SE Totui att modelul DL ct i modelul SE nu sunt total adecvate, pentru a fi aplicate terenurilor de fundare existente [3] i [4]. Astfel n modelul DL se consider c rezistena la forfecare este neglijabil n comparatie cu capacitatea de forfecare a terenului de fundare i c n mod idealizat terenul de fundare este reprezentat de un set de resoarte independente caracterizat prin parametrul K [kPa/m] (coeficientul patului). n modelul SE se asum c terenul de fundare prezint un grad nalt de interaciune la forfecare fat de interaciunea uzual a terenurilor de fundare aflate n situ iar prin aplicarea acestuia rezult eforturi infinite pentru marginile i colturile mbrcminii rigide. Oricum prediciile celor dou modele atunci cnd sunt aplicate terenurilor de fundare reale prezint discrepane vizavi de observaiile comportrii n situ. 3. Consideraii recente privind cea mai buna alternativ faa de modelele DL i SE. n ultimii ani tot mai muli cercettori afirm c cele dou modele ar trebui s fie nlocuite cu modelul Pasternak generalizat de Vlasov i dezvoltat de Kerr, vezi Fig.3 i Fig 4.
2. Comparison Between DL and SE Model However, both model DL and model SE are not totally proper to be applied to the existent foundation ground [3], [4]. Thus, in the DL model it is assumed that shear strength can be neglected in comparison with shear capability of the foundation ground and ideally the foundation ground is represented by an independent spring set characterized by the K parameter [kPa/m] (bed coefficient). In the ES model it is considered that the foundation ground shows a high grade of shear interaction than usually interaction of the foundation grounds present in situ and by using it infinite stress results under the edges and corners of the rigid pavement. Anyhow the predictions of both models when they are applied to the real foundation grounds show the discrepancies as against the observations of the in situ behavior. 3. New Considerations Regarding the Best Alternative compared to the DL and ES models. In the last years several researchers have assert that both models should be replaced by the Pasternak model generalized by Vlasov and developed by Kerr, see Fig.3 and Fig.4.
Fig. 3. Dal pe un model de fundare Pasternak. Slab on a Pasternak foundation model.
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Fig. 4. Dal pe un model de fundare Kerr. Slab on a Kerr foundation model. ku - rigiditatea resoartelor din stratul superior. ku - upper layer spring stiffness. kL - rigiditatea resoartelor din stratul inferior. kL - lower layer spring stiffness. G - rigiditatea la forfecare a stratului. G - shear layer stiffness.
Modelul Pasternak reprezint o alternativ pentru modelul (SE) privind asigurarea unui grad de interaciune la forfecare intre elementele de teren adiacente. Astfel n recomandrile celui de al 4-lea Simpozion Internaional privind Modelele Teoretice ale Drumurilor din Beton i celui de al 8-lea Simpozion Internaional privind Drumurile din Beton, modelul Pasternak a fost propus ca cel mai preferabil model pentru terenurile de fundare ale drumurilor din beton. ntr-o comparaie ntre modelele (DL) i Pasternak prezentat de Pronk n 1993 [4] la a 5-a Conferin Internaional privind Proiectarea i Reabilitarea mbracaminilor din Beton acesta a artat c modelul Pasternak poate fi considerat ca o mbuntire logic a modelului (DL). n ultimii ani s-au fcut progrese importante n dezvoltarea instrumentelor analitice pentru analiza dalelor din beton folosinduse pentru terenul de fundare modelul Pasternak. Au fost obinute soluii analitice pentru analiza plcilor din beton infinite i semiinfinite rezemate pe modelul terenului de fundare Pasternak (Cauwelaert, 1997; Cauwelaert i alii, 2002). Deasemeni Stet i alii, 2001 au folosit aceste soluii pentru a dezvolta unprocedeu (backcalculation) pentru determinarea
The model Pasternak represents an alternative for the model (ES) regarding the assurance of an interaction degree to shearingbetween the adjacent elements of the foundation ground. Thus, in the recommendations of the 4th International Symposium on the Theoretical Modelling of Concrete Pavements and the 8th International Symposium on Concrete Roads the Pasternak model was proposed as the most preferable model for the foundation grounds of concrete roads. In a comparison between the (DL) and Pasternak models presented in 1993 [4] at the 5th International Conference on Concrete Pavement Design and Rehabilitation Pronk showed that the Pasternak model could be considered a logical improvement of the model (DL). In the last years important progress was made in the development of analytical tools for the analysis of concrete slabs using Pasternaks model for the foundation ground. Analytical solutions were obtained for the analysis of infinite and semi infinite concrete slabs resting on the Pasternak foundation ground model (Cauwelaert, 1997; Cauwelaert et al. 2002). Stet et al. (2001) also used these solutions
43
parametrilor modelului Pasternak al terenului de fundaie. Totui cu aceste soluii rezolvate exact putea fi analizat numai efectul ncrcrii roii. n plus n cadrul acestora se considera un contact perfect intre plac i fundaie, aceast condiie neputnd fi prezent in situ datorit voalrii din temperatur i ncovoierii din umiditate a plcii din beton. Mai trziu n anul 2004 Stet i Cauwelaert rezolv problema calculului eforturilor din temperatur la plcile din beton pe o fundaie Pasternak pentru structurile formate din doua respectiv din mai multe strate prin lucrarea [5] pe baza teoriei lui Lemlin, 2003 publicat n 2004 [6]. O realizare important a fost folosirea Metodei elementelor finite pentru analiza dalelor din beton pe baza modelului Pasternak n cadrul programului de calculator ILLI SLAB, realizat de Ioannides i alii (1985). Formularea realizat de Ioannides i alii a fost limitat doar la cazul unei ncrcri n interiorul suprafeei plcii, placa de beton fiind suficient de mare ca dimensiuni pentru care influiena terenului de fundare n zona marginilor plcii a putut fi neglijat. Aceast limitare a fost rezolvat de ctre Khazanovich i Ioannides, 1993 odat cu implementarea programului pe baza elementelor finite ILSL2. Formularea privind aceast limitare a fost realizat de Khazanovich i Ioannides pe baza consideraiilor propuse de Vlasov i Leontiev,1960 pentru suprafaa terenului de fundare de sub plac. Aceast aproximaie impune ca deflexiunile de sub plac s fie funcie de parametrii terenului de fundare i de deflexiunea punctului de la marginea plcii.
44
to develop a proceeding (backcalculation) for the parameter determination of the Pasternak foundation ground model. However with these solutions exact solved accurately only the effect of wheel load could be analysed. In addition within the framework of those solutions a full contact between slab and the foundation is considered, although this condition cannot be present in situ due to temperature curling and moisture warping of the concrete slab. Later in the year 2004 Stet and Cauwelaert solved the problem of temperature stress calculation at concrete slabs resting on the Pasternak foundation model for the structures formed from two and more layers respectively by paper [5] on the basis of Lemlin theory, 2003 published in 2004 [6]. An important performance was the use of the finite element method for the concrete slabs analysis on the basis of Pasternak model within the PC programme ILLI SLAB, realized by Ioannides et al.(1985). The formulation devised by Ioannides et al. was limited only to the case of a loading in the interior of the surface plate, the concrete slab being sufficiently large in dimension for the influence of the subgrade in the zone of the slab edges be neglected. This limitation was solved by Khazanovich and Ioannides, 1993 together with the implementation of the finite elements programme ILSL2. Khazanovich and Ioannides devised the formulation regarding this limitation on the basis of considerations proposed by Vlasov and Leontiev , 1960 for the foundation ground surface area under slab. This approximation imposes that the deflexions under the slab should be according to the subgradeparameters and the point deflexion at the slab edge.
Oricum i programul ILSL2 a prezentat urmtoarele limitri: - n cazul abordrii modelelor Pasternak i Kerr nu poate fi considerat dect ncrcarea interioar a plcii. programul ILSL2 nu permite considerarea dect a unei singure plci (dal). Toate aceste limitri ale programelor ILLI - SLAB (1985), ILSL2 (1993) au fost rezolvate de ctre Khazanovich i alii cu ocazia formulrii programului pe baza elementelor finite ISLAB2000 (2000). 3. Descrierea teoretic a modelului Pasternak numit i modelul celor Doi Parametri. n modelul Pasternak n plus fa de modelul Winkler (DL) se consider caracterizarea terenului de fundare prin rigiditatea transversal a terenului de fundare G [kP m]. Vom introduce aciunea forei tietoare generat de placa de beton ncrcat asupra terenului de fundare n modelul matematic prin intermediul principiului lucrului mecanic virtual. Considerm placa rezemat pe terenul de fundare ca n Fig.5.
Anyhow the programme ILSL2 presented the following limitations: - in the case of Pasternak and Kerr models only the interior slab loading. can be considered - ILSL2 programme permits only the consideration of a single slab (plate). All these limitations of the ILLI SLAB (1985), ILSL2 (1993) programmes were resolved by Khazanovich et al. with the occasion of the programme formulation ISLAB2000 (2000) on the basis of finite elements. 3. Theoretical Description of the Pasternak Model Named the Model of Two Parameters. In the Pasternak model in addition to the Winkler Model (DL) the characterization of the fondation ground by transversal stiffness of the foundation ground (shear layer stiffness) G [kP m] is considered. We will introduce shear action generated by a loaded concrete plate (slab) on the foundation ground in the mathematical model by the virtual mechanical principle. We consider the plate resting on the foundation ground as in the Fig.5.
Fig.5. Distribuia translaiei verticale in lungul grosimii fundaiei pentru placa din beton. Vertical repartition of translation on foundation depth for concrete plate. Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008 45
Corespunztor axelor de coordonate x,y,z, avem n total trei componente de translaie u,v,w. Pentru c ne intereseaz rigiditatea pe vertical putem neglija translaia pe orizontal. n acest caz translaia vertical se poate mpri n dou componente: - translaia suprafeei de baz. - distribuia translaiei verticale pe grosimea terenului de fundare reprezentat prin funcia (vezi Fig.5). Deci:
Corresponding to the coordinative axis x, y, z, we have altogether three translation components u, v, w. Because our interest is the vertical stiffness we can neglect the horizontal translation. In this case the vertical translation can be divided into two components: - the translation of the basis surface. - the distribution of vertical translation in the depth of the foundation ground represented by the function (see Fig.5). Therefore: (1) u = 0,v = 0, i w(x,y,z) = w(x,y) (z) (2)
(3)
Deformaiile se exprim astfel: The deformations are like this: x = 0 ; y = 0 ; z = w ( z ) ;
xy = 0 ; xz = (w x ) ; yz = (w y ) ;
w deformaia vertical
w - the vertical deformation
By replacing relations (2) and (3) in the Substituind aceste relaii (2) i (3) n virtual mechanical work principle a principiul lucrului mecanic virtual se equilibrium condition on vertical direction obine o condiie de echilibru pe direcia is obtained as: vertical de forma: 2 (4) C1 w + C 2 w = p similar relaiei:
w +G care definete modelul Pasternak unde p este sarcina aplicat pe plac n [kPa] . Ne intereseaz cei doi parametri care caracterizeaz modelul Pasternak : C1 [kPa/m] respective C2 [kPa m]. Dac se analizeaz ecuaiile de echilibru se constat c , constanta C1 reprezint rigiditatea de arc (resort) a terenului de pe care reazem placa din beton ca n modelul Winkler iar constanta C2 corespunde rigiditaii transversale a terenului de fundare (n cazul cnd C2 este
46
similar with the relation: w=p
(5)
which defines the Pasternak model where p is the applied load on the plate in [kPa]. Our interest lies in these two parameters which characterize the Pasternak model: C1 [kpa/m] respective C2 [kPa m]. If the equilibrium equations are analysed one may notice that the constant C1 represents the spring stiffness of the foundation ground on which rests the concrete slab as in the Winkler model, while the constant C2 corresponds to the transversal stiffness of the foundation
egal cu 0 se obine modelul Winkler) terenul fiind considerat omogen i elastic. Constantele C1 i C2 corespund n cazul plcilor, unei suprafee unitare de plac, adic ecuaia de echilibru poate fi modificat pentru plci avnd ca urmare modificarea unitilor de msur a acestora.
4.Determinarea constantelor C1 i C2.
ground (in case C2 is equal to 0 the Winkler model is obtained), the ground being considered homogeneous and elastic. The constants C1 and C2 correspond in the case of the plates to a unitary plate surface and thus the equilibrium ecquation can be modified having as the consequence the modification of these measure units.
4. Determination oCnstants of C1 and C2
Pentru un anumit material C1 i C2 sunt constante care definesc rigiditatea terenului de fundare pe care reazem placa, ele definindu-se astfel:
For a certain material C1 and C2 are the constants which define the stiffness of the foundation ground on which rests the plate and are defined like this:
( z ) 2 dz ; (6) (7)
C = E
1 0
h 0
ed
2 C 2 = G dz ;
unde: Eed modulul edometric al terenului de fundare G - modulul de rigiditate transversal al terenului de fundare Acestea se pot determina pentru calcule uor cu ajutorul nomogramelor elaborate de cercettorul Pavel Kuklik de la Departamentul de Mecanic al Facultaii de Construcii, Universitatea Tehnic din Praga vezi Fig.6. Valorile constantelor sunt prezentate pentru diferite tipuri de terenuri de fundare i pentru adncimea activ estimat.
where : Eed the oedometric modulus of foundation ground. G - the transversal stiffness modulus of the foundation ground. These can be easily determined in the calculations through the graphs elaborated by the researcher Pavel Kuklik from the Mechanical Department of the Civil Engineering Faculty,Technical University of Prague see Fig.6. The values of the constants are presented for different foundation ground types and for the estimated active depth.
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Fig. 6. Nomogram pentru determinarea C1 si C2 . Diagram for determination of C1 and C2 .
Tipuri de sol : A - roc si anrocamente ; B pietris ; C nisip ; D sol coeziv (argil) Type of soils: A rock and stones; B gravel; C sand; D cohesive soil (clay)
5. Limite de aplicabilitate ale modelului Pasternak
5. Usability limits of Pasternak Model.
Materialele granulare avnd coeficientul lui Poisson 0,35 sunt mult prea coezive i mai ales consolidate aa c o analiz liniar elastic nu este corespunztoare. Astfel de soluri necesit cercetri privind mecanismul consolidrii acestora. De asemeni deplasrile orizontale n interiorul continuumului subiect al ncrcrilor verticale cresc dac coeficientul lui Poisson crete.
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The granular materials having the Poisson coefficient 0,35 are much too cohesive and areespecially consolidated so that a linear and elastic analyse is not suitable. Such soils require researches regarding the mechanism of their consolidation. At the same time the horizontal displacements in the interior of the continuum subject of the vertical loads increase if the Poisson coefficient increases.
Aceste comportri actuale arat c aseriunile lui Vlasov i anume c deplasrile orizontale pot fi neglijate sunt false, altfel consideraiile lui Vlasov conin numai un profil de deplasri verticale dei profilele deplasrilor verticale nu sunt aceleai n continuum exceptnd cazul cnd R [7]. n particular cnd R H devine mic i condiia ncrcrii se apropie de ncrcarea concentrat distribuiile deformaiei sub aria ncrcat a continuumului difer foarte mult de acelea considerate de Vlasov. Ca rezultat eroarea rapoartelor crete. Dac R H devine mare distribuiile deformaiei se apropie de consideraiile lui Vlasov i eroarea rapoartelor descrete. De aceea limitele de aplicabilitate sunt = 0,3 i 0,2 R H 5 corespunztoare unei bune aproximaii[8]. R - raza plcii circulare ncrcate cu sarcina q. H grosimea stratului granular omogen, izotrop sub placa circular.
6. Concluzii
The present behaviours show that Vlasovs assumption, i.e. that the horizontal displacements can be neglected are false, otherwise these assumptions contain only one profile with vertical displacement although the profiles with vertical displacements are not the same in the continuum with the exception of the case when R [7]. In the particular case when R H become small and the loading condition is approaching the concentrated load the deformation distributions under the loaded area of the continuum differs very much from those considerated by Vlasov. As a result, the ratios error increases . If R H becomes great the deformation distributions are approaching Vlasovs considerations and the ratio error decreases. Therefore the application limites are = 0,3 and 0,2 R H 5 corresponding to a good aproximation [8]. R the circular plate radius loaded with the load q. H the homogenous and isotropic granular layer thickness under the circular plate.
6. Conclusions
Obiectivul acestui articol a fost de a pune n lumin alternativa cea mai corect fa de modelele DL i SE i anume modelul celor doi parametri (Pasternak). Cel de al doilea parametru aici C2 conduce la diminuarea deplasrilor ,eforturi interne mai mici,momente ncovoietoare mai mici, frecvene de vibrare libere cu amplitudini mici [7] i arat continuitatea deplasrilor adiacente[8]. Aceasta se poate anticipa prin faptul c funcia densitii energiei de deformaie include un termen adiional n cazul celui de al doilea parametru n comparaie cu modelul Winkler.
The objective of this paper was to put under light the correct alternative as opposed to models (DL ) and (ES), that is the model of those two parameters (Pasternak). The second parameter, in this case, C2 leads to displacement decrease, smaller internal stresses, smaller bending moments, free vibration frequences with small amplitudes [7] and shows the adiacent displacements continuity [8]. This can be anticipated by the fact that the energy density function includes an aditional term in the case of the second parametre in comparison with the Winkler model.
49
Les modles de fondation pour des revtements rigides. Rsum Lobjet de cet article est de mettre en vidence la plus correcte alternative au sujet des modles de fondation (DL) et (SE) cest--dire le modle de fondation des deux paramtres (Pasternak). Larticle prsente le modle de fondation des deux paramtres (Pasternak) par comparaison aux modles de fondation(DL) et (SE). Aussi, nous prsentons de faon synthtique la description thorique du modle de fondation des deux paramtres (Pasternak) ainsi que les limites dapplication de celui-ci. Bibliografie References [1]. [2]. [3]. RCNEL - Studiu de sintez privind metodele de dimensionare a mbrcminilor din beton de ciment.Institutul de construcii Bucureti, Romania, 1977. S. Jercan Drumuri din beton . Editura Corvin, ISBN 973 8192 98 6, 2002, Deva, Romania. KHAZANOVICH, L. - Finite Element Analysis of Curling of Slabs on Pasternak Foundation. 16th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conference, July 16 18, 2003 , University of Washington, Seattle,USA.. PRONK, A.C. - The Pasternak foundation An Attractive Alternative for the WinklerFfoundation. Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Concrete Pavement Design and Rehabilitation, 1993, Vol.1, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA. STET, M., CAUWELAERT, VAN F. The Elastic Length : Key to the Analysis of Multi Layered ConcretePavements Structures. 5thInternational CROW workshop on Fundamental Modelling of the design and Performance of Concrete Pavement, 2003, Istanbul, Turkey. LEMLIN, M., JASIENSKY, A., CAUWELAERT, VAN F., LEONARD, D. The Ccomputation o f ThermalStresses in Layered Concrete Structures on a Pasternak Foundation. 5th International CROW workshop on Fundamental Modelling of the Design and Performance of Concrete Pavements, 2004, Istanbul, Turkey. LAM,K.Y.,WANG, C.M., HE, X.Q. Exact Solution for Levy Plates on Two Parametres Foundation Using Greens Functions. Engineering Structures,22, 364 378, 2000. HIDEAKI TANAHASHI Pasternak Model Formulation of elastic Displacements in theCase of a Rigid Circular Foundation. Journal of Asian Arhitecture and Building Engineering , May, 2007 / 167 173.
[4].
[5].
[6].
[7]. [8].
50
Evaluarea calitii apei n zonele costiere
Water quality assessment in coastal zones
Alexandra Crmizoiu , ing. OPTOELECTRONICA 2001 S.A., e-mail alex@optoel.ro
1. Introducere
1.Introduction
Dintre toate regiunile i tipurile de relief, zona costier reprezint cel mai complex sistem de mediu. Un aspect important n studiul i monitorizarea resurselor de ap n zonele costiere[1] este faptul c parametrii ce caracterizeaz starea resurselor de ap dulce i starea apelor maritime se modific n cadrul unor procese la scar mic, cu o nalt variabilitate n timp i cu schimbri rapide ale proprietailor biochimice i fizice, pe regiuni relativ mici i n intervale scurte de timp. Pornind de la parametrii generali de monitorizare a mediului, aa cum au fost identificati ntr-un raport ESA [2], misiunile de teledetecie destinate monitorizrii zonelor costiere trebuie s ndeplineasc anumite condiii i cerine pentru a putea rezolva problemele legate de urmrirea proceselor costiere naturale i induse de activitatea uman, mai ales cele privind economia i transportul [3]. Pentru o bun identificare a acestor parametri, trebuie ndeplinite anumite cerine: - Extinderea n timp a observaiilor de teledetecie : lung i foarte lung (de la un an la 20 de ani) - Precizia: precizia de determinare a parametrilor de calitate a mediului 1%-10 % - Rezoluia spaial: sub 500 m pentru caracteristicile rmului, interiorul uscatului i parametrii bio-geo-chimici, i 1-10 km pentru parametrii suprafeei apei. - Rezolutia temporal: ideal se consider a fi de 1-6 ore pentru parametrii ce afecteaz suprafaa apei, o zi pentru parametrii privind interiorul uscatului i parametrii bio-geo-chimici. Sistemele actuale nu permit aceast frecven n momentul de fa cu ajutorul teledeteciei. n mod real, o
Among all types of regions and landscape, the coastal zone is the most complex environmental system. An important aspect in water quality monitoring [1], is the fact that all characteristic parameters for salt and fresh water are changing in a very short time frame, having a high variability in time, and being capable to change the physical and bio-physical proprieties of the water very fast in short time intervals and on very small areas. Starting from the general environmental monitoring parameters, as they were identified in the ESA report [2], the remote sensing missions have to fulfil several conditions and requirements in order to be able to solve the problems related to natural coastal processes, and induced by peoples activity, especially those regardingthe economy/ industry and transport[3]. For a good assessment of those parameters , the requirements are: - Time extension of remote sensing observations : long and very long (from 1 year to 20 years) - Precision: the environmental quality parameter precision is 1%-10 % Spatial resolution : under 500m for the coastal features, inland and for bio-geo-chemical parameters, and of 1-10 km for water quality parameters Temporal resolution: ideally is conssidered to be of 1-6 hours for water quality parameters , one day for inland environmental parameters and for bio-geo-chemical parameteres. The present system cannot provide
51
frecven a determinrilor de o sptmn i chiar trimestrial se consider a fi suficient pentru determinarea majoritii parametrilor de mediu. Apele costiere de pe sectorul romnesc al Mrii Negre se ntind de la Periboina pn la Vama Veche (frontiera cu Bulgaria) i se continu cu apele costiere de pe sectorul bulgresc al Mrii Negre. Conform criteriilor specifice WFD (Water Framework Directive), reglementate de Comisia European, se accept urmtoarea clasificare tipologic a apelor costiere din Romnia [4]: -Tipul RO90 Ape costiere puin adnci cu substrat nisipos, pe sectorul central al litoralului romnesc, de la Periboina la Cap Singol. -Tipul RO91 Ape costiere puin adnci cu substrat mixt (nisip cu formaiuni insulare de roc), pe sectorul sudic al litoralului romnesc, de la Cap Singol la Vama Veche. Datele de teledetecie permit estimarea doar a unui numr limitat de parametri ai calitii apei. Acetia sunt: clorofilaa, turbiditatea, concentraia de sedimente n suspensie, adncimea de disc Secchi, temperatura suprafeei apei i valurile de suprafa. Scopul monitorizrii calitaii apei este aprecierea nivelului de poluare a apei [5]. Parametrii enumerai mai sus permit evaluarea nivelului de poluare a suprafeei de ap studiate. n cadrul acestei lucrri, sunt prezentate rezultatele obinute prin prelucrarea datelor Landsat, n vederea punerii la punct a unei metodologii de apreciere a calitii apei, cu ajutorul datelor de teledetecie.
2. Compoziia apei
such frequency for remote sensed data. Actually a week interval for measurements and even a trimestrial approach is considered to provide a good measurement frequency, for the great majority of the environmental parameters. The coastal waters of the Romanian sector are spread from Periboina to Vama Veche (Bulagarian Frontier ) and are continued by the coastal waters of the Bulgarian sector. In conformity with the specific criteria of WFD (Water Framework Directive), regulatedby the European Union , the folowing typological clasification of the Romanian coastal waters is accepted [4]: Type RO90 Swallow waters with sandy substrate, on the central sector of the Romanian seashore, from Periboina to Cap Singol. -Type RO91 Swallow waters with mixed substrate (sand with submersed rocky islands) in the southern sector of the sea shore, from Cap Singol to Vama Veche. Remote sensing data allows the estimation of only a limited set of water quality parameters. These parameters are: chlorophyll a, turbidity, suspended matter concentration, Sechi disk depth, water surface temperature. The porpose of water quality monitoring is the assessment of the pollution level [5]. The above enumerated parameters are a good measure of the pollution level for the water surface under study. In this paper are presented some results obtained by processing the Landsat imagery in the attempt to set up a methodology of water quality assessment with remote sensed data.
2.Water Composition
Parametrii de calitate a apei sunt, de regul, determinai n mod indirect, cu ajutorul unor parametri intermediari, ce pot fi msurai cu ajutorul senzorilor de teledetecie. Acesti parametrii sunt [6]: coeficienii de absorbie, imprtiere i atenuare a luminii n coloana de ap (notati cu a, b respectiv c), coeficientul de atenuare ( K d ), reflectana de volum a apei (R),
52
Water quality parameters are, usually, indirectly determined with the help of intermediate parameters that can be measured with the help of remote sensing sensors. These parameters are [6]: absorption coefficients, backscattering and attenuation of light in the water column (noted with a, b and c) attenuation coefficient ( K d ), water volume reflectance (R), chlorophyll
concentraiile de clorofil i materii n suspensie ( C chl , C y i Cdet ). Un alt parametru important este culoarea apei, prin lungimea de und dominant (dom). Pentru obinerea parametrilor fizico-chimici, au fost amplasate n zona costier de ctre INHGA( Institutul Naional de Meteorologie i Hidrologie) un numr de 9 staii hidrologice de rm i o staie hidrologic de larg pentru determinri staionare (fixe)[4]. Acestea sunt: Sulina Semnal Cea, Sulina Plaj, Sf. Gheorghe, Portia, Midia, Constana Meteo, Constana Cazino, Eforie Sud, Mangalia, Platforma "Gloria".
a. Concentraia de clorofil
concentration and suspended matter (suspensions, yellow substance, and suspended mater ( C chl ,
C y and Cdet ). Another important parameter is water

colour through the dominant wavelength(dom). In order to obtain the physico-chemical parameters, 9 measurement stations were established along the shore by INMGHA (National Institute for Meterogology and Hydrology) and an offshore station for stationary measurements [4]. These stations are located at Sulina Semnal Cea, Sulina Plaj, Sf. Gheorghe, Portia, Midia, Constana Meteo, Constana Cazino, Eforie Sud, Mangalia, Platforma "Gloria". a. Chlorophyll concentration For the chlorophyll (Cchl) measurement, several remote sensing were designed, build and launched: CZCS(1978 1986), OCTS(1996 1997) SeaWiFS (1998 present), MOS (1996 prezent), MERIS ( 2001- present). In the spite of the fact that the TM sensor was not specially designed for the measurement of this parameter, the Landsat imagery allows the chlorophyll concentration determination, by using the 1/2/3/4 bands. For the Landsat imagery the algorithm proposed by Foster [5] was used. The algorithm applies to the radiance measured by the sensor Landsat TM, for a range of pigments concentration values: 0.3 - 2 g/l, at a spatial resolution (km) =0.03 and a temporal resolution ( at 45o N) = 18 days. ( Cchl + C phaeo ) = a0 + a1TM1 + a2TM2 + a3TM3 + a4TM4 + a5TM12 + a6TM22 where TMi are the TM spectral bands: TM1 (450-520 nm), TM2 (520-600 nm), TM3 (630690 nm), TM4 (760-900 nm). The result of this algorithm is presented in Figure 1. The coefficients ai are determined by a regression analysis of the smallest squares. They are site dependent as well as time dependent.
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Pentru determinarea acestui parametru (Cchl) au fost proiectai, construii i lansai mai muli senzori: CZCS(1978 1986), OCTS(1996 1997) SeaWiFS (1998 prezent), MOS (1996 prezent), MERIS ( 2001- prezent). Desi senzorul TM nu a fost proiectat n mod special pentru determinarea acestui parametru, imaginile furnizate de senzorul TM permit determinarea coninutului de clorofil, utiliznd benzile 1/2/3/4 Pentru imaginile Landsat a fost utilizat urmtorul algoritm, propus de Foster [5] Algoritmul se aplic radianei msurate de senzor, pentru un domeniu al concentraiilor de pigmeni: 0.3 - 2g/l, la o rezoluie spaial de 0,3 Km i o rezoluie temporal (la 45o N) de 18 zile. ( Cchl + C phaeo ) = a0 + a1TM1 + a2TM2 + a3TM3 + a4TM4 + a5TM12 + a6TM22 unde TMi sunt benzile spectrale TM: TM1 (450520 nm), TM2 (520-600 nm), TM3 (630-690 nm), TM4 (760-900 nm). Rezultatul aplicrii algoritmului este prezentat n Figura 1. Coeficienii ai sunt determinai printr-o analiz de regresie prin cele mai mici ptrate. Aceste constante sunt dependente de zon i de timp.
a0=361.26 a1=-18.43 a2=-2.85 0.43 a4=-0.14 a5=0.25 a6=0.15

b.
a3=-
a0=361.26 a1=-18.43 a2=-2.85 0.43 a4=-0.14 a5=0.25 a6=0.15

Suspended matter concentration
a3=-
Concentraia de materii n suspensie
De cele mai multe ori, zonele costiere sunt caracterizate de o mare ncrctur de materii aflate n suspensie. Acest lucru se datoreaz fie aportului rurilor, fie proceselor hidrodinamice (vnt/valuri/cureni). Din valorile parametrilor msurai n decursul anilor n staiile hidrometrice au fost extrapolate valori care au permis realizarea unor griduri ale transparenei apei mrii (mrimea invers proporional cu turbiditatea) pentru ntreaga regiune costier a Mrii Negre. Cteva din aceste griduri [Chendes, 2003] sunt prezentate n Figura 1. Mediile anuale ale turbiditii n perioada 1991 - 1998 sunt prezentate n tabelul 1:
Most of the time, the coastal zones are characterized by a great load of suspended matter. This is due to the river contribution, or morphodynamic processes (waves/wind/currents). From the measured values of the parameters, along several years, in the hygrometric stations, by extrapolation, several sea water transparency grids were extrapolated (transparency is the inverse value for turbidity). Some of these grids [Chendes, 2003] are presented in Figure 1. Annual averages for turbidity in the 1991-1998 period, are presented in Table 1:
Tabelul 1. Valorile medii ale turbiditilor i ale debitelor unitare de aluviuni n suspensie n anul 2000 Table 1 . Average values for turbidity and unitary flow of aluvionary and suspended matter for year 2000
Staia hidrometric Hygrometric station Sulina Semal Cea Sulina plaj Sfntu Gheorghe Midia Constana Meteo Constana Cazino Eforie Sud Mangalia
Turbiditatea/ Turbidity (g/l) 2000 0.324 0.332 0.121 0.107 0.116 0.107 0.106 0.106 Media 1991-1999 0.202 0.171 0.120 0.107 0.112 0.113 0.119 0.108
Debit unitar de aluviuni n suspensie Unitary debit of suspended matter (g/m2/s) Media 2000 1991-1999 20.0 24.29 60.6 33.26 42.2 37.88 18.8 14.24 13.1 33.87 14.5 15.98 20.2 18.73 19.6 13.71
n mod obinuit, cea mai bun band spectral pentru determinarea concentraiei de materii n suspensie este zona roie a spectrului [7]. n Figura 2 este prezentat o clasificare nesupervizat n 20 de clase. Pe imaginea rezultat se suprapun grifurile realizate cu ajutorul datelor de turbiditate. Acest lucru va servi la realizarea unei clasificri supervizate. Pentru o mai bun difereniere a claselor, cu ajutorul datelor adevr teren, se editeaz setul de semnturi spectrale pentru
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Usually the red bands are the best for suspended mater concentrations [7]. In Figure 2 an unsupervised classification 20 classes is presented. On the resulting image the data grid for turbidity is superimposed. This is used to perform a supervised classification and the thresholds for spectral signatures are edited to make the appropriate distinctions between the different concentrations of suspended
a asigura o ncadrare ct mai corect a claselor spectrale n categoriile de acoperiri, iar rezultatul obinut este prezentat n Figura 3.
matter. The result of this procedure is presented in Figure 3.
Fig. 1. Distribuia variaiilor de transparen a apei pentru zona costier romneasc n anii 1990 i 1991(transparen>7 nseamn apa foarte limpede, valori mai mici de 2 semnific ap cu o turbiditate mare); scara aproximativ 1: 1750000 Transparency variation distribution for the Romanian coastal zone in the time interval 1990- 1991( Transparency >7 means a very clear water, values below 2 means water with high turbidity). Approximate scale 1 :1750000
Fig. 2. Clasificare nesupervizat a imaginii Landsat TM din 1990 benzile 1/3/5/, cu 20 de clase pentru clasificarea preliminar. Scara aproximativ 1: 1750000 Unsupervised classification of a Landsat TM image from 1990, bands 1/3/5/, with 20 classes for the preliminary classification. Approximate scale 1: 1750000
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Fig. 3. Clasificare supervizat 20 clase cu suprapunerea datelor de transparen a apei mrii pentru anul 1990. Scara aproximativ 1: 1250000 Unsupervised classification 20 classes with the superimposition of the transparency data of the sea water, for the year 1990. Approximate scale 1: 1250000
3. Discuii
3. Discutions
Determinarea concentraiei pigmenilor clorofilieni a s-a facut prin intermediul msurrii absorbiei pentru lungimile lor de und caracteristice: 665, 645 i 630 nm i a permis cunoaterea distribuiei spaiale a clorofilei de tip a principalul indice al capacitii asimilatoare a apei de mare. Astfel, la Portia, mediile lunare arat c valoarea maxim a clorofilei a n luna aprilie (3,57 mg/mc) este mult mare dect mediile n lunile iunie (0,17 mg/mc), august (1,02 mg/mc) i octombrie (2,20 mg/mc). Aceast valoare maxim indic dezvoltarea abundent a populaiilor fitoplanctonice responsabile pentru procesul de nflorire caracteristic sezonului de primvar. n zonele mai puin influenate de Dunre, valorile maxime ale clorofilei a sunt mai mici. Astfel, la Constana, valoarea maxim (1,41 mg/mc) s-a semnalat n luna februarie, fa de
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The assessment of the a chlorophyll pigment concentration was made by measuring the absorption for the 665, 645 i 630 nm wavelenghts and resulted in the spatial distribution of the a type chlorophyll, the main parameter of the assimilating functions of the sea water. In this way, at Portia, the monthly averages show that the maximum chlorophyll is reached in April (3,57 mg/mc) being higher than in June (0,17 mg/mc), August (1,02 mg/mc) and October (2,20 mg/mc). This maximum value is an indication for the abundant development of phytoplanktonic population, responsible for the red blossoming phenomena, specific to the spring season. In areas less influenced by the Danube, the maximum values of a chlorophyll concentration are smaller. Thus, at Constana, the maximum value (1,41 mg/mc) was signalled in February,
0,47 mg/mc n luna mai sau 0,95 mg/mc n octombrie. Pe vertical, pigmenii asimilatori prezint valori mai ridicate la suprafa, n toate sezoanele anului. Din Figura 2 se poate observa cum pana de deversare a Dunrii alimenteaz cu nutrieni o zon destul de extins situat in largul zonei costiere. n zonele din imediata apropiere a rmului, imaginile satelitare evideniaz zonele afectate de poluarea costier, poluare care este accentuat de procesele de diluie reduse. Tot n aceste zone, temperatura suprafeei apei sufer modificri semnificative, acest lucru datornduse n principal curentilor marini de suprafa, direciei dominante a vntului i morfodinamicii liniei de coast[8]. Un alt aspect al corelrii ntre turbiditatea apei i distribuia temperaturii suprafeei apei ce poate fi observat cu ajutorul Figurii 3, este faptul c variaiile de temperatura ale suprafeei apei sunt mult mai frecvente n zonele din imediata apropiere a liniei de coast i sunt nsoite de prezena unei cantiti ridicate de materii n suspensie.
4. Concluzii
compared with 0,47 mg/mc in May or 0,95 mg/mc in October. On the vertical profile, the assimilating pigments are higher at the surface of the water in almost all year seasons. Form Figure 2 one can observe how the sediment plume of the Danube as it flows into the sea, is feeding with nutrients an extended area in the far sea of the Romanian coastal zone. In the coastal zones, in the close proximity of the shore, the satellite images are showing the pollutionaffected areas, pollution amplified by the reduced dilution processes. In the same areas, the sea surface temperature has important variations due to the morpho-dynamic characteristics and surface sea currents and wind[8]. Another important aspect is the correlation between water turbidity and sea surface temperature. In Figure 3 the fact that the temperature differences have the most accentuated occurrence can be observed in areas closest to the shore and are accompanied by high quantities of suspended matter.
4. Conclusions
Valorile mrite ale pigmenilor asimilatori ai fitoplactonului atest creterea cantitii de fitoplancton, ca urmare a accenturii gradului de eutrofizare al apelor litorale romneti. Utilitatea abordrii studiului concentraiei i distribuiei clorofilei la scar sinoptic rezid nu numai n posibilittea estimrii biomasei fitoplanctonului, ci i n surprinderea fenomenelor sezoniere de nflorire, importante prin ntreaga lor suit de consecine. Din analiza imaginilor satelitare, se confirm tendina evideniat de masurtorile clasice, c inflorirea roie este predominant n zonele unde intervine influena apelor Dunrii. Imaginile Landsat utilizate, cu o rezoluie considerat bun pn la apariia sistemelor satelitare de foarte mare precizie, au avantajul disponibilitii pentru o perioad foarte lung de
The high values of the asimilating pigments of the phytoplankton, are an indication of the increased growth rate of the phytoplankton as a result of the increase of eutrophication in the Romanian coastal zone. The utility of the study on a synoptic scale of the concentration and spatial distribution of a chlorophyll, is an estimative measure for the phytoplankton biomass and a tool for the seasonal blooming phenomena assessment with their consequences for the maritime environment. From the satellite image analysis the hypothesis (resulted from classical measurements) that red blossoming is predominant where the Danubes water is involved is confirmed. The Landsat imagery, with a resolution that was considered good until the new high resolution systems have emerged, has as a main advantage the
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timp. ntregul set de imagini a putut fi descrcat gratuit de pe site-ul GSFC (Goddard Flight Space Centre). Metodologia de aplicare a tehnicilor de teledetecie, pentru studiul modificrilor de mediu, a fost structurat pornind de la necesitile activitilor de monitorizare a mediului i de la parametrii de mediu ce pot fi determinai cu ajutorul tehnicilor de teledetecie ; au fost considerate constrngerile de precizie, acoperirea spaial i temporal impuse de acestea. Condiia ideal este de a efectua msurtorile in situ, simultan cu trecerea satelitului i preluarea imaginii satelitare.
Rsum
fact that they cover a very large period of time.The images were downloaded free of charge from the GSFC (Goddard Flight Space Centre) site. The methodology used for water quality assessment was structured starting with the environmental monitoring necessities and from the environmental parameters that can be determined from the remote sensing data, precision constraints, spatial coverage and temporal availability. The ideal condition is to perform in situ measurements simultaneously with the satellite passage.
Un aspect important concernant la surveillance de qualit de l'eau est le fait que tous les paramtres caractristiques de l'eau marine et douce peuvent changer dans un dlai trs court ; leur variabilit au cours du temps est leve, les caractristiques physiques et biophysiques de l'eau peuvent changer trs rapidement dans des intervalles courts et sur des secteurs trs restreints. partir des paramtres gnraux de contrle de l'environnement, les missions de tldtection doivent remplir plusieurs conditions afin de pouvoir aider rsoudre les problmes lis aux processus ctiers. Dans cet article on a utilis des techniques de tldtection afin de dterminer les concentrations de chlorophylle et de sdiments dans leau marine de la zone littorale Roumaine. References [1]. [2]. SION, I. , Protecia mediului, teledetecia spaial i strategia juridic a comunicrii sistemice , Buletinul de Fotogrametrie i Teledetecie nr. 27-28, pg. 11-19, 2006 ZAVOIANU F. i CARAMIZOIU A., Study and Accuracy Assessment of Remote Sensing Data for Environmental Change Detection in Romanian Coastal Zone of Black Sea, The XXth Congress of the International Society for Photogrametry and Remote Sensing- Istanbul Book7D, pg. 778-784, 2000 Raport ESA Coastal Zone Earth Watch 1995 OGARU D, CHEVAL S., CHENDES V, CARAMIZOIU A., Population environment relationships along the southern part of the Romanian Black Sea Coast: The 6th Open Meeting of the Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Research Community, University of Bonn, 2005 CHENDES V. , Raport de cercetare TM-ZC, Programul AEROSPATIAL , 2006 FOSTER B. C., XINGWEI S., BAIDE, X., Remote sensing of sea water quality parameters using Landsat-TM. Int. J. Remote Sensing, 14(5), pg2759-2771. 1993 IOCCG- report 3 Remote Sensing of Ocean Colour in Coastal, and Other Optically-Complex,Waters, http://www.ioccg.org/reports/report3.pdf 2000 VOS R.J. i SCHUTTELAAR M. RESTWAQ, Data assessment, data-model integration and application to the Southern North Sea ,Delft, The Netherlands. BCRS Report pg.95-19, 1995 IONESCU I., NOAJE I, Using HRV SPOT data for study of environments evolution in the Sulina Site from the Danube Delta. The XIX-th Congress of International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Amsterdam, 2000, Vol. XXXIII, B VII, 2000 Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008
[3]. [4].
[5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9].
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Realizarea bazei de date a unui sistem informatic cadastral din Republica Moldova
Database Creation of a Cadastral Information System in the Republic of Moldova
Nistor Livia, lector (lecturer) la Catedra Geodezie, Cadastru i Geotehnic (at the Chair of Geodesy, Cadastre and Geotechnics), Facultatea Cadastru, Geodezie i Construcii (Department of Cadastre, Geodesy and Constructions), Universitatea Tehnic a Moldovei (Technical University of Moldova), email: nistor_livia@yahoo.com
1. Generaliti
1. Generalities
Pornind de la rolul determinat pe care l are pmntul n existena noastr, rezult importana deosebit a evidenei exacte a proprietii i utilizrii terenurilor, eviden cunoscut sub denumirea de CADASTRU. ntr-o ar democrat cu o economie liber fiecare persoan, fizic sau juridic, trebuie s fie corect i bine informat despre bunul imobil de care se intereseaz i care i aparine n conformitate cu legislaia naional, de aceea datele cu privire la cadastru trebuie s fie bine organizate i accesibile pentru toat populaia, n afar de informaia despre documentele de drept. Despre documentele de drept vor putea lua cunotin, n anumite condiii, doar organele de drept, instanele de judecat i fiscul. Informaia cu privire la cadastru este necesar pentru a asigura potenialii utilizatori ai bazei de date cu informaie veridic. Aceleai firme imobiliare, bnci comerciale sau birouri notariale nu vor putea presta servicii calitative, dac nu vor avea acces liber la informaia cadastral. Fiecare persoan analiznd datele despre o proprietate sau alta, trebuie s aib sigurana necesar c riscul de a investi n acest bun este infim. -apoi, datele trebuie s lucreze" nu mpotriva omului, ci pentru el. Desigur, informaia cadastral este i o arm, dar ea este ndreptat mpotriva a tot felul de escroci. Cel mai important lucru este faptul c potenialul utilizator al bazei de date nu va trebui s bat pragurile mai multor instane, prile care au convenit asupra tranzaciei avnd posibilitatea s perfecteze documentele la o singur instituie: n cazul vnzrii-cumprrii, donaiei, schimbului, motenirii, druirii proprietii - la notar, iar punerea n gaj a ei - la banc. Dar acest lucru va fi posibil numai dup conectarea lor la baza de date cadastrale. Baz de date cadastrale are un loc aparte n fiecare ramur a economiei, fie c este vorba de urbanisti-
Beginning with the determined role of the earth in our existence, it results the great importance of the exact evidence of the property and of the use of lands, evidence called CADASTER., In a democratic country with a free economy, every person, natural or juridical, has to be correct and well informed concerning the real estate of which he is interested in and that belongs to him in conformity with the national legislation, thats why the data concerning the cadastre have to be well organized and accessible for all the population, besides the information concerning the law documents. Under certain conditions, only the legal bodies, the law courts and the revenue authority will look through the legal documents. The information concerning the cadastre is necessary to ensure the potential users of the database with veridical information. The same real estate companies, the commercial banks or the notary offices couldnt offer qualitative services in case of not having free access to the cadastral information. Each person, analyzing the data concerning any kind of property, needs to have the necessary certitude that the risk of investing in this real estate is infinitesimal. And, the data have to work for people, not against them. Of course, the cadastral information is also a weapon, but it is directed against any kind of tricksters. The most important thing is the fact that the potential user of the database database will not have to present himself to several instances, the parties that agreed on the transaction, having the possibility of drawing up the documents at the same institution: in case of purchase-sale, donation, exchange, legacy, gifted property- at the notary- and putting it in pledge- at the bank. But, this fact will be possible only after their connection with the cadastral data base. The cadastral database database has a special place in each branch of the economy, in town-planning, town
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c, construcii edilitare, gazoducte, drumuri, ci ferate, organizarea transportului, acumularea impozitelor, protecia mediului nconjurtor, etc. Chiar i instanele de judecat au nevoie de datele menionate, cci, n cazul unor procese legate de litigiile patrimoniale judectorii trebuie s cunoasc n detaliu multe informaii despre proprietate. La nivelul autoritilor locale, baza de date este necesar pentru gazificarea localitilor, plantarea livezilor, planificarea construciilor, etc. De altfel, n lipsa acestei baze de date, multe ministere i departamente activeaz mai mult n baza unor calcule teoretice. Baza n form digital este valoroas prin faptul c n ea se concentreaz toat informaia despre bunurile imobile, care, pn la crearea ei, se coninea n mape voluminoase. Cu alte cuvinte, actualmente, nu mai suntem nevoii s pierdem o groaz de timp pentru a rsfoi nenumratele file, ci este suficient s accesm calculatorul i n cteva secunde proprietatea imobiliar care ne intereseaz apare pe monitor n plintatea ei, cu toate datele de care avem nevoie, n cazul cnd este deja creat acea baz de date. n cei apte ani de implementare a Primului Proiect de Cadastru au fost identificate i nregistrate n cadastru circa 4.3 milioane de proprieti imobiliare din totalul de aproximativ 5.5 milioane de bunuri, informaiile respective fiind incluse n 39 baze de date ale oficiilor cadastrale. Principiile de baz ale crerii sistemului cadastral sunt: descentralizarea nregistrrii imobilului pn la nivel raional i municipal; autenticitatea datelor; unitatea organizrii structurale a informaiei n bncile de date, formatelor de pstrare, acumulare i schimb de informaie ale bncilor de date; comparabilitatea datelor bazat pe utilizarea bazei cartografo-geodezice unificate, sistemelor de clasificare i codificare, formatelor i structurilor de date coordonate; crearea i implementarea pe etape a sistemului Cadastrului Naional, cu orientarea spre sarcinile prioritare ale Republicii Moldova, n mbinare cu posibilitatea realizrii lor;
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constructions, gas pipelines, roads, railroads, transport organization, tax collection, environmental protection, etc. Even the juridical instances need the mentioned data, because in the event of some lawsuits in connection with the patrimonial litigations, the judges have to know in details more information about the property. At the local bodies level, the database database is necessary for gasifying the localities, for orchards plantations, for constructions planning, etc. Otherwise, for lack of data base, several ministries and departments activate mostly on the basis of some theoretical calculations. The digital form base is valuable by the fact that it is concentrated in it all the information concerning the real estates that, before, was included in bulky portfolios. Therefore, presently, we will not waste time looking through the countless pages, but it is enough to access the computer and in several seconds the real property of which we are interested in, will appear on the monitor in its plenitude, with all the data we need, when this database is already created. In seven years of implementation of the First Cadastre Project in the cadastre it have been identified and registered over 4.3 millions of real estates from the total number of 5.5 millions of goods, this information being included in 39 database of the cadastral offices. The basic principles of the creation of the cadastral system are: decentralization of registering the real estate at regional and municipal level; data authenticity; unity of the structural organization of the information in the data banks, in keeping formats, accumulation and information exchange of the databanks; comparability of databases with the use of unified map-drawing and geodesic base, classification and codification systems, of the formats and data coordinates; creation and implementation of the National Cadastre system on levels, devoted to the priority tasks of the Republic of Moldova, in connection with the possibility of their realization; the minimal tax for registration in order to stimulate the initial registration; permanent actualization of the data;
plata minim pentru nregistrare n vederea stimulrii nregistrrii iniiale; actualizarea permanent a datelor; administrarea imobilului pe fiecare obiect n parte, care include: - delimitarea pe obiecte (formarea) bunurilor imobiliare, clasificarea i nregistrarea unic a obiectelor; - nregistrarea pe obiecte a drepturilor patrimoniale; estimarea pe obiecte a imobilului. Chiar i pentru cel mai puin iniiai n acest important domeniu al economiei naionale, este tiut c orice bun imobil al fiecrui cetean trebuie nregistrat. n conformitate cu articolul 22 din Legea cadastrului bunurilor imobile Registrul bunurilor imobile este documentul de baz al cadastrului. Dac datele din Registrul bunurilor imobile nu coincid cu datele din alte documente cadastrale sau cu datele din teren se consider veridice datele din Registru, cu excepia cazurilor de eroare tehnic evident. Registrul bunurilor imobile conine nscrisuri privind fiecare bun imobil, dreptul de proprietate i alte drepturi patrimoniale, tranzaciile cu bunurile imobile i alte temeiuri facilitat de progresele tehnologice din domeniul hardware i software. Scopurile principale mai rezid n susinerea creterii economice din Moldova i, n cele din urm, reducerea srciei, prin asigurarea i mbuntirea securitii proprietilor imobiliare, inclusiv a celor funciare, majorarea veniturilor obinute de stat n urma instituirii unui sistem funcional de evaluare i impozitare a lor, facilitarea dezvoltrii pieei imobiliare prin crearea unui sistem cadastral i de nregistrare transparent i bine operabil, prestarea efectiv a serviciilor de baz de nregistrare public a imobilelor. Pentru a rspunde la exigenele acestor activiti complexe a fost aleas soluia sistemului informatic. n ultimii ani aceast evoluie a fost facilitat de progresele tehnologice din domeniul hardware i software.
real estate administration on each object apart, that includes: - delimitation by objects (formation) of the real estates, classification and a single object registration; - registration of the patrimonial rights by objects; estimation by objects of the real estate. Even for the less non-initiated persons in this important field of the national economy, the fact that every real estate of the each citizen has to be registered is known. In conformity with section 22 of the Law of the real estate cadastre The register of the real estates is the basic document of the cadastre. If the data from the Register of the real estates doesnt coincide with the data from other cadastral documents or with the data at the local level, veridical the data from the Register are considered, except the cases of evident technical error. The Register of the real estates contains documents concerning each real estate, the property right and other patrimonial rights, transactions with real estates and in other reasons of birth, modification, taxation and taking the property right. For realizing in optimal conditions different complex activities of developing all the localities from the territory of the Republic of Moldova, it is necessary to use a big quantity of information which is subject to a process of continuous actualization. In order to submit to the exigencies of these complex activities it has been chosen the solution of the informatic system. In the last years, this evolution has been facilitated by the technological progresses in the hardware and software domain. The main purposes consist in supporting the economic growth in Moldova, and, at last, poverty decreasing, by ensuring and improving the security of the real property, including the cadastral ones, increasing the incomes obtained by the state after setting up a functional system of evaluation and their taxation, facilitating the development of the real estate market, creating a well operated and transparent cadastral and registration system, by offering basic and effective services of public registration of the real estates.
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Planuri cadastrale Cadastral Plans
Cadastru general Cadastru bunurilor imobile General cadastre Real estates cadastre
Documentaia cadastral Cadastral documentation
Subcapitolul I. Bun Imobil Subchapter I. Real estate
Registrul bunurilor imobile Register of the real estates
Subcapitolul II. Dreptul de proprietate asupra bunului imobil Subchapter II. Property right of the real estate
Subcapitolul III. Grevarea drepturilor patrimoniale SubchapterIII. Patrimonial rights taxation
Baz de date Database
Figura 1.1. Abordarea pentru crearea bazei de date Consideration for creating a data base
2.
Proiectarea i realizarea bazei de date spaiale
2. Outline and Creation of the Spatial Database
Proiectarea bazei de date presupune determinarea zonei de studiu, a sistemului de coordonate utilizat, a straturilor necesare studiului, a elementelor (obiectelor geografice) incluse n fiecare strat, a atributelor necesare descrierii fiecrui tip de element, a modului de codificare i organizare a atributelor. Procesul de proiectare a aplicaiilor GIS implic pe lng designul vizual i proiectarea bazei de date textuale, n special dac se preconizeaz structuri de date de volum important. Baza de date pentru cadastru este proiectat n aa fel ca s furnizeze toate informaiile necesare cu privire la terenuri, proprietari, proprieti, construcii. Baza de date conine tabele, interogri, forme, macrouri, rapoarte i module. Punctul central n cadrul unui sistem informatic este reprezentat de ctre informaii spaiale/date cadastrale, furnizate de cadastru i gestionate n cadrul acestuia. Proiectarea bazei de date se realizeaz n trei pai: Pasul 1. Identificarea obiectelor geografice i a atributelor lor i organizarea lor pe straturi.
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The database outline presupposes the determination of the field of study, of the coordinates system used, of the strata necessary for the study, of the elements (geographical objects) included in each stratum, of the attributes necessary for describing each type of element, of the way of codification and organization of the attributes. The projection process of GIS applications implies besides the visual design, and the textual database outline, especially when there are foreseen data structures of important size. The database for the cadastre is designed to provide all the necessary information concerning the lands, the owners, the properties, the constructions. The database contains tables, quizzes, moulds, mackerels, reports and modules. The main point within an informatic system is represented by the spatial information/cadastral data, provided by the cadastre and administrated within it. The projection of the database is realized in 3 steps:
Pasul 2. Definirea atributelor. Pentru fiecare atribut se specific modul de codificare i spaiul necesar memorrii valorilor admise. n plus, pentru ntreaga baza de date se construiete un dicionar n care, pentru fiecare strat se precizeaz numele atributelor asociate i pentru fiecare atribut se indic valorile i semnificaia valorilor posibile. Pasul 3. Asigurarea nregistrrilor coordonatelor ntre straturi
Clasele de elemente geografice sunt reprezentate ca puncte, linii sau poligoane si atributele lor, ele pot stoca si adnotri. Toate clasele de elemente din cadrul unui feature dataset au n comun acelai sistem de coordonate. Tabelele pot conine atribute suplimentare pentru o clasa de elemente sau informaii geografice cum ar fi adrese sau coordonatele X, Y, Z. O geodatabase poate conine clase de relaii prin intermediul crora se stabilesc relaii ntre doua clase de elemente sau intre o clasa de elemente i un tabel. Clasele de elemente dintr-un feature dataset pot fi organizate n reele geometrice. Reeaua combina elemente liniare si puncte pentru a modela reele liniare i menine relaiile topologice dintre clasele sale de elemente.
Step 1. Identification of the geographical objects, of their attributes and their organization by strata. Step 2. Defining the attributes. For each attribute the codification mode and the necessary space is specified for memorizing the admitted values. In addition, for the entire database a dictionary is set up where, for the each stratum the name of the associate attributes is specified and for each attribute it is the values and the meaning of the possible values are indicated. Step 3. Insurance of the coordinate registration between strata. The classes of geographical elements are represented as points, lines or polygons and their attributes; they can stock and make annotations. All classes of elements within a feature dataset have in common the same coordinate system. The tables can contain additional attributes for a class of elements or geographical information like addresses or X,Y,Z coordinates. A geodatabase can contain classes of relations by means of which relations between two classes of elements or between a class of elements and a table are established. The classes of elements from a feature dataset can be organized in geometrical networks. The network combines linear elements and points in order to model linear networks and to maintain topological relations between its classes of elements.
Physical Design
Analiza iniial Initial analysis
Model conceptual Conceptual model
Design fizic
Note
Notes
Diagrame Diagrams
Tabele Tables
Testing Testare
Implementation
Implementare
ntreinerea Upkeeping Figura 1. 2. Etapele parcurse n proiectarea unei bazei de date arbitrare. Levels in outlining an arbitrary database Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008 63
3. Crearea sistemului informatic
3. Creation of the Informatic System
Analiza geografic se efectueaz pentru a rspunde obiectivelor i criteriilor stabilite iniial pentru proiectul de GIS.
The geographical analysis is made to attain the objectives and the criteria established initially for GIS project.
Personal Geodatabase
Analiza GIS GIS analysis
Vizualizare Vizualization
SISTEM INFORMATIC INFORMATIC SYSTEM
Figura 1.3. Crearea sistemului informatic. Creation of the informatic system
4.
Rapoarte
4. Reports
Rezultatele analizei geografice sunt apoi comunicate prin intermediul planurilor cadastrale, rapoartelor i graficelor. Planurile cadastrale digitale, tabelele sinoptice i reprezentrile grafice complexe generate n urma analizei geografice dovedesc capacitatea definitorie a GIS-ului de a crea noi informaii i nu doar de a .gestiona i/sau extrage n diverse maniere date anterior achiziionate, ceea ce deosebete fundamental un GIS de un sistem de gestiune a bazelor de date i de un sistem de cartografiere automata. Rezultatele analizei geografice se pot reprezenta grafic pe o harta nsoite de o descriere sub forma unui raport cuprinznd datele tabelare, inclusiv valorile calculate n cadrul analizei. Aceste rapoarte se obin prin interogarea bazei de date care ocup un loc central n majoritatea aplicaiilor GIS: Prin interogare se realizeaz recuperarea datelor, operaie util n toate etapele elaborrii unui proiect GIS. Interogrile se pot realiza asupra unor date care fac parte din baza de date existente, dar se pot realiza i asupra unor date rezultate n urma unor operaii analitice.
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Then, the results of the geographical analysis are communicated by means of the cadastral plans, reports and graphics. The digital cadastral plans, the synoptic tables and the complex graphic representations made after the geographical analysis demonstrate the definite capacity of GIS to create new information and not only to administrate and/to extract in different ways, getting data previously, that differs basically a GIS from a control system of database and from an automatic mapping system. The results of the geographical analysis can be represented graphically on a map, together with a description in form of a report, including the table data, inclusively the calculated values within the analysis. These reports are obtained by quizzing the database which has a central place in the majority of GIS applications: by quizzing, the data recovery is realized a useful operation at all levels of drawing up a GIS project. The quizzes can be realized for some data from the existent database, but also for some data resulting of some analytical operations.
5.
Concluzii
5.
Conclusions
n prezent pentru Sistemul Informaional Automatizat al cadastrului existent n Republica Moldova este specific dezvoltarea neuniform a unor componente din cadrul sistemului. nregistrarea bunurilor imobile reprezint o resurs informaional dezvoltat pe cnd evaluarea bunurilor imobile n scopul impozitrii se afl la etapa de dezvoltare. Particularitatea perioadei de astzi const n finalizarea nregistrrii primare a tuturor bunurilor imobile i evaluarea acestora n scopul impozitrii. n perspectiv volumul nregistrrii primare va descrete esenial i vor crete nregistrrile curente, corectarea greelilor comise, formarea bunurilor imobile, inclusiv pe calea consolidrii terenurilor agricole. Cererea de a reorganiza sistemul cadastral curent ntr-un sistem cu baza centralizat este justificat. Fr a cunoate nc toate detaliile i consecinele, se poate de presupus c baza de date centralizat/integrat va soluiona multe probleme care exist astzi. Sunt idei referitoare la crearea sistemului geoinformaional naional. Totui, se va axa pe sistemul de cadastru fundamentat pe o baz de date centralizat i nu pe crearea sistemului geoinformaional naional. Implementarea sistemului cadastral n temeiul Bazei de Date Centralizate va nltura toate neajunsurile. Acest sistem va asigura un software i o ntreinere a suprastructurii mai eficient i mai puin costisitoare. Gestionarea unei localiti, indiferent de mrimea acesteia reprezint o activitate complex n cadrul creia se utilizeaz o mare cantitate de informaii i o mare varietate de competene profesionale. n baza analizelor expuse n lucrare i din informaiile gestionate prin intermediul unui Sistem Informatic, bazat pe date cadastrale veridice, pot remarca CADASTRUL- ocup un rol central/imoportant n societate.
Nowadays, for the Automatic Informational System of the cadastre existent in the Republic of Moldova the non-uniform development of some components within the system is peculiar. The registration of the real estates represents a developed informational resource, but the evaluation of the real estates for the purpose of taxation is at the development level. The peculiarity of the present period consists in finalizing the primary registration of all the real estates and their evaluation for the purpose of taxation. In the future, the size of the primary registration will decrease essentially and the current registrations will increase, the correction of the errors made, the formation of the real estates, inclusively by consolidating the agrarian lands. The demand of reorganizing the current cadastral system in a system with a centralized base is justified. Not knowing yet all the details and the consequences, we can presuppose that the centralized database/integrated will solve a lot of actual problems. There are some ideas about creating the national geo-informational system. However, it will be directed to the cadastre system grounded on a database centralized and not on creating the national geo-informational system. The implementation of the cadastral system on the ground of the Centralized database will remove all the problems. This system will ensure the software and the suprastructure upkeeping efficient and less expensive. The administration of a locality, in spite of its size represents a complex activity where it is used a great quantity of information and a great variety of professional competences. On the basis of the analyses exposed in this paper and from the information administrated by means of the Informatic System, based on veridical cadastral data, I can notice the- THE CADASTRE- has an important role in society.
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Rsum Le prsent travail dcrit quelques tapes concernant la ralisation et la projection dune base de donnes dun systme informatique cadastral de la Rpublique de Moldavie. Il est opportun davoir procd limplication directe des spcialistes avec exprience dans le choix des solutions hardware et software pour le dveloppement des systmes informatiques dans tous les domaines, mais aussi dans la dfinition du processus technologique de traitement et de stockage des donnes gospatiales. Un systme informatique cadastral doit tre bien conu, protg, et ne pas tre dirig contre lhomme. Bibliografie References [1]. [2]. [3]. [4]. [5]. [6]. [7]. [8]. [9]. [10]. [11]. [12]. [13]. [14]. [ARFC] Cadastru bunurilor imobile, vol. I-VI, Chiinu, 1998-2005 [Vasile Grama, Nistor Livia] Tehnologii G.I.S. cu ArcGIS Aplicaii, Chiinu, 2006; [ ] ., TUM, Novopolotk, 2006 [ARFC] Ziarul lunar Cadastru, Chiinu, 2000-2007 Legislaie privind cadastrul i cartea funciar din Romnia, Matrix Rom, Bucureti, 2002 [Ionel Sion] Msurtori terestre fundamente, Vol II. Matrix Rom, Bucureti, 2002 [Gheorghe Badea, Ioan Folf] Msurtori terestre fundamente, Vol II, Matrix-Rom, Bucureti, 2002 [Caius Didulescu], Tez de doctorat Unele contribuii la realizarea planurilor numerice cadastrale, Bucureti 2002 [ESRI Geosystems, Romnia] Introducerea n ArcGIS, Bucureti, 2004 [Gheorghe Badea] Teza de doctorat Contribuii privind utilizarea datelor cadastrale n sistemul informaional al teritoriului, Bucureti, 2003 [ARFC] Concepia Sistemului Infomaional Geografic Naional. (SIGN), Chiinu 2003 [ARFC] Concepia Sistemului Informaional Automatizat Cadastrul Bunurilor Imobile, Chiinu, 2003 [Peter A. Burrough and Rachael A. Mc donnell] Principles of Geografical Information Systems, Oxford, 2004 [ESRI, Trimetrica Republica Moldova], ArcGis II, 2006/2007, Chisinau, 2006.
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Evaluri prin incercri de rezisten la solicitri termomecanice ale aliajelor pentru structuri aerospaiale
Estimates of thermal-mechanical actions through strength experiments on aeronautical structure alloys
Indira Andreescu, prof.univ.dr.ing. Facultatea de Utilaj Tehnologic, Universitatea Tehnica de Constructii Bucuresti; Professor Dr. Eng., Faculty of Machine Tools, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest e-mail: indira_utcb@yahoo.com
O important familie de aliaje de magneziu, AZ, face obiectul studiului de fa n vederea adoptrii materialelor celor mai indicate pentru anumite structuri aeronautice. Specimenele examinate au fost: AZ 31B, AZ 63A, AZ 80A. Caracteristicile mecanice la 200C ale familiei de aliaje de magneziu examinate sunt centralizate n tabelul nr. 1, datele servind drept referin la aprecierea comportrii la temperaturi corespunztoare nclzirii aerodinamice a structurilor ncorporatoare. Lista prezentat n tabelul nr. 1 detaeaz specimenul AZ 80A ca fiind superior n ceea ce privete rezistena mecanic. Edificri exploratorii cu privire la rspunsul probelor din aliaj AZ 31B la solicitri termomecanice. Setul principal de lucrri investigaionale experimentale l-au constituit determinrile variaiei cu temperatura a rezistenei la solicitri mecanice ale epruvetelor din aliaj AZ 31B. Rezultatele sunt grafiate i tabelate n fig. 1. Variaia funciei Rutr = f(T) evideniaz o continuitate a scderii n pant abrupt a rezistenei ultime la ntindere a epruvetelor de la 80% la 31%, pe un parcurs de nclzire de la 100OC la 200OC. Mai departe, la temperatura de 300OC - de interes, n legtur cu nclzirea aerodinamic a structurii aeronavelor - caracteristica respectiv s-a redus la 14,6% din valoarea sa nominal la temperatura ambiant de 200C
An important magnesium alloy family is the subject of this research, aimed at adopting the most adequate materials for certain aeronautical structures. The examined specimens were: AZ 31B, AZ 63A, AZ 80A. The mechanical characteristics of the examined magnesium alloy family at 200C are centralized in table no.1, the data being useful as reference in assessing their behaviour for the adequate aerodynamic heating temperatures of the incorporated structures. The list shown in table no.1 points out the AZ 80A specimen as being superior in what the mechanical strength is concerned Investigation result concerning the AZ 31B alloy samples answering to thermalmechanical actions. The principal set of experimental investigating works was formed by the calculations of the strength variation with temperature of the AZ 31B samples during various mechanical actions. The results are plotted and tabled in fig.1. The Rutr = f(T) function variation points out the continuous decrease of the ultimate traction strength on an abrupt slope, starting from 80% to 31%, when heating from 1000C to 2000C. Further on, at 3000C temperature - of interest concerning the aerodynamic heating of the airship structure the respective characteristic decreases to 14,6% from its nominal value at 200C.
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Tabel nr. 1
Table 1 Rezistena mecanic (daN/mm2) Mechanical strength Rctr Rcc Ruf Rupc 14.8 8.4 12.7 26.3 7.0 7.0 11.2 25.3 19.7 12.0 13.4 33.7 7.0 7.0 12.0 25.34) 7.0 7.0 12.0 25.3 Modulul (daN/mm2) Module E G 4600 1700 4600 1700 4600 1700 4600 1700 4600 1700
AZ 31B AZ 63B AZ 80A AZ 81A AZ 91C
Rutr 24.6 16.9 30.2 23.9 12.7
Rcpc 16.2 19.7 25.3 22.5 22.5
Materialul considerat d satisfacie n ceea ce privete rezistena la solicitri termomecanice pn la circa 100OC, n acest palier termic Rutr diminundu-se cu numai 20% din valoarea sa msurat la 20OC
The considered material is satisfactory, in what the strength in thermomecanical actions is concerned, up to 1000C, while on this thermal level Rutr decreases with only 20% of its value measured at 200C.
Fig.1. Time of exposure on each thermic level up to 100 h
Stabilirea caracteristicii de fluaj a comportat generarea de curbe reprezentative ale deformaiei specifice, respectiv de 2%, 3%, 4%, 5% i 7% (fig.2). Astfel pentru = 2% tensiunea cea mai mic, de 28 daN/mm2, a comportat un timp maxim de meninere sub ncrcare (continu i lent) pentru studiul de caz efectuat, i anume de 9 minute; la ncrcarea maxim de 46 daN/mm2 , o deformaie specific de 2% s-a produs ntr-un timp mult mai scurt, respectiv cu puin mai mic de 1 minut.
The calculation of the yield characteristic required the engendering of curves that were representative for specific deformation levels, of 2%, 3%, 4%, 5% and 7% respectively (Fig.2). So, for = 2%, the 28 daN/mm2 lowest stress required a maximum time of maintaining under loading (continuons and slow) for the case study, namely of 9 minutes; at a 46 daN/mm2 maximum loading, a specific deformation of 2% took place in a shorter time, that is, less than 1 minute.
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Fig.2
ntr-o alt interpretare: epruvetele aflate n palierul de nclzire de 150OC, solicitate la ntindere sub 40 daN/mm2, la timpul t = 2,6 min au prezentat o deformaie specific de 3%, pentru ca la t = 4 min deformaia specific s fie de 5%. Sub o tensiune mai mare, de 46 daN/mm2, deformaia specific de 3% i, respectiv 5%, s-a produs ntr-un timp mai scurt, i anume de 1,5 min i 2,3 In tabelul 2 au fost extrase datele corespunztoare palierelor de nclzire de 200OC i 250OC. Astfel, epruvetele nclzite la 200OC solicitate la ntindere sub 15 daN/mm2 au prezentat o deformaie specific de 2% cnd durata expunerii a fost de 5 min i de 4% cnd timpul a fost de 16 min. In aceleai condiii de tensiune i deformaie specific, timpul corespunztor msurat pe epruvete nclzite la 250OC a fost, respectiv de 0,8 min i 1,8 min. Acelai tip de epruvete nclzite la 250OC sub o tensiune de ntindere mai mare, i anume de 18 daN/mm2, au prezentat o deformaie specific de 2%, de ast dat ntr-un timp mai scurt, de numai 0,21 min i o deformaie specific de 4% cnd timpul a fost de 0,46 min, datele de comparaie echivalente pentru epruvetele nclzite la 200OC sunt, pentru = 18 daN/mm2; = 2%; i 4%, iar t = 3,6 min i 10 min. Tabelul nr. 2 evideniaz, cantitativ, o pronunat scdere a timpului de fluaj, corespunztor celor trei valori ale deformaiei specifice precizate, atunci cnd expunerea termic a probelor s-a fcut n palierul de 250OC, fa de temperatura de 200OC
In an other interpretation: the samples situated on the 1500C heating level, acted under 40 daN/mm2 in traction, when t = 2.6 min showed a specific deformation of 3%, and at t = 4 min, the specific deformation was 5%. Under a higher stress of 46 daN/mm2, the 3% and 5% specific deformations took place in a shorter time (t=1.5 min and t = 2.3 min. respectively) Table 2 shows the corresponding data for the 2000C and 2500C heating levels. So, the samples heated at 2000C under 15 daN/mm2 stress showed a 2% specific deformation for a 5 min exposure time and 4% for a 16 min. exposure time. For the same conmditions of stress and specific deformation, for samples heated at 2500C the corresponding measured time was of ~0.8 min. and 1.8 min respectively. The same type of samples heated at 2500C under a higher traction stress, namely 18daN/mm2, showed a specific deformation of 2%, this time in shorter time, of only 21 min., and a 4% specific deformation for a 0,46 min duration, the equivalent comparison data for the 2000C heated samples being, for = 18 daN/mm2; = 2%; and 4%, while t = 3,6 min and 10 min respectively. Table 2 shows, from a quantitative point of view, a significant decrease of the yield time, corresponding to the three specified deformation values, when the exposure of the samples to heat was made at the 2500C level, with respect to the 2000C temperature.
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Tabel nr. 2 (Table 2) Valori comparative ale parametrului de fluaj t = f(,) corespunztor palierelor termice de 200OC i 250OC Comparative values of the t = f(,) yield parameter corresponding to the 2000C and 2500C thermal levels daN/mm2 12 15 17 T 8.0 5.0 4.2 2% 3% 200OC 13.5 10.0 7.1 32.0 23.0 15.5 2.1 0.85 0.4 5% 2% 3% 250OC 2.4 1.3 0.6 4.4 2.3 1.1 5%
Parcursul explorator la determinarea proprietilor termomecanice ale aliajului AZ 63A n domeniul de temperaturi pozitive joase. n fig. 3 se prezint variaia relaiei tensiune-deformaie specific prin curbe ridicate la solicitri la ntindere ale probelor de aliaj AZ 63A, n palierele termice de 150OC i 200OC, pe o durat a meninerii probei n fiecare palier de 30 min.
Investigation steps for determining the thermalmechanical properties of the AZ 63A alloy in the low range positive temperatures. Figure 3 shows the variation of the relationship between stress and specific deformation by means of curves plotted for traction actions for the AZ 63A alloy samples, between 1500C and 2000C heat levels, while samples are maintained for 30 minutes on each level.
Fig.3 Left: Stress daN/mm2 Down: Specific deformation 10-3 mm/mm
n fig. 4 se prezint o modalitate cuprinztoare de grafiere a caracteristicilor de rezisten i fluaj n condiii de expunere a probelor de aliaj AZ 63A la o temperatur de 100OC.
Fig.4 shows a wide-range plotting of the yield and strength characteristics of the AZ 63A alloy samples when exposed to a 1000C temperature.
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97% 91%
98%
99%
85% 75%
50,1% 46,2% 45% 25,8%
46% 47% 43,4% 47% 43,0% 39,8% 22,4% 22,2% 20,0% 43,6%
45,7%
Fig.4 1 Rutr , - strength for short mechanical actions on samples thermally exposed at 1000C before testing; 2. Rctr, strength for short mechanical actions on samples thermally exposed at 1000C before testing; 3. Limit strength to breaking, function of time; 4. Yield, necessary time for the 1.0% specific deformation; 5. Yield, necessary time for the 0.5% specific deformation; 6. Yield, necessary time for the 0.2% specific deformation; 7. Minimum yield ratio; 8. Fatigue, stress cycle until breaking.
- Curbele 1 i 2 indic modificri ale caracteristicilor Rutr i Rctr determinate de meninerea sub sarcin aplicat scurt a probelor expuse termic, nainte de test, la 100OC. Evoluia R = f(t) n intervalul t = 1-100 ore, cu msurtori repetate la t =10 ore, au indicat o alur asemntoare a celor dou curbe (rezistena probei a crescut cu timpul de meninere a sa n palierul termic considerat). - Curba 3 arat modul cum a variat tensiunea de rupere cu durata meninerii sub efort mecanic a probelor expuse termic la 100OC nainte de test. - Curbele 4, 5, 6 reprezint fluajul probelor, semnificnd timpul de atingere a deformaiei specifice date, respectiv de 1,0%, 0,5% i 0,2%, la o variaie continu, lent a solicitrii mecanice a probelor expuse termic timp de 1
or, 10 ore i 100 ore. - Curves no. 1 and 2 show changes of Rutr and Rctr characteristics determined by the fact that samples are kept under a short applied load of the thermally exposed to 1000C before testing. The R = f(t) evolution in the t=1-100 hours interval with repeated measurements at t = 10 hours indicated a similar shape of the two curves (the sample strength grew with the time it was maintained at the considered thermal level). - Curve no. 3 shows how the ultimate stress varied while samples were maintained under mechanic load, being exposed at 1000C before testing. - Curves no. 4, 5 and 6 show the sample yields, signifying the time needed to reach the given specific deformation of 1.0%, 0.5% and 0.2% for a continuous, slow variation of the mechanical
71
action on termally exposed samples for 1 h, 10 - Curba 7 reprezint relaia dintre rata minim de fluaj i Rtr funcie de /t; - Curba 8 arat numrul de cicluri pn la rupere, adic oboseala relevat de probe.
Sinteza investigaiilor asupra particularitilor termomecanice ale probelor de aliaj AZ 80 O comparaie ntre efectele solicitrii continue, lente a probelor de aliaj AZ 80A expuse nainte de test, respectiv la T = 100OC i T = 150OC este relevant prin datele din tabelul nr. 3
h and 100 h. - Curve no. 7 shows the relationship between the minimum yield ratio and Rtr function of /t; - Curve no. 8 shows the cycle number until breaking, namely the fatigue as shown on the samples. Synthesis of the investigation regarding AZ 80A alloy sample thermal-mecanical characteristics. Table no.3 shows a comparison between the slow, continuous action effects of the AZ 80A alloy samples exposed before testing at T = 1000 and T = 1500C.
Tabel nr. 3 Table no.3 Date de fluaj comparative la T=100OC i T=150OC pe probe de aliaj AZ 80A Comparative yield data on the AZ 80A alloy samples at T=100OC and T=150OC T t 1h 10h 100h 0.2% 58.0 6.0 52.0 5.4 46.6 100OC 0.5% 46.6 5.8 40.8 5.9 34.9 1.0% 24.0 1.4 22.6 2.3 20.3 0.2% 41.0 6.7 34.3 1.6 22.7 150OC 0.5% 33.7 9.1 24.6 9.1 15.5 1.0% 20.5 6.2 14.3 7.2 7.1
S-au constatat diferene importante ale mrimii tensiunii de aplicat probei aflate n una sau alta din cele dou stri termice menionate pentru a se atinge acelai nivel al deformaiei specifice, , precum i atunci cnd timpul t variaz ntre 1 or i 100 ore.
Concluzii Din grupa de aliaje AZ, investigate sub raportul rezistenei la solicitri termomecanice proprii structurilor aeronautice, satisface preferenial indicii de performan aliajul AZ 80A.
Significant stress size differences were noted when applied to the sample placed in one of the two mentioned thermal states, in order to reach the same specific deformation level ; the same was valid when time t varied from 1 h to 100 h.
Conclusions From the AZ alloy class, whose stress was investigated under the thermal-mecanical action, adequate to the aerospace structures, AZ 80A alloy preferentially confirms the performance indices.
valuations par des essais de rsistance aux sollicitations thermomcaniques des alliages pour des structures arospatiales. . Resum On prsente des rsultats suite aux mesures de la rsistance thermomcanique effectues sur des prouvettes tmoin en alliage de magnsium du groupe AZ.
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Bibliografie References [1]. ANDREESCU, T.A. MUTIU, Concepte si evaluari privind metodologia caracterizarii aliajelor Al-Ti, Proiect de cercetare, EI/2002, Raport de activitate, contract INCAS/ Societatea Academica Romana (SAR) <Synergie> - MEC/ASR Andreescu, T.A. Muiu, M. Stere, Studii i cercetri experimentale privind caracteristicile mecanice de rezisten, de plasticitate i de comportare la coroziune a aliajelor experimentale, Raport de cercetare, E2/2003, contract INCAS/SAR MEC/ASR D.A. Rijinski, V.N. Romancik, Aviaionnoe materialovedenie i obrabotka materialov, Moskva, 1976 *** INCAS - S.A., Evaluri comparative, teoretice si experimentale, ale posibilitilor de performare a aliajelor termorezistente prin implicarea mediilor termice tehnologice controlate, Raport de cercetare, contract cu A.S.R., 2005 *** U.S. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Technical Note No. 668696 - 63-24. *** Catalog preliminar pentru avionul IAR-S, Institutul Naional pentru Creaie Stiinific i Tehnic, 1983 *** Report of the AdHoc Committee on Air Force Aircraft Jet Engine Manufacturing and Production Processes, United States Air Force Scientific Advisory Board, SAF/AQQS: the Pentagon, Washington, D.C., USA, 1992. *** Department of Defense Handbook Metallic Materials and Elements for Aerospace Vehicle Structures, MIL-HDBK-5H, 1 December 1998. I.Andreescu, Evaluari prin incercari de rezistenta la solicitri termomecanice ale aliajelor pentru structuri aerospaiale, Comunicare la cea de a VI-a Sesiune de comunicri tiinifice SIMEC 2007 , UTCB, Catedra de Mecanic Tehnic i Mecanisme, 30 martie 2007. *** MIL-HDBK-5H, Metallic Materials and Elements forAerospace Vehicle Structures, 1 decembrie 1998.
[2].
[3]. [4].
[5]. [6]. [7].
[8]. [9].
[10].
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Reducerea emisiilor la motoarele ecologice pentru camioane si utilaje de constructii (I)
Reduction of emissions in the case of ecological engines for trucks and building equipment (I)
Sarbu Lurentiu, prof.univ.dr.ing. Facultatea de Utilaj Tehnologic, Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti professor Dr., Faculty of Machine Tools, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest e-mail: laurentiusarbu_utcb@yahoo.com
1. Introducere. De unde ncepe standardizarea emisiilor ? Primele vehicule au fost camioanele. Volumul n cretere al mrfurilor transportate n lumea diesel, s-a fcut cu camioane i autobuze care au o lung istorie n privina reglementrii emisiilor poluante, care atrage un mare interes din partea guvernelor i sunt foarte vizibile la dieselele din segmentul personal de valoare medie. Acesta este debutul la vehiculele pe roi pentru drumuri rutiere, iar standardele pentru emisiile viitoare vor arta, ceea ce este permis dup sistemul de tratare a emisiilor. Partea de emisii obtinue dup tratare, se refer la mecanismul prin care au fost tratate suplimentar gazele de evacuare i care este viaa motorului i a vehiculului. 2. Standardizarea emisiilor poluante [6].
1. Introduction Where does emission standardization begin? The first vehicles taken into consideration were the trucks. The increasing amount of goods transported in the Diesel world used trucks and buses with a long history of norms and regulations concerning pollutant emissions. This topic is now of great interest for national governments and authorities, and easy to perceive in Diesel engines used in the personal average value segment. Things began to happen for on-road and off-road vehicles, and standards for future emissions will show what can be done after emission treatment. After-treatment emissions refer to the mechanism by which exhaust gases were treated, as well as to the life of the engine and of the vehicle as a whole. 2. The standardization of pollutant emissions [6] In 2007, the auxiliary gas-treatment procedure began to be considered for use for on-highway vehicles, and the procedure will continue in 2008, for Diesel engines equipped with particle filters, trapping filters or DeNOx, oxidation or other types of catalysts. For on-highway applications in the U.S., regular Diesel fuel today has about 500 parts per million (ppm) of sulphur. Starting with 2006, most Diesel vehicles for various types of roads must use ultra-low sulphur Diesel (ULSD) with no more than 15 ppm sulphur at the pump. The reduced amount of sulphur decreases emissions, and Diesel engines always use emission reduction devices, such as trapping filters and catalytic converters. The use of these systems along with ULSD may lead to a reduction of over 90% particle emissions, keeping HCs to nearly undetectable levels. For the future, the ideal equation is a simple one: ULSD + post-treatment burning gases = clean Diesels.
Mecanismul de tratare suplimentar a gazelor ncepe s fie utilizat ncepnd cu anului 2007 pentru vehiculele de transport pe autostrzi, iar din 2008 pentru echipamente cu motoare diesel care se deplaseaz pe drumurile principale echipate cu filtre de particule, cu filtre de captare sau DeNOx , oxidare sau alte tipuri de catalizatori. Incepand din 2006, majoritatea dieselelor pentru diferitele tipuri de drumuri rutiere, trebuie s foloseasc combustibili diesel cu foarte puin sulf (ultra low sulfur diesel), (ULSD) i s nu aibe mai mult de 15 ppm nivel de sulf la pomp. Coninutul mic de sulf produce emisii sczute i totdeauna se folosesc pentru diesele sisteme de reducere ca filtre de captare i convertoare catalitice. Folosirea acestor sisteme mpreun cu ULSD poate reduce emisiile de particule cu mai mult de 90% i emisiile de HC la nivelul admis sau de nedetectare a lor. Ecuaia pentru viitor este simpl: ULSD + gaze de ardere dup tratare = Diesele curate
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Valorile European Union Emission Standards, pe diferite categorii de motoare folosite n construcii i aplicaii industriale sunt indicate n tabelele 1-4, dup Emission Standard a Clear Explanation Caterpillar[6]. De la 1 ianuarie 2006, legislaia a obligat pe toi productorii de motoare s dezvolte tehnologii care s permit construirea de motoare capabile s ndeplineasc noile norme de poluare care se aplic motoarelor mai mari de 175CP, etapa III a, UE, privind emisiile de noxe, norme care i vizeaz i pe constructorii de motoare pentru utilaje[1].
Paradoxul emisiilor [6] : una din provocrile majore pentru constructorii de motoare este accea c, dou din intele majore pentru reducerea noxelor din motoarele diesel, particule materiale PM i oxizi de azot NOx , lucreaz n direcii opuse. Tehnologia de reducere pentru NOx , n general crete PM, iar strategia de reducere folosit la PM, crete NOx. (v. fig.1).
European Union Emission Standards for various types of engines used in civil engineering and industrial applications are shown in Tables 1-4, according to the Emission Standard of Clear Explanation Caterpillar [6]. Starting from January 1st, 2006 the European legislation forced all engine manufacturers to develop new technologies that would allow them to produce engines in conformity with the new pollution norms and regulations, applicable to engines with a capacity of over 175 CP, stage III a of the EU, with reference to emissions of pollutant gases; these norms and regulations are also valid for machine-tools engine manufacturers [1]. The emissions paradox [6]: one of the most important challenges for engine manufacturers lies in the fact that two of the major targets for pollutant gases reduction in Diesel engines, PM material particles and nitrogen oxides NOx work in opposite directions. The reduction technology for NOx generally leads to an increase of PM, while the reduction strategy used for PM leads to an increase of NOx (see Figure1).
Fig.1. Paradoxul emisiilor: particulele PM i oxizi de azot NOx lucreaz n direcii diferite [6]. The emissions paradox: PM particles and nitrogen oxides NOx work in opposite directions [6] Standarde UE de emisii poluante pentru motoare diesel On-Road (g / kWh) ( smoke, n m-1) EU pollutant emission standards for Diesel On-Road engines (g/kWh) (Smoke, in m-1) Tabelul (Table )1 [6] Tipul/Type Data/categoria Date/Category Euro I 1992 / < 85 kW 1992/ > 85 kW Euro II Euro III Eoro IV Euro V 1996 1998 1999 2000 2005 2008 ESC& ELR idem Ciclul testului Test cycle ECE/R-49 CO HC NOx 4,5 1,1 4,5 1,1 4,0 1,1 4,0 1,1 1,5 8,0 8,0 7,0 7,0 0,612 0,36 0,25 0,15 0,02 0,10 0,02 0,02 PM 0,16 0,8 0,5 0,5 75 Smoke
0,25 2,0
2,1 0,66 5,0 1,5 0,46 3,5 1,5 0,46 2,0
Limitri propuse de Recomandrile Nivelului III,a pentru motoare mobile Off-Road Limitations suggested in the Recommendations for Level III a, for Off-Road mobile engines Tabelul /Table 2 [6] Puterea net (kW) Net power 130< P < 560 75 < P < 130 37 < P < 75 19 < P < 37 CO 3,5 5,0 5,0 5,5 NOx + HC (g/kWh) 4,0 4,0 4,7 7,5 PM 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,6 Data (Date) 2005 2006 2007 2005
Limitari propuse de Recomandarile Nivelului III,b pentru motoare mobile Off-Road Limitations suggested in the Recommendations for Level III b, for Off-Road mobile engines Tabelul/Table 3 [6] Puterea net (kW) Net power 130 < P <560 75 < P < 130 37 < P < 75 CO 3,5 5,0 5,0 Nox + HC (g.kWh) 4,0 4,0 4,7 PM 0,025 0,025 0,025 Data(Date) 2010 2010 2011
Reglementari UE privind emisiile poluante pentru motoare diesel Off-Road ( g / kWh) EU Regulations regarding pollutant emissions for Off-Road Diesel engines ( g / kWh) Tabelul /Table 4 [6] Puterea net ( kW) Data CO HC NOx PM Net power (Date) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Nivelul I/Level I 130 560 1999 5,0 1,3 9,2 0,54 75 130 1999 5,0 1,2 9,2 0,70 37 - 75 1999 6,5 1,3 9,2 0,85 Nivelul II /Level II 130 560 75 - 130 37 75 18 - 37 2002 2003 2004 2001 3,5 5,0 5,0 5,5 1,0 1,0 1,3 1,5 6,0 6,0 7,0 8,0 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,8
3. Motoare Ecologice pentru camioane Euro 4 si Euro 5[1,2.3].
3. Ecological engines for Euro 4 and Euro 5 trucks [1, 2, 3]
EGR este o tehnologie care are la baz recircularea gazelor de eapament, ce impune utilizarea unui turboncrctor cu geometrie fix, sau variabila n unele aplicaii, prin care, emisiile sunt atacate direct la surs de producere, n acelai timp cu meninerea unui consum de combustibil optim. Schema de principiu a motorului EGR este prezentat n figura 2.
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EGR is a technology based on the recirculation of exhaust gases, requiring the use of a turbo-loader with a fixed (and sometimes variable) geometry, by which emissions are attacked directly at the source, while maintaining, at the same time, an optimal fuel consumption. The general diagram of the EGR engine is shown in Figure 2.
Fig.2 Schema motorului EGR [1,2]; Figure 2. EGR Engine diagram [1, 2]
Pentru Euro 4, MAN ofer o solutie bazat pe tehnologia EGR n combinaie cu filtrul de particole MAN PM-KAT, pentru motoarele common rail. Sistemul EGR utilizat de MAN face posibil o reducere de NOx n interiorul motorului corespunztoare cu Euro 4. In cea ce priveste particulele, este folosit filtrul MAN PNKAT, un sistem de separator de particule care nu are nevoie de ntreinere. Acesta permite o reducere de 60% a masei de particule care nu are nevoie de ntreinere. Acesta permite o reducere de 60% a masei globale de particule i o eliminare a microparticulelor n proporie de 8090%. MAN PM-KAT ( fig.3) declaneaz un sistem chimic prin intermediul unui sistem global care const dintr-un convertizor catalitic i un separator de particule. In paralel MAN urmrete i dezvoltarea unei soluii bazate pe tehnologia EGR i MAN PM-KAT pentru Euro5.
For Euro 4, Man comes with a solution based on EGR technology, combined with the particle filter MAN PM-KAT, for common rail engines. The EGR system used by MAN makes it possible to reduce NOx inside the engine according to Euro 4. In the case of the particles, a MAN PM-KAT filter is used (a particle separator system) which does not need maintenance. This leads to a 60% particle mass reduction and an 80 90% level of micro-particle evacuation. MAN PM-KAT (Figure 3) sets off a chemical action, through a global system made of a catalytic converter and a particle separator. At the same time, MAN is aimed at developing a solution based on MAN PM-KAT and EGR technology for Euro 5.
Fig.3. Procedee aplicate la motoarele ecologice MAN [ 2] Procedures used for ecological MAN engines [2] Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008 77
Noua generaie de motoare americane Paccar MX ce ndeplinesc cerinele Euro 4 i Euro 5 sunt adaptate pentru utilizarea convertoarelor catalitice DeNOx, tehnologia fiind cunoscut i sub numele Selectiv Catalytic Reduction (SCR). Satisfacerea cerintelor Euro 4 a necesitat o orientare ctre EGR, n combinaie cu un turbocompresor cu geometrie variabil TGV, pentru a putea face mpreun reducerea de oxizi nitrici. Introducerea catalizatorului DeNOx n 2008 pentru tehnologia SCR este cea mai simpl soluie fa de sistemul EGR. Convertorul catalitic la camioanele DAF este integrat n amortizorul de sunet al galeriei de evacuare. Unitatea de control electronic lucreaz mpreun cu cea a motorului pentru a determina cantitatea de AdBlue necesar injectrii n galeria de evacuare, acest lucru fiind calculat n funcie de turaia i cuplul motorului. Noul sistem de reducere catalitic permite extinderea posibilitilor de depire i a standardelor Euro 6 ntr-un viitor apropiat[2]. In figura 4,b este prezentat ansamblul rezervorului de uree AdBlue al camioanelor DAF cu motoare Paccar. Consumul de AdBlue al motoarelor Paccar este cuprins ntre 0,5 si 1,5l la 100km [1].
Conceptul SCR (Selectiv Catalytic Reduction [4]
The new generation of American engines Paccar MX, complying with the requirements of Euro 4 and Euro 5, are adapted for the use of catalytic converters DeNOx; this technology is also known as the Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR). In order to comply with the requirements of Euro 4 it was necessary to focus on EGR, combined with a turboblower TGV with a variable geometry, for the reduction of nitric oxides. If the DeNOx catalyst is introduced in 2008, it could be a simpler choice for SCR than EGR. The catalytic converter of DAF trucks is integrated into the noise damper of the exhaust manifold. The digital control unit works with the engine unit to determine the quantity of AdBlue which is necessary for injection in the exhaust manifold; the calculation is made according to the number of rotations per minute and to the engine coupling. The new catalytic reduction system opens a wide range of possibilities to improve even the Euro 6 standards, in a not so remote future [2]. Figure 4, b shows the AdBlue urea tank assembly for DAF trucks having a Paccar engine. The AdBlue fuel consumption for Paccar engines ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 liters for 100 km [1].
The SCR (Selective Concept [4] Catalytic Reduction)
Este o tehnologie sofisticat care acioneaz asupra gazelor arse emise de ctre motor, garantnd n acelai timp nu numai o reducere a noxelor pn la nivelul normelor Euro 5, dar i o reducere a consumului de combustibil cu pn la 6%. Tehnologia SCR necesit utilizarea unui aditiv, derivat al ureei, numit de specialiti AdBlue. SCR necesit utilizarea amoniacului pentru scderea oxizilor nitrici n gazele de evacuare, ca i reducerea funinginii rezultate la temperaturi nalte de combustie. In principiu, se bazeaz pe adugarea de amoniac sau uree, ca ageni de reducere pentru a transforma oxizi nitrici periculoi n nitrai inofensivi i vapori de ap, la nivelul convertizorului catalitic. Practic, n acest proces, un fluid numit AdBlue este distribuit sub forma unui jet de spray n curentul rezultat de gazul de evacuare la nivelul inferior al motorului.
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This is a sophisticated technology operating on burnt gases emissions from the engine, which guarantees not only a pollutant gases reduction up to the level of Euro 5 norms, but also a fuel consumption reduction up to 6%. The SCR technology requires the use of an additive, a urea derivative, which specialists call AdBlue. SCR needs the ammonium for nitric oxides reduction in exhaust gases, as well as for soot reduction at high combustion temperatures. As a principle, it is based on adding ammonium or urea, as reduction agents, to turn hazardous nitric oxides into inoffensive nitrates and water vapors, at the level of the catalytic converter. In fact, during this process, a fluid called AdBlue is spread through a jet spray in the flow resulting from the exhaust gas, at the level of the engine bottom.
Fig.4,a
Fig.4,b
Fig.4, a: -Schema de principiu a tehnologiei SCR pentru motoare cu catalizator pentru reducerea selectiv a noxelor din gazele de evacuare (Euro 5). Se aplic la : DAF, Iveco, Renault Trucks, Volvo Trucks, Mercedes Benz[ 3] ; 4,b Ansamblul rezervorului de uree AdBlue la camioanele DAF echipate cu motoare Paccar[ 1 ]. a: The basic diagram of SCR technology for catalyst-equipped engines, for the selective reduction of pollutants from exhaust gases (Euro 5). It applies for: DAF, Iveco, Renault Trucks, Volvo Trucks, and Mercedes Benz [3]; Figure 4, b: The AdBlue urea tank assembly for DAF trucks equipped with Paccar engines [1].
SCR este considerat tehnologia viitorului, datorit combinaiei bune dintre economia de combustibil rezultat, puterea de ieire a motorului i compatibilitatea proceselor reziduale cu mediul ambiant. Astfel, consumul de combustibil n acest caz este mai redus dect prin oricare metod. De asemenea, aceast tehnologie nu rspunde la nivelul de sulf din combustibilii actuali, care este destul de ridicat. Singurul dezavantaj este: necesitatea unei infrastructuri capabile s ofere, aditivul albastru, n cantiti suficiente.
Conceptul SCRT [ 4]
SCR is seen as the technology of the future, due to a positive combination between the resulting fuels saving, the engine output power and the compatibility of residual processes with the environment. Thus, the fuel consumption in this case is reduced to a larger extent than by any other method. At the same time, this technology does not respond to the level of sulphur from existing fuels, which is quite high. The only disadvantage is the need for an infrastructure that could supply the necessary additive in sufficient quantities.
The SCRT Concept [4]
Compania german Eberspacher propune un sistem revoluionar de reducere a noxelor care, va reui eliminarea a peste 90% din particulele de fum i oxizi de azot din gazele de eapament ale camioanelor.
The German company Eberspacher proposes a revolutionary system of pollutant gases reduction, which is said to eliminate over 90% of the smoke and nitrogen oxide particles from truck exhaust gases.
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Fig. 5. Conceptul SCRT aplicat la motoarele Euro 5[3] The SCRT Concept applied for Euro 5 engines [3]
Standardele europene care realizeaz reglementarea emisiilor de noxe se vor ridica n urmtorii ani, o dat cu introducerea normei Euro 5 din 2009 i Euro 6 din 2012, solicitnd astfel soluii tehnice avansate de reducere a polurii din partea productorilor de camioane. Sistemul SCRT este alctuit din patru componente principale, la nivelul crora au loc procese chimice variate. 1.In prima etap, hidrocarbonaii i monoxidul de carbon sunt transformate n dioxid de carbon i ap. De asemenea, o parte a oxizilor de azot se transform n dioxizi. 2.Gazele de eapament trec apoi prin filtru activ (elementele filtrante sunt acoperite cu un strat subire metalo-ceramic), unde sunt reinute particulele negre de fum. Stratul de particule negre acumulate n filtru pot avea efecte negative asupra presiunii de evacuare i asuport puterii motorului i trebuie nlturate prin incinerare. Acest lucru se realizeaz automat prin combustie spontan a dioxidului de azot format n prima etap, la temperaturi de 400 grade celsius. Filtru are nevoie de o curire regulat, ns la intervale mari de timp i nu necesit nlocuire. 3.In urmtoarea etap, gazele trec prin camera de injecie a ureei, unde datorit structurii speciale a incintei se realizeaza un amestec omogen de gaze arse i uree (AdBlue).
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European Standards regulating pollutant gases emissions will be improved in the next years, when Euro 5 norm is introduced in 2009, and Euro 6 in 2012. This means that truck manufacturers must find advanced technical solutions in order to reduce pollution levels. The SCRT system is made of four main components, each characterized by various chemical processes 1. In the first stage, hydro-carbonates and the carbon monoxide are turned into carbon dioxide and water. At the same time, nitrogen oxides are partially turned into dioxides. 2. Exhaust gases are then passed through an active filter (the filtering devices are covered with a thin film of metallic-ceramic substance), where black smoke particles are stopped. The layer of black particles accumulated on the filter may have negative effects on the exhaust pressure and over the engine power, and they must be burned. This is an automatic procedure, taking place by means of the spontaneous combustion of the nitrogen dioxide formed in the first stage, at a temperature of 400 degrees Celsius. The filter needs regular cleaning, but over large periods of time, and it needs no replacing. 3. In the next stage, gases pass through the urea injection chamber where, due to the special structure of the respective space, the burned gases and the urea form a homogeneous mix (AdBlue).
4.In procesul final, amestecul ajunge n camera Reductorului Catalitic Selectiv SCR, unde amoniacul rezultat n urma hidrolizei ureei reduce oxizii de azot, rezultnd doar azot atmosferic i apa sub form de vapori . In urma acestor serii de reactii chimice, sunt eliminate peste 90% din particulele negre de fum i oxizii de azot din gazele de eapament. Totodat, sistemul SCRT mai beneficiaz i de o structur care asigur i funcia de amortizor de sunet, eliminnd practic partea final a tobei de eapament .
4. Concluzii:
4. In the final process, the mix reaches the Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) chamber, where the ammonium resulting from urea hydrolysis turns the nitrogen oxides into atmospheric nitrogen and water vapors. Following this series of chemical reactions, 90% of the black smoke particles and nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gases are removed. Also, the SCRT system has a structure which ensures the noise damping function, thus assuming the function of the silencer end.
4. Conclusions The SCRT system may be divided into two stages of the chemical process: the oxidation inside the catalytic converter, for the removal of smoke particles, and the catalytic reduction of nitrogen oxides, with the help of urea injectors.
Sistemul SCRT poate fi separat n dou etape ale procesului chimic : oxidarea n interiorul convertizorului catalitic , pentru eliminarea particulelor de fum, i reducerea catalitic a oxizilor de azot cu ajutorul unui injector cu uree.
La reduction des emissions pour les moteurs cologiques et lourdes et lutilages de construction Resum: Nous prsentons les nouvelles technologies qui sadressent aux moteurs cologiques de grande puissance utiliss en constructions, comme: EGR, EGR avec MAN PM-KAT, SCR, SCRT o bien ACERT. On prsente des projets, des diagrammes, et on fait des apprciations sur les technologies de protection de lenvironnement et sur loptimisation du fonctionnement des moteurs. Bibliografie: References:
[1].
Mihilescu,R., Borcescu, R., Stoian,A.- Mediul dicteaza! (Environment Dictates!), IAA Hanovra 2006, Revista Cargo Romania,Bucuresti, nr.10/2006, pag.18-29.
[2].
[3]. [4]. [5].
Mihilescu, R.- Motoare MAN, Tainele Euro 4 si 5 (The Secrets of Euro 4 and Euro 5). Revista Cargo Romania& Bus , Bucuresti, nr.9/2005, pag.72-73. Pavel, D.- Mai mult decat Euro 4, DAF trucks a ales: SCR (More than Euro 4, DAF has chosen: SCR), Cargo Romania & Bus Review, Bucuresti, nr.5/2005, pag. 36-37.
Pavel,D.- Noi tehnologii pentru motoare Euro 4 si Euro 5 (New Technologies for Euro 4 and Euro 5 engines), Cargo Romania& Bus Review, Bucuresti, nr11/2004 Srbu,L. Noi generatii de motoare ecologice pentru camioane si utilaje de constructii(I+II) (New Generations of Ecological Engines for Trucks and Machine Tools) , Tehnologie, Revista Unelte si echipamente, Bucuresti, nr.77 si 78/2007, pag.66-73 si 54-66. x x x - Emission Standards a Clear Explanation, Caterpillar, 2004, Painting in SUA, p. 11. x x x - The Power to Lead CAT Industrial Engines with ACERT Technology, Caterpillar, 2004, Printed in SUA, 10p.
[6]. [7].
[8].
x x x Prospects: Incarcatoare Caterpillar (Caterpillar Loaders), Eneria Cat, Excavatoare hidraulice (Hydraulic Bucket Cranes) Hitachi ZAXIS series 3 and CASE , Series CX.
Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008 81
Influena coninutului armonic al curenilor asupra sarcinii admisibile a conductoarelor electrice
The influence of the currents harmonic content on the conductors current carrying capacity
Mircea ROCA .l. ing., Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti (Technical University of Civil Engineering), Facultatea de Instalaii, (Faculty of Building Services); e-mail: mirro@instal.utcb.ro
1. Consideraii generale
1. General terms
Rezistena aparent a conductoarelor este ntotdeauna mai mare n curent alternativ dect n curent continuu. Acest fenomen a fost descris, pentru prima dat n 1883 de ctre Horace Lamb pentru cazul conductoarelor sferice i generalizat de ctre Oliver Heaviside n 1885, pentru conductoare de orice form. Fluxul magnetic variabil creat de un curent alternativ interacioneaz cu conductorul, determinnd apariia unei tensiuni contraelectromotoare induse, care tinde s reduc curentul din conductor. Poriunea central a conductorului este stbtut de cel mai mare numr de linii de for ale fluxului magnetic, n timp ce numrul de linii de cmp scade pe msura apropierii de suprafaa conductorului. Fenomenul de autoinducie d natere unei tensiune contraelectromotoare induse, care variaz att ca amplitudine ct i ca faz n diferite puncte ale seciunii transversale ale conductorului, avnd valori efective mai mari n centrul conductorului i mai mici pe spre suprafaa acestuia. Ca o consecin, curentul tinde s se concentreze n zonele n care tensiunea contraelectromotoare are valori minime, respectiv la suprafaa conductoarelor cilindrice sau n muchiile conductoarelor paralelipipedice, deteminnd ceea ce este cunoscut sub numele de efect pelicular. Densitatea de curent neuniform rezultat conduce la micorarea seciunii efective a conductoarelor, la creterea rezistenei aparente a acestora i, implicit, a pierderilor de energie din acestea. Se definete raportul de efect pelicular ca fiind:
The conductors AC apparent resistance is always bigger than the DC one. This phenomenon was firstly described for spherical conductors by Horace Lamb in 1883 and generalised for conductors of any shape by Oliver Heaviside in 1885. The variable magnetic flux created by an alternative current interacts with the conductor, determining the appearance of an induced counter-electromotive force, which tends to reduce the current in the conductor. The utmost number of magnetic field lines crosses the inner central part of the conductor while this number of field lines decreases towards the conductors surface. The self-induction phenomenon generates a counter electromotive force, whose magnitude and phase vary in different points of the conductor transversal section, having increased rms values in the central part of the conductor and decreased ones towards its surface. Consequently, the current tends to concentrate in those areas where the counter-electromotive force has extremely low values, that is, at the surface of the cylindrical conductors or at the edge of the parallelepiped conductors, determining the so called skin effect. The resulting irregular current density determines the decrease of the conductors effective section, the increase of their apparent resistance and, implicitly, of their energy losses.
The skin effect ratio is defined as being: Rf S= , (1) R0
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n care: Rf este valoarea rezistenei aparente n curent altenativ, R0 este valoarea rezistenei aparente n curent continuu. Amploarea i consecinele efectului pelicular cresc cu frecvena i depind de dimensiunile i forma conductorului, fiind independente de valoarea efectiv a curentului din conductor. Dac pentru armonica de ordinul nti (fundamental) de frecven egal cu 50 Hz, efectul pelicular este, practic, neglijabil, pentru armonicile superioare prezena acestuia se face simit din ce n ce mai puternic. De exemplu, un conductor cu diametrul de 20 mm are la frecvena de 350 Hz (armonica a 7-a) o rezisten aparent egal cu 160 % din valoarea rezistenei sale din curent continuu. Creterea rezistenei aparente i, implicit, a reactanei (datorit valorilor mai mari ale frecvenei) conduce la creteri ale pierderilor de tensiune, ale gradului de distorsiune a tensiunii i ale pierderilor de putere din conductoare. De asemenea trebuie subliniat faptul c, odat cu creterea temperaturii, amploarea efectului pelicular scade, determinnd o cretere mai mic dect cea estimat, a rezistenei n curent altenativ. Aceast dependen de temperatur este mai pronunat la conductoarele de cupru dect la cele de aluminiu de aceeai seciune, datorit rezistivitii mai mici a cuprului comparativ cu cea a aluminiului. Diferena poate fi uor evideniat n cazul barelor de distribuie de seciuni mari ale tablourilor. Densitatea de curent J dintr-un conductor plan masiv de grosime infinit scade exponenial cu adncimea d msurat de la suprafaa conductorului (vezi fig. 1), conform relaiei:
where: Rf is the AC apparent resistance value,

R0 is the DC apparent resistance value.
The amplitude and the consequences of the skin effect increase with the frequency and depend on the conductor shape, being independent of the rms current value of the conductor. As long as for the first order (fundamental) harmonic having a 50 Hz frequency the skin effect is, practically, negligible, for high order harmonics its presence becomes more and more perceptible. For example, at a 350 Hz frequency (7th harmonic), a 20 mm diameter conductor has an apparent resistance equal to 160 % of its DC resistance. The increase of the apparent resistance and, implicitly, of the reactance (due to higher frequency values) determines the increase of the voltage drops, of the voltage distortion and of the power losses in conductors. It must be pointed out, also, that the amplitude of the skin effect decreases with the temperature increase, giving rise to a lower than expected AC resistance. This dependence on the temperature level is more marked for a copper conductor than for an aluminium conductor of equal cross-sectional area because of its lower resistivity. The difference is easily noticeable in large busbar sections. The current density J in a plane, massive conductor with infinite thickness decreases exponentially with the depth d measured from the conductor surface (see fig. 1), according to the relation
d
J = Js e , (2) n care este o constant denumit adncime introducerea unei noiuni de nveli (strat) de ptrundere. Aceasta este definit ca fiind imaginar, denumit grosime pelicular sau acea adncime la care densitatea curentului de where is a constant named penetration depth. conducie a sczut la valoarea 1 e (la 36,7 %) This is defined as the depth where the din valoarea Js a densitii curentului de conduction current density has decreased to a value equal to 1 e (36,7 %) of the conduction conducie nregistrate la suprafaa conductorului current density value Js achieved at the (considerat 100 %). ncercnd s simplifice interpretarea efectului conductor surface (considered as 100 %). pelicular, Boucherot [1] a propus n 1905
Trying to simplify the interpretation of the skin effect, Boucherot [1] proposed in 1905 the notion of an imaginary shell also called skin thickness or penetration depth, where the adncime de ptrundere, n care densitatea de curent J este uniform. Cantitatea de cldur degajat n ntregul conductor masiv, caracterizat de o densitate de curent neuniform, ce scade exponenial ctre zero dinspre periferia conductorului ctre axa acestuia, este egal cu cea degajat n nveliul
(stratul) periferic imaginar (de grosime ), caracterizat de o densitate de curent uniform. current density J is even. The heat quantity that occurs in the whole solid conductor, characterised by an uneven current density that decreases exponentially to zero from the conductor surface towards its axis is equal to that generated solely by the peripheral imaginary layer (of thickness ), characterised by an even current density.
Fig. 1 Variaia densitii de curent n interiorul conductorului Current density variation inside the conductor
Pentru conductoare cilindrice a cror raz B este de acelai ordin de mrime sau mai mic dect adncimea de ptrundere , ipoteza descreterii exponeniale a densitii a curentului de conducie cu adncimea b nu mai este valabil. n acest caz, densitatea J a curentului de conducie se obine prin rezolvarea urmtoarei ecuaii difereniale: d 2J 1 d J + d b2 b d b n care: b este coordonata dup raza conductorului, b [0,B ] ;
= 2 f este valoarea pulsaiei curentului ( f reprezentnd frecvena curentului); este permeabilitatea absolut a materialului conductorului, = 0 r , 0 fiind permeabilitatea absolut a vidului (sau a aerului uscat) i r permeabilitatea relativ a materialului conductorului, iar este conductivitatea electric a materialului conductorului.
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For cylindrical conductors whose radius B has the same order of magnitude with the penetration depth or less, the assumption of the conduction current density exponential decrease with the depth b is no longer valid. In this case, the conduction current density J is obtained by solving the following differential equation:
= j J ,
(3) conductor
where: b is the coordinate along the radius, b [0,B ] ;
= 2 f is the current pulsation value ( f representing the current frequency); is the absolute permeability of the conductor material, = 0 r , 0 being the vacuum (or dry air) absolute permeability and r is the relative permeability of the conductor material, and is the electrical conductivity of the conductor material.
Dac se face transformarea de variabil din b n

j b , ecuaia (3) capt forma unei ecuaii Bessel de spea 1 i de ordinul zero. Prin impunerea condiiei la limit J ( B ) = Js i
1 2
If a transformation of the variable from b into

j 2 b is performed, equation (3) becomes a first kind and zero order Bessel equation. By imposing J ( B ) = Js as a limit condition and
considernd c, pentru un conductor plin (nu considering that, for a massive (not tubular) tubular) J trebuie s aib o valoare finit pentru conductor J must have a finite value for b = 0 , the solution to this equation is: b = 0 , soluia ecuaiei este: b b b J0 2 j Ber 2 j + j Bei 2 j = Js , (4) J ( b ) = Js B B B J0 2 j Ber 2 j + j Bei 2 j n care J0 ( x ) este funcia Bessel de spea 1 i de where J0 ( x ) is the Bessel function of the first ordinul zero iar Ber ( x ) i Bei ( x ) sunt funcii Kelvin. Valoarea total a curentului din conductor se obine prin integrarea funciei J ( b ) pe domeniul [0, R ] .
2 Determinarea pierderilor suplimentare prin efect Joule n conductoarele parcurse de cureni armonici
kind and zero order, while Ber ( x ) and Bei ( x ) are Kelvin functions. The total value of the conductor current is obtained by integrating the J ( b ) function on [0, R ] domain.
2. Supplementary Joule effect-type losses quantification in conductors with harmonic current flowing through
n cele ce urmeaz vom presupune existena unui numr de nveliuri coaxiale de tip Boucherot strbtute de armonici. Acestea sunt cu att mai puine, cu ct inveliul este situat mai n profunzimea conductorului (la distan mai mare de suprafaa acestuia). Pentru fiecare ordin armonic va fi calculat adncimea de ptrundere, iar pentru fiecare strat interior toroidal (tub) delimitat de dou adncimi de ptrundere consecutive, vor fi calculate rezistena, valoarea efectiv adevrat a curentului, densitatea de curent i pierderile de tip Joule. Pe baza acestor valori calculate va fi determinat valoarea pierderilor Joule totale din conductor raportat la valoarea pierderilor Joule care s-ar nregistra n conductor n prezena doar a armonicii de ordinul 1. Va fi determinat, de asemenea valoarea unui coeficient de majorare a seciunii conductoarelor parcurse de cureni armonici, definit ca valoarea unui curent fundamental convenional care ar produce aceiai cantitate de cldur ca i curentul armonic dat. n cazul unui curent cu un spectru armonic precizat, adncimea de ptrundere k pentru
Next, let us suppose the existence of a number of coaxial Boucherot type layers, in which harmonics are flowing through. These are fewer as the layer is situated deeper into the conductor (at a greater distance from its surface). The penetration depth for each harmonic order will be calculated and, for each inner toroidal layer (tube), delimitated by two consecutive penetration depths, the resistance, true rms current value, current density and Joule-type losses will be calculated. Based on these calculated values, the ratio between the value of the conductors total Joule losses and the Joule losses that would occur in the conductor in the sole presence of the 1st harmonic will be calculated. An increasing coefficient for the area of the conductors in a harmonic current environment will be determined, defined as the value of a conventional fundamental current that would produce the same heat quantity as the given harmonic current. For a current with a defined harmonic spectrum, the penetration depth k for the k th harmonic
85
armonica de ordinul k este:
n care:
c =
order is: 1 1 k = =c , fk fk where:

c =
(5)
este o constant care depinde de
is a constant depending on the
natura materialului conductor i care va fi calculat n cele ce urmeaz pentru cupru ( ccu ) i aluminiu ( cal ); fk reprezint frecvena armonicii de ordinul k (unde k = 2n -1 , n N ). Permeabilitatea absolut a vidului avnd valoarea 0 = 4 10 7 H m i permeabilitile relative ale cuprului i aluminiului fiind r 1 , rezult c permeabilitatea absolut a materialului 7 conductorului este = 4 10 H m . Conductivitatea electric a materialului conductorului se consider a avea, pentru cupru, valoarea Cu = 5,80 107 S m iar pentru
conductor material and which will be calculated below for copper ( ccu ) and aluminium ( cal );
fk represents the frequency of the k th order harmonic (where k = 2n -1 , n N ). The vacuum absolute permeability value being and the relative 0 = 4 10 7 H m , permeability value for copper and aluminium being r 1 , the conductors absolute
permeability value equals = 4 10 7 H m . The electrical conductivity for the conductor material is considered as being 7 Cu = 5,80 10 S m for copper and
aluminiu Al = 3,78 107 S m . With these values, the resulting penetration depth Cu aceste valori, adncimea de ptrundere pentru for copper is: cupru rezult: 1 1 1 1 cuk = = = ccu = 0.066085 . (6) fk cu Cu fk fk fk 4 10 7 5.8 107 n mod similar, adncimea de ptrundere pentru Similarly, the resulting penetration depth for aluminiu rezult: aluminium is: 1 1 1 1 alk = = = cal = 0.0818604 . (7) fk fk fk al Al f 4 10 7 3.78 107 n continuare, vor fi luate n calcul numai Further on, only the odd harmonics not exceeding armonicile impare de ordin pn la 51, dei cu o 51st order will be considered, although, with good bun precizie pot fi luate n considerare doar accuracy, only the harmonics not exceeding 25th armonicile de ordin de pn la 25. n tabelul 1 order can be considered. sunt prezentate adncimile de ptrundere Cu k i Table 1 presents the penetration depths for copper Cu k and aluminium Al k respectively. Al k pentru cupru i, respectiv, pentru aluminiu. Figure 2 presents the frequency dependence on n figura 2 este prezentat dependena de the penetration depth for copper and aluminium. frecven a adncimii de ptrundere pentru cupru We consider (see fig. 3) a cylindrical conductor of i aluminiu. B radius exceeding the penetration depth in Considerm (vezi fig. 3) un conductor cilindric de copper Cu 1 of the 1st (fundamental) harmonic, a raz B mai mare dect adncimea de ptrundere n cupru Cu a armonicii de ordinul 1 fortiori exceeding aluminium penetration Cu 1
1
Al = 3,78 107 S m for aluminium.
(fundamentalei), deci cu att mai mare dect adncimea de ptrundere Al 1 n aluminiu a armonicii de ordinul I (fundamentalei).
86
of
the
1st
(fundamental)
harmonic.
Tab. 1. Adncimile de ptrundere pentru cupru i aluminiu Penetration depths for copper and aluminium Cupru - Copper Aluminiu - Aluminium Ordinul k al armonicii f Harmonic order k Cu k Cu k Al k Al k 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51 [Hz] 50 150 250 350 450 550 650 750 850 950 1050 1150 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 2250 2350 2450 2550 [m] 0,009350640 0,005398595 0,004181734 0,003534210 0,003116880 0,002819324 0,002593401 0,002414325 0,002267863 0,002145184 0,002040477 0,001949743 0,001870128 0,001799532 0,001736370 0,001679425 0,001627738 0,001580547 0,001537236 0,001497301 0,001460325 0,001425959 0,001393911 0,001363931 0,001335806 0,001309352 [mm] 9,35 5,40 4,18 3,53 3,12 2,82 2,59 2,41 2,27 2,15 2,04 1,95 1,87 1,80 1,74 1,68 1,63 1,58 1,54 1,50 1,46 1,43 1,39 1,36 1,34 1,31 [m] 0,011582691 0,006687270 0,005179937 0,004377846 0,003860897 0,003492313 0,003212460 0,002990638 0,002809215 0,002657251 0,002527550 0,002415158 0,002316538 0,002229090 0,002150852 0,002080313 0,002016288 0,001957832 0,001904183 0,001854715 0,001808912 0,001766344 0,001726646 0,001689509 0,001654670 0,001621901 [mm] 11,58 6,69 5,18 4,38 3,86 3,49 3,21 2,99 2,81 2,66 2,53 2,42 2,32 2,23 2,15 2,08 2,02 1,96 1,90 1,85 1,81 1,77 1,73 1,69 1,65 1,62
Fig. 2 Variaia adncimii de ptrundere n funcie de frecven Penetration depth depending on frequency
Fig. 3. Adncimi de ptrundere, razele miezului cilindric i ale nveliurilor toroidale i ariile suprafeelor acestora Penetration depths, cilindrical core and annular layer radii and their surfaces 87
Trebuie observat faptul c n conductor exist o zon cilindric (de raz n ) care nu este, practic, strbtut de ctre nici una dintre armonicile de curent (nici chiar de ctre fundamental), orice punct situat n aceast zon aflndu-se, n raport de suprafaa conductorului, la o adncime mai mare dect adncimea de ptrundere a armonicii de ordinul 1 (fundamentalei). Se face convenia ca, dat fiind ipoteza anterior menionat, n calculele urmtoare s nu se fac referire, n mod special la vreun material conductor anume, considerndu-se o adncime de ptrundere k generalizat corespunztoare armonicii de ordinul k , ntr-un material oarecare. Aceste adncimi de ptrundere k reprezint limile unor coroane circulare ale cror arii A k sunt date de relaia:
2 2
It must be noticed that inside the conductor there is a cylindrical zone (of radius n ) which, practically, is not circulated through by any of the current harmonics (not even by the fundamental), any point situated in this zone being (with regard to the conductor surface) at a depth exceeding the penetration depth of the 1st (fundamental) harmonic. It is agreed that, in accordance with the above mentioned hypothesis, no special mention of any particular conductor material shall be made in the following calculations, considering a generalised penetration depth k that th corresponds to the k harmonic in a certain material. These penetration depths k represent the widths of some annuli having the areas Ak given by the relation:
Ak = B ( B k ) = (8) B ( B k ) B + ( B k ) = k ( 2B k ) . Valorile efective adevrate ale curenilor care The actual rms values of the currents that flow strbat tuburile ale cror seciuni transversale through the tubes, whose transversal sections sunt coroanele circulare menionate anterior are the above mentioned annuli, are (in the sunt (n absena componentei continue): absence of the DC component) as follows:
2 2 I A = I12 + I3 + .... + Ik =
k
I
k
2 k
(9)
Densitile de curent corespunztoare coroanelor circulare de arii Ak sunt:

JA =
k
The current densities that correspond to the annuli having Ak areas are
IA
Ak
I
k
2 k
k ( 2B k )
From
. 3, another relation
(10) results:
Din fig. 3 rezult, de asemenea, relaia:
fig.
B = 0 = n + 1 , (11) n care 0 poate fi considerat ca fiind where 0 can be considered as being the adncimea de ptrundere a componentei de penetration depth of the DC component curent continuu. Se noteaz cu m k grosimea torului (tubului) m k shows the coaxial toroid (tube) depth inside coaxial din interiorul conductorului stbtut de the conductor crossed by harmonics of an order armonici de ordin maxim egal cu k (unde k not greater than k (where k has the same are aceeai valoare k = 2n -1 , cu n N ). value k = 2n -1 , with n N ). Rezult, astfel, relaiile particulare: Thus the following particular relations result: m 0 = 0 1 = n ; m 47 = 1 49 m 1= 1 3 m 3 = 1 5 i relaia generalizat: m 49 = 1 51 m 51= 1 53 = 1 as well as the generalized relation: m k = 1 k + 2 .
(12)
(13)
88
Convenind s se noteze cu A0 , A1 , A3 , ...., Ak ,..... A49 , A51 ariile suprafeelor transversale ale miezului cilindric i ale nveliurilor toroidale (tuburilor) coaxiale succesive, rezult c mrimile acestora sunt date de relaiile particulare: A0 = n 2
Agreeing to denote the areas of the transversal surfaces of the cylindrical core and of the consecutive coaxial toroids (tubes) located inside the conductor with A0 , A1 , A3 , ...., Ak ,..... A49 , A51 , their sizes are given by the particular relations:
2 2 A1 = ( n + m 1 ) ( n ) 2 2 A3 = ( n + m 3 ) ( n + m 1 ) ........................................
(14)
2 2 A51 = ( n + m 51 ) ( n + m 49 ) i, respectiv, de relaia generalizat: and, respectively, by the generalized relation: 2 2 Ak = ( m + m k ) ( n + m k 2 ) . (15) innd seama de expresia grosimii m k a Taking note of the annulus depth m k expression coroanei circulare dat de relaia (8-13), rezult given by (8-13), it results that the following urmtoarea relaie a ariei suprafeei transversale expression of the transversal surface area Ak of Ak a unui tub oarecare: a certain tube is: 2 2 Ak = ( n + m k ) ( n + m k 2 ) =
= n + (1 k + 2 ) n + (1 k )
2
} = .... .
(16)
Ak = ( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2 ) Rezistena electric a unui unui tub oarecare k de The electrical resistance of a certain unitary length ( l = 1 m ) tube k is given by the relation: lungime unitar ( l = 1 m ) este dat de relaia: 1 1 . (17) = rA k = = = rA k l =1m Ak Ak ( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2 ) Astfel, expresia pierderilor Joule pA k ntr-un So, the resulting expression of the Joule losses pA k in a certain unitary length tube k is: tub oarecare k de lungime unitar rezult:
2 pAk = rA k I A . k
.... = ( k k + 2 ) ( B k ) + ( B k + 2 )
(18)
Conductorul cilindric poate fi considerat a fi alctuit dintr-un miez cilindric de raz a , care nu este strbtut de ctre nici una dintre armonicile de curent, ci doar de ctre componenta de curent continuu a curentului i din nveliuri (tuburi) toroidale coaxiale succesive, strbtute de un numr cresctor de armonici de curent de ordine din ce n ce mai mari. Astfel, tubul 1 este parcurs numai de ctre curentul armonic de ordinul 1 (fundamental).
The cylindrical conductor can be considered as being made of a cylindrical core of a radius, which is not circulated through by any of the current harmonics but only by the current DC component and by consecutive toroidal layers (tubes), circulated through by a growing number of harmonics of an increasing order. So, tube no. 1 is circulated through only by the 1st order (fundamental) harmonic current.
89
Tubul 3 este parcurs de ctre curenii armonici ordinul 1 i 3. Tubul k este parcurs de curenii armonici de ordinul 1, 3, 5, 7, ..., k . Ultimul tub (51) este parcurs de ctre toi curenii armonici (de ordinul 1, 3, 5, 7, ..., k , ..., 47, 49 i 51). Densitile de curent corespunztoare nveliurilor toroidale (tuburilor) coaxiale succesive de arii Ak sunt egale cu densitile de curent ale tuburilor toroidale de arii Ak . Valorile densitilor de curent din straturile (tuburile) toroidale coaxiale succesive cresc dinspre axa conductorului ctre periferia acestuia. Astfel, valorile efective adevrate ale curenilor care strbat tuburile de seciuni transversale Ak sunt:
IA k = J A
Tube no. 3 is circulated through by the 1st and 3rd order harmonic currents. Tube no. k is circulated through by the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, ..., k th order harmonic currents. The last tube (51) is circulated through by the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, ..., k th, ..., 47th 49th and 51st order harmonic currents. The corresponding current densities of the consecutive toroidal layers (tubes) of Ak areas
are equal to the current densities of the toroidal layers of Ak areas. The current densities of the consecutive toroidal layers (tubes) increase from the conductor axis towards its periphery. So, the true rms values of the currents that circulate through the layers (tubes) of Ak transversal areas are: ( )( 2B k k + 2 ) k I 2 . (19) Ak = k k + 2 j k ( 2B k ) j With these expressions, Joule losses pAk in a certain tube k will be given by the relation:
I j
k 2 j 2
Cu aceste expresii, pierderile Joule pAk ntr-un tub oarecare k vor fi date de relaia:
pA k = r A k I
2 Ak
( )( 2B k k + 2 ) 1 = k k +2 ( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2 ) k ( 2B k ) pA k =
( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2 ) I 2 j 2 k2 ( 2B k ) j
k
(20)
Pierderea Joule total p din conductorul de The total Joule loss p in the unitary length tube lungime unitar este dat de relaia: is given by the relation: ( )( 2B k k + 2 ) k 2 p = pA k = k k + 2 2 (21) Ij . 2 k ( 2B k ) k k j Pierderea Joule care s-ar nregistra n ntregul The Joule loss that would occur in the entire conductor n prezena doar a armonicii 1 conductor in the sole presence of the 1st (fundamentalei), dac inem seama de harmonic (fundamental), if we take into account adncimea de ptrundere a armonicii 1, este the penetration depth of the 1st harmonic, is dat de relaia: given by the relation: I12 2 p1 = I1 = . (22) ( B2 n2 ) ( B2 n2 ) Dac nu se ine seama de adncimea de ptrundere a armonicii 1 i se consider curentul distribuit uniform n ntreaga seciune transversal a conductorului, expresia pierderii Joule menionate anterior devine: If we dont take into account the penetration depth of the 1st harmonic and the current is considered as being evenly distributed over the entire conductor transversal section, the expression of the above mentioned Joule loss becomes: 2 I12 p1 = I = . (23) 1 B2 B2
90
Se definete un coeficient de suprancrcare A thermal overload factor ct due to the current termic ct datorat coninutului armonic al harmonic content is defined as being the ratio curentului ca fiind raportul dintre pierderea between the total Joule loss and the Joule loss Joule total i pierderea Joule care s-ar that would occur in the entire conductor in the nregistra n ntregul conductor n prezena doar sole presence of the 1st harmonic (fundamental) a armonicii 1 (fundamentalei) date de relaia given by (23), which is mostly encountered in (23), care este i cel mai des ntlnit n practic practice and which represents, at the same time, i care reprezint, totodat i ipoteza de calcul the most disadvantageous calculation cea mai dezavantajoas. Acest coeficient de hypothesis. suprancrcare termic ct cuantific degajarea This thermal overload factor ct quantifies the de cldur suplimentar produs n conductor supplementary heat development produced in de ctre un curent avnd un coninut armonic the conductor by a current having a certain oarecare, comparativ cu cea produs n acelai harmonic content, compared to that produced in conductor doar de ctre armonica 1 the same conductor only by the 1st harmonic (fundamental) a aceluiai curent. Astfel: (fundamental) of the same current. So: ( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2 ) k I 2 j 2 k2 ( 2B k ) k j p ct = = = I12 p1 B2 . (24)
ct =
k
B ( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2
2
I )
j
2 j
2 k
( 2B k )
I12
Considernd expresia general a adncimii de Considering the general expression of the ptrundere k dat de relaia (5), prin nlocuirea penetration depth k given by (5), by ei n relaia (24), rezult: substituting it in (24), the result is: 1 1 c c k 2 B 2 fk 2B f Ij f f f k k +2 k k +2 (25) ct = j 2 . 2 I k 1 c c 2B fk Avnd n vedere faptul c marea majoritate a aparaturii de msurare a parametrilor de calitate a energiei electrice exprim valorile armonicilor ca procente din armonica de ordinul 1 (fundamental), i notnd aceste valori procentuale cu h1 , h3 , h5 , .... , hk , .... h51 (cu h1 = 1 ) rezult c: Taking into consideration the fact that the great majority of the power quality parameters measuring equipment evaluates the harmonic magnitudes as percents of the 1st harmonic (fundamental) and denoting these percentages with h1 , h3 , h5 , .... , hk , .... h51 (with h1 = 1 ) it results that:
k
I
j
2 j
2 2 2 2 2 = ( I12 + I3 + .... + Ik = I12 h 2 ( h1 I1 ) + ( h3 I1 ) + .... + ( hk I1 ) ) = j j j j k k
I
j
2 j
=I
2 1
h
j
(26)
2 j
=c I
2 2 i 1
91
n care ci =
h 2j
j
este un coeficient de
where
ci =
h
j
2 j
is
an
incrementing
majorare a valorii efective a curentului fundamental, datorit prezenei armonicilor. Astfel, expresia coeficientului de suprancrcare termic ct devine:
1 B 2 fk f k 1 fk + 2
coefficient of the rms fundamental current due to the harmonics. So, the expression of the thermal overload factor ct becomes:
c c 2B k f f k k 2 + h2 ct = j 2 k j c c 2B fk . (27) 1 1 c c B 2 fk 2B f f f f + + k k 2 k k 2 c2 ct = i 2 k c c 2B fk Reamintim faptul c finalitatea acestei abordri We iterate that the finality of this approach is o constituie elaborarea unei metode optime de the elaboration of an optimal dimensioning dimensionare a conductoarelor i cablurilor prin method for conductors and cables in terms of prisma aportului termic suplimentar datorat the supplementary heat input due to the curenilor armonici. Prin urmare rezult ca harmonic currents. Therefore, it is necessary to necesar introducerea unui alt coeficient, introduce another coefficient, able to point out capabil s evidenieze majorarea de seciune the section increase which should be taken into necesar a fi luat n considerare n calculul de account when dimensioning conductors and dimensionare a conductoarelor i cablurilor cables circulated through by harmonic currents. parcurse de cureni armonici. So, we define an incrementing coefficient ch of Definim astfel, un coeficient de majorare ch a the fundamental current rms value due to the valorii efective a curentului fundamental presence of the harmonics and skin effect, as datorit prezenei armonicilor i a efectului being the reported value of a certain pelicular, ca fiind valoarea raportat a unui fundamental current that would produce the curent fundamental care ar produce acelai efect same caloric effect as the given harmonic termic ca i curentul armonic dat. Cu alte current. In other words, this coefficient cuvinte, acest coeficient exprim de cte ori indicates how many times the magnitude of a este mai mare amplitudinea unui curent fundamental current exceeds that which would fundamental (de frecven egal cu 50 Hz) care generate the same caloric effect as the given ar produce acelai efect termic ca i curentul harmonic current comparative to the 1st armonic dat dect armonica 1 (fundamentala) harmonic of the respective current. The curentului armonic respectiv. Expresia expression of the incrementing coefficient ch is coeficientului de majorare ch este dat de given by the relation: relaia:
1 B 2 fk f k c 2B f k 2 c c 2B fk 1 fk + 2 c fk + 2 c2 . i
c h = ct =
(28)
92
Deosebirea fundamental dintre coeficienii de majorare ch i ci definii prin relaiile (28) i (26) este aceea c primul ine i de adncimea diferit de ptrundere a armonicilor de curent, n timp ce al doilea presupune c densitatea curentului efectiv adevrat este aceeai n orice punct al seciunii transversale a conductorului. Prin urmare, coeficientul de majorare ci poate fi definit i ca raportul dintre valoarea efectiv adevrat a unui curent armonic i valoarea efectiv a fundamentalei (a armonicii de ordinul nti) a curentului respectiv:
ci =
The fundamental difference between the incrementing coefficients ch and ci defined by (28) and (26) is that the first one takes into account the different penetration depths of the current harmonics, while the second assumes that the true rms current density is the same in any point of the conductor transversal section. Therefore, the incrementing coefficient ci may also be defined as the ratio between the actual rms value of the harmonic current and the rms value of the fundamental (1st harmonic) of the respective current:
h
j
2 j
I12 h 2 j
j
2 1
I12 h 2 j
j
I1
(I
k j
2 1
2 2 + I3 + .... + Ik )
I1
I
j
2 j
I1
I . I1
(29)
Similar modalitii de abordare de mai sus, poate fi definit o aa numit valoare efectiv adevrat corectat Icr a unui curent armonic, ce poate fi exprimat prin relaia:
1 B 2 fk f k 1 fk + 2
Similar to the above approach, a so called corrected true rms value Icr of a harmonic current can be defined, and thereby can be expressed by the relation:
c c 2B k fk fk + 2 I2 (30) Icr = j 2 k j c c 2B fk n acest fel, avnd la baz relaia (28), coeficientul So, based on (28), the incrementing coefficient de majorare ch poate fi definit i ca raportul ch may be also defined as being the ratio between
dintre valoarea efectiv adevrat corectat Icr a unui curent armonic i valoarea efectiv a fundamentalei (a armonicii de ordinul nti) a curentului respectiv:
the corrected true rms value Icr of a harmonic current and the rms value of the respective currents fundamental (1st harmonic):
c fk + 2 k 2 Ij j = I12
c h = ct =
1 B 2 fk f k
c 2B fk 2 c c 2B fk 1 fk + 2 c fk + 2
1 B 2 fk f k
1 c 2B fk + 2 fk 2 c c 2B fk I1
(31)
I
j
2 j
Icr I1
Se consider spectrul armonic tipic curentului absorbit de variatoarele de turaie (VSD
The typical harmonic spectrum of the current absorbed by the VSDs (Variable Speed
93
Variable Speed Drives) ce utilizeaz modularea n durat a impulsurilor (PVM Pulse Width Modulation) destinate motoarelor asincrone trifazate de mare putere n varianta cea mai dezavantajoas, corespunztoare unui grad de ncrcare de 50 % a motorului [2] (tabelul 2 coloana 6):
Drives)that use PVM (Pulse Width Modulation) meant for three phase high power asynchronous motors in the most disadvantageous alternative, corresponding to a 50 % motors load level [2] (table 2 6th column) is considered:
Tab. 2 Spectrele armonice tipice al curentului absorbit de ctre un VSD Typical Harmonic Spectra of PWM Type VSDs Gradul de ncrcare a 100 % 75 % 50 % motorului Motor Load Level Amplitudine Unghi Amplitudine Unghi Amplitudine Ordinul k al armonicii Amplitude Angle Amplitude Angle Amplitude Harmonic order kh [%] [] [%] [] [%] 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 100 0 100 0 100 3 0.35 -159 0.59 -44 0.54 5 60.82 -175 69.75 -174 75.09 7 33.42 -172 47.03 -171 54.61 9 0.5 158 0.32 -96 0.24 11 3.84 166 6.86 17 14.65 13 7.74 -177 4.52 -178 1.95 15 0.41 135 0.37 -124 0.32 17 1.27 32 7.56 9 9.61 19 1.54 179 3.81 9 7.66 21 0.32 110 0.43 -163 0.43 23 1.08 38 2.59 11 0.94 25 0.16 49 3.7 10 3.78
Unghi Angle [] 7 0 -96 -174 -171 -102 16 71 28 10 16 95 -8 7
Pentru acest spectru, valoarea coeficientului ci de majorare a valorii efective a curentului este ci = 1,38 . Valorile calculate ale coeficientului de suprancrcare termic ct i ale coeficienilor de majorare a valorii efective a curentului ci i ch pentru cteva seciuni de conductoare sunt
prezentate n tabelul 3:
For this spectrum, the value of the rms current incrementing coefficient ci is ci = 1,38 . The calculated values of the thermal overload factor ct and of the rms current incrementing coefficients ch and
ci for some conductor areas are presented in table 3:
Tab. 3 Valorile calculate ale coeficienilor ct , ci i ch The calculated values of ct , ci i ch coefficients B (mm) 1,0 1,38 1,90 2,0 1,38 1,90 2,5 1,38 2,16 3,0 1,38 2,52 1,59 5,0 1,38 4,25 2,06 10,0 1,38 8,48 2,91 15,0 1,38 12.54 3,54
ci ct
ch 1,38 1,38 1,47 Trebuie observat faptul c pentru conductoare cu raza de pn la 2 mm, consecinele efectului pelicular sunt neglijabile, valorile coeficienilor ch i ci fiind aceleai. Pentru raze mai mari de
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It must be noted that, for conductors having a radius not exceeding 2 mm, the consequences of the skin effect may be neglected, the values
2 mm, consecinele efectului pelicular ncep s fie notabile, astfel nct, pentru conductoare cu raza de 10 mm, de exemplu, valoarea coeficientului ch este de 2,1 ori mai mare dect cea a coeficientului ci . Cu alte cuvinte, pentru conductoare cu raza de 10 mm, un curent al crui spectru armonic este cel prezentat n tabelul 2 - coloana 6, va avea, pentru o component fundamental considerat unitar (100 %), o valoare efectiv adevrat egal cu 138 % (n ipoteza c densitatea curentului efectiv adevrat este aceeai n orice punct al seciunii transversale a conductorului) i de 291 % (dac se ine seama i de adncimea de ptrundere a armonicilor de curent). Trebuie s remarcm, de asemenea, faptul c pentru conductoare cilindrice de raze mai mici dect adncimea de ptrundere n cupru a armonicii de ordinul 1 ( Cu 1 = 9,35 mm ), consecinele efectului pelicular se diminueaz i densitatea de curent n seciunea transversal a conductorului tinde s se uniformizeze. Ca o consecin imediat cantitatea de cldur suplimentar degajat (exprimat prin intermediul coeficientului de suprancrcare termic ct ) scade, iar valoarea coeficientului de majorare ch a valorii efective a curentului scade, de asemenea.
3 Concluzii i propuneri
of ch and ci coefficients being the same. For radii bigger than 2 mm, the consequences of the skin effect start to be noticeable, so that, as an example, for conductors with a 10 mm radius, the value of ch coefficient is 2.1 times bigger than that of ci coefficient. In other words, for conductors with a 10 mm radius, a current having that harmonic spectrum presented in table 2 6th column will have, for a basic fundamental component (100 %), a true rms value equal to 138 % (supposing that the true rms current density is the same in any point of the conductor transversal section and equal to 291 % if the penetration depth of the current harmonics is taken into consideration. We must, also, remark that for cylindrical conductors with radii smaller than the copper penetration depth of the 1st harmonic ( Cu 1 = 9,35 mm ), the consequences of the skin effect decrease and the current density in the conductor transversal section tends to homogenise. As an immediate consequence, the supplementary heat development (quantified by the thermal overload factor ct ) decreases and the value of the rms current incrementing coefficient ch also decreases.
3. Conclusions and proposals
Dimensionarea unui conductor (cablu) parcurs de cureni care au un spectru armonic nenul doar n funcie de valoarea efectiv a fundamentalei reprezint o subdimensionare sever, care conduce la supranclzirea conductorului (cablului) i la deteriorarea izolaiei acestuia. Chiar i dimensionarea la valoarea efectiv adevrat a curentului nu este corect, deoarece presupune o densitate de curent uniform n orice punct al seciunii transversale a conductorului, ceea ce reprezint, n mod evident, o prezumie fals. Trebuie s observm, de asemenea, faptul c pentru conductoare cu seciuni mici, consecinele efectului pelicular pot fi neglijate, i acestea trebuie dimensionate la valoarea efectiv adevrat a curentului armonic obinut
Dimensioning of a conductor (cable) circulated through by currents having a non-zero harmonic spectrum based only on the fundamental rms value represents a severe underrating, which determines the conductor (cable) overheating and insulation damage. Even the dimensioning based on the current true rms value is incorrect, because it assumes an even current density in any point of the conductor transversal section, which obviously represents a false assumption. It must also be noted that for conductors with small sections, the consequences of the skin effect may be neglected and they must be dimensioned based on the harmonic current true rms value, resulting from multiplying therms
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prin nmulirea valorii efective a fundamentalei cu coeficientul ci . Aceast valoare efectiv adevrat a curentului, care este de ci ori mai mare dect valoarea efectiv a armonicii de ordinul nti implic necesitatea adoptrii pentru conductoare i cabluri a unor seciuni mrite fa de cele recomandate actualmente prin normative, care nu in seama de prezena din ce n ce mai semnificativ a armonicilor de curent generate de ctre receptoarele neliniare. Pentru seciuni mai mari, consecinele efectului pelicular devin semnificative, astfel nct conductoarele trebuie dimensionate la valoarea efectiv adevrat corectat a curentului armonic, care ine seama i de adncimile de ptrundere diferite ale armonicilor de curent i care se obine prin nmulirea valorii efective a fundamentalei cu valoarea coeficientului ch . Considerm c prezint interes att continuarea analizei i pentru conductoare de alte forme (paralelipipedice, de exemplu) ct i determinarea valorilor coeficienilor ch i ci pentru cureni armonici care prezint alte spectre dect cel utilizat n aceast analiz, cum ar fi cei absorbii de echipamentele care utilizeaz arcul electric.
value of the fundamental with ci coefficient. This true rms current value that is ci times bigger than the rms value of the 1st harmonic implies the necessity of adopting, for conductors and cables, increased sections comparative to those recommended at present in normatives in contempt of the more and more significant presence of the current harmonics generated by the nonlinear loads. For bigger sections, the consequences of the skin effect become significant; therefore the conductors must be dimensioned based on the corrected true rms value of a harmonic current, which takes into consideration the different penetration depth of the current harmonics, and which is obtained by multiplying the rms value of the fundamental with the value of ch coefficient. We consider that it would be of great interest to continue the analysis for conductors with different shapes (parallelepipedic, for example), and to determine the values of the incrementing coefficients ch and ci for harmonic currents having other spectra than the one used in this analysis, such as those absorbed by the equipment based on the electric arc.
L'influence du contenu harmonique des courants sur le calcul des dimensions de capacit de charge courante des conducteurs Rsum Le calcul des dimensions d'un conducteur parcouru par des courants ayant un spectre harmonique diffrent de zro bas seulement sur la valeur efficace du fondamental reprsente une sous-estimation grave, provoquant la surchauffe du conducteur et lendommagement de l'isolation. Mme le dimensionnement bas sur la valeur efficace vritable du courant n'est pas correcte. Les conducteurs ayant de petites sections doivent tre dimensionns partir de la valeur efficace du courant harmonique. Pour de plus grandes sections, les consquences de l'effet de peau deviennent significatives, donc les conducteurs doivent tre dimensionns partir de la valeur efficace vritable corrige du courant harmonique, qui prend en compte la profondeur diffrente de pntration des harmoniques du courant et qui est obtenue en multipliant la valeur efficace du fondamental avec la valeur du coefficient ch. Bibliografie References [1]. [2]. BOUCHEROT, P.: Effet de peau.Bull. S.I.E. 4/1905 and 11/1908; CHANG, G. W., XU, W., RIBEIRO, P. F.: Modeling of Harmonic Sources Power Electronic Converters ROCA,M., LAZR, . Dimensionarea conductoarelor i cablurilor parcurse de cureni armonici A XIV-a Conferin a Facultii de Instalaii din Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti, 26 27 nov. 2007. Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008
[3].
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Un model fizic de ardere a particulei de rumegu n suspensie
A Physical Model for Combustion of a Sawdust Particle in Suspension
Ioana Mogo, drd.ing. Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucuresti, Catedra de Termotehnica, e-mail: Eng., PhD trainee, Technical Univ. of Civil Engineering, Heat Treatment Chair ; oana_mogo@yahoo.com
1.Prezentarea problemei
1.Topic Description
Pentru aplicaiile tehnice, un model fizic care s urmreasc evoluia particulei de rumegu n suspensie, pe traseul din focar, este de preferat dac ndeplinete dou condiii: procesele termo-chimice prin care trece particula s fie cele principale, chiar n condiiile n care reprezint aproximaii ale unor procese mult mai complexe; ecuaiile s fie rezolvabile printr-un program de calcul n care se poate interveni cu sondarea parametrilor termocinetici ai particulei i cu corecturi pe parcurs, deci un program care s fie editat special pentru aceast problem. Modelul fizic este transpus n programul de calcul ARDPART. care a fost elaborat ntr-un sistem conversaional, cu avantajul de a se putea interveni. Au fost efectuate verificrii ale programului cu urmtoarele variabile: temperatura focarului 700 1200 0C ; dimensiunea particulei de rumegu 2-6 mm ; temperatura de nceput a procesului reductor al cocsului 500-900 0C. Principala concluzie important este c rezultatele sunt n bun concordan cu rezultatele experimentale obinute pe o serie de focare experimentate i pe cazane funcionnd cu rumegu
2. Date de baz pentru modelul particulei
For technical experimental use, a physical model able to follow the behaviour of the sawdust particle in suspension inside the furnace is preferable if two conditions are met: the thermo chemical processes through which the particle is passing must be the main processes, even when these are approximations of more complex processes; the equations must be easy to solve by a calculation program, suitable for intervention by investigation of the thermo-kinetic parameters of the particle, and to corrections along the way. Such a program should be developed precisely for this purpose. The physical model is applied in the calculation software ARDPART, which was developed in a conversational system allowing interventions. The following variables were used for the corroboration of the software: the furnace temperature 700 1200 0C; the size of sawdust particles: 2 6 mm; the temperature at the initiation of the coke reduction process 5009000C. The main conclusion is that our results are in accordance with the experimental results obtained after testing a number of furnaces and boilers based on sawdust.
2. Fundamentals of the Particle Model
Modelul fizico-matematic pornete de la descrierea fenomenelor termice de evoluie a particulei pe msura creterii temperaturii. La o particul de dimensiuni mici, n stare de suspensie n focar, timpul fazelor de uscare i degajare a volatilelor este neglijabil fa de timpul de ardere a cocsului. Starea de funcionare n regim a camerei pentru
The physical - mathematical model starts from the description of thermal phenomena, following the particle behaviour as temperature rises. For a small size particle, in suspension inside the furnace, the time required to dry and exhale the volatiles is negligible compared to the time required for the combustion of coke. The operation status of the combustion
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arderea particulelor de lemn n suspensie este caracterizat printr-o temperatur ridicat a mediului, de ordinul 700 1000 0C. La temperaturi mai ridicate de 600 0C reactivitatea carbonului reprezint principala caracteristic n procesul de ardere i n consecin devin predominante procesele de reducere de tipul : CO2 + C = 2 CO Fluxul masic de oxigen ajunge la particul prin difuzie, dup care n contact cu suprafaa de carbon are loc reacia chimic de oxidare. Timpul de difuzie este cel care guverneaz timpul procesului deoarece reacia oxigencarbon este att de rapid nct timpul ei este neglijabil. Bilanul termic al particulei determin nclzirea ei: din cldura de reacie, QAR , un flux pleac cu coninutul de cldur al gazelor CO degajate la temperatura adiabat de ardere n reacia de formare a lor, QCO , i un flux de cldur pleac transmis prin radiaie de suprafaa particulei, QRP, la temperatura particulei; particula primete un flux de cldur prin radiaia mediului din focar, QRF, la temperatura focarului. Particula primete sau cedeaz un flux de cldur prin convecie care este egal cu conducia prin stratul limit, QCL. S-a urmrit determinarea unui sistem de ecuaii, dezvoltat cu diferene finite, astfel ca s poat fi rezolvat cu un program de calcul. In final a rezultat un soft care urmrete cu rigurozitate fenomenul fizic pe toat durata n care particula trece de la forma iniial la dispariie. Viteza de suspendare a particulei n camera de ardere este o mrime determinant a fenomenelor fizice.
Tabelul 1 Variantele orintative Table 1 Selected options: latura particulei / particle side [mm] 2 4 6
chamber for wooden particles in suspension is characterized by a high temperature of the environment, around 700 1000 0C. For temperatures higher than 600 0C the reaction of the carbon is the main feature in the combustion process and consequently the most important reduction process is: CO2 + C = 2 CO The oxygen flux mass reaches the particle by diffusion, then a chemical oxidation reaction takes place, due to its contact with the carbon surface. The diffusion time determines the duration of the process, since the oxygen carbon reaction is so fast that its duration is negligible. The thermal balance of the particle determines its heating: from the reaction heat, QAR a heating current results, having the heat content of the CO gases released at the adiabatic temperature of combustion during their generation, QCO, along with another heating current, originating in the radiation of the particle surface, QRP, at particle temperature. The particle receives a heating current from the radiation of the furnace agent, QRF, at the furnace temperature. The particle is receiving or releasing by convection a heating current which is equal to the conduction in the boundary layer, QCL. The scope was to set up an equation system, developed with finite differences, so as to be solved by a calculation program. The resulting software strictly follows the physical phenomena along the process whereby the particle in its initial form eventually disappears. The suspension velocity of the particle in the combustion chamber is a parameter determined by the physical phenomena.
temperatura focarului / furnace temperature[C] 600 - 900 - 1200 600 - 900 - 1200 600 - 900 - 1200
viteza de plutire / floating speed [m/s] 4.03 - 4.67 - 5.23 5.69 - 6.60 - 7.40 6.97 - 8.08 - 9.06
Pentru diferite mrimi de particule i medii de gaze de ardere n care evolueaz se calculeaz criteriul Re. Se constat c n toate cazurile particula n suspensie are o micare laminar n raport cu gazul de antrenare. In aceste condiii
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For different particle sizes and mediums for combustion gases behaviour a Re criterion is calculated. Results show that in all cases the particle in suspension has a laminar movement in connection to the medium gas. In these
grosimea stratului laminar la suprafaa particulei se calculeaz dup relaia lui Blasius: = 5 * (*l/w)^0.5 sau echivalent /l = 5 / (Re)0.5.
conditions the thickness of the laminar layer at the particle surface is calculated based on Blasius relation: = 5 * (*l/w)^0.5 or 0.5 equivalent /l = 5 / (Re) .
Tabelul 2: Cteva caracteristici Re i grosimi de strat limit Table 2: Re characteristics and thickness of the boundary layer latura particulei / particle side[mm] 2 4 6 viteza particulei / particle speed [m/s] 2 - 9 2 - 9 2 - 9 temperatura focarului / furnace temperature[C] 900 - 1100 900 - 1100 900 - 1100 Re grosimea stratului limit / thickness of boundary layer [mm] 2.30 1.20 3.25 1.69 3.98 2.07
19 - 69.8 37.9 - 139.6 56.9 - 209.4
n difuzia oxigenului la particul este important cunoaterea distanei medii ntre dou particule n suspensie. Aceast distan dac este mult mai mare dect stratul limt al particulei nu va influena procesul de ardere. Se remarc distana ntre particule de ordinul 50 de ori mai mare dect grosimea srtatului limit, ceeace arat c particulele nu se influeneaz reciproc n procesul de ardere.
For the oxygen diffusion at the particle level it is important to know the average distance between two particles in suspension. If this distance is longer than the boundary limit of the particle, it will not influence the combustion process. It should be noted that the distance between particles is 50 times longer than the boundary layer, meaning that the particles are not influencing each other in the combustion process.
Tabelul 3: Distana medie ntre dou particule n suspensie Table 3: Medium distance between two particles in suspension temperatura gazelor/ Gas temperature C 900 1000 1100 Distana ntre particule p / distance between particles mm 55.3 56.9 58.3 grosimea stratului limit sl / thickness of boundary layer mm 1.08 1.14 1.20 (w=9m/s)
raportul dintre distana ntre particule i grosimea stratului limit p/sl

3. Fluxurile de cldur asupra particulei Schema fluxurilor de cldur este prezentat n schema de mai jos.
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50
49
3. Heating currents over the particle The graphic of the heating current is presented below:
QRF QCL QAR QINC
QRP QCO
QINC flux de cldur disponibil pentru nclzire particulei QAR - flux de cldur de reacie produs de arderea carbonului pn la CO
QCO - flux de cldur care pleac cu coninutul de cldur al gazelor CO degajate la temperatura adiabat de ardere a CO QRF - flux de cldur transmis prin radiaia mediului din focar, la temperatura focarului QRP - flux de cldur care pleac prin radiaie de la suprafaa particulei la temperatura particulei QCL - flux de cldur prin convecie, primit sau cedat, egal cu conducia prin stratul limit. QINC heating current available for heating the particle QAR reaction heating current produced by carbon combustion up to CO QCO heating current released with the heat content of the CO gases exhaled at the adiabatic temperature of CO combustion QRF heating current transmitted by radiation of the furnace medium, at the furnace temperature QRP heating current by radiation off particle surface, at particle temperature QCL heating current by convection, received or released, equal to the conduction in the boundary laye QAR - se determin n intervalul de timp , QAR is determined in the time interval , sufficiently short so the temperature variation suficient de mic astfel nct variaia de in this interval will not affect significantly the temperatur n acest interval s nu afecteze parameters of the process development. sensibil parametrii de desfurare a procesului. The mass flux of oxygen JO2 is defined by the Fluxul specific masic de oxigen JO2 este mass transfer relation: definit de relaia de transfer de mas: M O 2 PO 2 g M O 2 PO 2 g kg kg J O 2 = DO 2 (1) (1) J O 2 = DO 2 2 2 RG (Tlim + 273) m s RG (Tlim + 273) m s unde DO2 este coeficientul de difuzie al oxigennului , PO2 presiunea parial de O2 n gazele de ardere, Tlim temperatura n stratul limit. Fluxul de mas de carbon n reacie este 12/16 din JO2 nmulit cu suprafaa activ: 12 kg M C = J O2 S p (2) 16 s In intervalul de timp masa de carbon fix variaz cu : Mc
where DO2 is the oxygen diffusion coefficient, PO2 the partial pressure of O2 in the combustion gases, Tlim - temperature in the boundary limit. The mass flux of carbon under reaction is 12/16 from JO2 multiplied with the active surface: 12 kg M C = J O2 S p (2) 16 s Within the time interval the stable carbon mass varies with: Mc
M C = M C [kg]
and therefore
MAS fin = MAS in M C [kg]
(3)
i luxul de cldur degajat prin arderea carbonului fix: Q AR = M C H CARB 1000 [J] (4) QCO - Oxidul de carbon este degajat la temperatura particulei T1 i se evacueaz la temperatura adiabat Tt de ardere n recia C CO . Cantitaea de cldur consumat pentru procesul de nclzire va fi: Q AR = M CO c pCO (Tt T1 ) [J] (5)
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and the heating current released by combustion of the stable carbon: Q AR = M C H CARB 1000 [J] (4) QCO carbon oxide is released at the temperature particle T1 and is evacuated at a combustion adiabatic temperature Tt under the reaction C CO. The quantity of the heat used up for the heating process will be: Q AR = M CO c pCO (Tt T1 ) [J] (5)
QRF - oeficientul de absorbie-emisie al volumului este EPSGAZ = 0,9 i coeficientul de absorbie emisie a particulei de carbon este EPSPART = 1 Rezult n timpul DELTAU o cantitate de cldur radiat de mediul din focar spre particul: 4 QRF = C 0 g p (T f + 273) S p [J ] (6) QRP -ntr-o zona de ardere la temperatur ridicat a norului de particule de carbon, cantitatea de cldur radiat de particul spre mediul din focar este: 4 QRP = C 0 g p (T p + 273) S p [J ] (7) QCL - Particula avnd o deplasare cu viteza de portan n mediul din camera de ardere va efectua un schimb de cldur convectiv cu mediul din focar Rezult cantitatea de cldur schimbat ntre mediu i particul prin convecie pe suprafaa exterioar SPART n timpul : QCL = S p
QRF the absorption emission coefficient of the volume is EPSGAZ = 0.9 and the absorption emission coefficient of the carbon particle is EPSPART = 1. The quantity of heat radiated by the furnace environment to the particle within the time span DELTAU is: 4 QRF = C 0 g p (T f + 273) S p [J ] (6) QRP in an area with high combustion temperature of the carbon particle cloud, the quantity of heat radiated by the particle to the furnace environment is: 4 QRP = C 0 g p (T p + 273) S p [J ] (7) QCL The particle movement with a spread velocity inside the combustion chamber will perform a convective exchange of heat with the medium from the furnace. Therefore the quantity of heat exchanged between the medium and particle by convection on the outer surface SPART in the time is: QCL = S p
g (T f Tlim ) sl
[J]
(8)
g (T f Tlim ) sl
[J]
(8)
5. Calculul cldurii de nczire a particulei i temperatura particulei dup intervalul de timp .
5. Calculation of the heat required for heating the particle, and particle temperature after the time interval :
Din bilanul termic prezentat anterior rezult ecuaia de determinare a cantitii de cldur de nczire a particulei dup intervalul de timp : QINC = Q AR QCO + QRF QRP + QCL [J ] (9) Aceast cantitate de cldur duce la nclzirea particulei i, deoarece dimensiumea particulei este foarte mic, se poate considera c temperatura particulei este uniform n tot volumul. Rezult creterea de temperatur a particulei dup intervalul de timp : QINC [K ] (10) MAS p c par Rezult temperatura final a particulei de cocs dup intervalul de timp DELTAU de ardere: T1FIN = T1 + DELT
T =
The thermal balance described previously leads to the equation for the calculation of the heat quantity needed to heat the particle after the time interval : QINC = Q AR QCO + QRF QRP + QCL [J ] (9) This heat amount will heat up the particle and, as the size of the particle is very small, it can be considered that the particle temperature is level in the whole volume. Therefore the particle temperature rise after time interval is as follows: QINC [K ] (10) T = MAS p c par The final temperature of the coke particle after time interval DELTAU for combustion is: T1FIN = T1 + DELT The completion of the calculation is determined by the condition MASFIN <= 0, representing a complete burn out of the carbon particle.
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Terminarea calculului este determinat de condiia de MASFIN <= 0 , adic o consumare complet a particulei de carbon.
5. Rezultate privind temperatura i timpul de ardere a particulei
5. Results referring to the temperature and combustion time of the particle
Au fost efectuate rulri ale programului cu urmtoarele variabile : - temperatura focarului 700 1200 0C - dimensiunea particulei de rumegu 2-6 mm - temperatura de nceput a procesului reductor al cocsului 500-900 0C Principala concluzie important care a rezultat din compararea rezultatelor de calcul cu determinrile experimentale pe instalaia pilot este c rezultatele obinute pe model sunt n bun concordan cu rezultatele experimentale obinute pilot i pe o serie de focare industriale experimentate n cadrul lucrrilor de certificare a cazanelor funcionnd cu rumegu.
6. Evoluia n timpul de ardere a temperaturii particulei de lemn Pentru un caz tipic de ardere a unei particule de deeu de lemn n focarul cu ardere n suspensie, s-au obinut rezultatele prezentate n fig. 1.
The program was run several times, based on the following variables: - Furnace temperature 700 1200 0C - Size of the sawdust particle 2-6 mm - Temperature at the initiation of the coke reduction process 500-900 0C The most important conclusion resulting from the comparison of the calculation results and experimental determination in the pilot installation is that the results obtained on the model are well coordinated with the experimental results within a pilot project performed for a number of industrial furnaces tested during authorization works for sawdustbased boilers. 6. Evolution of the wooden particle temperature during combustion For a typical case of combustion of a wooden waste particle in the furnace the results are presented in Fig. 1.
VARIATIA TEMPERATURII PARTICULEI FUNCTIE DE TEMPERATURA FOCARULUI

2500 TEMPERATURA PARTICULEI [C] 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 2 TIMP [S]
Fig. 1 . Variaia temperaturii particulei funcie de temperatura focarului The variation of particle temperature depending on the furnace temperature
Tf = 500 Tf = 600 Tf = 1000
Se poate urmri intensitatea mare a proceselor termice n primele dou secunde de proces n care influena reaciilor termo-chimice aduce particula la o temperatur nalt de ardere, dup
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A high intensity of the thermal processes can be noted during the first two seconds when, under the influence of the thermal chemical reactions, the particle reaches a high
care urmeaz o stabilizare de proces i o stingere a procesului de ardere ca urmare a consumrii materialului particulei.
combustion temperature, followed by a stabilization of the process and an extinction of the combustion process caused by the consumption of the particle material.
CANTITATI DE CALDURA FUNCTIE DE TIMP

0.4 0.3 0.2 QINC 0.1 Q [J] 0 0 -0.1 QR -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 TIMP [s] 1 2 3 4 5 QCONDLIM QAR
QCO
Fig. 2. Echilibrul termo-chimic al arderii particulei de combustibil solid The thermal chemical balance of the solid fuel particle combustion
Timpul de ardere al particulelor de combustibil solid n suspensie n focar funcie de temperatura focarului este prezenatat n diagrama fig.3
The time required for the combustion of solid fuel particles in suspension in the furnace depending on the furnace temperature is presented in fig. 3.
TIMPUL DE ARDERE A PARTICULEI DE LEMN FUNCTIE DE TEMPERATURA FOCARULUI

TIMP DE ARDERE A PARTICULEI [s] 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 600 700 800 900 1000 TEMPERATURA FOCARULUI [C]
d=8 mm d=6 mm d=4 mm d=2 mm
d=2 d=4 d=6 d=8
Fig. 3. Timpul de ardere a particulei de lemn Interval of wooden particle combustion Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008 103
Resume La vitesse de combustion des particules de combustible solide se caractrise par le fait que la dimension des particules est de 2..8 mm et que, ces dimensions, relativement importantes, la distance entre les particules est de lordre de 50 x d, ce qui dtermine que la couche limite de chaque particule soit indpendante des couches limite voisines. Ltat de fonctionnement de la chambre de combustion pour la combustion de particules en suspension se caractrise par une haute temprature du foyer, de lordre de 700 900 0C. Ltape dterminante est celle de la combustion du coke, cest-dire du carbone fixe, qui apparat aprs que les matires volatiles ont t rejetes. Le carbone fixe br^ule selon un schma cintique, form par un modle physico-mathmatique expos dans louvrage. Le modle a t confirm par des recherches exprimentales effectues sur un foyer pour la combustion de dchets de bois.
BIBLIOGRAFIE [1]. [2]. ANTONESCU N., STANESCU P.D., ANTONESCU N.N. Procese de ardere Matrix-Rom Bucharest ANTONESCU N., ANTONESCU N.N., STANESCU D. , MOGOS I. - Cercetri privind un model fizic de ardere n suspensie a rumeguului - Conferina UTCB de Instalaii Bucureti - publicat n volumul Eficien, Confort, Conservarea Energiei i Protecia Mediului Bucureti 2006 ANTONESCU N.N., ANTONESCU N., STANESCU D. , OLEA_POPESCU L., MOGOS I. - Un model fizic de ardere a particulei de rumegu n suspensie - Conferina Naional de Termotehnic (XVI) UPG Ploieti mai 2007 publicat n Maini i instalaii termice vol.2, pg.254-264 ISSN 1843-1992
[3].
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Modelarea hidraulic a reelei de canalizare Studiu de caz: municipiul Buzu
Hydraulic Modeling of the Sewerage Network. Case Study: City of Buzu
Alexandru Lungu, drd. msc. ing, NETAQUA SRL Bucureti, e-mail: netaqua@gmail.com Victor Octavian Luca, prof. dr. ing, Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti (Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest), Catedra de Hidraulic (Hydraulic Department), e-mail: lucao@mail.utcb.ro
1. Introducere
1. Introduction
Una dintre componentele proiectului ISPA desfurat n municipiul Buzu a constituit-o dezvoltarea unei metodologii de inventariere i supraveghere a sistemelor de alimentare cu ap i canalizare administrate de regia municipal, pe baza facilitilor oferite de GIS (Geographical Information System) i software-ul de modelare hidraulic. Pachetele software folosite au fost IntergraphGeomedia pentru componenta GIS, DHI Mike Net pentru reeaua de alimentare cu ap i, respectiv, DHI Mouse pentru reeaua de canalizare. Pe lng realizarea modelului propriu-zis, n cadrul proiectului s-a urmrit i transferarea informaiilor i cunotinelor ctre beneficiar, astfel nct la sfritul proiectului acesta s preia sarcina actualizrii i dezvoltrii ulterioare a modelului, pna la scara ntregului sistem.
2. Ipotezele modelului
One of the ISPA project components for the city of Buzu has been the development of a methodology for asset inventory and supervision of the water and wastewater networks managed by the municipal water company, based on the facilities provided by GIS (Geographical Information System) and the hydraulic modeling software. The software packages used have been the Intergraph Geomedia for the GIS component, the DHI Mike Net for the water network hydraulic modeling and the DHI Mouse for the sewerage network. Besides the completion of the hydraulic model itself, the information and knowledge transfer towards the beneficiary has been aimed at in the project, so that the updating and development of the model up to the full scale system be undertaken by the water company by the end of the project.
2. Model Assumptions
Lipsa sau insuficiena datelor primare: digitizare parial a tramei stradale, reele de ap i canal disponibile pe planuri de situaie nu ntotdeauna actualizate i corelate, lipsa unui istoric al nregistrrilor privind att consumurile ct i interveniile operate n reele, a necesitat o munc laborioas de colectare, prelucrare i actualizare a datelor de teren. Pe de alta parte, timpul limitat, disponibil pentru construcia modelului a condus la definirea unei zone pilot, modelat n detaliu, urmnd a fi dezvoltat ulterior ntrun model complet, la scara ntregii reele municipale.
Lack or insufficiency of primary data: partial digitizing of the street layout, unavailability of updated and correlated layouts for the water and wastewater networks, as well as the lack of historical records concerning both the consumption and repair activities in the networks required a tedious work for collection, process and update of field data. On the other hand, the limited time available for the build-up of the hydraulic model led to the definition of a pilot area, modeled in detail, meant to be developed later on in a complete model to the full extension of the municipal network.
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Zona pilot decis iniial pentru modelarea reelei de canalizare a fost extins pentru a lua n considerare aportul de debit pluvial al colectoarelor ce deservesc i zone din afara suprafeei pilot ns descarc n colectoare incluse n zona pilot. Reeaua de canalizare din municipiul Buzu funcioneaz n ntregime gravitaional, n sistem unitar, fiind deservit de patru colectoare principale, circulare, cu diametre cuprinse ntre 500-2000 mm, seciunile devenind n aval ovoide OV1100/1650 mm i respectiv clopot CL2200/1390 mm. Deoarece la debite meteorice ncrcarea colectoarelor este substanial mai mare dect n cazul debitelor menajere, modelul pentru reeaua de canalizare a fost dezvoltat pentru aceste condiii. Zona pilot a fost discretizat n bazine de canalizare avnd suprafee de 0,5 pn la 7 ha (fig.1), considerndu-se c fiecare bazin descarc ntr-un cmin inclus n model.
The pilot area initially decided for the modeling of the sewerage network has been extended in order to take into account the storm water flows of the collectors that are serving zones beyond the limits of the pilot area, but discharging in the sewers belonging to the pilot area. The wastewater network of the city of Buzu is fully operating by gravity, using a unitary collection system and including four main circular collectors with diameters ranging between 500 and 2000 mm; on the downstream portions the cross sections become egg-shaped (1100/1650 mm) and bell-shaped (2200/1390 mm). As at storm water flows the load of the collectors is substantially bigger than in the case of domestic flows the hydraulic model of the sewerage network has been developed for these conditions. The pilot area has been divided into catchments of 0.5 up to 7 ha (fig. 1), considering that each catchment discharges in a manhole included in the model.
Limita zonei pilot Pilot area limit Limita zonei pilot extinse Extended pilot area limit
Fig.1 Delimitarea bazinelor de colectare a apelor pluviale Definition of catchments for storm water collection
n lipsa unor date complete i actualizate asupra cminelor, au fost necesare ridicri topografice, determinri ale cotelor de nivel la radier precum i msurtori ale
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Due to the lack of complete and updated data concerning the manholes, new topographical surveys have been performed as well as field determinations of invert levels and collector
dimensiunilor colectoarelor. Ieirea din zona pilot a fost modelat prin intermediul unei guri de vrsare, impunnd n acest punct un nivel al apei la intradosul colectorului (suma dintre cota radierului i diametrul nominal al colectorului, n punctul de vrsare). n lipsa unui istoric zilnic privind cderile de precipitaii pentru zona Buzului, pe baza ploilor medii lunare n perioada 1901- 1990, a fost dezvoltat o ploaie sintetic de calcul, conform modelului Chicago (fig.2). Modelul a fost rulat pentru dou perioade de revenire: 1 an i respectiv 10 ani.
dimensions. The outlet of the pilot area has been modeled as a discharge mouth, having the water level equal to the level of the top of the collector (the sum of the invert level and the collector nominal diameter, calculated in the discharge point). The lack of historical daily rainfall data for Buzu area has led to the development of a synthetic design storm according to the Chicago model (fig.2) and based on the average monthly rainfalls for the period between 1901 and 1990. The model was run for two return periods: 1 year and 10 years.
Fig.2 Ploile de calcul pentru 1 i respectiv 10 ani perioad de revenire Design storms for 1 and 10 year return periods
3. Interpretarea rezultatelor
3. Interpretation of Results
n funcie de datele primare introduse, programul de calcul furnizeaz o serie de rezultate sub form grafic pentru a descrie variaia parametrilor hidraulici (debit, vitez, grad de umplere a conductei, inundabilitate exprimat ca diferen ntre nivelul apei i cel al terenului) att pentru noduri ct i pentru bare. Aceti parametri pot fi exprimai ca valori minime, maxime sau n mod animat (variaie dinamic, n timp a parametrului). n urma rulrii programului pentru o perioad de analiz dinamic de 24 de ore (durata se
Based on the primary input data, the hydraulic model may provide various graphical outputs describing the variation of hydraulic parameters (flow, velocity, collector filling degree, inundabilityexpressed as difference between ground and water levels) for both nodes and links. These parameters may be expressed as minimum, maximum or animated values (dynamic variation in time of the parameter). Following the run of the model for a 24 hour dynamic analysis period (the duration can be
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poate stabili de ctre utilizator, ns creterea acesteia mrete semnificativ timpul necesar rulrii i totodata solicit resurse importante din partea sistemului pe care are loc rularea), au fost identificate zonele cu probleme de inundabilitate (noduri i colectoare). Pentru ploaia de calcul cu perioad de revenire la 1 an s-au obinut schemele din fig.3 i respectiv fig.4, pe care sunt indicate zonele afectate de inundaii.
set by the user, but an increase of simulation time significantly extends the necessary running time and requires important computational resources) the potentially floodable areas have been identified (in terms of nodes and links). The representations presented in fig.3 and fig.4 are indicating the areas affected by flood, in case of a design storm with a return period of 1 year.
Fig.3 Noduri inundabile la ploaia cu timp de revenire de 1 an Flooded nodes for 1 year return design storm
Fig.4 Colectoare inundabile la ploaia cu timp de revenire de 1 an Flooded links for 1 year return design storm
Similar, pentru ploaia de calcul cu perioad de revenire la 10 ani (fig.5 i respectiv fig.6), s-au evideniat zonele afectate de inundaii, acestea fiind mai extinse i afectnd n special zonele amonte ale colectoarelor I i II.
Similarly, for a 10 year return design storm (fig.5 and fig.6) the areas affected by flood are indicated, in this case being more extended and affecting the upstream portions of collectors I and II.
Fig.5 Noduri inundabile la ploaia cu timp de revenire de 10 ani Flooded nodes for 10 year return design storm.
Fig.6 Colectoare inundabile la ploaia cu timp de revenire de 10 ani Flooded links for 10 year return design storm
n plus, modelul a furnizat i profilele longitudinale, pe care se evideniaz zonele afectate de o posibil inundaie (fig 7).
Additionally, the model also provided longitudinal profiles indicating the areas potentially affected by flood (fig.7).
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Fig.7 Profil longitudinal pe Str. 13 Decembrie i Str. Cazrmilor Longitudinal profile on 13 Decembrie St and Cazrmilor St.
Pe lng rezultate grafice, programul de modelare furnizeaz un raport detaliat asupra componenei reelei analizate, ipotezele de calcul i variaia parametrilor hidraulici (debit, vitez, nivel al apei in colector, grad de umplere) precum i momentul de timp i respectiv poziia geografic n care se realizeaz aceste valori.
4. Concluzii
In addition to the graphical outputs, the modeling software provides a detailed report concerning the components of the analyzed network, the considered assumptions and variation of the hydraulic parameters, as well as the timing and the exact geographical position where these values are reach.
4. Conclusions
Un model bine dezvoltat permite mbuntirea administrrii reelei i identificarea zonelor sensibile (zonele inundabile din reeaua de canalizare etc). Totodata, programele de modelare hidraulic permit conceperea unor scenarii pentru diferite situaii ce pot aprea n exploatarea curent (posibile dezvoltri ale sistemelor, comportarea acestor sisteme n condiii de avarie sau ploi abundente). Pe de alta parte, pentru a fi eficiente, modelele vor trebui ntreinute i dezvoltate astfel nct s reflecte toate modificrile survenite n cadrul sistemelor: nlocuiri de colectoare, modificri sau adugri de racorduri, modificri semnificative ale graficelor de consum.
A well developed model allows the improvement of the network operation and the identification of sensitive areas (floodable areas). Furthermore, the hydraulic modeling software allows the elaboration of scenarios describing various situations that may occur during the current operation of the network (potential extension of the system, the network behavior in cases of failure or abundant storms). On the other hand, in order to be efficient the models must be maintained and developed in order to reflect all the changes occurred in the system: replacement of the collectors, modifications or additional connections in the system, significant changes in water consumption patterns.
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Rsum Un des composants du projet d'ISPA pour la municipalit de Buzu a t le dveloppement d'une mthodologie pour la surveillance et l'inventaire des actifs de socit d'eau, bass sur la prparation de GIS et des modles hydrauliques pour les rseaux de systme d'gouts et l'eau. Cet article prsente les tapes principales du dveloppement du modle de rseau de systme d'gouts, en termes d'hypothses utilises pour la modlisation de l'ingnierie, des phnomnes hydrauliques et hydrologiques, aussi bien que l'interprtation et la discussion des rsultats principaux. Finalement, les conclusions et des suggestions pour des vnements futurs et les amliorations du modle sont prsents. Mots-cls : modle hydraulique, rseau de systme d'gouts, pluie synthtique, inondation. Bibliografie References [1] BLITZ, E. Proiectarea canalizrilor, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1970, pag. 33 126. [2] NEGULESCU, M. Canalizri, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1978, pag. 7 61. [3] *** MOUSE - Short introduction and tutorial, DHI Water & Environment, Copenhagen, 2003. [4] *** MOUSE User guide, DHI Water & Environment, Copenhagen, 2003.
Prezentul articol a fost prezentat public in cadrul Lucrrilor celei de a patra Conferine a Hidroenergeticienilor din Romnia (26- 27 mai 2006) i publicat n volumul I al documentelor Conferinei.
The present article has been presented at the Fourth Conference of the Romanian Hydro Energeticist Engineers (26th- 27th of May 2006) and published in volume I of the Conference Proceedings.
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Modelarea i optimizarea deciziilor pentru conducerea tiinific a activitii operatorului de alimentare cu ap i canalizare
Modelling and Optimisation of the Decisions for Scientific Management of Water Supply and Sewerage Operator Activity
Claudiu Albu, drd. ing., consilier superior, Ministerul Mediului i Dezvoltrii Durabile, Direcia General pentru Managementul Instrumentelor Structurale, Direcia Fond de Coeziune, e-mail: claudiu.albu@mmediu.ro
1. Prezentare conceptual general 1.1. Otimizarea deciziilor
1. General Conceptual Presentation 1.1. Decision Optimisation
Decizia constituie, conform celor precizate n [2] un act de conducere de o deosebit importan care stabilete modul i/sau calea pe care se angajeaz mijloace umane i materiale pentru ndeplinirea sarcinilor prezente i pentru dezvoltrile lor n viitor, precum i pentru depirea unor dificulti sau nlturarea unor deficiene care apar pe parcursul desfurrii unor activiti. Practica conducerii ntreprinderii a demonstrat c realizarea unor indicatori calitativi i cantitativi ridicai este condiionat n mare parte de activitatea decizional pe care factorii de conducere o desfoar la diferite nivele. Procesul de luare a deciziei a evoluat de la decizia luat pe baz de intuiie, practic, logic i bun sim la deciziile luate pe baze tiinifice folosind metoda modelrii, a calculelor matematice comparative i a tehnicii de calcul oferite de calculatoarele electronice. Aplicarea metodelor tiinifice nu implic ns nlturarea metodei intuitive. Procesul de luare a deciziilor se desfoar n mai multe etape, respectarea lor strict, ca ordine i coninut, constituind condiii fundamentale pentru luarea unor decizii optime: sesizarea necesitii elaborrii unei decizii, necesitate provenit ca prevedere a procesului de conducere sau datorat unor neajunsuri n activitate; culegerea i prelucrarea datelor (informaiei) i elaborarea variantelor de soluionare; alegerea variantelor de soluionare a problemei; punerea n aplicare a deciziei.
According to [2], the decision is a very important management act, establishing the manner and/or way of utilising human and material resources for accomplishing the present tasks and the future developments, as well as for overcoming difficulties and deficiencies that occur during the activity. The company management practice has demonstrated that the accomplishment of high quality and quantity indicators is mostly conditioned by the decision making activity developed by the management leaders at different levels. The decision making process has evolved from the decision taken on the basis of intuition, practice, logic and common sense to decisions established on scientific basis using the modelling method, on comparative mathematical calculation and on calculation technique provided by electronic computers. Still, applying scientific methods does not eliminate intuition. The decision making process has several stages. The strict observation of these stages, as a succession and structure represents the fundamental conditions for making optimum decisions: observing the necessity of decision making, resulted from a provision of the management process or due to some activity inconvenient; data (information) collection and processing and elaboration of solution variants; selection of problem solving variants; decision implementation.
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Astzi elaborarea deciziilor tiinifice nu se poate concepe fr utilizarea calculului operaional i a teoriei deciziilor: calculul operaional conduce n multe cazuri la variante, iar teoria deciziei este aceea care stabilete regulile de urmat pentru alegerea variantei care va fi aplicat.
2. Modelarea sistemelor 2.1. Caracterizarea sistemului
For the time being scientific decision taking can not be done without the use of operational calculation and decision theory: operational calculation provides in many cases variants, and the decision theory establishes the rules for choosing the specific variant to be applied.
2. Systems Modelling 2.1. System Characterization
Sistemul reprezint, conform [7], un ansamblu de elemente legate ntre ele prin relaii de interaciune i/sau interdependen i care acioneaz ca un ntreg organizat, capabil de a atinge o anumit finalitate. Pentru a caracteriza un sistem este necesar s se defineasc urmtoarele noiuni: mulimea elementelor sistemului; structura sistemului; finalitatea sistemului i aciunea sistemului. Ca obiect complex, sistemul este format dintro mulime de elemente concrete sau abstracte, care contribuie n mod organizat la realizarea aciunilor ansamblului.
2.2. Tipuri de sisteme
According to [7], the system represents a group of elements connected one to each other through interactive and/or interdependence relations, acting as an organised whole, able to reach a certain finality. The following elements must be defined in order to characterise a system: the elements of the system, the structure of the system, system finality and system action. As a complex object, the system consists of concrete or abstract elements, paying their contribution to whole system action completion.
2.3. Types of systems
Dup natura material a elementelor sistemului deosebim: - sisteme concrete; - sisteme abstracte; Sistemele concrete sunt formate din elemente materiale iar cele abstracte din concepte, noiuni, idei etc. n funcie de natura mulimii elementelor unui sistem se disting: - sisteme formate din mulimi determinate; - sisteme formate din mulimi vagi. Dup structur, sistemele pot fi: - sisteme cu structur constant n timp; - sisteme cu structur variabil. Dup modul de atingere al finalitii, sistemele se clasific n: - sisteme cu evoluie liber; - sisteme cu conducere. Sistemele cu evoluie liber se caracterizeaz, conform [9], printr-o dependen direct a ieirilor de intrri, astfel nct finalitatea se atinge numai ntmpltor, ca rezultat al
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According to the material nature of system elements, there are: - concrete systems; - abstract systems; Concrete systems consist of material elements while the abstract ones are composed of concepts, notions, ideas etc. According to the nature of the elements in a system, there are: - systems of determined aggregates; - systems of vague aggregates. According to structure, the systems are: - systems with constant structure in time; - systems with variable structure. According to the way of reaching their completion, systems are classified as: - systems with free evolution; - systems with management. According to [9], systems with free evolution are characterised by a direct dependence of the outputs on the inputs, in such a manner that the copletion is reached just incidentally,
aciunii aleatoare a factorilor de mediu. n sistemele de conducere, prin procesul feedback, aciunea factorilor din mediul care ndeprteaz sistemul de la norm este micorat sau anihilat i sistemul i atinge finalitatea.
2.3. Modelare cibernetico-economic
as a result of aleatory action of environmental factors. In the case of management systems, by feedback process, the action of the environmental factors taking back the system from the norm is minimised or annihilated and the system reaches its purpose.
2.3. Cybernetic-Economic Modelling
n accepiunea tehnico - tiinific prin model se nelege, conform [24] i [34], un sistem teoretic sau material cu ajutorul cruia pot fi studiate indirect proprietile i transformrile unui alt sistem mai complex, considerat original i cu care prezint o anumit analogie. Modelul abstract desvrit este formula (relaia) matematic. Pentru c nu descrie ntotdeauna ideal procesul, se recurge la unele simplificri. Formalizarea sistemelor complexe apare dificil n ceea ce privete descrierea dar i rezolvarea modelelor n vederea obinerii unor soluii analitice, a cror valoare deosebit const n generalitatea lor. Cnd o soluie analitic nu este posibil, se recurge la calculul pas cu pas, evoluia strii sistemului i situaiile caracterisitice fiind stabilite atribuind diferite valori variabilelor independente. Realizarea modelului este posibil pe baza informaiilor utiliznd anumite instrumente matematice, grafice denumite tehnici de modelare. Modelarea cibemetic se caracterizeaz prin utilizarea n general a modelelor funcionale, folosind n primul rnd metoda cutiei negre ca principiu de modelare. Ea se caracterizeaz de asemenea prin folosirea conexiunii inverse ca principal analogie structural a sistemelor de conducere. n acest caz este important s se pun n eviden cele dou mari sisteme: cel de execuie i cel de conducere precum i relaiile dintre ele. O alt caracteristic esenial a modelrii cibernetice o constituie importana pe care acesta o acord evidenierii legturilor informaionale n sistem.
2.4. Modelarea matematic
According to [24] and [34], following the wide accepted technical scientific approach, the model is defined as a theoretical or material system by which the properties and transformations of another more complex system, considered original and analogous to some extent, can be studied. The perfect abstract model is the mathematical formula. Simplifications are adopted as the process is not always ideally described. Complex system formalizing appears difficult for description purposes as well as for model solving in order to obtain analytic solutions, whose special value consists in their generality . When an analytic solution is not possible, step by step calculation is adopted; system status evolution and characteristic situations are established by attributing different values to independent variables. Model completion is possible based on the existing data by utilizing some certain mathematic or graphic instruments called modelling techniques. Cybernetic modelling is generally characterized by functional model use, adopting mostly the black box method as a modelling principle. Also, it is characterized by reverse connexion as the main structural analogy of management systems. It is important in this case to define the two major systems: execution and command and the relationship between them. Another essential characteristic of cybernetic modelling is the importance of the informational connexions inside the system.
2.4. Mathematical Modelling
Cercetarea operaional - aplicarea practic a modelrii matematice - are o
Operational research, the practical application of mathematical modelling, has a

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metodologie bine pus la punct. Metodologia are 6 faze, fiecare faz fiind alctuit din una sau mai multe etape: formularea problemei; construirea modelului matematic care va reprezenta fenomenul cercetat; derivarea soluiei din model; testarea modelului i a soluiei derivate; stabilirea elementelor de control pentru soluie; implementarea soluiei.
3. Prezentarea unor modele matematice aplicabile activitii operatorilor de alimentare cu ap i canalizare 3.1. Noiuni de baz
well established methodology consisting of 6 phases, each consisting of one or several steps, as follows: formulation of the problem; building of mathematical model representing the studied phenomenon; solution derivation from the model; model and derived solution testing; development of solution control elements; solution implementation.
3. Presentation of Mathematical Models Applicable to the Activity of Water Supply and Sewerage Operators 3.1. Basics
n cele ce urmeaz se vor introduce noiuni de baz utilizate n elaborarea modelelor economice dinamice, conform [29]. Considerm c sistemul economic modelat este un sistem de producie. Numrul total de produse realizate de sistemul respectiv la momentul t va fi notat cu n(t). Cantitatea din produsul i aflat n sistem la momentul t se va nota xi(t; t=1,2, ...n(t)). Vectorul x=(x1, x2, ..., xn(t)) descrie cantitatea total de produse existent n sistem. Putem considera c x En(t), unde En(t) este un spaiu n(t) dimensional i se numete spaiul strilor. Dac En(t) E+n(t) = { x/x=(x1, x2, ..., xn(t), xi 0, atunci definim x En(t) ca fiind spaiul strilor admisibile. Se va considera ca fiind un proces de transformare dinamic n sistemul de producie considerat procesul prin care sistemul trece din starea x n care se afl la momentul t, n starea y la momentul urmtor t+1. Evident c i y En(t). Procesul de transformare dinamic poate fi atunci reprezentat de vectori (x,y) = z, unde z E+n(t)+n(t+1). Procesul poate fi privit i din alt punct de vedere. Starea x n care se afl sistemul la momentul t exprim cantitatea de produse intrate n sistem n acel moment, deci este input-ul sistemului. Trecerea n starea z la momentul t+1 nseamn, n esen, nlocuirea lui x cu y, deci y reprezint cantitatea de produse ieit din sistem la momentul t, deci
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The following will introduce some basic notions utilized for the dynamic economic models elaboration, according to [29]. We consider that the modelled economic system is a production system. The total number of manufactured products realized by the system at the time t will be n(t). The quantity of i product existing in the system at the time t will be xi(t; t=1,2, ...n(t)). The vector x=(x1, x2, ..., xn(t)) describes the total quantity of products present in the system. We may consider that x En(t), where En(t) is a space with n(t) dimensions called statuses space. If En(t) E+n(t) = { x/x=(x1, x2, ..., xn(t), xi 0, then we define x En(t) as the space of acceptable statuses. The process through the system passes from the status x at the time t, to the status y at the next moment t+1 will be considered as a dynamic transformation process. Obviously also y En(t). The dynamic transformation process can be then represented by vectors (x,y) = z, where z E+n(t)+n(t+1). The process may be seen from a different point of view. The status x of the system at a time x expresses the quantity of products entered in the system at that time, so it represents the system input. Passing to the status z at the time t+1 it represents, essentially, replacing of x with y, so y represents the quantity of products coming out from the system, so is the output of the
este output-ul sistemului. Prin urmare, x se mai numete i vectorul input-urilor iar y vectorul output-urilor. ntr-un anumit moment de timp notat cu t, sistemul poate conine mai multe procese de transformare (dinamice) posibile, deci se poate introduce mulimea transformrilor (dinamicilor) admisibile ale sistemului modelat, caracterizat dup cum urmeaz: Zt = { z/ z = (x, y) E+n(t)+n(t+1)} Pentru a fi o mulime a transformrilor admisibile, mulimea Zt trebuie s satisfac patru propriti principale, i anume: a) Procesul de transformare (0, y) Zt dac i numai dac y=0. Cu alte cuvinte, dac vectorul input-urilor x=0, atunci vectorul output-urilor y nu poate fi dect nul. b) Zt este o mulime convex. Acest lucru nseamn c pentru orice z1 = (x2, z2) Zt, vectorul z = z1 + (1 ) z 2 = ( x1, y1) + (1 )( x 2, y 2) [0,1] c) Zt este o mulime nchis. O mulime C En se numete nchis dac pentru orice ir de vectori x1, x2, ..., xn din C pentru care lim xi = x0 , rezult c i x0 C.
i
system. Therefore, x is also called the input vector and y output vector. At a certain moment t, the system may include several possible (dynamic) transformation processes, so we can define the group of the acceptable transformations (of the dynamics) of the modelled system, characterised as follows: Zt = { z/ z = (x, y) E+n(t)+n(t+1)} In order to be a group of acceptable transformations, the group Zt must satisfy four main properties, namely: a) The transformation process (0, y) Zt if and only if y=0. In other words, if input vector x=0, then output vector y can be just zero. b) Zt is a convex group. This means that for any z1 = (x2, z2) Zt, the vector z = z1 + (1 ) z 2 = ( x1, y1) + (1 )( x 2, y 2) [0,1] c) Zt is a closed group. A certain group C En is called closed if for any row of vectors x1, x2, ..., xn from C for which lim xi = x0 ,
i
results that also x0 C. d) Zt is a cone. A group K En is called cone if from x0 K results that also x0 K for 0.
3.2. Dynamic Optimisation Problem 3.2.1. Defining the Dynamic Optimisation Problem
d) Zt este un con. O mulime K E se numete con dac din x0 K rezult c i x0

n
K pentru 0. 3.2. Problema de optimizare dinamic 3.2.1. Formularea problemei de optimizare dinamic
Determinarea soluiei unei probleme de optimizare ce apare ntr-un model dinamic presupune aflarea componentelor optimale ale unui program pe un orizont finit sau infinit de timp. Pentru a rezolva o astfel de problem se aplic o metod de optimizare dinamic, deci se efectueaz optimizarea pe un orizont de timp. S considerm mai nti un exemplu dup care vom formula problema de optimizare dinamic i vom introduce principalele metode de rezolvare ale acesteia. Definirea s-a fcut n special pe baza [29] i innd cont de [3], [6] i [14]. S considerm un operator de ap i canal care
Finding the solution for an optimisation problem which appears as part of a dynamic model requires finding the optimal program components over a limited or non limited time horizon. A dynamic optimisation method applies in order to solve a problem of this type; subsequently, optimisation is performed over a time horizon. Let us consider first an example and second formulate the dynamic optimisation problem and introduce the main solving methods. Defining was realised mainly based on [29] and considering [3], [6] and [14]. Let us consider a water and sewerage
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dorete s-i maximizeze profitul total pe o anumit period de timp, s spunem de la momentul 0 la momentul T. Pentru orice moment de timp t [0,T], operatorul va dispune de un anumit stoc de capital i de ali factori de producie. S ignorm deocamdat ceilali factori de producie i s considerm doar capitalul, pe care l notm cu k(t), indicnd astfel faptul c este dependent de timpul t. Vom numi k(t) variabil de stare. La acelai moment de timp t, operatorul va lua o decizie, s spunem privind rata produciei (spre exemplu cantitatea de ap brut care se va trata i apa brut i tratat care se vor pompa). Vom nota aceast decizie cu u(t). Din cantitatea disponibil de capital k, mpreun cu decizia u la momentul de timp specificat firma obine un anumit profit. Deoarece acest profit este dependent de mrimea lui k(t) i de rata u(t), l vom nota (k(t), u(t), t). Dac considerm timpul continuu, atunci profitul total pe care l va obine operatorul n intervalul de timp considerat va fi
operator wishing to maximize the total profit over a time period, supposing from time 0 to time T. For any time moment t [0,T], the operator will have a certain stock of capital and other production factors. Let us ignore for the time being the other production factors and consider just the capital, written k(t), indicating in this manner that it depends of time t. We will call k(t) status variable. At the same moment of time t, the operator will take a decision, regarding the production rate (for instance the raw water quantity to be treated and the raw and treated water to be pumped). We will call this decision u(t). The company obtains profit from the available capital quantity k, together with the decision u at a specified time moment. Considering that this profit depends on the size of k(t) and on the rate u(t), we will call it (k(t), u(t), t). If we consider the time as continuous, then the total profit obtained by the operator over the considered period of time will be
= (k (t ), u (t ), t )dt
0
= (k (t ), u (t ), t )dt
0
Rata produciei, deci decizia u(t) se modific n decursul timpului pe orizontul [0,T]. Rezult de aici c operatorul trebuie s aleag un t =T program {u (t )}t =0 supus anumitor restricii, i care determin rata de schimbare a stocului de capital. Deci aceast rat de schimbare dk/dt este funcie de starea prezent sau capitalul disponibil k(t), de decizia u(t) adoptat i de timpul t. Putem deci scrie: . dk k (t ) = = f (k (t ), u (t ), t ) dt Se observ faptul c variabila decizional u(t) influeneaz rata cu care stocul de capital se modific i, n consecin, cantitatea existent din stocul de capital la momentele urmtoare de timp. Profitul total este, deci, n realitate o funcie de decizia u(t) i obiectivul operatorului este s maximizeze profitul total n raport cu u(t), deci T max u (t ) = (k , u, t )dt . u (t ) 0
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Production rate, therefore the decision u(t) modifies over the time horizon [0,T]. It results that the operator has to choose a t =T programme {u (t )}t =0 subject to certain restrictions, determining the capital stock exchange rate. Therefore this exchange rate dk/dt is according to the present status or of the available capital k(t), of the decision u(t) adopted and of the time t. We can therefore write: . dk k (t ) = = f (k (t ), u (t ), t ) dt Notice the fact that the decisional variable u(t) has influence over the modification rate of the capital stock and, subsequently, the available existing capital stock quantity for the future time moments. So the total profit is in reality a function of the decision u(t) and the objective of the operator is to maximize the total profit in relation to u(t), and therefore T max u (t ) = (k , u , t )dt . u (t ) 0
Vom numi variabila u(t) variabil de control. Un operator de ap i canal are, pe lng stocul de capital, i ali factori de producie, cum ar fi munc, active i altele. De asemenea, operatorul poate adopta anumite decizii care influeneaz mrimea profitului la un moment de timp dat. n consecin, variabilele de stare i variabilele de control sunt vectori. Profitul total este numit funcionala obiectiv i are valoarea scalar real. Se poate, acum, formula urmtoarea problem de optimizare dinamic:
u ( t )U
We will call u(t) control variable. A water and sewerage operator has, in addition to the capital stock, other production factors as well such as labour, assets and other things. Also, the operator may adopt certain decisions which will have influence over the size of the profit at a certain time moment. Consequently, the status and control variables are vectors. The total profit is called the objective functional and has a real scale value. It is possible now to formulate the following dynamic optimisation problem:
u ( t )U
max [u (t )] = [ x(t ), u (t ), t ]dt + [ xT , T ]

0
max [u (t )] = [ x(t ), u (t ), t ]dt + [ xT , T ]

0
n condiiile . dx x(t ) = = f [ x(t ), u (t ), t ], dt x(0) = x0 dat si / sau x(T ) = xT dat Dac exist o singur variabil de stare, T reprezint o curb ca cea din figura 3.1. T este o relaie specificat ntre x(t) i t=T. n figura 3.1 sunt prezentate mai multe traiectorii admisibile ale lui x. Dac xa este o traiectorie optimal, punctul terminal va fi A i momentul de timp final TA. Dar, n cazul n care xb este traiectoria optimal, punctul final va fi B i momentul final TB. De notat c att A ct i B aparin curbei T. x
Under the conditions . dx x(t ) = = f [ x(t ), u (t ), t ], dt x(0) = x0 given and / or x(T ) = xT given If there is only one status variable, T represents a curve as defined in figure 3.1. T is a specified relation between x(t) and t=T. Figure 3.1 presents several acceptable trajectories of x. If xa is an optimal trajectory, the terminal point will be A and the final time moment TA. But, in case that xb is the optimal trajectory the final point will be B and the final moment TB. Mind that A as well as B belongs to curve T.
A xa
xb
TA
TB
Fig. 3.1. Traiectorii admisibile ale strii x a sistemului Acceptable trajectories of x status of the system Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008 117
3.2.2. Principiul continu)
maximului
(forma
3.2.2. Maximum Principle (continuous shape)
S considerm problema de optimizare dinamic:

J = I ( x, u , t )dt + F ( xT , T )
0 T
Let us consider the dynamic optimisation problem:

J = I ( x, u , t )dt + F ( xT , T )
0 T
n condiiile
x = f ( x, u , t ), x(0) = x0 , x(T ) = xT Trebuie determinate toate comenzile admisibile u(t) U i toate soluiile corespunztoare acestora x(t), deci perechile (x(t),u(t)) care conduc la cea mai mare valoare posibil a lui J. Definirea s-a fcut n special pe baza [29] i innd cont de [3], [6] i [14]. Mai nti introducem o funcie vectorial nenul (t ) = (1 (t ),..., n (t )) T ale crei componente se numesc variabile de coastare sau variabile auxiliare i construim expresia:
.
Under the conditions

x = f ( x, u , t ), x(0) = x0 , x(T ) = xT
.
All acceptable commands u(t) U and all their corresponding solutions x(t), therefore the pairs (x(t), u(t)) leading to the highest possible value of J must be determined. Defining was realised based on [29] and considering [3], [6] and [14]. We will first introduce a non null vector function (t ) = (1 (t ),..., n (t )) T the components of which are called coasting or auxiliary variables and prepare the expression: H ( x, u, , t ) = I ( x, u, t ) + i (t ) f i ( x, u, t )
i =1 n
H ( x, u, , t ) = I ( x, u, t ) + i (t ) f i ( x, u, t )
i =1
care se numete funcie Hamiltonian. Vectorul (t) se numete i multiplicator Lagrange. Principiul maximului al lui Pontreaghin spune c dac u*(t) i x*(t) sunt optimale n raport cu funcionala J, atunci trebuie s existe o funcie (t) astfel nct pentru toi t [0,T] sunt ndeplinite condiiile: . dx H xi = i = , i = 1,..., n dt i (3.2)(3.3.) . di H i = = , i = 1,..., n dt xi iar H i atinge maximul pentru u*(t), deci H(x*,u*,t) H(x*,u,t) (3.4) pentru toi u U. n plus sunt ndeplinite condiiile la limit: F xi = i (T ), i = 1,..., n (3.5) xi x(0) = x0 (3.6) Cele n ecuaii (3.2) reprezint pur i simplu ecuaiile de dinamic:
x i = f i ( x, u , t )
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.
called Hamiltonian function. The vector (t) is called Lagrange multiplier. The maximum principle of Pontreaghin states that if u*(t) and x*(t) are optimal related to functional J, then a function (t) must exist in such a manner that for all t [0,T] the following conditions are fulfilled: . dx H xi = i = , i = 1,..., n dt i (3.2)(3.3.) . di H i = = , i = 1,..., n dt xi and H reaches its maximum for u*(t), and therefore H(x*,u*,t) H(x*,u,t) (3.4) For all u U. In addition, the following limitation conditions are fulfilled: F xi = i (T ), i = 1,..., n (3.5) xi x(0) = x 0 (3.6) The n equations (3.2) simply represent the dynamics equations:
x i = f i ( x, u , t )
.
Aceste ecuaii mpreun cu cele n ecuaii (3.3) sunt denumite ecuaiile canonice Hamiltoniene i definesc un sistem diferenial cu 2n ecuaii n necunoscutele x i . Rezolvnd, obinem valorile optimale ale vectorului de stare x*(t) i respectiv valorile optimale ale variabilelor de costare *(t). Aceste valori se nlocuiesc n Hamiltonianul H. Dac acesta i atinge optimul ntr+un punct interior u U, valorile optimale ale vectorului u(t) sunt date de ecuaia: H =0 t care este echivalent cu relaia (3.4). Se obine, astfel, un sistem de i ecuaii cu necunoscutele uj, j=1,,r. n fine, cele 2 ecuaii date de (3.5) i (3.6) sunt condiii la limit sau de transversalitate.
4. Exemple de utilizare 4.1. Fundamentarea deciziei de alegere a unui echipament de producie pe baza costului minim de folosin
These equations together with the n equations (3.3) are called the canonical Hamiltonian equations and define a differential system with 2n equations with the undetermined x and . Solving, we obtain the optimal values of the status vector x*(t) and the optimal values of the coasting variables *(t) respectively. These values are replaced in the Hamiltonian H. If the last mentioned reaches optimum in an interior point u U, the optimal values of vector u(t) are given by the equation: H =0 t Which is equivalent to the relation (3.4). In this manner we obtain a system with i equations with the undetermined uj, j=1,,r. Finally, the 2 equations given by (3.5) and (3.6) are limit or transversal conditions.
4. Examples for Utilisation 4.1. Substantiation of Production Equipment Choice Decision Based on the Minimum Utilisation Cost
Prezentul exemplu este bazat pe [40]. Un operator de ap-canal are posibilitatea de a alege ntre patru echipamente de producie E1, E2, E3, E4 n vederea realizrii produciei propuse n cadrul strategiei pe termen lung. Preurile de achiziie, ntreinere i reparaii previzibile corespunztoare duratei de funcionare a fiecrui echipament sunt prezentate n tabelul urmtor:
The present example is based on [40]. A water and sewerage operator has the possibility to choose among four production equipments E1, E2, E3, E4 in order to achieve the proposed production as part of the long term strategy. The predictable prices for procurement, maintenance and reparations corresponding to the functioning duration of each equipment are presented in the table below:
5 C5
Tabelul/Table 3.1(EURO) Anul 1 2 3 4 (Year) Cheltuieli C1 C2 C3 C4 /expenses Echipament/ equipment E1 350000 20000 E2 420000 20000 30000 E3 520000 13000 37000 50000 E4 700000 10000 28000 40000 Not: Se consider c cele patru echipamente au acelai randament tehnic. Note: The four equipments are considered to have same technical effectiveness.
70000
S se fac discuia economic a problemei, s se formuleze criteriul de alegere a celui mai
Economic discussion of the problem and formulation of the chose criteria of the most
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eficient echipament i s se aplice n vederea rezolvrii problemei. Rezolvare: a) Discuia economic a problemei Un operator de ap-canal are, de regul, posibilitatea de a alege ntre mai multe echipamente de producie - E1, E2,,El,,Ek, l = 1,..., k , k = numrul echipamentelor existente pe pia pentru a-i realiza producia stabilit n cadrul unei strategii pe termen lung. Pe baza documentaiei tehnicoeconomice i a ofertelor productorilor, operatorul cunoate preurile de cumprare ale acestor echipamente: P1, P2,,Pl,,Pk, precum i cheltuielile de ntreinere i reparaie previzibile pentru funcionarea acestor echipamente: C1, C2,,Ct,,Cn, t = 1,..., n , n = numrul anilor de folosin pentru fiecare echipament. Pe baza acestor informaii, societatea comercial trebuie s decid ce echipamente prefer. Evident c, de pe poziia teoriei economice, criteriul de alegere l va reprezenta minimumul costului anual de folosin: min y l , unde y l reprezint costul mediu anual
l
effective equipment are required as well as the application for problem solving. Solution: a) Economic discussion of the problem A water supply and sewerage operator has usually the possibility to choose between several production equipments - E1, E2,,El,,Ek, l = 1,..., k , k = the number of equipments available on the market in order to achieve the production established as part of a long-term strategy. Based on the technical-economic documents and manufacturers offers, the operator knows the purchasing costs of these equipments, namely: P1, P2,,Pl,,Pk, as well as maintenance and repair expenses predictable for equipment operation: C1, C2,,Ct,,Cn, t = 1,..., n , n = the number of years in use for each equipment. Based on this information, the commercial company has to decide what equipments it prefers. Obviously, from the position of the economic theory, the choise criteria will be the minimum of the annual operation cost: min y l , where y l represents the average annual
l
de folosin a unui echipament l. Aceast alegere se poate face n mai multe situaii cum ar fi: 1. Cheltuielile de achiziie, ntreinere i reparaii sunt constante pe ntreaga perioad de timp; 2. Cheltuielile de achiziie, ntreinere i reparaii ale echipamentului se modific de la un an la altul, pe toat durata de exploatare a echipamentului; 3. Cheltuielile totale de exploatare a unui echipament Yl ct i costul mediu anual de exploatare pot fi exprimate n valorile nominale ale cheltuielilor de achiziie, ntreinere i reparaii ale echipamentelor; 4. Cheltuielile totale de exploatare a unui echipament Yl ct i costul mediu anual pot fi exprimate n valorile actualizate ale cheltuielilor de achiziie, ntreinere i reparaii ale echipamentelor. Discuia cazurilor de mai sus se face pe baza ipotezei c, un echipament odat ales, va fi folosit pe toat durata realizrii produciei societii, fapt ce presupune c echipamentul va fi nlocuit de r ori, i = 1, r , r = numrul de
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operation cost of an equipment l. This choice can be done in several situations such as: 1. Procurement, maintenance and repair expenses are constant over the entire time period; 2. Procurement, maintenance and repair expenses are modified from one year to another, over the entire equipment exploitation duration; 3. Total operation costs of an equipment Yl as well as the average annual operation cost can be expressed in terms of nominal values of procurement, maintenance and repair expenses; 4. Total operation expenses of an equipment Yl as well as the average annual cost can be expressed in updated values of procurement, maintenance and repair expenses; The discussion of the above mentioned cases is realised based on the hypothesis that, once a certain equipment choice, will be utilised over all the duration of the production of the company, supposing that the equipment will be replaced r times, i = 1, r , r = equipments
nlocuiri ale echipamentelor. Cazul 1-3 - cheltuieli de achiziie, ntreinere i reparaie constante la valoarea nominal - costul global de exploatare pe n perioade de timp al utilizrii unui echipament i pentru r nlocuiri este urmtorul: Yl=(P+C1+C2++Cn)1+ (P+C1+C2+ +Cn)2 ++ (P+C1+C2++Cn)r Yl = r (P+Cit) (1) unde: t = 1,..., n , n = numrul anilor de folosin a unui echipament; i = 1...,, r , r = numrul de nlocuiri ale echipamentelor. - costul mediu anual de exploatare a unui echipament pornind de la relaia (1) va fi: Y r ( P + C it ) P + C it (2) = yl = l = nr nr n Deci, pe baza relaiei (2), calculat pentru fiecare echipament n parte, preferina societii se va ndrepta ctre acel echipament cruia i corespunde min y l .
l
number of replacements. Case 1-3 - Procurement, maintenance and repair expenses constant to nominal value - the global operation cost over n time periods of utilising an equipment and for r replacements is the following: (P+C1+C2+ Yl=(P+C1+C2++Cn)1+ +Cn)2 ++ (P+C1+C2++Cn)r Yl = r (P+Cit) (1) where: t = 1,..., n , n = number of years of operation for an equipment; i = 1...,, r , r = equipment number of replacements. - Annual average operation cost of an equipment considering relation (1) will be: Y r ( P + C it ) P + C it (2) = yl = l = nr nr n Therefore, based on relation (2), calculated for each equipment separately, the preference of the company will go with the equipment which corresponds to min y l .
l
Cazul 1-4 cheltuieli de achiziie, ntreinere i reparaii constante la valoarea actualizat Pe baza relaiilor (1) i (2) se deduce c preul mediu anual de exploatare se calculeaz cu ajutorul relaiei: 1 P + C it yl = (3) n (1 + a ) t 1 unde a = rata dobnzii. Cazul 2-3 - cheltuieli de achiziie, ntreinere i reparaii constante la valoarea nominal. n acest caz, costul global de exploatare devine: Yl=(P1+C9+C12++C1n)+(P2+C21+C22+ +C2n)++ (Pr+Cr1+Cr2++Crn) r n Yl = Pi + C it (4) i =1 t =1 Pe baza relaiei (4) se deduce expresia costului minim anual de exploatare: r n 1 Pi + C it yl = (5) n r i =1 t =1 Cazul 2-4 - cheltuieli de achiziionare, ntreinere i reparaii variabile la valori actualizate. Pornind de la relaiile (4) i (5), costul mediu anual de exploatare pe baza cruia se va decide alegerea echipamentelor ce urmeaz a fi achiziionate devine:
Case 1-4 Procurement, maintenance and repair expenses constant at updated value Based on relations (1) and (2), the average annual operation cost is calculated with the relation: 1 P + C it yl = (3) n (1 + a ) t 1 where a = interest rate. Case 2-3 - Procurement, maintenance and repair expenses constant at nominal value. In this case, the global operation cost becomes: Yl=(P1+C9+C12++C1n)+(P2+C21+C22+ +C2n)++ (Pr+Cr1+Cr2++Crn) r n Yl = Pi + C it (4) i =1 t =1 Based on relation (4) the expression of the annual minimum operation cost is calculated as follows: r n 1 Pi + C it yl = (5) n r i =1 t =1 Case 2-4 - Procurement, maintenance and repair expenses variable at updated values. Starting with relations (4) and (5), the annual average operation cost will be the base for decision making in terms of choosing the equipments to be procured becoming:
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n 1 r 1 P + i C it t 1 n r i =1 t =1 (1 + a ) (6) De reinut: 1. Relaiile de mai sus sunt valabile dac i numai dac numrul de ani de folosire a echipamentelor este constant i egal cu n (t = 1,..., n ), pentru toate cele k ( l = 1,..., k ) echipamente existente pe pia. n caz contrar, costul mediu anual se va calcula pentru toate echipamentele pe baza duratei celei mai mari de folosire a unui echipament. 2. De asemenea, relaiile sunt valabile numai dac cele k echipamente au acelai randament tehnic. n cazul n care cele k echipamente au randamente tehnice diferite, relaiile de mai sus trebuie corectate cu producia realizat de fiecare echipament n parte. Cu alte cuvinte, nu se mai lucreaz cu cheltuielile de achiziionare, ntreinere i reparaii n mrimi absolute, ci cu valorile acestora exprimate n mrimi derivate, respectiv prin raportarea cheltuielilor de achiziionare, ntreinere i reparaii la randamentul tehnic al fiecrui echipament. b) Alegerea celui mai eficient echipament pe baza valorilor nominale ale costurilor de exploatare. n cazul aplicaiei practice, dac nu se ine cont de rata dobnzii, trebuie calculat preul anual de exploatare pentru fiecare dintre echipamente, dup care va fi ales acel echipament care are cel mai mic cost anual de folosin. Astfel:
yl =
n 1 r 1 P + i C it t 1 n r i =1 t =1 (1 + a ) (6) Nota Bene: 1. The above relations are valid if and only if the number of years of utilising an equipment is constant and equal to n (t = 1,..., n ), for all the k ( l = 1,..., k ) equipments available on the market. In the contrary case, the annual average cost will be calculated for all equipments based on the longest operation duration of certain equipment. 2. Also the relations stays valid only if the k equipments have the same technical effectiveness. In case the k equipments have different technical effectiveness the above relations must be corrected with the production realised utilising certain equipment separately. In other words, procurement, maintenance and repair expenses are not utilised any more in absolute values, but as derived, by reporting the procurement, maintenance and repair expenses to the technical efficiency of certain equipment.
yl =
b) The choice of the most efficient equipment based on the nominal values of operation costs. In the case of a practical application, if interest rate is not considered, the annual operation cost must be calculated for each equipment; after this, the equipment having the lowest annual operation cost will be selected. Therefore:
y E1 = yE2 yE3 yE4
1 370000 (350000 + 20000) = = 185000 EURO / an 2 2 1 470000 = (420000 + 20000 + 30000) = = 156666,67 EURO / an 3 3 1 620000 = (520000 + 13000 + 37000 + 50000) = = 155000 EURO / an 4 4 1 848000 = (700000 + 10000 + 28000 + 40000) = = 169600 EURO / an 5 5 In this situation, the equipment E3 will be procured as it has the lowest annual operation cost 155000 EURO/year, but this decision is not correct because the equipments do not have a uniform
n aceast situaie, este necesar s fie achiziionat echipamentul E3, care are cel mai mic cost anual de exploatare 155000 EURO/an, dar aceast decizie nu este corect deoarece echipamentele nu au o
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durat de funcionare uniform: E1 (r1 = 2), functioning duration d: E1 (r1 = 2), E2 (r2 = 3), E2 (r2 = 3), E3 (r3 = 4), E4 (r4 = 5). Deci, E3 (r3 = 4), E4 (r4 = 5). Therefore, the annual costul minim anual de exploatare va fi minimum operation cost will be calculated calculat pentru toate echipamentele n for all the operational equipments according funcie de durata de funcionare maxim r to the maximum operation period r = 5 = 5 ani: years: 1 1090000 y E1 = (350000 + 20000 + 350000 + 20000 + 350000) = = 218000 EURO / an 5 5 1 910000 y E 2 = (420000 + 20000 + 30000 + 420000 + 20000) = = 182000 EURO / an 5 5 1 1140000 y E 3 = (520000 + 13000 + 37000 + 50000 + 520000) = = 228000 EURO / an 5 5 1 848000 y E 4 = (700000 + 10000 + 28000 + 40000 + 70000) = = 169600 EURO / an 5 5 n concluzie, decizia corect este aceea de a achiziiona echipamentul E4 deoarece, pe o perioad de 5 ani, acesta are cel mai mic cost de anual de folosin 169000 EURO/an. c) Alegerea celui mai eficient echipament pe baza valorilor actualizate ale costurilor de exploatare. Dac se ine seama de valoarea actualizat a costului, de rata dobnzii i de faptul c durata de funcionare nu este uniform, n vederea calculrii costului anual de folosin va fi utilizat urmtoarea relaie: 1 P + C it yl = (7) n (1 + a ) t 1 unde a = rata dobnzii. n cazul n care rata dobnzii este constant i egal cu 10 %, costul minim anual de folosin va fi calculat astfel: y E1 = yE2 In conclusion, the correct decision is to procure the equipment E4 because, over a five year period, it has the lowest annual use cost 169000 EURO/year. c) the choice of the most efficient equipment based on the updated values of the operation costs. If the updated cost value, the interest rate and the fact that the functioning duration is not uniform are considered, the following relation will be utilised for the calculation of the annual use cost: 1 P + C it yl = (7) n (1 + a ) t 1 Where a = interest rate. Considering the case that the interest rate is constant and equal to 10 %, the annual minimum use cost will be calculated as follows:
1 20000 350000 20000 350000 (350000 + + + + ) = 182303,8EURO / year 5 1,11 1,12 1,13 1,14 1 20000 30000 420000 20000 = 420000 + + + + = 158437,54 EURO / year 5 1,11 1,12 1,13 1,14
1 13000 37000 50000 520000 yE3 = 520000 + + + + = 191025,89 EURO / year 5 1,11 1,12 1,13 1,14 1 10000 28000 40000 70000 yE4 = 700000 + + + + = 162018.99 EURO / year 5 1,11 1,12 1,13 1,14 Rezultatele de mai sus conduc la urmtoarea concluzie costul minim anual de folosin, innd cont de valorile actualizate ale The above results are coming to the following conclusion minimum annual use cost, considering the updated costs values
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costurilor i de rata dobnzii, a fost obinut n cazul echipamentului E2. 4.2. Determinarea nivelului produciei pentru care profitul este maxim Prezentul exemplu este bazat pe [40]. Premise: Informaiile privind relaiile dintre pre, cost i nivelul produciei pot fi redate sintetic prin egalitile: - p=25-0,0001Q, n sensul c preul scade cu 0,1 RON la fiecare 1000 mc ap potabil/lun vndui suplimentar, unde p = preul de producie; Q = cantitatea de ap potabil produs lunar, i - C = 50Q + 2, reprezentnd funcia de cost n care apare elemental constant 2 i elementul variabil 50. Exist premise pentru extinderea produciei vdute pn la 140.000 mc/lun. Cerine: Determinai nivelul produciei pentru care profitul este maxim, avnd n vedere veniturile totale din realizarea produciei (venit total = pre x producie vndut), precum i egalitatea compatibil cu profitul maxim care este cost marginal = venit marginal. Venitul total = p . Q = (25-0,0001Q) .Q = 25Q-0,0001Q2 d ( pQ) = 25 0,0002Q Venitul marginal = dQ dC Costul marginal = = 50. dQ Egalitatea Cost marginal = Venit marginal exprimat n raport cu rezultatele anterioare este 50 = 25 0,0002Q de unde 25 Q= = 125.000mc / luna 0,0002 Nivelul cel mai profitabil al produciei, adic Q = 125.000 mc/lun presupune un pre p = 25 0,0001.125.000 = 12,5 RON/mc ap potabil vndut.
5. Concluzii
and interest rate, was obtained for the equipment E2. 4.2. Determination of production level with maximum profit This example is based on [40]. Premises: Information regarding the rations between the price, cost and production level may be synthesised by the following relations: - p=25-0,0001Q, meaning that the price decrease with 0,1 RON for each 1000 mc drinkable water/month sold supplementary, where p = production(manufacturing) price; Q = water quantity produced monthly, and - C = 50Q + 2, representing the cost relation (function) with the constant element 2 and variable element 50. There are premises for sold production increase up to 140.000 mc/month. Requirements: Determine the production level to which the profit is maximum, considering the total income from production completion (total income = price x sold production), as well as the relation compatible with the maximum profit, namely marginal cost = marginal revenue. Total revenue = p . Q = (25-0,0001Q) .Q = 25Q-0,0001Q2 d ( pQ) = 25 0,0002Q Marginal revenue = dQ dC Marginal cost = = 50. dQ The relation Marginal Cost = Marginal Revenue expressed in relation to the above results is 50 = 25 0,0002Q From where 25 Q= = 125.000mc / month 0,0002 The most profitable production level, namely Q = 125.000 mc/month presupposes a price p = 25 0,0001.125.000 = 12,5 RON/mc sold drinkable water.
5. Conclusions
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Articolul de fa, elaborat pe baza celor prezentate n bibliografie, nu i propune elaborarea pn la finalizare a unei strategii integrate de dezvoltare a sistemelor de alimentare cu ap i canalizare. n schimb, dorete stabilirea unor exemple de modele aplicabile deciziilor care trebuiesc luate ct i a unor exemple de aplicare a unor modele specifice. Pentru aceasta prezentul document este structurat n trei pri i anume: - Prezentare general a conceptului de modelarea i optimizarea deciziilor; - Prezentarea unor modele specifice aplicabile; - Exemple de aplicare a modelelor prezentate. Prezentul document reprezint o propunere de interpretare a aplicrii principiilor modelrii i optimizrii deciziilor activitii generale a operatorilor de alimentare cu ap i canalizare. Funcie de necesitile proprii, cititorii pot dezvolta conceptele i rezultatele prezentate.
The present document, based on the studies mentioned in the references, is not aiming to finalise an integrated waster supply and sewerage systems strategy. Instead, examples of models applicable for the decisions to be taken are established as well as examples of some specific model application. For this purpose, the present article is structured by 3 parts, namely: - General presentation of the concept of decision modelling and optimisation; - Presentation of several specific applicable models; - Examples of applying the presented models. This document represents a proposal for the interpretation for applying decision modelling and optimisation principles to the activity of water supply and sewerage operators. According to necessities, the readers may develop further the concepts and the results presented.
Modelirung und Optimierung der Entscheidungens fur die Wissentschlaftische Leitung der Wasserversorgung und Kanalisation Operateure. Zusammenfassung Dieser Artikel grdet sich auf dem Sachen, die in die Bibliographie beschreibt sind. Er schlgt sich nicht nur die Ausbereitung einer Entwicklungs Strategie fr die Wasserversorgung und Kanalisation, sonder auch eine anwendbar Modelle festzusetzen und auch Beispiele von Anwendungen fr spezifiche Modelle. Darum ist dieses Dokument in drei Seiten geteilt: Die Beschreibung der Modellierung und die Entscheidungs Optimierung Die Beschereibung eine spezifische anwendbare Modelle Beispiele von Anwendungen fr Modelle Diese Dokument ist ein Vorschlag fr die Wasserversorgung und Kanalisation Operateure zu wenden die Modellierung und Optimierung der Entscheidungens an. Die Lesers Knnen die Konzepte und Resultate entwickeln. Bibliografie References [1]. ANDERSON P.W., ARROW J.K., PINES D., The Economy as Evolving Complex System, Addison-Weslez, New York, 1988; [2]. BDESCU A., DOBRE I., 2001, Modelarea deciziilor economico-financiare, Ed. Conphys, Rm. Vlcea, 2001; [3]. BENHABIB J., DAY R.H, A Characterisation of Erratic Dynamics in the Overlapping Generations Model, J. Economic Dynamics and Control., 1982; [4]. CASTI J., Connectivity, Complexity and Catastrophe in Large Scale Systems, Wiley, New York, 1979; [5]. CHECKLAND P., SCHOLES J., Soft Systems Methodology in Action, Chichester, Wiley and Sons, 1990; [6]. CHIRI N., Modelarea cibernetic a economiilor n tranziie, Editura Etape, Sibiu, 1997; [7]. CHOW G.C., Analysis and Control of Dynamic Economic Systems, Wiley, New York, 1975;
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[8]. CIOBANU GH., IGNESCU E., Optimizri liniare. Cercetri operaionale cu aplicaii n economie, Ed. ASE, Bucureti, 2002; [9]. COYLE G., Management Systems Dynamics, Chichester, Wiley and Sons, 1977; [10]. CUTHBERSON K., Quantitative Financial Economics. Stocks, Bonds and Foreign Exchange, Wiley, New York, 1994; [11]. DANA R.A., MONTRUCCHIO L., Dynamic Complexity in Duopoly Games, J. Economic Theory, 1986; [12]. DENECKERE R., PELIKAN S., Competitive Chaos, J. Economic Theory, 1986; [13]. DOBRE I., BDESCU A., IRIMIEA C., Teoria deciziei. Studii de caz, Ed. ASE, Bucureti, 2000; [14]. FLASCHEL P., Macrodynamics, Peter Lang GMB, Frankfurt Am Main, 1993; [15]. FORRESTER J., Dinamica industrial, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1975; [16]. HAKEN H., Advanced Synergetics, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1983; [17]. HANZI FAGHIURA G., Teoria echilibrului economic, 1993; [18]. HILTEN O., KORT P., LOON M., Dynamic Policy of the Firm. An Optimal Approach, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1993; [19]. KALMAN R.E., FALB P.L., ARBIB M.A., Teoria sistemelor dinamice, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1979; [20]. KOUTSOZANNIS A., Modern Microeconomics, Macmillan, London, 1991; [21]. MANDELBROT B., Obiecte fractale, Ed. Nemira, Bucureti, 1998; [22]. MURATA Y., Mathematics for Stabilyty and Optimisation of Economic Systems, Academic Press, New York, 1977; [23]. NELSON R.R., WINTER S.G., An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1982; [24]. OPRESCU GH., MARIN D., ANCA A., MITRU D., Modelarea cibernetic a mecanismelor de reglare a sistemelor economice, 1999; [25]. ROSSER J.B., From Catastrophe to Chaos: A General Theory of Economic Discontinuites, Kluwer, Boston, 1991; [26]. SCARLAT E., CHIRI N., Bazele ciberneticii economice, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 1997; [27]. SCARLAT E., CHIRI N., Sisteme cibernetice ale economiei de pia, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 1997; [28]. SCARLAT E., Dinamica sistemelor, Lito ASE, 1994; [29]. SCARLAT E., CHIRI N., Dinamica economica, Ed. ASE, Bucureti, 1998; [30]. SCARLAT E., CHIRI N., Analiza i modelarea sistemelor cibernetico economice, Ed. ASE, Bucureti, 1999; [31]. SCARLAT E., CHIRI N., Cibernetica sistemelor ecomomice, Ed. ASE, Bucureti, 2003; [32]. SCARLAT E., Dinamica sistemelor, curs ASE, 1994; [33]. SCHOONBEEK L., STERKEN E., KUIPERS S.K., Methods and Applications of Economic Dynamics, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1995; [34]. SENGUPTA J.K., Recent Models in Dynamic Economics: problems of estimating terminal conditions in Int. J. Syst. Sci. (UK), vol. 28, no. 9, pag. 857-864, 1997; [35]. STACEY R.D., The Chaos Frontier. Creative Strategic Control for Business, Butlerworth-Heinemann, London, 1992; [36]. STNCIULESCU F., Dinamica sistemelor mari, Editura Academiei Romniei, 1982; [37]. TURNOVSKY S.I., Methods of Macroeconomic Dynamics, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 1995; [38]. VENNIX J., Group Model Building. Faciliting Team Learning Using System Dynamics, Wiley, New York, 1996; [39]. ZHANG W.B., Synergetic Economics. Time and Change in Nonlinear Economics, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1991;
[40].
PECICAN, E.S., Econometrie, Editura ALL, Bucureti, 1994.
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Fig. 1.1 Sistem cu 1 GLD SDOF system

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&&g (t ) - acceleraia terenului. u

&&g (t ) - ground acceleration; u

2. Earthquake Motion Characterization and Studies

nregistrare Record Acc. 1 Acc. 2 Acc. 3 Acc. 4 Acc. 5 Acc. 6

Data Date 04.03.1977 30.08.1986 30.08.1986 30.08.1986 30.05.1990 30.05.1990

Durat Duration 65.37 s 25.94 s 42.92 s 21.68 s 57.56 s 52.485 s

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0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 T [s]

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS

0 IMGB Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS

Focsani, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 T [s]

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 T [s]

Magurele, seism Vrancea 30.05.1990,componenta NS

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 30.05.1990,componenta NS

rigiditatea sistemului ( K ). Aceste sisteme sunt descrise n tabelul 2.3.

Table 2.3 shows the properties of analyzed systems.

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0.05 0.05 0.05

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0.2 Deplasare structura [m]

0.2 Deplasare structura [m]

-0.4 GLD A.I.1 A.I.2 A.I.3 t [s]

-0.4 GLD A.II.1 A.II.2 A.II.3

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INCERCBucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS 0.4 0.4

INCERCBucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS

0.3 0.2 Deplasare structura [m] Deplasare structura [m]

-0.3 -0.4 GLD A.I.2 A.II.2 A.III.2 t [s]

-0.4 GLD A.I.3 A.II.3 A.III.3 t [s]

0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS 0.4 0.3

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS

0.3 0.2 0.2 Deplasare structura [m] 0.1

Deplasare structura [m]

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS 0.15 0.1

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS

-0.05 -0.1 -0.075 -0.15 fara TMD cu TMD

-0.1 fara TMD cu TMD t [s]

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Focsani, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS

4. Concluzii i direcii de studiu

4. Conclusion and Future Studies

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Legtura dintre managementul calitii n construcii i reducerea riscului

Linking quality management in construction with seismic risk reduction

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Darea in Folosin/ Startup for occupancy

Finalizarea construciei/ Completion of Construction

Utilizarea i ntreinerea/ Operation and maintenance ncheierea funciunii/ Disposal of facility

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parametrilor de mai sus are o importan exceptional n aceast faz a proiectului.