A Framework for Leading School Change in 

using ICT:
Measuring Change 
Sue Trinidad, Curtin University of Technology, Perth Western Australia; 
Paul Newhouse & Barney Clarkson, Edith Cowan University, Perth Western 
Australia 
Abstract: Over the last three decades many models explain the processes involved in the
adoption and use of ICT in education. Based on this literature, a three­tiered framework  
and
associated instruments were developed to use with Western Australian teachers to  
measure
and support change in using ICT. This framework can be used to support, describe and
promote good practice in the use of ICT in learning and teaching in schools and is multi­
faceted and flexible enough to be used by individuals, groups, schools or educational 
organizations. The aims and purposes of the framework were to describe quality  
pedagogy
in the use of ICT to effectively support student learning in schools; to assist teachers in
planning to integrate ICT into learning environments; to describe progress by teachers  
as
they move towards the integration of ICT in quality pedagogy; to assist teachers in the 
development of their own practice in the use of ICT to support student learning; and to
provide a tool for teacher dialogue for ICT integration with good pedagogy and provide
topics or questions that describe concerns teachers may have. This framework was based 
on a review of the literature on the progression of teachers in their integration of ICT in
learning and teaching processes. It was positioned within a broader framework for the
implementation of ICT in schools to connect with students, learning environments, school  
and system organisations. This paper describes the process and results from this research
undertaken to develop the framework for schools and teachers. 
Background and Purpose 
When making decisions about the use of ICT in schools, particularly 
budgetary decisions, there is a
tendency to start with a consideration of the hardware, then the 
software and perhaps consider the 
users and learning last and least. While policy documents mandate the 
use of ICT in education 
decisions should be prefaced with a consideration of learning theory 
and the learning environment, 
for indeed, educational technologies are only a mediator in learning 
processes, and only one of 
many. 
The authors undertook to develop a framework that would support, 
describe and promote good 
practice in the use of ICT in learning and teaching in schools. The ICT 
framework produced needed 
to be multi­faceted and flexible enough to be used by individuals, 
groups, schools or educational 
organizations. The aim was to describe the characteristics of effective 
learning and quality 
pedagogy as they relate to ICT integration; and the stages of progress 
by teachers as they move
towards ICT integration in quality pedagogy. 
The aims and purposes of the ICT framework were to: 
1) Describe quality pedagogy in the use of ICT to effectively support 
student learning in 
schools. 
2) Assist teachers in planning to integrate ICT into learning 
environments. 
3) Describe progress by teachers as they move towards the integration 
of ICT in quality 
pedagogy. 
4) Assist teachers in the development of their own practice in the use of 
ICT to support student 
learning. 
5) Provide a tool for teacher dialogue for ICT integration with good 
pedagogy and provide
topics or questions that describe concerns teachers may have. 
Literature Review
The framework was constructed after reviewing previous models of 
ICT adoption. It seemed 
useful to classify these models on two characteristics, namely the scope 
of the target group they 
address, and the relevance of an individual’s learning. Four 
classifications, namely the Population 
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Models, System/School Models, ICT–Orientated Micro Models and the 
Learning Micro Models
evolved and are given in Table 1. 
Classification 
Example Models of ICT Adoption 
Learning Micro Models
•
CBAM
­Levels of Use (LoU) 
­Stages of Concern (SoC) 
­Innovation Configuration 
•
ADL model of ICT Uptake 
ICT­Oriented Micro Models
•
Instructional Transformation Model 
•
ACOT model 
•
LoT implementation 
System/School Models
•
Milken’s 7 Dimensions for Gauging Progress 
•
NETS 
•
Technology Maturity Model (TMM) 
Population Models
•
Diffusion of Innovation model (DoI) 

Table 1: Four Classifications of the Models of ICT Adoption 
These four classifications and examples are discussed here as part of 
the literature reviewed to 
develop the framework. 
The Learning Micro Models 
In the 1990s, several major research efforts (e.g. Cicchelli & Baecher, 
1990; Collis, 1994; 
Marcinkiewicz, 1994; Rieber & Welliver,1989; Sandholtz et al., 1992) 
began to develop and apply 
models for investigating the implementation of computers in classrooms 
in various parts of the
world. Many of these are based on teachers' concerns about 
innovations, and are often called 
concerns­based models (CBAM). The application of CBAM, or models 
based upon CBAM, to 
research concerned with the use of computers in classrooms, has gained 
interest throughout the
world. Most interest appears to be with the Levels of Use (LoU) and 
Stages of Concern (SoC)
dimensions (i.e. user focus) (Marsh, 1988). Recently there has been 
more interest in including an 
Innovation Configuration (i.e. innovation focus). This is the basis of 
many of the frameworks being 
developed. Two of the few researchers to apply all three dimensions to a 
study were Carbines 
(1986) and Hope (1995), who considered the use of computers in 
primary school classes. A number
of smaller studies have also been reported (Cicchelli & Baecher, 1990; 
Overbaugh & Reed, 1995)
while some of the researchers in Europe (e.g. Vernooy­Gerritsen, 1994) 
and USA (e.g. 
Marcinkiewicz & Welliver, 1993) have worked at modifying the SoC 
and LoU to describe the use 
of computers in classrooms by teachers. Some (e.g. Moersch, 1997) 
have attempted to construct 
instruments to measure the LoU of ICT by a teacher or class. 
Typically the models and instruments have developed around large 
projects to place computers
in schools. A number of models are in their early stages of development 
but these appear to have 
difficulty in capturing the breadth of innovation involved in bringing 
computers into the classroom. 
In many cases these models have substantially modified the original 
dimensions and instruments, 
which is not condoned by the originators of the CBAM model. Hall and 
Hord (1987) explain that 
such modification would require further validation in line with the 
original development and could 
not rely on the validation of the original CBAM instruments.
Another example of a learning micro model is the ADL model of ICT 
Uptake (Clarkson & 
Oliver, 2002). The principle aim of the research giving rise to the ADL 
model (which stands for 
Autonomy, Dependence and Learning) was to develop a framework by 
which teachers’ pedagogies 
and capabilities with ICT could be mapped onto some multi­stepped 
scale as part of assessing their
ICT uptake. A four­stage typology of ICT uptake was developed. The 
typology was derived from a
series of models of learning described by Brundage & McKerracher 
(1980) and Boud (1988) and 
with considerable input from studies of teachers and their teaching 
practices with ICT. In this sense 
it was grounded in the teachers’ data as well as being reliant on 
previous research. The model 
describes four stages: Dependence, Counter­Dependence, Independence 
and Interdependence. 
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These stages reflect typical phases through which all learners pass 
when they achieve mastery on 
any new topic they are learning. ICT is simply another topic for 
learners to master, in this less 
technocentric conception of ICT uptake as a learning issue. It was 
named the ADL uptake model in
an attempt to capture the role of Autonomy, Dependence and Learning 
in the ICT uptake process. 
An extended version of the stages approach was developed and 
validated by Clarkson & Oliver 
(2002), which utilises a 4 x 3 table with four stages of teacher 
development and three characteristics 
at each stage, namely intellectual, attitudinal and performance. To 
improve triangulation and to 
ensure consistency of reaction from teachers, descriptions for the 
typology were further developed 
to provide a more sensitive means to identify teachers’ positions. Three 
domains were developed 
for each of the stages to enable different aspects of teachers’ 
experiences and predispositions to 
inform their placement. These three domains are described as: feelings, 
understandings and 
behaviours. The domains were chosen to match the domains of human 
activity proposed by Bloom 
in the 1950s and remain a useful distinction (Krathwohl, Anderson, & 
Bloom, 2001). The stages
describe teachers’ affective states, their cognitive states and the ways 
these are manifest in their
actual teaching. If these stages were truly distinct and credible, then it 
was expected in developing 
the typology that teachers would be located at one stage, with their 
ratings for feelings, 
understandings and behaviours falling roughly into the same stage. 
Following this line of reasoning, the typology seemed to promise a 
means by which, in theory, 
ICT uptake could be measured by progress along the four stages and 
within the three 
domains simultaneously. The typology was presented as a 4x3 matrix 
(Figure 1) with cells defining 
the basic layout. Each cell had descriptors and indicators of feelings, 
understandings and behaviours
which teachers were able to fill in. The increased level of sophistication 
of models such as this 
reflects the need to accommodate more than teachers in isolation. 
Figure 1: Four stages of ICT uptake as proposed in the ADL uptake 
model. 
The ICT – Oriented Micro Models 
Reiber and Welliver (1989) and later Marcinkiewicz (1994) developed 
the Instructional 
Transformation model, which has been used by a number of researchers 
(e.g. Knee, 1996) to help 
schools design their restructuring plans using technology. Their model 
developed from a study of 
adoption behaviour drawing on the CBAM model and the work of 
Rogers (1983). They saw much 
value to educators in the model, particularly in ‘recommending staff 
development, remediation, or 
differential staffing’ (Marcinkiewicz & Welliver, 1993, p. 5). The 
Instructional Transformation 
Model proposes a hierarchy for the successful application of technology 
to education using a LoU 
type of approach. This hierarchy involves the following five steps (a) 
familiarization, (b) utilization, 
(c) integration, (d) reorientation, and (e) evolution (Rieber & Welliver, 
1989, p. 21) which gives a 
six level model with the inclusion of the Non Use level prior to the first 
step. These steps are 
described in Table 2 and compared with equivalent steps developed for 
the Apple Classrooms of 
Tomorrow (ACOT, 1995) project. 
These stage that an educator must progress through correspond to the 
ACOT stages where there 
is a period of familiarisation (Entry) representing baseline exposure to 
technology; utilisation
(Adoption) occurring when teachers try the technology; integration 
(Adaption) beginning the
appropriate use of ICT; reorientation (Appropriation) where ICT 
becomes a part of the learning 
context and evolution or revolution (Invention) where there is a change 
in methods and media to 
facilitate learning. These stages are confirmed in long­term projects 
like the Apple Classrooms of 
Tomorrow (ACOT, 1995) studies which show that teachers must travel 
through a number of stages
to integrate ICT fully into their classrooms and their teaching programs 
(see Table 2) and teachers
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must progress through all five phases, otherwise, the technology will 
likely be misused or discarded 
(Rieber & Welliver, 1989; Marcinkiewicz, 1994). 
Welliver Instructional Transformation Model 
ACOT Model
Familiarisation 
Is when the teacher becomes aware of technology and its 
importance 
Entry
Learn the basics of using the new technology
Utilisation 
Is when teachers use technology, but minor problems will cause 
teachers to discontinue use 
Adoption
Use new technology to support traditional instruction 
Integration 
Is when technology becomes essential for the educational goals 
of the classroom with the use of technology.
Adaption
Integrates new technology into traditional classroom practice. 
Here they often focus on increased student productivity and 
engagement by using word processors, spreadsheets and 
graphics tools 
Reorientation 
Is when teachers begin to rethink the educational goals of the 
class with the use of technology.
Appropriation
Focus on cooperative, project­based and interdisciplinary work 
incorporating the technology as needed as one of the many
tools 
Revolution
Is the evolving classroom that becomes completely integrated 
with technology in all subject areas. Technology becomes an 
invisible tool that is seamlessly woven into the teaching and 
learning process. 
Invention 
Discover new uses for technology tools, for example, developing
spreadsheet micros for teaching algebra or designing projects 
that combine multiple technologies. 
Source: Rieber & Welliver (1989) and Report on 10 Years of ACOT Research (ACOT, 1995, p. 16) 

Table 2: Stages of development in the use of ICT 
Moersch (1997) has reported his development of a Levels of Technology  
Implementation (LoTi) 
framework, which defines seven levels of the implementation of 
computers in a school. The levels 
are based on the original CBAM levels and are called: Non­use, 
Awareness, Exploration, Infusion, 
Integration (mechanical), Integration (routine), Expansion, and 
Refinement. From this framework 
he has developed an instrument to calculate what he refers to as the 
computer efficiency at a school
site. Computer efficiency is defined as the ‘degree to which computers 
are being used to support 
concept­based or process­based instruction, consequential learning, and 
higher order thinking skills’ 
(p. 52). The instrument accumulates the products of the LoTi level, 
proportion of computer use,
proportion of student use and number of computers to produce an index 
for comparison between 
schools. Clearly the originators of the CBAM model would not approve 
of such an instrument since
it uses a questionnaire rather than observation and interview and uses 
numerical calculations to 
arrive at levels (Hall & Hord, 1987). 
The System/School Models 
In 1998 the Milken Exchange on Educational Technology published a 
report titled, Technology 
in American Schools: Seven Dimensions for Gauging Progress (Lemke 
& Coughlin, 1998). Then, 
in 1999, a companion publication was released titled: Professional 
competency continuum: 
Professional skills for the digital age classroom (Coughlin & Lemke, 
1999). This included 
discrepancy analysis tools (questionnaires) for use by policymakers and 
school planners. Since then 
a further publication leading from these has been released called: 
Transforming learning through 
technology. The intention was to create a framework to support 
educators in ‘charting their course
toward the effective use of technology in learning and show evidence of 
progress along that path’ 
(Coughlin & Lemke, 1999, p. 3). The framework is intended to 
provide indicators for policymakers 
to assess the status of schools in terms of their use of ICT to support 
learning. The focus is very 
much on public return on investment in ICT in education. However, 
they also consider that it will 
focus vision, provide a research agenda and be a planning tool. The 
framework is presented as a set 
of seven interdependent dimensions: Learners, Learning Environments, 
Professional Competency, 
System Capacity, Community Connections, Technology Capacity, and 
Accountability. 
They claim that changes in society today (global economy, knowledge 
workers, new family 
structures, changing demographics, and crime rate/violence) along with 
pressures on schools to 
change (industrial model, inequities, new brain research, learning 
theory, and new workforce skills)
will require educational technology to be used to transform schools to 
prepare students to ‘live, 
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learn and work successfully in a digital communication age’. They 
believe that this requires: high
academic standards, technological fluency, communication skills, 
interpersonal skills, information 
literacy, independence in learning, critical thinking abilities, and 
economic viability all within the 
‘context of a digital communication age’. They provide a continuum of 
progress for each 
dimension, based on the ‘stages of instructional evolution’ from the 
ACOT program, using three 
levels: Entry, Adaptation, and Transformation. For each dimension a 
number of key areas are 
identified and also described in terms of the three levels. For example, 
for the first dimension, 
Learners, the key areas are: Fluency (proficient in the use of ICT), 
Strengthening the basics 
(learning the ‘basics with more depth and understanding’), developing 
higher level skills (‘thinking, 
understanding, constructing knowledge and communicating’), 
increasing relevancy (‘real­life 
applications’ and emulating the workforce), motivation to learn 
(intrinsic), recognition of tradeoffs
(making choices about using technology in society). One of the seven 
interdependent dimensions is 
Professional Competency. They have developed a Professional 
Competency Continuum comprising 
five key areas mapped over the three levels. There appears to be an 
assumption that using ICT to 
support learning requires change for all teachers whereas clearly some 
teachers (the authors 
included) have been creating appropriate learning environments for 
years without using ICT. 
However, these teachers tend to use ICT because they readily perceive 
that in doing so they will 
provide even better environments (Becker , Ravitz & Wong, 1999).
The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) NETS 
for Teachers Project, 
was developed with a grant from the US Department of Education, as 
part of its Preparing 
Tomorrow's Teachers to Use Technology initiative. ISTE facilitated a 
series of activities and events 
resulting in a national consensus on what teachers should know about 
and be able to do with ICT. 
At the same time they worked on a NETS for Students Project. It should 
be noted that Intel, Apple 
Computers and the Milken Exchange on Educational Technology all 
provided substantial 
contributions to the projects. The project aimed to provide models to 
use in incorporating ICT in the 
teacher preparation process and disseminate these promising practices 
for preparing tomorrow's 
teachers to use ICT effectively for improving learning. The project 
describes standards, 
assessments, and conditions that facilitate the use of technology to 
support student learning. 
Assessment systems are designed to assist teacher preparation programs 
in evaluating the success of 
their programs in preparing their candidates and graduates in the use of 
technology to support
student learning. NETS for Teachers provides a set of standards and 
performance indicators that ‘all 
classroom teachers should be prepared to meet’ (International Society 
for Technology in Education, 
2000, p. 9) that can be accessed from their website 
(http://www.iste.org/). These are grouped under 
six general classifications: 
I. Technology operations and concepts. 
II. Planning and designing learning environments and experiences. 
III. Teaching, learning, and the curriculum. 
IV. Assessment and evaluation. 
V. Productivity and professional practice. 
VI. Social, ethical, legal and human issues.
Another system model, the Technology Maturity Model (abbreviated as 
the TMM), addresses 
what the authors (Sibley & Kimball, 1998) call the challenges of ‘the 
use of technology’ (referring 
to ICT in schools). The challenges include the need to approach ICT 
implementation in a cyclic 
manner, over an extended time frame, since single attempts and first 
efforts are often aimed well 
enough, but rarely persist long enough (McLaughlin, 1990; Tester, 
1991). To reinforce this 
approach they call the TMM a ‘planning model’. Two key components 
of this model are its ability 
to address both processes and products and encourage best practice 
approaches to both. These two 
facets are addressed in the model’s Benchmarks section. For example 
each of their benchmarks has 
Behavioural and Resource Infrastructure criteria. The model has 
significant complexity and breadth 
of scope, in that it is intended to help monitor the ICT development of 
a school or school district 
over a substantial period, and provide direction for their planning and 
implementation with 
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ICT. There are three basic characteristics that underpin the TMM. 
These are the Improvement 
Cycle, the Maturity Indicators and the TMM tools (many of which are 
now available online). The 
Improvement Cycle of spiral development covers four phases, namely 
Organizational, Assessment, 
Formulation and Implementation Phases. The complete model is 
composed of nine steps and 
processes, which are intended to help translate plans into action. These 
are: 1) An Improvement 
Cycle; 2) Planning Phases; 3) Spiral Refinement; 4) Concurrent 
planning and Improvement; 5)
Comprehensive Planning; 6) Maturity Indicators; 7) Assessment 
Instruments; 8) Benchmarks; and 
9) A Plan Analysis Rubric to allow Districts to compare themselves. 
The Maturity Indicators are of 
particular interest. The Indicators of a school or a teacher’s progress are 
gauged by what are called 
benchmark stages. There are four stages are the Emergent Stage; the 
Islands Stage; the Integrated 
Stage; and the Exemplary Stage. 
These stages are measured in multiple areas, using different indicators 
tailored to each area. The 
stages of the TMM model address from a technological perspective the 
issues of both 
teacher uptake as well as school development. Its online version is 
sponsored by Compaq
computers across the US. Although sophisticated as a tool, its 
technological rather than learning 
focus could be counted against it. But its completeness in approach is in 
its favour. 
The Population Model 
Nearly 100 years ago American farmers started using a new hybrid 
strain of corn. The way this
technology diffused through the farming community followed a 
predictable pattern, according to 
researcher and writer Rogers (1983). From the explosive uptake of the 
Walkman to the slow but
eventually thorough adoption of the fax machine, Rogers’ theory has 
become known as part of the
Diffusion of Innovations – DoI – theory and has been applied widely 
(eg. Geroski, 2000; Holloway, 
1996; Lawson & Loudon, 1996; Mahajan & Peterson, 1985). The DoI 
model argues that there are
predictable patterns of communications among community members as 
a new technological 
innovation, such as computers in schools, diffuses. The stages that the 
innovation passes through 
are, according to this theory: 
• knowledge (exposure to its existence, and understanding of its 
functions); 
• persuasion (the forming of a favourable attitude to it); 
• decision (commitment to its adoption); 
• implementation (putting it to use); and 
• confirmation (reinforcement based on positive outcomes from it). 
Of course the innovation itself is unchanged, but the community reacts 
to it in different ways. The 
early ‘knowers’, for example, are regarded as having a higher social 
standing and being better 
educated. These people are also more aware and likely to use both mass 
communications channels
and also interpersonal ones. Later at the persuasion stage, interpersonal 
communications channels 
are regarded in the DoI as more important. 
A well­known part of Rogers (1983) work addressed five types of 
adopters, namely innovators 
(described as venturesome); early adopters (respectable); early majority 
(deliberate); late majority 
(sceptical); and laggards (traditional). Although it may be useful to 
describe a community or a
population using these descriptors, it could also be seen as divisive due 
to its nomenclature. It seems
less likely that the DoI model will suggest how to help a person looking 
to make better use of some
technological innovation. Further, as a community engages with some 
innovation, does the model 
regroup those likely to take the innovation up as the new innovators, or 
is there no distinction 
between the remaining groups? Such weaknesses restrict the DoI 
approach to a descriptive role, 
which is does well, but it is less strong in its explanatory power, and 
less useful still in predicting 
outcomes; and providing guidance as to how to accelerate the rate of 
adoption. Rogers (1999) also
argues that this approach may be embedded in the culture in which it 
was derived (viz. 
North America in the 1950s and 1960s), and hence less relevant, for 
example, in African or Asian 
countries, and its utility may diminish as time goes on. 
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Conclusions from the models 
No one model is going to describe perfectly the circumstances for any 
particular teacher so there
is no point in choosing or disregarding these models (all listed in Table 
1) based on a single
classification alone. Nevertheless classifying these models can draw 
attention to critical facets of 
each model and will allow more considered selections to be made about 
their relevance and use. 
The population model like Roger’s DoI approach is useful for large 
groups but not for individuals. 
The systems­based models like the TMM model and the Instructional 
Transformation model take an 
individualistic approach but place a technological cast upon the task, as 
does the ACOT hierarchy. 
The CBAM and even the Typology of ICT Uptake model could be 
described as examples of models
focusing largely on the individual rather than any ICT component. 
Many of the models have scales 
of development, and so the Learning Micro Models (CBAM, TIU and 
SoC) are the three models 
that seem, after this review, to have the better orientation towards 
learning and therefore may have a 
more ‘appropriate’ orientation for teacher development and school 
change with ICT. 
The process to develop the framework 
From the literature review of the models the authors and a group of 
education experts (teachers 
and systems people) met and gave critical feedback on the proposed 
framework developed from this 
process. The framework was then trialled and adjusted based on the 
feedback gained. 
The framework developed focuses on teachers but sits within a context 
of schools and school
systems. In terms of the use of ICT this context could be described in 
terms of a range of 
dimensions that would include a Teacher Professional ICT Attributes  
dimension. It is this 
dimension that is mainly addressed here. This Teacher Professional 
ICT Attributes dimension may 
be described by one outcome that may be taken from a set of teacher 
professional attributes
outcomes. The framework is structured around this single Teacher  
Professional ICT Attributes
outcome using the following set of concepts as illustrated below: 
• layers to describe the outcome in increasing detail; 
• stages of progression in the demonstration of this outcome; 
• instruments to collect data on the demonstration of, and progress 
within, this outcome; and 
•
processes within which to apply the instruments and address the 
connection between the
framework and context
. 
Outcome
The teacher exploits the characteristics of ICT to support the learning of students by, effectively integrating
the use of ICT, wherever appropriate, into constructivist learning environments, and contributing to relevant 
learning communities. 
Layers
This outcome is described in three layers. 
1 Overall outcome.
2 Components – Vision & Contribution, Integration & Use, Capabilities & Feelings. 
3 Elements – each component has a number of elements. 
Stages
Progression in the outcome is described in five stages: Inaction, Investigation, Application, Integration, and 
Transformation.
Instruments 
There is an instrument for each layer and connected with the levels of demonstration. Each instrument may 
have a number of forms depending on the purpose of its use. 
Layer 1 Type of Response 
Layer 2 Typology of ICT Uptake 
Layer 3 Stages of Dialogue 
Processes 
There are sets of processes associated with the use of the instruments and addressing the context of the
framework. The sets most directly connected to the Teacher Professional ICT Attributes dimension are
the ‘School Planning for ICT to support learning and teaching’ and the ‘Supporting Teacher’s Decision­
Making’ sequences. 

Table 3: Teacher professional ICT attributes outcome applying concepts 
The ICT framework 
There are three instruments, one developed for each layer. The outcome 
is described for each of 
the layers while progression in the outcome is described in stages. First, 
here are the three major
layers (see Table 4). 
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Description and Components 
LAYER ONE 
Overall Outcome 
The teacher exploits the characteristics of ICT to support the learning of students 
by, effectively integrating the use of ICT wherever appropriate into constructivist 
learning environments, and contributing to relevant learning communities.
Note: It is envisaged that this would be one outcome taken from a set of outcomes 
for General Teacher Attributes. 
LAYER TWO 
Components of Outcome
Vision & Contribution [V & C] 
Integration & Use [I & U] 
Capabilities & Feelings [C & F] 
LAYER THREE 
Elements of 
Components
Each element describes more specifically aspects of a component of the outcome 
as it may relate to the teacher and his/her skills, work practices and beliefs. 
[V & C] – Purpose, Focus, Rationale, View of ICT, Contribution to Communities 
[I & U] – Frequency of Use, Implementation Strategies, Type of Activities & 
Pedagogy, Tasks for Applications, Assessing, Relevance, Connection with 
Curriculum Framework Outcomes. 
[C & F] – Potential, Roles, Source of Direction, ICT Skills, Affective Response, 
Concerns. 
Table 4: The three major layers of the model that form the ICT 
instruments developed 
In Layer One, progression is described in the five stages just in terms of 
the overall outcome with
no reference to the detail of components or elements (see Table 5). 
Description of Key Difference(s) 
Inaction 
At this stage there is a general lack of action and/or interest. 
Investigation 
At this stage the teacher has developed an interest in using ICT with
students and is beginning to act on this interest. 
Application 
At this stage the teacher is regularly using ICT with students and knows 
how to do so competently and confidently. 
Critical Use Border 
Integration 
At this stage the use of ICT becomes critical to the support of the 
learning environment and the opportunity for students to achieve learning
outcomes through the learning experiences provided.
Transformation 
At this stage the teacher is able to take on leadership roles (formal or
informal) in the use of ICT and be knowledgably reflective on its 
integration by themselves and others. 
Table 5: The stages of teacher development as an overall outcome 
The literature review indicated that Layer One in Table 4 is reminiscent 
of many of the early
attempts at indicating the stages of teacher development in relatively 
simplistic form. In Layer Two, 
progression is described for each component but only for four of the 
five stages, as it was evident 
that the Inaction stage needed no further description. For example, 
progression for the Vision & 
Contribution component of the outcome is described as the following 
four stages of where a teacher 
might be as investigation; application; integration and transformation as 
further elaborated in Table 
6. 
Investigation
Regards ICT as an object and rather incomprehensible. Accepts that it has some uses but
has reservations. 
Considers student ICT literacy needs. 
Little contribution to school ICT planning. 
Largely unaware of how or whether their teaching will change. 
Application
Treats ICT as an instrument. Agrees they have a place in teaching and learning. 
Considers student productivity and engagement in use of ICT.
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Some contribution to school planning mainly to request items. 
Has undifferentiated and even confused but changing views on their changing teaching
role. 
Integration
Uses ICT as a tool to address multiple learning outcomes. 
Considers opportunities for students to use ICT to demonstrate learning outcomes. 
Consistently contributes to school communities and planning both in terms of engagement 
and policy. 
Expects their learning approaches to develop as ICT integration grows. 
Transformation
Envisages and uses ICT as catalyst to appropriately support all learners in a collaborative 
way.
Considers the two­way relationship between learning and ICT use. 
Is a leading contributor to school communities and planning in the use of ICT.
Envisages and can discuss multiple learning roles all of which are changed by ICT 
integration. 
Table 6: The four stages of teacher development for Layer Two. 
The instrument for the outcome at Layer Three, referred to as Stages of  
Dialogue, is based 
around interviews with teachers. For example, the section related to the 
Vision & Contribution 
component is illustrated in Table 7. 
Dialogue Questions 
Stage 
Response 
Steps to Progress 
Purpose 
What are the main purposes you 
want to use ICT for with your 
students? 
Focus
What are you focusing on at the 
moment in the use of ICT? 
Rationale 
What is the value in having your 
students use a computer? 
View of ICT 
How does ICT fit into your teaching 
overall? 
Contribution
to 
Communities 
How do you contribute to school 
ICT planning? What would you like 
to contribute? What involvement do 
you have with learning communities 
that use ICT? 

Table 7: The Stages of Dialogue tool for the Layer Three outcome 
Finally, the framework and three instruments need to be used within the 
context of sets of 
processes conducted by schools and/or systems. Broadly there are six 
sets of processes a school 
may take to support progress in the use of ICT: 
• school planning for ICT to support learning and teaching;
• the development of student ICT literacy; 
• the use of learning and information management systems; 
• the development of school ICT policy and planning; 
• the development of staff ICT capabilities; 
• the development of policy and planning for system support and 
direction; and 
• teacher’s decision­making about using ICT. 
For example, within the first set of processes, school planning for ICT 
to support learning and 
teaching, may include the following processes within which to utilise 
the framework and 
instruments.
1) Targets 
School community determines targets. Any of the layers 
may be used depending on the level of investment available. 
2) Teacher Maps 
Each teacher maps his/her use of ICT to support learning 
with students. This may be in consultation with peers and/or 
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leaders (e.g. coordinator). Uses a version of one of the 
instruments.
3) Compare 
Compare teacher maps with the targets set in step 1. 
4) Support 
In collaboration with knowledgeable others (e.g. 
coordinator) determine what challenges are inhibiting each 
teacher’s progress and what support they require to progress. 
Use a version of one of the instruments. 
5) School Profile 
Aggregate maps of all teachers in school to create a school 
profile. 
6) School 
Resources 
Aggregate challenges and support requirements and compare 
with school and system resources. 
7) School Plan 
Create a school plan for progress that will include the 
development of: curriculum, teachers, ICT infrastructure, 
ICT and other policy and practice. 
8) Teacher Plans 
Develop individual teacher plans for progress that may 
include professional development, professional support, ICT 
resource allocation, etc. 
This holistic, structured approach to the development of teachers’ 
professional ICT capability 
through a consideration of their attributes is arguably more likely to 
provide the structure that will 
lead to the changes in pedagogy and school reform that many have 
argued that the use of ICT 
should be coupled with. It takes account of the complexity for teachers 
in progressing their 
understanding and practice in integrating the use of ICT to support 
learning and the context within 
which this occurs. Further, it provides a structure for formative 
feedback where the aim is 
continuing progress rather than mere classification. While the 
framework is designed to support 
teacher professional development in the integration of ICT use the 
focus is through research. At the
time of writing the original instruments were available in a PDF 
document at the URL 
http://www.eddept.wa.edu.au/cmis/eval/downloads/pd/framework.pdf 
These instruments were 
developed in consultation with a reference committee of teachers and 
departmental people and have 
been used to gather pertinent data in Western Australian schools. Since 
their initial development 
these instruments have been used and although they are being fine­
tuned it is interesting to observe 
how little they have changed as they are proving to be stable and 
effective instruments.
Conclusion 
This paper describes the process undertaken to develop a framework 
based on previous research 
to support, describe and promote good practice in the use of ICT in 
learning and teaching in schools 
in Western Australia. It was developed on the premise that teachers 
always aim to look for better 
ways of doing things and therefore their use of ICT should support this 
as using ICT does not make
a teacher better. It has attempted to encapsulate the complexity of issues 
involved in teacher
competencies in ICT usage and uptake. It considers teacher 
competence, the system environment
and the ICT capacity of the setting in which they find themselves in 
this endeavour, and encourages 
a multifaceted approach to its investigation. The literature suggested the 
five dimensions that 
became the context of this framework; that is, Students, Learning  
Environments, Teacher 
Professional ICT Attributes, ICT Capacity, and School & System  
Environment. This framework has 
been developed with a strong theoretical framework behind it. The 
layers allow various levels of 
investment in the processes. Its complexity mirrors the real world, 
where it is multi­faceted and 
flexible enough to be used by individuals, groups, schools or 
educational organizations, and to 
accommodate the range of investments in time and energy that they 
might wish to devote.
Furthermore, because of its breadth and multifaceted nature previous 
efforts can provide helpful 
staging points for subsequent investigations using the model in greater 
depth. 
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Acknowledgements 
This paper has been developed from the chapter by Newhouse, P., Clarkson, B. & 
Trinidad, S. (2004). A 
framework for leading school change in using ICT. In S. Trinidad & J. Pearson 
(Eds.), Using ICT in
education: Effective leadership, change and models of best practice (pp. 148­164).  
Singapore: Pearson 
Education Asia and two reports prepared for the Department of Education and 
Training in Western Australia 
Newhouse, P., Trinidad, S. & Clarkson, B. (2002). Framework for implementation  
of ICT in Schools –
Outcomes, guidelines, equipment and processes. Perth: Specialist Educational 
Services; and Newhouse, P.,
Trinidad, S. & Clarkson, B. (2002). Quality teaching and learning practice with  
Information and 
Communications Technology (ICT): A review of literature. Perth: Specialist 
Educational Services
. 
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Towards sustainable systemic ICT use

In recent years, researchers concerned that innovative uses of ICT have not been achieving meaningful
scale or long-term integration into teacher and school everyday practices have focused their attention on the
wider educational context for change. Added to this, it seems that the processes of initiating, transferring and
sustaining innovative ICT practices within and across different school systems involved very different
challenges and issues (Kankaanranta, 2005, p. 114). Fishman, Marx, Blumenfeld, Krajcik and Soloway
(2004) noted that sustainable systemic technological reform required the participation and understanding of
personnel across and at all levels of the educational system (See also Hennessy et al.). It also required
attention to systemic issues such as policy change, professional development planning, and resource
production and distribution. Voogt and Pelgrum (2005) pointed out that in Finland, ICT was used as a
scaffold to build connectedness for innovation, and in Hong Kong it was used as a tool to support innovation,
with this difference likely to be due to broad cultural and policy differences. Kozma (2005) in her analysis of
the successful integration of ICT in Singapore and Finland noted that in these two countries policies and
programs target all the components of the system in a coordinated and coherent way so that any reform-
based changes mutually reinforced and contributed to continuous improvement. School change was
coordinated within the community and larger system and this internal consistency was then complemented
by vertical consistency between the different levels of the system (Pal, 2001). Further still, the vertical
consistency was complemented across different policy areas, integrating educational, economic and other
social goals. Hence, the wider context of educational policy and practice is of interest in this study on
laptops.

The research described so far, has concentrated on teacher use of school computers, and the extent to
which teachers integrate ICT into their professional lives. Access to a personal portable computer, or laptop,
can afford different opportunities for teacher use of ICT due to the portability, opportunity for teacher
exclusive use, and the generally higher specifications that laptops have compared to existing school
computers. At the inception of this study, research was only just beginning to explicate the impact of laptops
on schools, teachers and students. Indications were that laptops could support increased communication
between teachers, students and parents and greater sharing of information between teachers (Cunningham,
Kerr, McEune, Smith, & Harris, 2003). Teachers have reported increases in ICT confidence and competence
with perceived positive impacts in the classroom. Teachers who had formerly shared desktop computers
with other teachers or students, now had a sense of ownership of the technology they were using (Sockwell
& Zhang, 2003). They acknowledged the advantages of having everything in one place and liked the
continual everyday availability of laptop. Teachers felt they were gaining maximum impact from their laptops
when used in conjunction with peripherals. This study explicates the impacts on New Zealand secondary
teachers of their access to a TELA laptop computer.

To sum up, there are a number of factors identified in the literature that are impacting upon teachers’ use of
ICT. Assess to ICT on its own, will not necessarily result in changes for teachers or schools (Kerr, 1991). To
bring about changes a number of factors must be considered that are related to school-wide opportunities
and incentives for ICT use, department factors and classroom factors. Provision of professional
development as needed, must take into account the reality of the considerable teacher variance in
confidence and expertise and the time taken to learn new knowledge and practices in ICT. Much more
needs to be known about how these identified factors impact on New Zealand schools when teachers are
working to integrate technology into their professional lives.

1. Introduction 3. Laptops for Teachers (TELA) Evaluation

.3.3 Innovation Diffusion

This study focuses on the introduction of ICT into school education. It is therefore related
to the general area of innovation diffusion which has an extensive literature (Surry &
Farquhar, 1997; Clarke, 2001; Pellicone, 2001, p. 33-53). From rural sociology origins in
1943, the research literature now ranges from the introduction of new linguistic patterns
and cultural behaviours, to areas more clearly aligned to the adoption of new technologies
in a variety of social situations. There appear to be three important foci for relevant
innovation diffusion research: field dependence of the critical factors for diffusion; types
of factors and their relative importance; and the particular context of ICT in education.

The literature on critical factors for innovation adoption shows that these are dependent
upon the field of application. Parker and Sarvary (1994, Table 8) found ‘relative
advantage’ was the main driver in domestic information technology innovation diffusion,
suggesting it will be the nature of the ICT itself which will determine the degree of
adoption. Surry (1997) raised the issue of whether a technology involved in an innovation
is more important than the developer or its exponents. He concluded that the adopter has
final control and that theories of developer based IT diffusion were deficient in that they
overstated the role of technological superiority in the diffusion process. This implies that
teachers will have the most significant role in determining the extent of ICT adoption in
classrooms. These polarised findings illustrate the debate about some of the fundamental
determinants of technological innovation. Since the opposing views come from different
fields, there is reason to investigate each new instance of technological innovation
separately.

In the specific field of ICT in education, Owen and Liles (1998) classified the factors
which facilitated or slowed the adoption of the Internet by teachers such as accessibility
of the equipment, training etc. The relative costs of equipment were important, as well as
teacher attitudes, home Internet connections, transportation distances and difficulty (Tella
& Kynäslahti, 1997). Somekh (1998, p. 11) identified suitable transition time, perceived
relative advantage, professional development and accessible infrastructure as the critical
success factors for ICT diffusion in higher education. The results were congruent with
those of Fullan (1991) in school education and can therefore be applied to both fields.
The literature thus reveals a variety of important factors, not all of which can be
controlled in the adoption process of a technological innovation.

One factor which is perceived as being under systemic control is professional

development (Krasnicki, 2003). It appears that an understanding of the content of
professional development and its delivery is important to maximising efficacy of its role
in the innovation adoption process. Somekh argues this factor is vital to managing the
process of change, but has been “startlingly neglected” (1998, p. 20). Fullan agrees with
the importance of the factor, but adds “good professional development by itself is not
very effective” (1999, p.10). Therefore this controllable factor cannot by itself determine
whether a technological innovation will be adopted. The other factors eg. perceived
relative advantage, accessible quality infrastructure, suitable transition time etc., are also
needed for progression through the stages of adoption leading to institutionalisation and
permanent integration of an innovation.

The process of innovation institutionalisation can depend upon the different adoption
patterns of various types of staff using technology in teaching (Jacobsen, 1998). General
recommendations from his study such as such as training, investing in IT infrastructure,
and instigating a rewards system could be universal for all groups of computer users,
such as the early adopters, the late developers etc. The merits of standardisation may not
be equally applicable to all these groups.

The literature has therefore identified many of the critical success factors for innovation
institutionalisation (Nutley, Davies & Walter, 2002, p. 18). Much of the literature (such as
the categories of implementers of Jacobsen) derives from the work of Rogers over the
period 1962 to 1995, giving evidence of a well developed field of investigation upon
which this study could build.

2.3.4 Issues from the literature about implementation and practice

Some large scale/long term studies of ICT effectiveness using nationally benchmarked
outcomes have found it is associated with cost-effective learning improvements.
However, ICT effectiveness as measured by meta-analyses is similar to that of other
innovations, thus situating the pedagogical rationale for ICT between one-on-one tutoring
and no intervention. Criticism has helped to identify the conditions within which the
untapped potential of ICT might be reasonable found when usage levels are raised above
the current low classroom levels. The basis for the economic rationale has been
examined, and the home rather than the school has been identified as the more significant
source of ICT skills for students. Previous research has provided little evidence to justify
the economic or pedagogical rationales, and some indications of a transformation in
schooling. The innovation diffusion literature, particularly that concerning the study topic
area, illustrates a range of factors including the perceived relative advantage of ICT and
associated professional development.

2.4 Teacher professional development (RQ3)

Teachers have been identified as critical to the adoption of ICT into school education in
the previous sections of the review. To clarify their position and reaction to this
innovation the review examines the general literature on innovation diffusion to identify
the characteristics and skills teachers need if the potential of ICT is to be developed in
education to a similar degree to that found in other areas of society. The review examines
aspects of teacher culture which make them hesitant to adopt this innovation, and
professional development approaches that have been used.

One view is that “technologies have trajectories” (Bijker & Law, 1992). However, there is
a considerable literature of innovation diffusion processes that goes beyond this
deterministic view. Rogers (1995) defined the process of innovation diffusion in terms of
four elements. These four elements occur when an innovation is communicated through
certain channels over time amongst the members of a social system. He also described
five essential characteristics of innovations:
• Relative advantage (the innovation appears to be better than what was previously
available)
• Compatibility (it matches what people already know)
• Complexity (people can understand it)
• Trialability (something people can try in a limited way)
• Observability (potential adopters are able to see the results).
This understanding of innovation diffusion has been widely accepted as a basis for further
studies. A key element in Rogers’ model of innovation diffusion is the change agent, who
is frequently more technically competent than his/her peers, but can still communicate the
essence of the innovation to them effectively (Rogers, 1995, p. 19). Rogers describes the
change agent as “a marginal figure with one foot in each of two worlds,” a situation
which often leads to role conflicts and problems in communication. This conflict is
generally due to their technical competence and their need to relate to potential adopters
who have different socio-economic status, beliefs and attitudes. Clayton (1993) extended
Rogers’ description of the innovation adoption process by identifying a sixth element of
‘ownership’, exemplified by the apparent emergence of the innovation from a source
internal to the organisation. Kazlauskas (1995) concurred, and described the importance
of accommodation cycles for innovation diffusion. Parker and Sarvary (1994) tested the
diffusion model using a multi-national survey methodology in relation to a set of home-
office consumer electronics innovations. They extended Rogers’ theory by identifying
alternative pathways for the spread of an innovation within a social system. They
concluded that the perceptual product factor of ‘relative advantage’ was the most
significant direct factor influencing diffusion, confirming Rogers’ model in regard to this
factor. The demographic factors of ‘parent ownership’ and the psychographic factor of
‘venturesomeness’ were the next most significant, along with other perceptual product
factors such as ‘complexity’.

Alternatives to the Rogers’ model have been proposed by Valente (1995), Hord, Hall,
Loucks-Horsely & Huling (1987) and Rebentisch (1995). Valente (1995) posits a social
network background for the majority of innovations, which attributes most of the
diffusion process to communication links between individuals. Valente also examines the
role of thresholds and develops the idea of a ‘critical mass’ of the population who must
become adopters before the innovation will become more generally adopted. Hord et al.,
(1987) proposed the Concerns-Based Adoption Model as a diagnostic tool for effective
staff development. Rebentisch (1995) proposed a technology-transfer model and found
that more complex technologies required relatively more effort to complete their transfers
than did simpler technologies. Despite these alternatives, it is clear from the literature that
innovation diffusion depends upon the communication of observable relative advantage
and ownership.

Setting these findings from the innovation diffusion literature into the domain for ICT
integration in school education, it can be seen that teachers need to have exposure to
authentic exemplars before they can assess the ‘relative advantage’ of this new way of
working. It is also clear that ‘ownership’ either of the equipment itself, or control over its
disposition, is also another important factor which will influence adoption. Evidence of
these findings was confirmed empirically by a group of teachers working in a primary
school selected to be a ‘lighthouse’ for ICT (Ramus, Elliott, Green, Dickinson, Parsons,
DiIorio, Huygen, deWacht & Frank, 1998). Over an eighteen month period the staff
became “convinced that the provision of notebooks for all teachers was a most effective
use of technology” (p. 6). The school quadrupled its professional development spending;
and the teachers used ICT for administration, teaching and material preparation within a
collegial context. They indicated areas where this approach was successful with students
as including: acceleration through curriculum levels, the intrinsic and instant rewards of
success with the software, development of independent skills, co-operative group work
and peer tutoring, as well as broadening/enhancement of personal achievements across
levels (Ramus et al., 1998, p. 43). The ‘ownership’ factor for innovation diffusion has
been used in far larger teacher professional development programs, with laptops for
teachers projects operating on a regional basis across the UK (Becta, 2003), Western
Australia (Department of Education, Western Australia, 2002) and in Victoria (State of
Victoria (Department of Education & Training), 2002).
The application of the innovation diffusion literature to the special case of teacher
professional development can also be extended to the area of cultural conflict. Teachers
operate in a social and socialising context, where their evaluation of an innovation is in
terms of its benefit or deleterious effects. The viewpoint of the evaluator is critical to this
judgement, as Rogers acknowledges, describing the definition of “good”, as a value
judgement, which depends very much upon cultural perspective (Rogers, 1995, p. 343). It
could be argued that beneficial consequences can, in fact, be maximised and undesirable
consequences, at least in the short-term, minimised or negated. But Rogers denies this in
his generalisation 11-1, saying that “the effects of an innovation cannot be managed to
separate the desirable from undesirable consequences”. This distinction is particularly
important when considering the social consequences of an innovation such as increased
social stratification, and consequent internal inequalities. Agreement of benefit between
both internal and external evaluator viewpoints would seem to be a necessary condition
for such a judgement.

Therefore the viewpoints of both teaching staff and other elements of the school
community need to be considered when assessing the value of information technology in
schools. Teachers have internal cultural values, with equity being a strong concern for
most teaching staff. The school can be seen as a social instrument to support equal justice
for all in society at large. What might therefore be of particular concern to teachers is the
suggestion that a relatively high cost innovation can lead to increased inequality. In such
a case the perceptual factor of relative advantage of the innovation will be in opposition
to the local culture of equity. Thus the perceived consequences of the innovation are
likely to have a significant impact upon its rate of diffusion. Teachers are particularly
worried by such social impacts of computers, as was shown in Fluck (1995, p. 69) where
they expressed fears about social isolation. This attitude appeared to change in the
Tasmanian context by 1998 where teachers:
… noted that "computers are the focus of some friendship
groups", and that these groups "cross social boundaries"
indicating that membership was socio-economically
heterogeneous. When prompted as to their reaction about
computers promoting social isolation, these teachers saw
computer-using students forming groups (called 'geek gangs'
in one school) similar to those formed by students interested
in sport, surfing, dressing in fashion, riding horses or doing
academic studies.
(Fluck, 2001, p. 50)

We now focus inwards on the role of the teacher as a change agent. Moving from general
theories of innovation, we need to see where teachers (particularly those in Australia) are
in terms of accommodating to ICT, and what professional development is being provided
for them. The studies reviewed below show the diverse nature of such professional
development, and the relationship between its extent and classroom consequences. The
review also brings out the concomitant factors necessary for professional development to
be fully effective.

An informal professional development process was used in the Common Knowledge:

Pittsburgh project, as described by Schofield and Davidson (2000). The project sought to
“stimulate teachers in a large urban school system to use the Internet in their work”. It
provided the necessary equipment in teachers’ classrooms, and appropriate technical
support. While not all teachers who applied and were accepted into this five-year scheme
were in agreement, the following findings were reported by the authors as common to a
substantial proportion of the group:
• work-related communication with others increased
• interactions within and beyond the school increased
• opportunities for professional development increased
• they learned more about computing and the Internet
• they invested in home computing equipment
• some became school-based network administrators
• they had increased professional pride and enthusiasm.

In the view of their principals, the Internet access project "gets them [teachers] out of the
same old rut", and refocused teacher conversation from constant complaints about "kids
driving me crazy" to lively discussions of what they were accomplishing (Schofield &
Davidson, 2000).

This example of indirect professional development through equipment provision was

paralleled by the ‘laptops for teachers’ scheme in Victoria (Australia) where 67 percent of
teachers reported gaining intermediate or advanced IT skills (Department of Education,
Employment and Training (Victoria), 2000, p. 32). The Tasmanian Graduate Certificate
of Education (Computing for Teaching and Learning) was another example of indirect
professional development, structured through a vocationally-based outcomes
specification (Department of Education, Tasmania, 2000). Another syllabus that has been
considered for a variety of professions is the International Computer Driving Licence
(Australian Computer Society, 2002b). Courses following this syllabus have been
supplied to teachers in the Australian Capital Territory and by the Catholic Education
Office in Parramatta (see
http://activated.decs.act.gov.au/prof_learn/online_learn_icdl.htm and
http://www.ceo.parra.catholic.edu.au/pdf/bits/March01.pdf). The diversity of these
professional development approaches indicates the lack of common agreement about the
best way to prepare teachers for the general use of ICT, and/or the diversity of
expectations.
Other aspects of teacher ICT professional development were considered by Elizabeth
Byrom (1997) who reviewed the literature on the integration of technology into education
programs. Her review concurred with the ACOT stages of teacher progression and
inferred this process generally took three to five years. A RAND study in her review
indicated that 30 percent of a school technology budget should be allocated to staff
development, and this should take place on-site and ‘just in time’. Unless the equipment
was available to staff immediately after a workshop, so they could practice and use it for
operational reasons within a short time of being trained, the training effort would be
wasted. In a related paper Byrom (1998) identified the factors influencing the effective
use of technology in teaching and learning identified through a project working
intensively with 12 schools in the south east of the USA. There was a significant positive
correlation between the amount and level of equipment and technical assistance provided
and subsequent movement along the continuum of technology integration.

The relationship between professional development and technology access/capacity

appears to be a significant factor in the development process for ICT in education, as was
found by Schofield and Davidson (2000) when teachers involved in their project became
more technology-centred. This also suggests that schools that get improved learning
results from ICT will have addressed this issue, either directly or indirectly. This is not a
surprising result, and basically argues that development will be faster where better
resources are available.

An extensive review of teacher professional development with respect to ICT was carried
out by Downes, Fluck, Gibbons, Leonard, Matthews, Oliver, Vickers, & Williams
(2002). In this review the authors identified four distinct approaches to ICT in education
by asking:
‘What educational outcomes do schools and systems hope to
achieve by increasing the extent to which ICTs are integrated
into classroom practice?’ From the information gathered in
response to this question it is evident that, in Australia as well
as overseas, educators are promoting ICT use in classrooms
for several distinct reasons. These include:

• Type A: encouraging the acquisition of ICT skills as an end

themselves;

• Type B: using ICTs to enhance students’ abilities within the

existing curriculum;
 • Type C: introducing ICTs as an integral component of broader
curricular reforms that are changing not only how learning
occurs but what is learned;

• Type D: introducing ICTs as an integral component of the

reforms that alter the organisation and structure of schooling
itself. (Downes et al., 2002, p. 23)

It is evident that the nature and type of professional development needs to be aligned with
which of these approaches the school is taking to ICT. The review found that school
reforms have been increasingly linked to an embedded use of ICT which enables students
to undertake authentic multi-disciplinary tasks. Further, these reforms are spreading
beyond the school gate as ICT links students to and from external agencies. Therefore it
becomes more important to look at ways of conducting teacher professional development
at both pre-service and in-service levels that encompass this type of learning experience.

2.4.1 Issues from the literature about professional development

It is clear from the literature that the ICT professional development of teachers is crucial
to their role as change agents or adopters of this innovation. Teachers may not feel that
they have the background or duty to prepare students for careers or working life that
strongly depends upon ICT. Yet there are economic forces at work which suggest this is
precisely what they should be doing. Moreover, children are coming to school with
increasingly diverse yet increasingly common experiences of ICT at home. How then
should teachers react? The social rationale for ICT argues they should ensure all children
have the opportunity to develop familiarity with computers. However, teachers have
expressed concerns about the social isolation they have observed amongst students who
are intensive computer users (Fluck, 1995, pp. 47-48). The third rationale, pedagogy,
is a disputed territory, with no clear 2 sigma advantage for ICT (Kraver, 1997), and only
an improvement of the 0.3-0.4 effect size is evident in the literature, which is comparable
with other innovations. Within these boundaries there are some indicators of the
conditions required for ICT to demonstrate a pedagogical improvement. According to
Byrom (1997) and Smerdon et al. (2000) ICT budgets should allocate a minimum of 30
percent for on-site and ‘just in time’ training and to provide at least 9 hours training per
teacher per year. The training should be aligned to school expectations, depending upon
the level of response expected in the Downes et al. (2002) list of reason types. Also,
ownership is a vital ingredient to change management processes, and this has been taken
into account in many professional development programs through laptop schemes for
teachers (Clayton, 1993; Ramus et al., 1998).
2.5 Frameworks for the developmental stages of ICT in
schools (RQ4)
The literature review proceeds with an examination of recent and significant studies of
frameworks for ICT development in schools. There were no documents in ERIC
(Educational Resources Information Centre) for the query (stages of development AND
ICT AND education) AND (1994< Publication_Date <2003) and therefore the search was
widened to include general internet sites, other search engines and printed references.
Five works were selected from these sources, and are summarised in Table 5:
Table 5: Selected studies of ICT development stages in
schools

Author Stages of progression Strengths Weaknesses

Heppell,  1. Computer as topic Has a radical  Includes stages 
1993 2. Computer supports learning with task  phase change  that might be 
specific programs as final step considered 
3. Computers support learning with generic,  redundant
content free programs
4. Computers support specific needs through 
component software
5. Pedagogy radically changes to reflect 
computers’ potential
Dwyer,  Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) Transfers well  Only describes 
Ringstaff &  1. Entry to new  the general 
Sandholtz,  2. Adoption situations and  stages of 
1991;  3. Adaptation has been  development for 
Dwyer,  4. Appropriation extensively  a single teacher 
1994 5. Invention validated in a classroom
Kraver,  Arizona Learning Technology Partnership  Aligns well  Assumes a new 
1997 (ALTP) with ICT­ technology will 
Wave 1: early adoption based  become 
Wave 2: ICT integrated into curriculum innovations in  available
Wave 3: research­based learning technologies  other fields.
are released and transform education.
Caldwell &  Schools for the Knowledge Society Track 3  Aligns with  Little evidence 
Spinks,  vision gestalt: emerging  for the rhetoric
1998 national 
policies to plan 
for knowledge­
based 
economies
Valdez,  North Central Regional Educational  Emphasises  Assumes 
McNabb,  Laboratory (NCREL) emergence of  education is 
Foertsch,  Phase I = print automation learner­centred school­based 
Anderson,  Phase II = expansion of learning opportunitiesinstruction  and teacher­led
Hawkes &  Phase III = data driven virtual learning. based upon 
Raack,  automated 
2000 monitoring of 
student 
progress

Each of these five models attempts to describe the developmental stages of ICT in
education in a different way. The authors have different perspectives which have framed
their views. Their audiences, the strengths and the weaknesses of each model, and what
they imply for future models are examined below.

Each model is a conceptual one (Webb, 1993) which exists only in the minds of humans
rather than having some external manifestation. They are also ‘expedient’ models
(Clement, 1989) which offer explication rather than explanation. Such models can be
evaluated by comparing them with the phenomenon under investigation, and are useful
for stimulating discussion, making relationships between objects clearer and ultimately
becoming the basis for decisions about future actions (Penner, 2001). The focus of each
model ranges from the teacher in a school to the system level of school governance.

Heppell wrote at a time when the Internet was beginning to be seen as having potential in
the business world, and ‘killer-apps’ were entering the software marketplace for office
automation on a regular basis. His description of the developing role of computers
suggested that climbing sales of software which have transformed the world of work will
be mirrored in education. He argued that although there had “been neither a strong
mechanistic nor a strong causal link between technological and pedagogical change”, it
was “not an unreasonable contention that this link will need to be tighter rather than
looser in the next five to ten years” (Heppell, 1993, p.101). He established Ultralab, the
learning technology research laboratory at Anglia Polytechnic University's Chelmsford
campus, to trial the application of new technologies in educational settings (Revell,
2002). The Heppell model concentrates on the earlier stages of development, specifying
the alternating use of topic specific and generic software. This alternation is not explained
within the model, and it is therefore reasonable to be sceptical about its validity. The final
stage of the Heppell model suggests pedagogy will change to accommodate the potential
of ICT. This is a bold proposition, and requires further investigation to determine its
applicability.

The Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT) model was presented in support of a project
sponsored by a computer manufacturer (Dwyer, Ringstaff & Sandholtz, 1991; Dwyer,
1994). This sponsorship may have affected the conclusions, a caution reinforced by the
fact that one of the authors (Dr. David Dwyer) was the Apple director of Education
Technology at the time of writing (Apple Computer, 2002, 2002a). The ACOT project
was based around the question: “If technology was pervasive throughout education, then
what?” Starting in 1985, the Apple Computer company agreed to place a large amount of
computer equipment and software in seven classrooms that represented a cross-section of
America’s elementary and secondary schools. This included providing a computer for the
classroom and home of every teacher and student in each class. The project grew, and
with school agreement the classrooms were researched for over a decade. General
conclusions about teacher stages of development were drawn from the research, from an
‘Entry’ stage where teachers had doubts, through an integration stage (‘Adaptation’) to a
student-centred ‘Invention’ stage.

The ACOT model described ICT development from the point of view of teachers, who
might reasonably be expected to be the majority of the audience. Reaching this audience
was important to the commercially-sponsored study, for teachers were seen as critical to
the acceptance of the technology and hence to sales. In the case of the ACOT model,
there is evidence of its appropriation for the formation of teacher ICT accreditation
schemes (Office of Technology & Information Services, 2001). The specific levels of the
ACOT model make it difficult to apply to school or system level planning, although it
could have a use as a component of such plans. Because it relates to teachers, they can
use tools based upon the model to diagnose their personal needs for ICT-related
professional development, to categorise their current teaching style and to assist in
decision-making when choosing new classroom software.

Kraver (1997) developed the ALTP model as part of a case put to bureaucrats and
commercial sponsors. His report is therefore framed in language suitable for such an
audience. He suggested that radical change of the order of one or two sigmas (standard
deviations) in student outcomes should result from the application of ICT in education.
He argued that this was not an impossible dream since in other technology applications
“the airline industry doubled speed and range by replacing the piston engine with the jet
engine. The food industry has decreased farm labour from 65 percent of the population to
two percent using biological and mechanical technology”. One-to-one tutoring had been
shown to improve educational outcomes by two sigmas (Bloom, 1984) showing this kind
of improvement was not impossible and the capacity of ICT systems to achieve at similar
levels was shown through a meta-study review (Kulik & Kulik, 1991). The USA defence
department had adopted a similar vision of using digital resources to support
individualized, collaborative, authentic and interactive learning in their schools for
defence force children anywhere and anytime worldwide, and expected at least a one
sigma improvement or a 30 percent teaching time reduction with existing equipment
(Fletcher, 2003).

Kraver’s preparatory review of ICT used the STaR categorisation to show that only four
percent of schools had ‘target tech’ multimedia computers at a density of one for every 5
students (CEO Forum, 1997). The review refers to a collection of 500 meta-studies
indicating ICT improved learning outcomes but did not identify these, casting doubt upon
this aspect of the study. The ALTP model showed progression through three ‘waves’,
corresponding to increased levels of teacher training, software complexity and ICT
funding rising from US$110 to US$300 per student per year. In the development of the
ALTP model, Kraver makes a good argument for the expected quantum of educational
improvement, but fails to enter into the debate about the appropriate metric for validating
this. The ALTP model also ties the stages of progression very closely to funding (as was
appropriate for the audience) and equipment levels. This is a restricting view, and does
not help planners to cope with situations where equipment has been provided but
recipients fail to use it. Finally, the ALTP model assumes the emergence of a new kind of
research-based learning technology without which the model lacks justification.

Caldwell and Spinks wrote for an audience established by the publication of their first
book on self-managing schools at the same time as the Education Reform Act of 1988 in
the UK (Caldwell, 1998). Their devolutionary view corresponds strongly with the
expectation that multiple solutions can be found locally to similar problems. This view of
self-managing schools has been adopted widely in Australia and the United Kingdom.
Their description of self-managing schools was extended into a future vision in Beyond
the self managing school (Caldwell & Spinks, 1998) which examined future trends and
argued that there were three possible tracks along which schools could move. ICT was a
vital ingredient to each track, facilitating administrative change on track 1, enhancing
communication between teachers as professionals on track 2, and transforming schools as
learning places in the knowledge society on track 3. Developments on track 3 were
illustrated by reference to lecture theatre design at the Goulburn Ovens Institute where
students had alternate seating positions for computing and viewing (Caldwell & Spinks,
1998, p. 177). Among their summary of strategic intentions, they suggested:
Virtual schooling will be a reality at every stage of schooling,
but there will still be a place called school, with approaches to
virtual schooling including neighbourhood educational houses,
especially for the very young. (Caldwell &
Spinks, 1998)

The model developed by Caldwell and Spinks has some basis in evidence derived from
school architecture, and aligns with policy directions adopted by governments in the
‘knowledge society’ or ‘knowledge economy’ fields. However, they do not present
compelling evidence from either source that confirms schools or systems are moving
along track 3. The evidence within the development of the model is contradictory, at one
point establishing the capacity of ICT to remove traditional barriers of time and distance
from the educational process, yet also affirming the centrality of a designated ‘place’ of
schooling.

The NCREL model was constructed for “legislators and state board members” and
emerged from the development work with which the authors’ organisation was concerned
(Valdez et al., 2000). They noted that computer-based technology had been instrumental
for increased work productivity and economic success, but debate continued about its
value and cost-effectiveness in education. For example, equity concerns had largely
eliminated experimental control groups in a three year study of fifty-five New York
school districts where increased technology levels accounted for an increase in college
entrance examination pass rates of 3.2 percent for mathematics and a one percent increase
for English (Mann and Schaffer, 1997). Despite this debate, the NCREL model abstracted
elements from successful projects to define stages of progression defined by the
curriculum software used by students. The software stages started with drill and practice
materials in Phase I, then moved to group-based learner tools in Phase II before
culminating with information systems which integrated student progress tracking with
virtual learning in Phase III. Valdez et al. (2000) concluded discussion of the NCREL
model with a possible Phase IV, ‘Successful Integration and Use of Educational
Technology’.

A major difficulty with Phase III of the NCREL model is the implicit assumption that
computer systems will generate progress data about learning outcomes for each student.
This difficulty is made clearer by examining the work of Means and Olsen to which
Valdez et al. link the NCREL model. Means and Olsen described four uses of ICT in
school education: tutorial, exploratory, tool, and communication (1995, pp. 15-17). Only
the tutorial use can be expected to generate data about student progress against learning
outcomes. The generic office productivity software increasingly used by students in the
other three modes does not report such details. Therefore little information about student
achievements will be available for ‘data-driven virtual learning’ in Phase III of the
NCREL model. Another difficulty with the NCREL model is the embedding of the
industrial approach to learning, with the implicit reliance upon face-to-face direct
teaching. The authors appeared to operate in a context where there was institutional
support for a vision of the teacher as essential to the learning process, making the
profession central to the final phase. This embedded position of the teacher was more in
consideration of their audience than from a specific requirement of the technological
maturation expected in Phase III.

2.5.1 Issues from the literature about stages of development for ICT
in education
The existing frameworks for ICT development stages in schools reveal a number of
deficiencies and suggestions for improvement. The first of the difficulties common to
several of the models described is that of making ill-founded assumptions. The ALTP
model assumes the emergence of a new kind of technology, both the ALTP and NCREL
models assume education will mirror ICT impacts in the business world, and the latter
also assumes student software will generate progress data. The Heppell model suggests
pedagogy will change to accommodate ICT. The implication for any new model is that it
should be thoroughly grounded in the literature and based upon evidence drawn from the
field. The only assumptions that can be made are those drawn from existing practice or
existing technology.

Another difficulty with the current models is that of internal inconsistencies. The Heppell
model inconsistently alternates between a trend to more generic software and the use of
topic specific materials. The Caldwell and Spinks model is ambiguous about the capacity
of ICT to erode previous thinking about time and place. Any future model should
therefore maintain consistency between stages of development by demonstrating the
increasing effect of axial principles. To reduce the possibility of inconsistency, there
should be a minimum number of stages.

Most of the existing models were crafted for a particular audience. This restricted the
generalisability of the models, either for commercial reasons (ACOT) or because of
institutional expectations (NCREL). The lesson for a new model is that it should be
phrased in very general terms to maintain the widest possible application. This will make
it suitable for classroom use or policy consideration, as a basis for professional
development or linkage to other levels of national policy.

This generalisability must not cause the model to lose attention to specific requirements
for progression between stages. The ALTP model highlighted particular equipment
densities and funding levels for each stage, and this was helpful. However, to put such
detail in the top level description of a model can limit its audience. Therefore a new
model might have a second level of description with this particular detail, having
attention to the requirements above about assumptions, consistency and audience.

A final guideline for the construction of a new model through this thesis concerns the
difficulties of using conventional tests of educational achievement when students are
using ICT in a meaningful way. For example, spelling tests of the traditional model
would be inappropriate in the context of children using wordprocessors (such as
Microsoft Word XP) in which spell checkers and voice recognition are embedded. The
new model should be developed with a view to the possibility that the aims of teaching
may change. By looking at the past and present use of computers (as in the ALTP model),
it should be possible to derive a conceptual understanding of how possible futures can
link to current practice and previous experience.

The conclusion from this part of the review is that some existing models are limited by
ill-founded assumptions, internal inconsistencies, or are restricted to particular sectors of
the educational community, industrial conceptions of the schooling process or particular
software. Helpful aspects of existing models have related specific levels of training or
resourcing to particular stages, and they have been linked to observed practice in schools.
2.6 Other factors influencing the use of ICT in schools
One of the most significant factors about student use of ICT has been the rapid growth of
student access to computers and the internet at home. Another has been the aging of the
teaching workforce, associated with lower social status and remuneration, leading to a
difficulty of recruitment and a search for alternative ways to provide adequate education.
This, combined with the desire from both administrators and students to make learning
more cost efficient, has met with research evidence that computer-mediated learning can
be at least as effective as face to face group instruction.

2.6.1.1 Predictions of home computer access

In Australia children’s home access to computers and the Internet has grown rapidly, and
is much higher than that for the general population at 74 percent and 48 percent
respectively (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1999b, 1999c, 2000, 2000d). Older children
have greater access to computers at home (Meredyth, Russell, Blackwood, Thomas &
Wise, 1999b, p.160), with much of their use being for games and educational activities
(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2000c). Similar findings have been reported
internationally, with 53 percent to 60 percent of secondary students estimated to use a
computer at home in the USA, Germany and the Netherlands (Anderson & Lundmark,
1996, p. 29; Department of Commerce, 2000) while one author suggested ICT be utilised
to overcome violence in schools (Fielder, 2000). Eighty percent of adult Australians
undertaking study used the Internet (Pattinson & Di Gregorio, 1998). Therefore it is
important to gauge the degree to which national, local and school policies attend to this
growing proportion of students that are highly exposed to ICT in their homes.

2.6.1.2 Aging teachers

From 1976 to 1996 the median age of teachers in the USA increased from 33 to 44 years
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2000, Table 70). Similar patterns were reported
in Estonia, the UK and other countries surveyed. This pattern of an aging teacher
population was significant because of the cultural gulf between them and their “Nintendo
generation” pupils (Richards, 1997; Abbott-Chapman, 1999, pp. 15-19), and also because
of the implications for teacher supply in coming years. Recruitment in the UK has been
addressed by a series of ‘golden hellos’ with graduates who elect to go into teacher
training receiving £150 per week during the training period, and further large sums when
they start teaching in shortage areas such as Foreign Languages, Mathematics, Science or
Technology (Charter, 2000). This did not prevent the number of teaching vacancies rising
to 4980 by January 2001 (Owen, 2001). Similar difficulties have been reported in
Australia (Box, 2000, p. 4) and Estonia where recently retired members of the profession
were re-recruited. This re-entry cohort was therefore in a strong position to negotiate for
good conditions and wages, and able to resist forces for change in teaching practice.
2.6.1.3 Making learning cost efficient.
Colleges in England for 16-18 year old students were effectively forced into using
automation to maximise efficiency to cope with a 25 percent increase in student numbers
at a time when the government had begun a program of devolving budgets and
management (Kenny, 1994). Examples include the transformation of a ‘low quality
traditional lecture based delivery’ engineering course to a “high quality tutorial
environment, a flexible, self paced, self guided delivery with computer material available
24 hours a day” (Cartwright, 1994) which achieved the same learning outcomes within a
fifty percent reduction in staffing and a twenty percent reduction in formal student
contact time. Leftwich reported similar changes in a politics course (1994).

In the USA on-line accredited college courses were about half the cost to students
compared to those that required attendance on-campus (Jurgensen, 1999, p. 16A). Student
engagement and motivation were enhanced in a Nebraska study by the inclusion of
personal investment content in the course interactions (Lehman, Kaufman, White, Horn
& Bruning, 2000). In the school sector, a comparison was made by a UK Minister of
Education, Professor Michael Barber:
It has been estimated that the cost of one teacher hour is £50
in the UK (c. US $80), rightly rising as we insist on much
improved pay for demonstrably good teachers. But the cost of
one school ICT hour is about 75 pence (c. US $1) and falling at
about 20 per cent per annum, while computers double their
capacity every 18 months. This provides an opportunity not to
replace teachers wholesale, but to find new combinations of
well-trained teachers, paraprofessionals and technology
focused on the learning needs and aspirations of each
individual.
(Barber, 2000)

This comparison indicates some of the cost pressures which make ICT attractive to
educational decision makers. The result has been a proliferation of experimental projects
applying ICT in a broad range of educational contexts. Some projects have trialled the
use of web-based courses and other multimedia applications with school refusers and at-
risk students (EdNA, 2000).
2.7 Chapter summary
The review has identified the ubiquity of national policies for ICT in school education.
These policies are often based upon economic, social and/or pedagogical rationales,
which require further substantiation. The policies in many countries are becoming
subsumed under national policies for ‘the knowledge economy’, and this appears to be
shaping their form towards the economic rationale. Despite technological pressures, the
extant international studies indicate the thrust of policy is on integrating ICT into current
classroom practice, and students use computers much less in school than outside it. It
remains to be seen if student learning autonomy is increased when ICT is used more
often.

The literature distinguishes between ICT integration and ICT effectiveness, and several
measures are available for each factor. Studies of effectiveness can be classified as
experimental or descriptive. Experimental studies typified by meta-studies indicate ICT
has so far proven only as effective as other innovations. Descriptive studies have found
ICT has potential for improving learning outcomes, providing it is safely applied in
appropriate areas, and teachers are adequately trained.

Teacher professional development was examined in the context of innovation diffusion

theory. This identified ownership (exemplified through laptops for teachers programs)
and the identification of relative advantage as key factors for adoption. However, the
literature indicated that professional development needs to be aligned with strategic
purposes for ICT. Four such types of school approach have been recognised.

Existing frameworks for the developmental stages of ICT in schools were reviewed in the
context of their authors’ intentions and specific audience targets. Through an analysis of
each framework, it was established that future models would need to be applicable to a
wide range of educational audiences, not presume the emergence of new educational
technology and not make assumptions about the operational characteristics of software.

Additional factors having some bearing upon the use of ICT in school education were
predictions of rapidly increasing home access to computers and the internet, the aging
population of teachers and financial imperatives to make learning more cost efficient.

The next chapter will show how the study methodology was developed.
 My library | Sign in

About ReadInformation and communication technologies in

this this
book book
South African secondary schools
By Sarah J. Howie, Anton Muller, Andrew Paterson

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 Planning for teachers
! 53 ! TechKnowLogia, May/June, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org
South Africa:
Teacher Training in the Sky
Claire Brown, Violet Sithole & Robert Hofmeyr
Shoma Education Foundation, South Africa
Education in South Africa
The schooling system in South Africa is undergoing massive
transformation to improve quality of education. Outcomesbased
education and the new curriculum have been introduced
to South African schools and present educators in this
country with their biggest opportunity and challenge ever. It
is common cause that educators are pivotal to the success of
this change. Therefore, the challenge is to build the capacity
of our educators to become change agents, thereby enabling
them to lend impetus to this transformation.
I believe that the limited resources available and the vastness
of our country, lends itself ideally to the use of technology,
not as a luxury, but as a basic resource. The model presented
in this article begins to illustrate that technology can be extremely
effective in supporting the development of educators
in the development of Outcomes Based Education
Digital Satellite Technologies for
Teacher Development
The Model: The Shoma Education Foundation
The MIH Group, the holding company for MultiChoice, MNet
and M-Web, has developed a unique model of delivering
educational and training programs for the professional development
of South African educators. The unique delivery
model uses the power of technology to leverage the delivery
of appropriate educational programs prepared in conjunction
with the national and provincial education departments. The
programs are relayed from the M-Group’s Broadcast Center
in Randburg, via satellite, to a video server linked to a television
set, and to a network server, which in turn serves 24
workstations.
The model is innovative and significant in the following respects:
It is exceptional in its ability to reach and penetrate the
distant rural and urban areas often grossly neglected by
donors and cut off from investment initiatives.
Through the use of interactive computer applications,
the project initiates rural- and township-based teachers
to appropriate and creative use of technology, thereby
supporting and bolstering the National Education Department’s
Technology Enhanced Learning Initiatives.
The framework for this model was developed collaboratively
with the national and provincial education departments, academics,
educators and teacher organizations. Based on research
done, a nine-week pilot was conducted at three centers
located in Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal and the Western Cape.
The South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE)
evaluated the pilot project, after which the project was successfully
implemented in a further seven sites. Ten centers
situated in all nine provinces are currently fully functional.
The program reaches out to thousands of educators in historically
disadvantaged areas to provide them with a rich
resource base that is unaffected by distance or terrestrial
networks. Also, these teachers are being constantly exposed
to cutting edge technology.
Attributes of the Training Program
1. The Program uses digital satellite technology as a
conduit for quality Outcomes Based Education material
across geographical barriers. Training programs are relayed
from the M-Group’s Broadcast Center in Randburg, via the
conduit of satellite to a television set, and an Intranet.
2. The Program applies a specific, three tiered process
of learning that continuously reinforces specific themes
on Outcomes Based Education. The training facilities used at
the training centers consist of a minimum of three rooms in
an education department or other suitable buildings.
Broadcast Room
This room is equipped with a television monitor, a video
server and satellite dish. Here, a visual presentation of the
specific learning theme on Outcomes Based Education is
provided. Teachers watch broadcast clips reflecting different
South African situations and experiences on Outcomes Based
Education concepts, which run for approximately 10 minutes.
The broadcast ends with a thought-provoking question
that prompts the group into discussion. With this question,
the aim is to actively engage the recipients and negate passivity
amongst them. Curriculum developers of the Provincial
Education Department mediate the group discussions.
Computer Room
The second room is furnished with a Windows NT server
and 24 Pentium workstations. Content is downloaded, via
satellite, to the servers using a Siyanda satellite receiver card.
The computer material provides digitized video and audio
! 54 ! TechKnowLogia, May/June, 2000 © Knowledge Enterprise, Inc. www.TechKnowLogia.org
clips, which have been compressed, using MPEG technology.
This convergence of computer and television technology
confers greater flexibility to the learning process.
It was observed during the pilot period that educators tended
to ‘hop’ between Internet lessons. Some completed the session
in a short period suggesting they had not taken the time
to read and reflect on the issues. Thus, a controlled measure
that compels users to follow a particular learning path has
been introduced.
Although the computer-based learning content reflects the
National Education Department’s interpretation of the curriculum,
the Department is provided with an additional opportunity
to express its viewpoint. There is also an opportunity
for each Provincial Department to add its input. We have
embarked on a project to add a message board and an electronic
mail facility to make this learning experience even
more dynamic and interactive.
The Lesson Development Room
This is the most important room in the process. It is here that
teachers have the opportunity to practice the theory learned
in the broadcast and computer rooms. In this room, teachers
work together to develop their own lesson plans for the following
week, based on what they learned during the broadcast
and computer based learning.
3. The program is a mediated, facilitated learning
process. Integral to the Shoma training methodology is the
use of facilitators to mediate the learning process in all three
tiers. This approach is informed by the notion that the use of
technology as a training tool necessitates that training should
be conducted by facilitators or other teachers who can provide:
experience in classroom teaching;
an understanding of the use of technologies and its language
usage;
mediated learning without succumbing to the temptation
to take over the keyboard; and
follow-up support to the teacher in the classroom.
In view of these specific qualities, our facilitators are drawn
from the ranks of curriculum developers whose responsibility
it is to provide support to educators on curriculum issues.
An evaluation of the pilot project by South African Institute
for Distance Education identified the need for facilitation
skills training program for these departmental officials.
Shoma has developed a training program on facilitation to
build the capacity of facilitators in the mediation of adult
learning, as well as to develop a basic understanding of the
technology used in the program.
Experiences in Applying the Model
On the positive side the value of technology in teacher development
can be summarized as follows:
It ensures access to quality education material and resources,
irrespective of geographical location and terrestrial
networks.
It bridges the digital divide between those who have
access to technology and those who don’t.
It is a fast, cost-effective way of providing the training
material to remote training centers all over the country.
It provides an interactive platform, which stimulates the
learning process of educators.
It permits and supports individually paced learning processes.
The drawbacks of technology in teacher development have
been:
The initial capital outlay to acquire and install the technological
infrastructure is costly.
Enormous problems are experienced as a result of the
sensitive nature of technology in relation to the lowlevel
technological development and skills of the enduser.
The eagerness to gain access to technology skills sometimes
overshadows the educational value of the substantive
elements of the training program.
In the area of partnership, the program has created a platform
for private sector companies to work alongside government
in the development of education. It has enabled corporate
companies to be part of an established, high potential, high
impact and relevant corporate social investment project.
In the final analysis, the impact of any teacher development
program should be evaluated in terms of its effect on teacher
practice and not just on the correct methodology nor its use
of technology. Therefore, we have embarked on a research
study to look at, among other things:
The correlation between the change of attitude toward
the use of technology and teacher practice.
The extent to which educators have fully understood the
benefits and implications of the use of broadcast and
computer learning as a learning and teaching tool.
Conclusion
As the range and complexity of technology available to support
education and training rapidly expands, the reality that
technologically driven educational solutions do not work has
become increasingly apparent. We need to recognize, however,
that technology is increasingly being harnessed to benefit
our education system through various innovative projects.
Slowly but surely, technology enhanced learning is becoming
more and more effective. The South Africa experience
provides a model for harnessing the latest technologically
driven interventions for the benefit of our educators and for
the enhancement of education as a whole.

THE UTILIZATION OF INFORMATION

AND COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY
FOR EDUCATION IN AFRICA.
Dr. Govinda Shrestha
Addis Ababa 2000
UNESCO:
International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa
(IICBA)

iid^ ntematlonal Institute for

Capacity Building In Africa

Contents
Introduction
-Utilization of Electronic and Communications
Technology
Barriers
-Implications for U N E S C O International Institute •
for Capacity Building in Africa (IICBA)
-Strategies for the Utilization of Electronic and
Communications Technology
-Strategy for Utilization of Technology
in Teacher Education
-Strategy for Utilization of Technology
in Curriculum Development
-Strategy for the Utilization of Technology
in Distance Education 30
-Strategy for Utilization of Technology
in Education Policy, Planning and Management 31
Conclusion 34
Reference 35
PREFACE
This monograph was undertaken by Dr. Govinda Shrestha, a
research fellow at Harvard University, during a one-month
consultancy with the U N E S C O International Institute for Capacity
Building in Africa C1ICBA), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in October, 1999.
The purpose of the consultancy was to explore ways in which the new
information and communication technologies CICT3 can be utilized in
Africa, given the situation where the majority of educational
institutions at primary and secondary school levels do not have
access to electricity, let alone to computers and internet. Even at
tertiary level many institutions do not have access to internet,
although a considerable number may have access to computers.
Internet may be inaccessible either due to low access at country level
or high cost.
Despite the serious challenges posed by the lack of electricity, lack
of connectivity to the internet, and the present low financial
resources available to education in Africa, in particular most of
Sub-Saharan Africa, Africa nevertheless has to face up to the
essential need to be at the cutting edge of technological innovation.
Unless Africa accepts this challenge, its position in world
development is likely to deteriorate even further in the next two
decades.
Education can play a cardinal role in ensuring that African
institutions; teachers and teacher educators have the opportunity to
utilize information and communication technologies. A high level of
usage of ICT can impact positively on economic and other forms of
development.
However at this stage of Africa's development, cost-effective and
practical ways have to be devised to enable African universities and
schools to access ICT. This monograph is a contribution to the
dialogue on how ICT can be used in Africa today to improve both
educational access and quality.
Fay Chung
Director, U N E S C O International Institute for Capacity Building in
Africa CIICBA)
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
March,2000
Introduction
UTILIZATION OF INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY
FOR EDUCATION IN AFRICA
Govinda Shrestha
Introduction
The world educational crisis and the world crisis in education
scenario painted by Coombs C1968, 1985), still holds substantially
valid in Africa. In 1968, Coombs [1] observed:
Since 1945, all countries have undergone fantastically swift
environmental changes, brought about by a number of concurrent
worldwide revolutions in science and technology, in economic and
political affairs, in demographic and social structures.
Educational systems have also grown and changed more rapidly
than ever before. But they have adapted all too slowly in relation
to the faster pace of events on the move all around them. The
consequent disparity—taking many forms—between educational
systems and their environments is the essence of the worldwide
crisis in education.
The growing obsolescence of the old, outmoded curriculum content
in relation to the advancing state of knowledge and the realistic
learning needs of students, the misfit between education and the
development needs of societies, the growing imbalances and
maladjustments between education and employment, as well as
1
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
serious educational inequalities between various social groups, and
the gap growing between the rising costs of education and the funds
countries would be able and willing to invest in it are some of the
glaring disparities, according to Coombs. The causes of disparity
are, in his opinion, the sharp increase in popular aspirations for
education, the acute scarcity of resources, the inherent inertia of
educational systems, "which caused them to respond too sluggishly
in adapting their internal affairs to new external necessities, even
when resources have not been the main obstacle to adaptation, and
the inertia of societies themselves—"the heavy weight of traditional
attitude, religious customs, prestige and incentive patterns, and
institutional structures—which has blocked them from making the
optimum use of education and of educated manpower to foster
national development."
17 years after the publication of Coombe's first book, things are not
much better. In fact, the education situation worsened as the world
education crisis turned in 1985 into a world crisis in education. The
early warnings of a world educational crisis were no false alarm. Not
only had the crisis Coombs [2] noticed in 1985, been intensified by
growing maladjustments between education system and the rapidly
changing world around them, but it had acquired new dimensions that
were even more troubling. The most troubling of all was that there
emerged a crisis of confidence in education itself.
The explosion of learning needs and the inability of education
systems to bring both the quantitative and qualitative changes
necessary to balance the evolving learning needs, and the tighter
cost squeeze on education were facts of life. And there was a
clear-cut maladjustment between education, on the one hand, and
2
introduction
the world of work and the economy, on the other. Sadly, Africa faces
today all these plus many more problems in education. The crisis
impacting African education goes deeper and various drastic
measure? are required to address it before the situation gets even
worse. A number of initiatives were taken in response to the gravity
of the complex challenges facing education. The Jomtien Declaration
and Framework of Action on "Education for All" in 1990 sought to
re-enforce commitment by Governments, funding agencies and
non-governmental organizations on the principles that would bring
about basic education for all. The Priority Africa Programme
established by UNESCO in 1989 called for vigorous efforts to
promote, among others, distance learning, information technology
and higher education in Africa. The Assembly of Heads of State and
Governments of the Organization of African Unity COAU), held in
Yaounde, Cameroon in June 1996, proclaimed the period 1997-2006
the Decade of Education in Africa. The Education Department of the
OAU acts to promote harmonisation of education policies systems
and programmes at all levels, as well as the development of networks
and the Pan-African cooperation in education area. In 1999, the OAU
Ministers of Education and Heads of States approved the Decade of
Education Programme of Action in which it clearly noted some of the
acute problems [3] faced by the formal education systems in Africa:
• Persistence and maintenance, whether deliberately or
otherwise, of the aims, objectives and outcomes of outdated
education systems, despite the numerous reforms undertaken
from time to time.
• The fall in the general standard of achievement of pupils and
students linked to the shortage of infrastructure, equipment and
teaching materials, pn the one hand, and on the other hand, to
3
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
the large class sizes as well as poor qualifications and low morale
of teachers.
• The lack of relevance of the content of educational
programmes, whether in terms of language and culture, or in
terms of employability and technology, resulting not only in a
significant number of dropouts, but also in a lack of linkage
between training and employment, expressed in the persistent
unemployment of graduates.
• Inability of formal education systems to satisfy development"
needs and strategies, and therefore its inability to participate in
development
It is increasingly realised among various educational and political
circles that present-day educational challenges cannot be met with
traditional means alone. The introduction, use/re-use and deployment
of new as well as old electronic and communications technology are,
therefore, being considered an important contribution to the solution
of the problems in education. "Higher education institutions must
adopt new approaches for the packaging of information, for course
delivery and for thinking traditional approaches to teaching and
learning", says the Consolidated Declarations and Plans of Action of
the Regional Conferences on Higher Education held in Tokyo and Dakar
(1997-98). The U N E S C O Regional Conferences clearly emphasise
that teachers, professors and technical and administrative staff
must be given training that enables them to integrate new
information and communication technologies into their teaching
programmes, and to examine the multiplier effect with regard to their
use.
4
Introduction
Various attempts have recently been made, to increase access to
modern technologies and services. However, very few educational
institutions have the technical and financial resources needed to use
new technologies for educational purposes. In addition, the low level
of development of the underlying infrastructure needed to make
effective and wide use of technologies is quite discouraging. Africa's
communication and information infrastructure is mostly limited to
capital cities and it is out of reach of the great majority of Africans
who live in rural areas and dispersed geographical locations. This
shows that the current utilization of information and communications
technology for education is minimal, limited and constrained in many
ways. But since new information and communications technology and
education act together as multipliers, the prospect of educational
development working in tandem with the telecommunications
development in future looks promising.
This report presents first a general overview of the present
utilization of electronic and communications technology, particularly
new technologies such as computers and the Internet for education
in Africa and then recommends specific strategies for the
applications of such technologies in education focused particularly on:
• Teacher education
• Curriculum development
• Distance education, and
• Educational policy, planning and management
The report, in describing technology use in African education, will
consider application of technology at a broad level, but with some
5
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
emphasis on the tertiary education. The term 'technology' will refer
to 'electronic and communications technology' and 'technology use"
will assume both 'technology as a product' and 'technology as a
process' ideas [4]. The terms 'technology use' and 'technology
utilization' are u^ed interchangeably.
UTILIZATION OF ELECTRONIC AND
COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY
Several countries in the Africa region are already familiar with
different technologies introduced in the educational systems.
Various studies have shown that educational radio and educational
television have been used in many developing countries primarily as a
means of reaching learners in remote locations and making education
accessible and affordable to many. Training in-service teachers at a
distance has, for example, been a regular practice of teacher
education programmes in many African countries.
Although technology use in distance education and learning is, in fact,
a long-established practice, there has recently been a remarkable
shift in its use in developing countries. Potashnik and Capper [5]
observe:
Technology is still a major contributor to the dramatic
transformation of distance learning. Although the use of technology
for distance learning is not new—radio and television have been used
effectively for more than forty years—satellites and the Internet are
transforming the world into a borderless educational arena,
6
Utilization of Electronic and
Communication Technology
benefiting both previously underserved citizenries and education
entrepreneurs.
New technologies have now greatly expanded, at least in theory,
our educational horizons. However, Potashnik and Capper believe
that print-based communication will continue at least for some time
in future. They note:
Various technologies have been used for distance education,
but print-based correspondence courses have been, and will
continue to be, the dominant delivery mechanism in both the
developed and the developing worlds. Print is still the cheapest
technology, and, even if the costs of using high-tech
dissemination tolls fall below those of print, it will be some time
before many countries have adequate infrastructures.
One good example of the highly successful print- or
correspondence-based practice is the Zimbabwe Integrated Teacher
Education course (ZINTEC], established after independence in order
to train primary teachers in the country. The successful ZINTEC
tradition was a precursor to the Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU),
established in 1999 to upgrade school administrators and teachers
and address the need to provide educational opportunity to a larger
clientele [6]. The ZINTEC programme combined distance education
through use of print and radio with two extended periods of
residential training, weekly seminars held at the schools where
trainees were placed in clusters of three, weekend and holiday
courses. Residential courses cover twelve months of the four year
course.
7
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
Africa has a long history of the use of technology of one kind or
another for educational purposes. The continent has been a fertile
ground for a number of open universities, distance education
departments under universities, independent distance education
institutions, and various technology-based programmes, projects and
initiatives. Many of the institutions and programmes, initiated in
the past, are still actively deploying technologies in various forms and
combinations as means to enhance existing programmes and fulfil
different educational objectives.
Unfortunately, a number of the past technological innovations
[based on radio, television, video, film, print technology etc.] have not
been sustained. As far as the breakdown of the systems/innovations
in education is concerned, it is primarily related to technical
know-how in both utilization and maintenance of the systems.
External aid played a key role indeed, in the establishment of most of
these technologies, but in many cases, the need for the
provision/supply of local experts was not given the due consideration
it deserved [7]. Consequently, a number of programmes initiated with
enthusiasm in the past lost their momentum, and were unable to
survive.
Despite some early weaknesses and failures, new technologies,
particularly the computers and networking technologies, have, by
creating conditions for rapid connections, opened up possibilities for
many different educational and learning opportunities. From radio and
satellites to computers at the desktop and palmtop, various
communications channels have been used to deliver education and
training both on-campus and off-campus. Today, Internet
connections are, for example, possible over any kind of network: dial
8
Utilization of Electronic and
Communication Technology
up telephone, private digital and analog networks, satellites, radio,
cellular, public switched telephone networks, Asynchronous Transfer
Mode [ATM), and so on.
Advances in technologies have led to the creation of a great
opportunity to what is now called "leap-frog" stages of development.
This is an opportunity that is unparalleled in history. In 1995, the
World Bank [8] issued a dire warning:
If African countries cannot take advantage of the information
revolution and surf this great wave of technological change, they may
be crushed by it. In that case they are likely to be even more
marginalized and economically stagnant than they are today.
The uses of technology for various educational Cand other) activities
seem to be growing exponentially in recent years. This is a worldwide
phenomenon, and equally true of Africa. In some places, use of various
computer-based programs has multiplied. A variety of
computer-assisted instruction/programs have proliferated and the
use of computing and information systems in management has
increased tremendously. As a result, various initiatives and
programmes have been launched to respond to the challenges and
crises confronting education and learning and to stimulate change
and create new learning environments that address localised and
specific needs of learners in different places and settings. Currently,
we witness a flurry of activities and projects being run and operated
under the cooperation between the public and the private sectors. A
few international organizations and institutions have remained
increasingly active in transforming the education sector to enable
people to acquire new skills and training that are so essential in the
Information Age. In some places, such education and training
9
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
programs form part of formal education, while in others, it is primarily
a component of nonformal, even informal education. The following
examples were selected, within a limited time frame, out of a large
pool of activities and projects throughout Africa. Their presentation
does not follow any priority order.
It is clear that despite four decades of development efforts, the
nature and quality of education, educational access and opportunity
for the majority of people in Sub-Saharan Africa [SSA3 have not
improved. The education situation at the tertiary level has been
deteriorating rapidly. Many tertiary institutions in their present form
are overwhelmed with problems related to access, finance, quality,
and internal and external efficiency, to mention a few. Two years ago,
the African Virtual University CAVUl was launched, keeping in view the
monumental problems affecting the higher education sector in
Sub-Saharan Africa CSSA]. The introduction of A V U is basically
geared towards promoting alternative modes for the delivery of
tertiary education to complement the efforts of existing institutions
of higher learning. As the first interactive instructional
telecommunications network, AVU uses the latest
telecommunications technology such as satellites, and the
computer-based technology [the Internet) to improve the quality and
relevance of science, engineering and business instruction for the
benefit of students and professionals from 22 countries in
Sub-Saharan Africa. One major aim is to expand enrollment levels
significantly in these areas. AVU has, by now, provided more than
2,000 hours of broadcast instruction to some 9,000 students and
professionals in 14 Anglophone, 8 Francophone and 2 Lusophone
countries.
10
Utilization of Electronic ana
Communication Technology
Established only a few years ago, the Confederation of Open
Learning Institutions of South Africa (COLISA), serves as the
torchbearer of higher education through distance learning in South
Africa. Cr'LiSA comes as an attempt to address educational needs
that; cannot be met by individual institutions acting alone.
Collaboration and coordination are necessary in various stages of
work. CGLiSA's members include the University of South Africa
(UNISAÎ, Vista University and Technikon SA.
UNISA, the oldest and largest distance learning institution in Africa
and one of the eleven mega distance education institutions in the
world, serves as a prime example of technology-based education and1
learning. Its three regional centres in the north, south and east, six
learning centres throughout Africa plus its library which is one of the
largest and best equipped research libraries in the southern
hemisphere—all bear testimony to the increased use of technology in
South African education.
SchoolNet S A and Cyber School Africa (CSA) are two more
examples of the technology-based educational initiative in South
Africa. Established in South Africa, SchoolNet SA, a national
non-governmental organization (NGO) is actively developing and
expanding the use of the Internet in South African schools. This
organization is helping educators and learners transform education
through the application of information and communication
technologies (ICT). SchoolNet S A works by providing leadership and
expertise needed in education, and it helps develop effective
partnerships in various areas, including the Internet connectivity and
appropriate technology, human resource development and capacity
building and content and curriculum management and development.
11
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
The organisation's major activity is to contribute to the realisation of
national priorities in the education and training system, working
towards a knowledge-based society, expanding access to
telecommunications and information, and educating youth for full
participation in South African and international life [9].
Cyber School Africa [CSA), an on-going project in South Africa, on
the other hand, focuses on the intensive development of web-based
revision tutorials in the Physical Sciences [standard and advanced)
and Mathematics [standard) related testing for the South African
matriculation examinations. The project also includes arrangements
for individualized tutoring by e-mail and fax. The provision of
supplementary services currently being developed includes free
web-based e-mail for all C S A members [including teachers and
parents), URL archives [curriculum-based links to other on-line
resources), and South Africa's first graphical user interface (GUI)
chat facility for educational purposes. CSA also emphasises
marketing the site, further enhancing the site, and extending the site
to include additional subjects, such as Higher-Grade Mathematics,
Biology, or English.
During the last decade, computer networking has spread rapidly in
Sub-Saharan Africa. Now, virtually all nations have established some
form of connectivity. It is interesting that universities and their
supporting governments were not among the network pioneers for
obvious monetary and political reasons. Since 1990, however,
university participation, to a greater or lesser degree, in computer
networking has increased. Establishment of some form of
connectivity, however limited, has been a priority for many for quite
some time. In Mozambique, for example, there were few human and
12
Utilization of Electronic and
Communication Technology
financial resources to support early uses of the Internet.
Consequently, the strategy employed was based not on the
imperative of new technologies, but upon providing basic electronic
mail connectivity for at least the provinces of the country. The early
users of networking on the continent were organizations working in
special areas such as health, agriculture, pest control, marine and
fisheries and the like with funding from external sources. Online
network development has thus been spurred mainly by development
agencies and non-governmental organisations and many online
connectivity projects have, in fact, used UNIX and FidoNet
store-forward technologies.
Aside from the Republic of South Africa, which has an installed
base of commercial/university systems facilitating Internet growth,
the computer communications in other countries do not have an
installed base of commercial/university support systems. So many of
them are only small 'bulletin board' systems facilitated particularly by
the Association for Progressive Communications (APC1 The situation
is now changing as a result of the APC's British affiliate GreenNet's
help with, particularly the establishment of several dozen small
systems aimed at expanding African connectivity.
Other examples of technology utilization and development include
RINAF [Regional Information Network for Africa] which has been
active in the development and dissemination of information regarding
the use of telecommunication technologies in Africa since 1988.
PADIS CPan-African Development Information System), based in Addis
Ababa, has served a wide range of development needs that include
computer networking throughout a wide region. It is reported that
PADIS has been instrumental in the development of low cost
13
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
connectivity in numerous university departments in the region. The
Regional African Satellite Communications Organisation CRASCOM)
was established in order to address the problem of access to
telecommunications in rural areas.
Similarly, the American Association for the Advancement of
Science CAAAS3 has been active since 1987 in a Sub-Saharan Africa
Program that focuses upon the problems of dwindling funds for books
and periodicals in university research libraries. Side by side with this
problem, research capacities of African universities had declined by
as much as 5 0% since 1982, according to a report presented to the
Association of African Universities in Accra in 1992. Makerere
University reported that its subscriptions to periodicals in all fields
had fallen from 8 0 0 in 1985 to 2 0 0 in 1995. The A A A S project has
been working with 8 libraries in an effort to determine the value of
C D - R O M uses and other electronic information technologies in
research libraries.
The creation of the African Educational Research Network [AERN)
in 1992, by a small number of African, American, Canadian and British
universities is an example of North/South collaboration in networking
activities. The Network coordinates various efforts to support
research capacity building in African universities. Recently, the A E RN
is busy implementing "electronic research roundtables" aimed at
bringing together professors from African and northern universities
as supporting resources for the large number of African students
who are working in several northern institutions. The members of the
AERN include Kenyatta University, Addis Ababa University, the
University of Zimbabwe, Makerere University, the National University
of Lesotho, Bayero University in Kano, the University of Ottawa, the
14
Utilization of Electronic and
Communication Technology
University of Manchester, Clark-Atlanta University, Ohio University,
North Carolina State University in Raleigh and Oklahoma State
University. All A E R N members have connectivity with the exception of
Bayera Uriversity.
The Educational Research Network for Eastern and Southern
Africa CERNESA], currently led by the University of Botswana and the
Educational Research Network for Western and Central Africa
CERNWACA) coordinated by the IDRC (International Development and
Research Centre], based in Dakar, are examples of two thriving
networks that began with conventional modes of exchanges and are
now moving toward electronic information exchange.
Technology-based or enhanced educational initiatives focused
primarily on African women include proposed activities being planned
under the partnership between the Forum for African W o m en
Educationalists CFAWE) and the U E S C O International Institute for
Capacity Building in Africa CIICBA], Abantu for Development is a
non-governmental organization founded in 1991 by African w o m e n for
the purpose of harnessing new technology-based information
resources to the benefit of African people.
Internet connectivity in African nations is rising, although
accessibility remains only in capital cities and/or particular areas of
large cities. In the past, the private sector initiatives to bring the
continent online were insignificant. But since 1995 there has been a
resurgence of efforts to bring "full inter-connectivity" by the year
2010 under the leadership of the United Nations Economic
Commission for Africa ÍECAJ. The Regional Symposium on Access to
Telematics in Africa, hekï in Addis Ababa in April 1995, was
15
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
remarkable in that it gave birth to a new initiative, the "African
Networking Initiative", which comprises the ECA together with a few
other international organizations, including UNESCO. The ECA
Conference of Ministers held in May 1995, appointed a high-level
working group on Information and Communication Technology to draft
and design the Action Framework to help African countries to
"leapfrog" stages of development and participate in the Information
Age. A year later, the Framework was approved by the meeting of
ECA Conference of Ministers. The result is an "African information
society initiative" [10]. Africa has lately become the ground for an
unprecedented range of development projects aimed at increasing
the uses and impacts of information and communications
technologies.
The overall position of African inter-connectivity, based on an
account presented in 1997 by Jensen [11], is as follows:
• 36 Countries in Africa have full Internet access in the capital
cities: Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi
Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African
Republic, Cote d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana,
Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritius, Morocco,
Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Reunion, Senegal,
Seychelles, Republjc of South Africa, Swar "and, Sudan, Tanzania,
Tunisia, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
• Countries that will very shortly have capitals with full Internet
access: Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Rwanda, Sierra
Leone, Chad.
• Countries with capital cities remaining without full Internet
access: Cap Verde, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Equatorial Guinea,
16
Utilization of Electronic and
Communication Technology
Eritrea, Liberia, Libya, Mauritania, Sao Tome e Principe, Somalia,
Western Sahara.
• Countr'js with only one full public access ISP: Algeria, Benin,
Burundi Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic,
Mauritius, Niger, Malawi, Seychelles, Tunisia, Zaire, Zambia.
• Countries with access in some secondary towns: Benin,
Botswana, Burkina Faso, Egypt, Kenya, Mauritius, Morocco,
Senegal, Republic of South Africa, Zimbabwe.
• Countries with low-cost dial-up Internet access nationwide:
Burkina Faso, Mauritius, Morocco, Senegal, Republic of South
Africa, Zimbabwe.
This shows that African connectivity is rising but it is severely
limited to major cities and capitals. Again, there is a great disparity
between various sub-regions.
"Creating Learning Network for African Teaehers". is a U N E S CO
project that forms part of the Harnessing Information Technology for
Development component of the Special Initiative on Africa. The major
aim of the project is to enhance the capacity of teachers and their
institutions to become more responsive to new challenges in teaching
and learning, by connecting teacher training colleges and Education
Ministries, researchers and communities through the existing
Internet infrastructures. The project also aims to increase
technology applications among teachers and provide them with basic
skills to use such new technologies. <; A regional -vypr^ksiipp on
Computers in Education, held in Lesotho, in 1996, and.a meeting in
Harare on Capacity Building for Information Technologies in Education
17
Utilization of Information and Communications
.--, Technology for Education in Africa
in Developing Countries organized by the International Federation for
Information Processing (IFIP1 are among the activities linked to this
project. Further efforts are being made to develop a project
networking for teacher-training colleges in each of the twenty African
countries [121.
One remarkable feature of telecommunications development is the
increasing number of telecentres, telecottages or community
communication centres in various parts of the continent. The
establishment and operation of hundreds of telecentres and
communication centres indicate a new level and flow of interest in
technology use. Some of the common labels used to describe these
activities, include telecentres, telecottages, community technology
centres CCTC], community communication shops, networked learning
centres, multipurpose community telecentres CMCT), digital
clubhouses, community communication centres (CCC1, technology
access centres etc. One common characteristic of these centres is
a shared place/facility that provides access to information and
communication technologies for various purposes. These centres
may differ from one another in the way they are funded, organized,
owned and operated/administered. Generally, they are guided by the
concept and spirit of universal service in telecommunication.
Information Technology is now considered, at least in some policy
making circles, an agent of transformation of various dimensions of
human life and activities in the knowledge-based society of the new
century.
Some of the telecentres are equipped with only a telephone and a
fax machine, others with computers, printers and an Internet
connection, but they are mushrooming all over Africa. These centres
18
Utilization of Electronic and
Communication Technology
are primarily designed to serve various informational, educational and
developmental needs of the community. The ACACIA initiative,
launched by the International Development and Research Centre
CIDRO in 1997, serves as an example of telecentres aimed at putting
information and communication technologies to work on behalf of
social and economic development for local communities in
sub-Saharan Africa. It is said that Acacia will initially be focused on
four countries: Mozambique, Senegal, South Africa and Uganda and
the projects will aim to reform policy, extend infrastructure, address
technology and usage issues, and support the creation of relevant
applications and content.
Thus, some of the major organizations engaged in telecentre
activities are: the International Telecommunications Union tlTU),
Canada's International Development Research Centre CIDRO, the
U.S. Agency for International Development CUSAID), The United
Nations Development Programme [UNDP], and the World Bank.
Among the major initiatives in Africa include IDRC's Acacia, ITU's
Multipurpose Community Telecentres, USAID's Leland and LearnLink,
U N D P ' s Community Communications Centres, and the World Bank's
WorLD.
In addition to the International Development Research Centre
CIDRO, which supports a range of ICT projects in Africa through the
Acacia initiative [13), some of the leading organizations and initiatives
related to African inter-connectivity and technology development for
various developmental purposes, including educational are:
19
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
Bellanet: It aims to serve as a catalyst for the appropriate use
of ICTs in development and a 'best practice' model that shares
lessons learned from projects and the collaborative initiatives
with which it works [143.
International Institute for Sustainable Development (USD]: It provides
an Internet site for information on sustainable development, including
information and communications technology [15L
World Bank, Knowledge Information and Technology Centre: It
provides the Africa Live Database, a system that gives users easy
electronic access to the latest economic, social, and sectoral data on
sub-Saharan Africa.
<http://www.worldbank.org/aftdr/connect/connect.htm>
The Bank also provides the Sector Knowledge Management System,
which captures, synthesizes and disseminates knowledge of
development practices and lessons learned from experiences on the
ground in Africa
< http : / / w w w . worldbank. org/html/extdr/af r. htm >
20
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
Barriers
The uevelopment of African connectivity and information and
communication technologies CICTsl also faces a number of problems
and barriers. The cost of systems and the need for management
Ctechnica' and administrative] remain the major challenges facing the
development of African connectivity. Technical costs not only reside
in hardware. "System running costs can become prohibitive in an
African environment when a node must handle the rising tide of
"unsolicited" e-mail usually associated with Internet
inter-connection", says Karen Banks of GreenNet/APC [181. She
further points out that most local African computer networks are
chronically under-financed, under-staffed, and saddled with
inappropriate software, and that lack of resources has compelled
some to take a stepped "grassroots" approach to the development of
connectivity in Africa.
IMPLICATIONS F O R UNESCO INTERNATIONAL
INSTITUTE F O R CAPACITY BUILDING IN AFRICA (IICBA)
Internet development is moving fast in northern and southern
Africa. The east and west sub-regions are lagging behind, but the
central sub-region is the one that is way behind. Internet
development is, in fact, very skewed in favour of South Africa. South
Africa is relatively quite advanced, with about 225,000 dial-up
accounts and hosting betweerf700,000 to 800.000 of Africa's 1.2
million Internet users. The number of Internet users in Europe and
21
Implications for UNESCO International Institute
For Capacity Building in Africa (IICBA)
North America is estimated at around one in six, but in Africa the
figure is one in a thousand. If South Africa is discounted, the figure is
one in five thousand. The Institute CIICBA3 should, in partnerships
with other institutes and organizations, explore ways to address
such an imbalance between regions and among various sub-regions
within Africa.
Distance or open learning is expanding worldwide. There is also a
new interest in nonformal education. Information and
communications technology for development now includes a wide
array of nonformal education and training programmes. This is a
growing trend that is energized by education's capacity to foster
social change and development. Another remarkable development is
that telecentre activities and programmes are expanding, gradually in
some places, and at a remarkably faster rate, in others. These are
valuable resources established, in many cases, under both the public
and private, governmental and non-governmental partnerships.
Better and innovative ways should be found to utilize them for
educational purposes. W e need to seize this momentum. At the
same time, there are various uncertainties that are overshadowing
such efforts and the gap between the rich and poor countries and
segments of African societies is widening further. The Institute
should make consistent efforts to conduct needed research aimed at
opening new avenues of understanding of such problems and
challenges. Meanwhile, it would be useful to explore how information
and communications activity centres or telecentres can be used to
help promote activities related to curriculum development, teacher
education, educational policy, planning and management, and
distance education.
22
Strategies for the Utilization of Electronic
And Communications Technology
STRATEGIES FOR THE UTILIZATION OF
ELECTRONIC AND COMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY
Strategies for the utilization or application of electronic and
communications technology in various dimensions of education form
an integral part of the overall educational strategy of IICBA. In this
sense, the specific strategies described below are an integral
component of the IICBA's overall strategic policy framework. The
Institute's overall strategic policy framework focuses on:
• Addressing the educational, technical and professional needs of
member states.
• Providing a forum for the sharing of both positive and negative
experiences so as to enable institutions and education systems
to benefit from work done by sister bodies.
• Bringing the latest research and development in Africa and
globally to institutions in Africa.
• Enhancing the capacities of regional, national and local level
institutions.
• Providing the opportunity for technological improvements, such
as utilization of electronic media for networking and for
educational purposes.
One of the biggest problems in the majority of educational
institutions in Africa today is the lack of resource materials, in
particular the lack of library facilities. Many university libraries are
unable to purchase the latest books and journals because of a serious
shortage of funds. As a result, students, researchers and lecturers
may well be seriously out of touch with the latest developments in
23
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
their fields. At primary and secondary school level, many classes
function with the minimum of resources, often with only one or two
textbooks in a class. This serious deficit can today be tackled through
the utilization of radio, audio cassettes, television, videos, diskettes
and C D roms, which offer a low cost but high impact way of providing
educational materials to many learners who are presently deprived of
such facilities. IICBA's electronic library programme already seeks to
overcome this deficit.
The overall strategic framework of IICBA includes the clause
"providing the opportunity for technological improvements" that is
directly related to the theme of this report. Intimately linked to this
framework are the following strategies focused on the four vital areas
of our concern—teacher education, curriculum development, distance
education, and educational policy, planning and management.
STRATEGY FOR UTILIZATION OF
TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHER EDUCATION
The Institute has already begun setting up its Teacher Education
Network [hereafter called Network], a network of teacher training
institutions in Africa utilizing where possible electronic media,
including internet. A group of nine countries has already been
selected in Phase I of this programme. An inauguration workshop
was held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in October, 1999. The Network
recognizes the importance of the improvement of teachers' academic
and professional skills, their teaching methodologies and their
contribution to the improvement of educational systems. It also
24
Strategy for Utilization of Technology
In Teacher Education
spelis out the need for uniting teacher education institutions Africa
wide to each other and to key institutions internationally.
The strategy suggested below takes into account this and other
encouraging developments which have taken place in teacher
education area recently. Elements of the specific strategy for
technology use in teacher education are:
aJThe Institute must have a technology network that is capable
of handling high volume work with high levels of efficiency. It
must match the nature, extent and networking needs of the
Institute's various programmes and activities.
blThe Institute should make strong efforts to build or develop a
comprehensive education sector database, preferably in
partnership with groups such as the Africa Live Database at
the World Bank and U N E S C O Divisions responsible for
maintaining education sector database related to Africa.
Various international databases contain a large pool of
macro-economic and sectoral data. The education sector data
cover, in most cases, student enrollment by age, level and
gender. Data on other vital educational performance indicators
such as teachers [their education level), money allocated to
education, library facility and many other education indicators
are conspicuously lacking. Organized data and information on
nonformal education is hardly available anywhere. Necessary
steps must be taken in this direction. The Institute can, in
partnership, collaboration or cooperation with other agencies,
contribute something of historic significance in both formal and
nonformal education areas. And the work that involves updating
25
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
and maintaining such a databasets) can form an integral part of
the Institute's research and development activity.
c)Proper mechanisms or pilot projects should be initiated or
developed to encourage teachers and teacher educators to use
or find innovative ways of using, where and when available,
telecentres or community communications centres for
teaching and learning purposes. For example, one way could
involve arrangements of teachers or teacher educators' timely
get-together programs to discuss and explore innovative ways
of acquiring and using technology for teaching and learning
purposes. Such meetings can provide valuable insight into the
problem at hand.
d]Provisions should be established to make distance teacher
education or learning courses available in partnership with the
African Virtual University, UNISA, the British Open University,
the Cambridge Extension College, the Indira Gandhi Open
University and reputable institutions from both the North and
South.
eJAIso, initiatives should be taken to create an environment,
which facilitates innovative ways of using new electronic and
communications technologies for expanding teacher education
under the Network. For example, where access to electronic
network or facility is unavailable, one way would be to facilitate
teachers network through the use of facilitators whose job will
be to carry messages containing teachers' perspectives,
ideas, etc., on a routine basis. The Network can act as a
source/provider of information and knowledge that are relevant
26
Strategy for Utilization of Technology
In Teacher Education
and which can help fulfil many different needs felt by teachers in
educational institutions. Even newsletters and radio programs
can be used to reach teachers who are participating in the
Network from distant or remote locations.
fIThe "persistent inability of education in general and schools in
particular to keep pace with the advances in information
technologies" [19] is an important issue. A mixed mode that
combines features of both electronic and traditional network
can serve the purpose well, enabling classrooms to access
resources outside their immediate milieus through electronic
means. Moreover the cost of electronic networking is likely to
decrease considerably, making the technology cheaper and
more easily accessible. W e should plan, prepare and act based
on the proven fact that one of the key features of today's
electronic and communications technology is the continuing fall
in charges.
STRATEGY FOR UTILIZATION OF TECHNOLOGY
IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
IICBA's plan to establish a Curriculum Development Network in
Africa aims at serving a number of vital functions in the development
of curriculum that is time-sensitive and desperately needed in the
new development context. Transforming traditional, outmoded
curriculum is not something that can be achieved easily in that such
an activity calls for a complex procedure involving the cooperation of
many different government agencies, education departments and
27
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
others. Elements of the specific strategy for technology use in
curriculum development are:
a)IICBA should, through the proposed Curriculum Development
Network, onduct a general evaluation of various activities
concerning curriculum development in a select group of African
countries.
tOIICBA should plan to hold both face-to-face and electronic
discussions, including a list-serve-based discussion periodically
to increase interaction and exchange of views focused,
particularly on the problems associated with curriculum in
science, mathematics, technology and language, with special
emphasis on distance learning or other technology-based
programmes.
cDThe recently announced WorldSpace broadcast programme has,
it is reported, plans to deliver a wide variety of programmes
related to, among others, educational, medical and religious
information. It is said that international and regional content
providers will ensure that listeners have access to news and
educational programming content, and that a multimedia
service will be offered in the near future which will bring users a
variety of content to their desktop computers. IICBA should
explore, in addition to the visual data transfer capabilities of
such a carrier for use with computers, the possibility of
developing curriculum appropriate for our educational purposes
via this channel.
28
Strategy for Utilization of Technology
In currriculum Development
d)Special training programmes should be devised and
implemented for teacher educators and facilitators Cwho assist
distance teachers at places such as satellite downlink sites] as
well ar learners who will have to operate at the interface
between curriculum and new technology. Such training will be
necessary because, as new technologies such as computers
and communications satellites open up new vistas for
transmitting educational and learning programmes, curriculum
and methods of teaching and learning will have to adapt to these
new innovations and programming in order to be effective. N ew
developments are already taking place in content and curriculum
development and more will follow in future.
elAttention should, at least, be focused on encouraging the use of
computer-aided instruction (CAIJ, where the computer becomes
an auxiliary to the teacher or the printed teaching materials.
Most African settings are, as can be imagined, still far from the
Stage of computer-based instruction CCBIÏ, where the computer
is used to deliver instruction, or the stage of training in skills
such as word-processing, spread-sheeting and database
management, where the computer turns into a productive tool.
flProper mechanisms or pilot projects should be initiated or
developed to encourage teachers or teacher educators to use
or find innovative ways of using, where and when available,
telecentres or community communications centres for
accessing information and knowledge about curriculum
development in African and other developing country settings.
29
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
STRATEGY FOR THE UTILIZATION OF
TECHNOLOGY IH DISTANCE EDUCATION
IICBA's plan to establish a Distance Education Network [hereafter
called Network] in Africa aims at serving, like the Curriculum
Development Network, a number of important functions in the
development of distance and open learning in Africa. Elements of the
specific strategy for technology use in distance education are:
aillCBA should plan to hold both face-to-face and electronic
discussions, including a list-serve-based discussion periodically,
to increase interaction and exchange of views focused,
particularly on the potentials as well as serious problems and
challenges associated with distance education and other
technology-based programmes.
MSpecial training programmes should be devised and
implemented for teacher educators and facilitators as well as
learners who will have to operate at the interface between new
communications media-based instruction, the body of latest
thoughts and developments in a specific discipline or subject
and technology. New technologies such as computers and
communications satellites require that methods of teaching
and learning adapt to these new innovations in educational
programming in order to be effective. Additionally, low-cost
technologies such as the audiocassette and printed materials
should continue, where and when appropriate, to be part of the
distance learning process.
30
Strategy for the Utilization of Technology
In Distance Education
c)Efforts must be made to explore the educational potential using
WorldSpace and other new broadcast system. IICBA can
benefit from WorldSpace's visual data transfer and
tele-educational capabilities
d)IICBA should, through the Distance Education Network,
conduct a general evaluation of various activities concerning the
new technology use and distance education in a select group of
African countries.
eJProper mechanisms or pilot projects should be developed to
encourage teachers or teacher educators to use or find
innovative ways of using, where and when available, telecentres
or community communications centres or any other electronic
and communications facility for taking courses at a distance and
for accessing needed information and knowledge.
fISpecific modalities or mechanisms for partnerships with the
African Virtual University and other institutions from the North
and South should be designed and developed to provide African
students with the opportunity to learn what they want and
what is needed most for African development.
STRATEGY FOR UTILIZATION OF TECHNOLOGY IN
EDUCATIONAL POLICY, PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
The Institute's plan to establish an Educational Policy, Planning
and Management Network thereafter called Network] in Africa next
year aims at serving, like the other Networks related to Teacher
31
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
Education, Curriculum Development, and Distance Education, a
number of key functions in the building of African capacity. Elements
of the specific strategy for technology use in educational policy,
planning and management are:
aJMatters concerned with educational policy, planning and
management require reliable and well-organized data and
information. IICBA should make strong efforts to build or
develop a comprehensive education sector database, preferably
in partnership with groups such as the Africa Live Database at
the World Bank and U N E S C O Divisions responsible for Africa.
Various international databases contain a large pool of
macro-economic and sectoral data. The education sector data
cover, in most cases, student enrollment by age, level and
gender. Data on other vital educational performance indicators
such as teachers [their education level], money allocated to
education, library facilities and many other indicators are
seriously lacking. IICBA can, in partnership, collaboration or
cooperation with other agencies, contribute significantly by
providing data useful for educational policy making, planning and
management.
bJEducation, training and learning is a life-long process. This is an
important consideration from the point of view of policy
strategy. Proper mechanisms or pilot projects should be
initiated or developed to encourage policy makers, planners and
managers who belong to various levels of administrative and
functional chains to use or find innovative ways of using
technology training centres or laboratories for learning
purposes. Mechanisms must be in place to help policy makers
32
Strategy for Utilization of Technology in
Educational Policy, Planing and Management
and planners learn about the benefits, costs ar challenges of
technology-based education and training.
cîSuch projects or mechanisms can provide planners and policy
makers with valuable insight into problems associated with
technology use and development.
d)IICBA should, through the proposed Educational Policy, Planning
and Management Network, make available information on the
latest research and development in this area.
e)IICBA should, in collaboration with other institutions, devise
courses in educational planning linked to economic and other
forms of development.
flllCBA should plan to hold' both face-to-face and electronic
discussions, including a list-serve-based discussion periodically
to increase interaction, and exchange of views. This should
focus particularly. on the problems influencing various
dimensions of educational policy, planning and management in
the Information Age.
g)The Network must encourage policy and measures towards
improved education at all ages and especially expansion of
secondary and higher education, and vocational training via
distance learning.
hJThe Network should devise ways to encourage the participation
of education institutions in developing proper policy and
33
Utilization of Information and Communications
Technology for Education in Africa
regulatory environment that facilitates greater use of
telecommunications for educational development.
Conclusion
Today's technology world is increasingly dominated by the Internet.
Educational and learning programs, like many other activities, can
benefit tremendously from Internet's open architecture and its
unique multimedia and other capabilities. These and new technical
advances are destined to play a key role in transforming education,
commerce and the broad range of other human activities in both
industrialized and developing countries. Ironically, if the current crisis
in education continues without strong capacity building measures,
the impact in poor and low-income countries in particular, can be
devastating. New technologies, which can be used to reverse the
traditional trend, can also be used to perpetuate the current
disparity. Issues related to technology utilization strategy should
 receive highest consideration. Careful analysis of various technology
choices and options are necessary to create maximum impact and
benefit for many. In conclusion, despite some problems confronting
the continent, great possibilities still lie ahead.
34
References
References
[1] Coombs, P.H. Í19683. The educational crisis: A systems
analysis. Oxford: New York.
[2] Coombs, P.H. (19853. The world crisis in education. Oxford:
New York.
[3] OAU Conference of African Ministers of Education. (1999J.
Programme of Action of the Decade of Education in Africa. OAU:
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
[43 Yapi, A. C1997). The relevance of technology in developing
countries. UNESCO-Africa, 14/14, 43-53.
[5] Potashnik, M. and Capper, J. C1998). Distance education:
Growth and diversity. Finance and DevelopmentfMarch 1998. The
World Bank: Washington D.C.
[ß] Chung, F. (1999). Capacity building spotlight: ZINTEC
programme for primary school teacher: IICBA Newsletter,
October 1999.
35
References
[7] Nwaboku, N.C. [1997], New information technologies in
education and new roles for potential teachers. UNESCO-Africa
15/15, 30-37.
[8] World Ban.: [1995]. Priorities and strategies for education.
Washington, D. C.
[9] [http://www.school.za/schoolnet.html
[10] http://www.bellanet.org/partners/aisi
[11] http://www.wn.apc.org/
[12] UNESCO [1997], Review of UNESCO's activities in Africa
[1996-1997], Africa Priority Department.
[13] http://www.idrc.ca
[14] http://www.bellanet.org
[15] <http://www.iisd.ca/linkages.htm
[1 B]http://www. worldbank. org/aftdr/connect/connect. htm
[17] http://www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/afr.htm
[18] http://www.wn.apc.org/
[19] Ochao, M . L and Henao, B. M . [1997). Can networks help to
modernize schooling? The Tourna Rural Research Network
(Colombia)
36

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NAVIGATION
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Teachers

UNESCO estimates that 18m new teachers are needed globally between now and
2015 to accommodate all children at school in classes of no more than 40 children
per teacher. Sub-Saharan African will need 2.4m new teachers. This calls for massive
new investments, but it is clear that such growth in spending is unlikely to be
achieved according to reseach by ActionAid entitled Confronting the contradictions:
The IMF wage bill caps and the case for teachers. Despite compelling evidence that
education is a sound long-term investment for a country, the IMF regards spending
on education as simply ‘consumption’ and not as ‘productive investment’ and
therefore education spending, especially on wages, is always curtailed. The
researchers argue that in setting these wage bill caps, rising school enrolment rates
should be taken into consideration.
 Policy developments

In her budget speech, Education Minister Naledi Pandor said the continued failures of
some teachers and education officials could no longer be blamed on apartheid or
insufficient resources and that levels of under-performance in the education system
were too high and an unjust subversion of the promise of freedom and democracy, to
our people. After referring to ‘reported failures in our execution of the no-fee schools
policy the minister also said ‘the time have arrived for SA to offer all children free
primary education’. Free primary education is also one of the issues to be discussed
at the ANC policy conference at Gallagher Estate this month.

Minister of science and technology, Mosibudi Mangena, announced in his budget

speech that some R323m would be spent on development programmes to encourage
careers in the ‘critical’ human resources shortages in science, engineering and
technology (SET). His department also allocated R178m to provide modern research
facilities and infrastructure for the research community. The minister said his
department and the National Advisory Councils on Innovation have compiled a
comprehensive report on the infrastructure requirements of both science and
innovation, which is toform the basis of a long-term infrastructure plan for science
and technology.

Libraries and reference material

A novel programme aimed at installing a reading habit among low-income

communities was recently launched in Argentina. The ‘Books and Houses’ campaign
plans to distribute a total of 80 000 bookshelves, each complete with 18 volumes of
books, to individual households in 800 districts and towns around the country. The
books were carefully selected by a team of experts in education and literature, and
although the central goal of the new programme is to make books available to
children in order to help them acquire a reading habit, the volumes that were chosen
are for the entire family. The programme began by delivering bookshelves to 70
homes in Anatuya, where 27% of the local residents have either no formal schooling
or did not complete primary education. The next area to be targeted is the Buenos
Aires suburb San Isidro, where affluent neighbourhoods coexist alongside six slums
that are being upgraded with new low-cost housing.
Volunteers at the English Wikipedia and SOS Children have launched the 15 volume
Wikipedia Selection for Schools consisting of articles that have been cleaned up and
checked for suitability for children, avoiding adult content as well as extra material
specifically selected to be of interest to children who follow the UK National
Curriculum and similar curricula elsewhere in the world.

Wikimedia Foundation chairperson said the foundation aims to encourage the

development and distribution of reference content to the public free of charge. It is
intended to extend and update the selection periodically.

Corruption and crime

A new report, Corrupt shools, corrupt universities: What can be done? by the United
Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), traces illegal registration
fees, academic fraud, embezzlement and other problems which are undermining
education systems in more than 60 countries, with information derived from
government ministries, development agencies and research institutes. The report
notesthat bribes and payoffs in the recruitment and promotion of teachers lowers
their quality, and illegal fees paid for school entrance and other hidden costs result in
low enrolment and high dropout rates. In universities most corruption is in the form of
fake universities offering bogus degrees and engaging in accreditation fraud. The
number of phony universities offering sham degrees quadrupled from 200 to 800 on
the Internet between 2000 and 2004.

The study argues that leadership and political will at the highest levels of government
is crucial to combat this. Transparent regulatory systems and stronger management
efforts to bring about greater accountability are among the improvements necessary
for corruption in education systems to abate. The report recommended that
management, accounting, monitoring and audit skills are crucial for such groups as
administrative staff of schools, parent-teacher associations, unions and other
individuals associated with the educational process.

The past month has seen numerous attacks on pupils by fellow pupils while three
pupils died in violent attacks by classmates.

Open, distance and flexible learning (ODFL) tackles HIV/AIDS

According to research by the UK Institute of Education, ‘business as usual’ will not
meet the education challenges of the HIV epidemic in South Africa and Mozambique,
but open, distance and flexible learning (ODFL) can reduce the effects of HIV on
young people. ODFL has the potential to increase access to education; improve
quality of schooling (and thereby child survival and family health); raise public
awareness and advocacy for health initiatives; and spread health information and
encourage health behaviour. The study found that HIV/AIDS-afffected young people
need more opportunity to develop literacy skills and undertake vocational training.
They are most easily reached by radio and particularly like to learn through music,
drama and stories. The study recommends using ODFL to:

• deliver the national curriculum to those out of school;

• promote critical thinking, positive group identity and solidarity among young people;
• develop, coordinate and disseminate the knowledge base on HIV/AIDS at the national
level;
• improve teachers’ ability to empathise with young people affected by HIV/AIDS and
provide psychosocial guidance and counselling; and
• give young heads of households access to information, psychosocial support, training
on business skills and careers counselling.

Mathematics and science

The DoE has backed out of Trends in International Mathematics and Science Studies
(TIMMS), an international maths and science exam conducted every four years to
measure pupils’ performance in maths and science globally, because it did not want
to subject pupils to too many tests. South African pupils came last in the two most
recent TIMMS conducted in 1999 and 2003. Vishnu Naidoo, chairman of the SA
Mathematics Foundation described the country’s pullout as sad. ‘Even though we
may perform poorly, these are indicators that serve to inform us about our curriculum
and what adjustments we should be making’.

SA technology and training company IT School Innovation has launched an

educational tool MOBI which turns mobile phones into edutainment devices by
allowing users to chat and listen to the latest music hits while learning the high
school maths syllabus. The service is available in English and Afrikaans and other
subjects such as physics and chemistry are in the pipeline. MOBI runs on most Java
enabled handsets and can be downloaded and installed for free. Once installed the
application is able to connect to an online server via a mobile wireless protocol such
as 3G or GPRS and provide access to MOBI Maths, MOBI Chat and MOBI Radio. Full
use of MOBI Maths is charged at a nominal monthly fee, while some sections such as
Basic Skills are free.

Database launched

The department of science and technology (DST) recently launched a database that
quantifies and monitors the levels of unemployment among science, engineering and
technology graduates. The database will be managed by the South African Graduate
Development Association, an NGO that empowers unemployed graduates. It will be
used by job seekers, employers, candidates for postgraduate studies, institutions of
higher learning and other stakeholders to improve the rate of human capital
development, especially in science, engineering and technology. According to science
and technology minister Mosibudi Mangena, SA has a considerable skills mismatch
retarding the country’s economic growth and competitiveness. ‘I have no doubt that
what we are engaged in today is a step in the right direction to closing the gap
between the skills shortage and the skills mismatch’. The minister also announced
that the lion’s share of the DST’s medium-term budget (some R323m) would be spent
on human capital development programmes to encourage careers in science,
engineering and technology.

E-learning

The 2nd international e-Learning Africa conference that seeks to help mainstream
technology in education to serve the population was held in Nairobi in May. Topics
ranged from the use of cellphones as education tools to the training of civil servants
through distance education and the role of e-learning in HIV/AIDS awareness and
prevention. Experts said computer-based learning has created opportunities for many
who would otherwise have been overlooked. The Electronic Schools Project aimed at
creating digital centres in schools throughout Africa is set to grow, following the
successful outcome of a pilot study which implemented the project in 120 schools in
16 African countries. The pilot study recorded a 35% improvement in students’
examination performance in places where electronic schools (e-schools) are
operational. The primary goal of the e-schools project in Africa, led by NEPAD and
supported by Smart Technologies, Hewlett Packard, Nokia and Microsoft, is to have
600 000 schools on the continent imparting ICT skills to their students within 10
years of implementation. Smart Technologies have already donated 50 ‘smartboards’
– electronic blackboards that enable teachers to communicate information to
hundreds of students at a time – to help the project in Kenya, Rwanda and SA.
According to Smart Technologies, the success of the project depends on the speed at
which teachers can be trained to adopt and use the new technology. The project also
faces challenges such as lack of infrastructure, especially in rural areas, lack of
physical security and difficulties involved in managing a consortium of private sector
partners.

Poverty and malnutrition

A study by the University College of London, the London School of Hygiene and
Tropical Medicine and an international group of academics which assessed the links
between poverty, stunted growth – often caused by ill health and malnutrition – and
low achievement at school, has found that more than 200m children under five years
in developing countries are not achieving their full potential.

They do badly at school and have low productivity in adulthood, and as a result they
pass on poverty and deprivation to future generations. The researchers found that:

• many mothers in poor families were uneducated, suffered from stress and depression
and were unable to provide a stimulating home environment;
• poor children often attended inadequate schools and had little support from family
members who did not appreciate the benefits of education;
• stunted children were less likely to be enrolled in school and if they did go to school,
they were more likely to enrol late, get lower grades and have a low IQ for their age;
and
• stunted children were less likely to have completed their primary education.
The study found a strong link between school success and economic prosperity: each
year of schooling increases adult wages by almost 10%.

Skills survey

A Centre for Development and Enterprise survey, The South African skills crisis: A
report from the corporate coal face, revealed that SA’s businesses had few positive
things to say about the schooling system in SA. For instance:
 • private sector employers have ‘grave reservations’ about the overall quality of
education in SA;
• they saw a decline in school leavers’ abilities in maths, science and especially
language skills;
• there was ‘no work ethic’, there was a lack of discipline and culture of learning, and
learners lacked the ability to be trained;
• dealings with SETAs were cumbersome and assessors were poorly trained;
• there were uneven standards between universities; and
• skills issues were their greatest single source of frustration.
According to the survey findings the skills shortage was worsening as a result of the
brain drain, the aging of skilled staff or their promotion to more senior positions, and
government’s emphasis on employment equity.

The report recommends that an improved apprenticeship be instated, immigration be

opened up as a short-term solution and that government should moderate its
pressure for employment equity.

Education Trends is compiled by the Institute for Futures Research.

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Understanding ICT integration in South African Classrooms

Wilson-Strydom, M and Thomson, J

The adoption of ICTs in education continues to pose challenges both globally (John &
Sutherland 2004) and locally, in South Africa (Hodgkinson-Williams 2005). According to
the White Paper on e-Education these challenges can be summarised into three main
areas:
• Participation in the information society;
• Impact of ICTs on access, cost effectiveness and quality of education; and
• Integration of ICTs into the learning and teaching process (DoE 2003:8)
[emphasis added].

The Department of Education (DoE) stipulates that participation in the information

society means that, “Every South African learner in the general and further education and
training bands will be ICT capable (that is, use ICTs confidently and creatively to help
develop the skills and knowledge they need to achieve personal goals and to be full
participants in the global community) by 2013” (DoE, 2003, 17). Full participation in the
information society is enabled by successful e-education, which, according to the DoE
(2003) incorporates learner-centred pedagogy, inquiry-based learning, collaborative work
and the development of higher level thinking skills. For these reasons and to achieve
other policy goals reflected in the White Paper, the adoption of ICTs in schools generally
(for administration and management systems) and the integration of ICTs into teaching
and learning practices specifically is being encouraged.
This paper reports on a project which aims to support teachers’ integration of ICTs into
the classroom and specifically into pedagogical practices. The research reported on here
is drawn from a survey of 231 teachers. The paper reports on both the stages and the
types of integration observed.

The paper begins by conceptualising the adoption of ICTs into classroom and the
integration of ICTs into pedagogical practices. It then describes the Intel® Innovation in
Education Teach to the Future programme which seeks to support ICT integration into
teaching and learning. It moves onto to explaining the research process, which sets out to
ascertain:
• The extent of access teachers have to ICT, and the role access plays in relation
to use;
• The extent to which teachers have learners use ICT as part of their lessons;
• Teachers’ reasons for not integrating ICT into the curriculum
• Teachers’ perceptions of learner responses to the use of ICT; and
• Teachers’ perceptions of changes in their pedagogical practices.
Finally, the paper discusses the findings in the light of the specific questions as well as in
terms of broader considerations around the adoption and integration of computers.

Conceptualising adoption and integration

It is our contention that the concept of integration as expressed in the the White paper on
e-education (DoE 2003) needs to be unpacked or problematised. In practice, the adoption
and integration of computers is a challenging and complex process for schools,
particularly where there is limited previous experience in the use of ICTs to support
teaching and learning. Furthermore, at many schools that have had access to ICTs, the
focus has tended to be on ‘learning about ICTs’ rather than learning with or through the
use of ICTs (Jonassen, Peck & Wilson 1999).

Historically, the concept of ICT integration as an approach evolved as a reaction to early

computer-in-schools programmes where the emphasis lay on developing computer
literacy or technical knowledge of computers and the use of various computer
applications. More recently ICT integration has been recognised as “using computers to
learn, rather than learning to use computers” (UNESCO/COL, 2004, 45). Thus the focus
is on adding value to the curriculum in numerous ways1, What is important is that ICT
skills are not taught as a distinct activity (“just-in-case”), but are acquired “just-in-time,”
in the context of activity that is meaningful to learners” (UNESCO/COL, 2004, p.45).
Indeed, “the integrated approach places information technology in a pivotal role in the
already transforming learning process. Its success as an approach lies with the ability of
teachers to set tasks that require learners to use these information skills. This is
appropriate and necessary at this time when South African teachers are being encouraged
to adopt new teaching strategies that are outcomes based and learner-centered” (Roos,
2005, p. 21).

We suggest that integration can be described in two ways. The first way relates to the
stages of integration and is closely associated with adoption. The second way relates to
the type or kind of integration and is closely associated with use. We argue that particular
stages of integration are more likely to be associated with specific integrative uses.

Those authors who see the integration of ICT into teaching and learning as part of the
broader issue of the adoption of computers within the school as a whole, valuably provide
ways of describing the steps likely to be taken at school and educator level. A report on
ICT curriculum and teacher development for schools (UNESCO 2002) suggests a four-
stage continuum of ICT integration. These are:
• “Emerging
Schools at the beginning stages of ICT development demonstrate the emerging
approach. Such schools begin to purchase, or have donated, some computing
equipment and software. In this initial phase, administrators, and teachers are just

1
These include: Using generic software packages (office applications, graphics and presentation packages);
using specialist software for interactive learning, simulations and content mastery; using asynchronous and
synchronous communication tools for online collaboration and information exchange (e-mail, Web forums,
instant messaging, audio- and videoconferencing); and using the Internet as an information and research
resource.
 starting to explore the possibilities and consequences of using ICT for school
management and adding ICT to the curriculum … Schools at this emerging phase are
still firmly grounded in traditional, teacher-centred practice.
• Applying
Those schools in which a new understanding of the contribution of ICT to learning has
developed exemplify the applying approach. In this secondary phase, administrators
and teachers use ICT for tasks already carried out in school management and in the
curriculum. Teachers largely dominate the learning environment.
• Infusing
At the next stage, the infusing approach involves integrating or embedding ICT across
the curriculum, and is seen in those schools that now employ a range of computer-
based technologies in laboratories, classrooms, and administrative offices. Teachers
explore new ways in which ICT changes their personal productivity and professional
practice.
• Transforming
Schools that use ICT to rethink and renew school organization in creative ways are at
the transforming approach. ICT becomes an integral though invisible part of daily
personal productivity and professional practice…ICT is taught as a separate subject at
the professional level and is incorporated into all vocational areas. Schools have
become centres of learning for their communities” (UNESCO, 2000, p. 15-16).

In addition to describing stages of integration, we think it valuable to differentiate

between types of integration. Here, we find it useful to distinguish between
“representational” and “generative” use of computers, as explained by Hokanson and
Hooper (2000). The term “representational use” is used to describe how computers are
used to merely represent information in another medium. Here the computer is
incorporated within a task, but its purpose it to “re-present” information, not to generate
or construct new information. We suggest that the underlying epistemological assumption
of Hokanson and Hooper’s (2000) “representational use” is that knowledge is absolute,
definable and “re-presentable”. Our thesis is that if teachers’ epistemological assumptions
are defined by objectivist beliefs of knowledge and their pedagogical practices are
informed by behaviourist theories of learning, then they are likely to limit the use of
computers to representational uses. This might account for teachers’ beliefs that merely
typing an essay or making a pretty front cover using every conceivable font and page
border can be termed “integration”. Therefore we maintain that using ICTs as a
“representational tool” is only partly integrative.

By contrast:

“What is important about computer use is not being able to word process, or view
a multimedia presentation, but the ability to interact with the computer in the
manipulation and creation of knowledge through the rapid manipulation of
various symbol systems. The value is not in more efficient representation but in
improving the capability to generate thought” (Hokanson & Hooper 2000:547).

This concept of “generative use” appears to be underpinned by a Piagetian cognitive

constructivist view of knowledge and learning which assumes that knowledge is not a
product that can be transmitted from one person to another, but is a process of
individually constructing knowledge. Jonassen and Reeves (1996) use the term
“cognitive tools” to refer to the role of ICTs in enhancing the learners’ cognitive powers
during thinking, problem-solving and learning. We maintain that if teachers’
epistemological assumptions are defined by constructivist beliefs of knowledge and their
pedagogical practice are informed by cognitive constructivist theories of learning, then
they are likely to extend the use of computers to generative uses. This might account for
teachers’ beliefs that computers can be “integrated” into the curriculum to support
learners’ individual development. We suggest that using ICTs as a “cognitive tool” can be
seen as individually integrative.

The concept of “generative use” may also be extended to a Vygotskian socio-

constructivist view of knowledge and learning which assumes that knowledge cannot be
limited to an individual’s view of it, but is instead a process of negotiation of meaning in
a specific context. By “continuously (re) constructing and refining knowledge on the
basis of their experience and opportunities for inter-subjective exchange, learners [or
teachers will] bring prior understandings to bear in individual ways on new information
and situations” (Levy et al. 2003: 304). In this sense computers can operate as
“mediational tools” (Wertch, 1991; Lim 2003), which we argue is socially integrative.
This conceptual categorisation may be helpful in trying to understand what and why
teachers, and indeed learners, understand by the term “integration”.

We suggest that at the “Emerging” and “Applying” stages of adoption computer

integration is partial and the predominant use of ICT would be representational – that is
representing information in another medium. We suggest that learners are more likely to
be learning about computers than learning with or through computers (Jonassen, Peck &
Wilson 1999) during these two stages. We further speculate that at the “Infusing” stage
teachers’ use of ICT becomes more generative as they start using ICTs to “generate
thought” (Hokanson & Hooper 2000) and that this generative use of ICTs is extended to
learners in the “Transforming” stage. At this stage ICTs would hopefully both
individually and socially integrative.

The project: The Intel® Innovation in Education Teach to the Future programme
Launched in 2000, Intel® Teach to the Future is an international project aimed at helping
teachers integrate technology into their classrooms in order to enhance student learning.
Originally launched in the United States and now used in 33 countries world-wide, Intel®
Teach to the Future is characterized by its emphasis on pedagogy, a commitment captured
by Intel President, Dr. Craig Barrett’s comment that “computers aren’t magic, teachers
are” (Barrett, 2000). The South African programme was launched in 2003. The goal of
the Intel® Teach to the Future programme in South Africa is articulated as follows:
To train classroom educators how to promote project-based learning and
effectively integrate the use of computers into Curriculum 2005 and
Revised National Curriculum Statements so that learners will increase
their learning achievement (Intel® Teach to the Future Training Manual,
3.3, p.1).
The programme consists of ten modules of at least four hours each that focus on the
effective integration of ICT into the curriculum through use of the project approach to
learning. The emphasis is on hands-on learning and uses the educators’ own teaching
units to work through all aspects of a project of their own choice, including assessment
and development of a library of rubrics. This provides an authentic context for learning.
Educators work in teams, problem solve and engage in peer reviews throughout the
programme. The overall aim is to explore ways learners and educators can use
technology to enhance learning. This approach makes the project accessible to teachers
with a range of computer experience with advanced teachers being able to maximize
opportunities for cross-curricular planning.

Intel® Teach to the Future has been adopted by a number of universities as an ICT
component of both pre-service and in-service programmes. The curriculum for South
Africa was initially localised by the University of Pretoria and thereafter refined by
SchoolNet South Africa. The programme is aligned to the South African National
Curriculum Statements, is endorsed by the South African Council for Educators (SACE)
and is supported by the National Department of Education.

The research
Evaluation research has been a key component of the Intel®Teach to the Future
programme, since its inception. It has included a series of case studies at a sample of
participating schools, as well as a quantitative survey administered annually. Here we
report on the results of a quantitative survey conducted during October 2004. The survey
instrument used was a standard questionnaire developed for the Intel® Teach to the
Future project, adapted to reflect country-specific contexts, and administered annually in
all countries implementing the Intel® Teach to the Future programme. The survey2 was
administered online, although some schools requested hard copies of surveys due to
Internet access problems. By October 2004 a total of 1078 educators in South Africa had

2
The survey can be accessed at
http://teach.schoolnet.org.za/common/impact.php?required=false.
completed Intel® Teach to the Future training (as recorded in the programme
management database). Surveys were sent to all 1078 educators and atotal of 231
responses were received. The response rate was thus 21%. This is lower than desirable,
but given the dearth of empirical data on ICT integration in South Africa, a data set of
231 responses provides a useful sample with which to begin to unpack factors affecting
ICT integration at the classroom level. Descriptive statistics and frequency counts were
generated using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) programme.

The survey sample was made up of 48.5% men and 51.5% women. The majority of the
sample (43%) lived in township areas, with 26% in rural areas and 31% in urban areas.
Of the sample 59% were General Education and Training (GET) educators and 41%
Further Education and Training (FET) educators. The majority of the sample fell into the
30-39 years age category (45%), followed by 36% in the 40-49 years group. The 20-29
years and 50 years and above categories accounted for 9% and 10% of the sample
respectively. The number of years teaching experience was roughly evenly distributed
across the following categories; 0-5 years (15%), 6-10 years (20%), 16-20 years (18%)
and more than 20 years (20%). A slightly higher number of respondents (28%) had
between 11-15 years teaching experience.

Findings and discussion

ICT access and use

In terms of access to computers for teaching and learning, 93% of respondents indicated
that they have computers for this purpose while 7 % of respondents indicated that they do
not. This suggests that overall the participating schools are at least at the “Applying”
stage, if not at the “Infusing stage” of the UNESCO model (2000).

A total of 79.1% of the sample reported having a computer laboratory at school, while
20.9% did not. In terms of learner access, this suggests the majority of participating
schools are moving beyond the “Emerging” stage and that the teachers have the
opportunity to operate within the “Applying” or even the “Infusing” stage as the schools
are able to offer opportunities for learners to use ICT.

With respect to Internet access, 63% reported having Internet access in their computer
laboratories, while 37% did not. This suggests that the use of ICTs as “mediational tools”
is possible in the majority of participating schools.

Of the participating schools 80.7% reported that they had no computers available in the
classroom (as opposed to the computer room), 11.2% had one classroom computer
available, while 7.2% had more than seven computers in the classroom. This latter group
appears most likely to be made up of Computer Studies educators or educators who make
use of computer rooms as their classrooms. The lack of reported access to computers in
the classroom seems to suggest that integrating ICT within the learning areas or subjects
may be still quite limited as teachers and learners do not have constant access to ICTs,
indicating an “Emerging” phase.

In the light of the data on access to ICT, we now consider to what extent access
influences the extent to which ICT integration takes place. Figure 1 shows the frequency
of technology-integrated lessons by number of computers in the school for teaching and
learning.
 70%

60% 58% 57%

50%

39% 0 computers
40%
35% 1-10 computers
32% 33%
11-20 computers
29%
30%
25%
21 or more computers
25%
23%
20%
20%
14%

10%
10%

1% 0% 0%
0%
More than once per About once per Less than once per Never
month month month

Figure 1: Frequency of technology-integrated

lessons by number of computers for teaching and
learning

The most striking finding here is that the teachers who reported to have implemented
technology-integrated lessons about once per month (58%) or less than once per month
(57%) have between 11-20 computers only. Yet, 33% of teachers report that they have
never used technology-integrated lessons even though they have more than 21 computers.
This suggests that increased access to computers alone does not necessarily mean
increased implementation of technology-integrated lessons. In terms of the UNESCO
model, it would seem that there is a possible tension between computer access being at
the “Applying” or “Infusing” stage, while teachers use may be lagging behind at an
“Emerging” stage.

It is interesting to note that 1% of those who implement technology-integrated lessons

more than once per month do not have direct access to computers for teaching and
learning. This is likely to be teachers who make use of a local computer centre.
With respect to influence of Internet access on frequency of implementation it was found
that lack of Internet access appears unlikely to be a reason for lack of implementation of
technology-integrated lessons. However, for those who implemented about once per
month, most had Internet access in the computer laboratory. For those who implement
more than once per month, the difference between those who did and those who did not
have Internet access is much smaller. We might speculate – but as yet do not have data to
support this – that when teachers first start integrating technology, they do so about once
per month and then tend to focus on information-gathering activities using the Internet.
Once technology integration becomes a more integral part of their teaching, then reliance
on the Internet appears to be reduced and a wider range of computer applications used.
This would be an interesting assumption to explore in further research.

Extent of Technology Integration

The core focus of the survey was to assess the extent to which technology-integrated
lessons have been implemented by those who have completed Intel® Teach to the Future
training. Of the sample 48.5% reported that they had learners use technology within their
lessons more than once per month. A further 13.5% used ICTs in teaching and learning
about once per month, while 9.2% used technology in their lessons less than once per
month. In contrast 28.8% of the sample had yet to implement a technology-integrated
lesson. This means that approximately half of the sample have implemented what they
learned in the Intel® Teach to the Future training, which may be reasonable number
given the various contextual constraints at South African schools.

In order to better understand factors affecting ICT integration, it is important that we try
to understand who makes up the 28.8% (66 respondents) who have never implemented a
technology-integrated lesson (those who fell into the ‘never’ category). In order to do this
a descriptive analysis was carried out using available data.
Reasons for lack of integration
Analysis of the 66 respondents who had not implemented a technology-integrated lesson
showed that this group was 59.1% female and 40.9% male. The ratio of female to male is
slightly higher than for the full dataset, but the difference is small. A larger difference was
found when we considered those educators who are in the GET (75.4% of respondents)
and FET (24.6% respondents) bands. Similarly, with respect to geographic location, we
found that 44.3% of those who have never implemented a technology-integrated lesson
live in rural areas, 36.1% in urban areas, and 19.7% in township areas. A recent study in
South Africa has highlighted that facilities at rural schools are likely to be scarce, class
sizes often large, and hence use of ICT for teaching and learning, where available, more
challenging (HSRC and EPC 2005). In terms of the UNESCO model, it would seem that
schools in rural areas are still approaching the “Emerging” stage and will need a great
deal of support to move to the other stages.

In order to further explore the influence of ICT access on the group of educators who
never used technology in their lessons, it is helpful to compare access frequencies for this
group with access frequencies for those in the sample who did implement a technology-
integrated lesson. Frequencies of computer laboratory access, number of computers in the
school for teaching and learning, access to the internet in the computer laboratory, and
frequency of computer laboratory use for each of these groups were calculated.

There was very little difference with respect to the responses of those who did and did not
implement technology-integrated lessons when we consider the availability of a computer
laboratory at the school. Of particular interest is that those who did not implement appear
to have slightly better access to a computer laboratory than those who did. This suggests
that the presence of a computer laboratory is not sufficient to encourage implementation
of technology-integrated lessons. Very similar results are found with respect to Internet
access at the school, with those who do not implement technology-integrated lessons
having slightly better access to the Internet than those who do, although the difference is
again very small. Thus it appears that Internet access at a school is also not a sufficient
condition to influence the implementation of technology-integrated lessons.
Participants were asked in the survey to indicate how often they were able to make use of
the computer laboratory at their school. Clearer differences between the two groups
emerged when we consider regularity of computer laboratory use.

70% 65.9%
57.1%
60%
50%
40%
30%
18.3% 20.6%
20%
11.1%
8.5%9.5%
10% 2.4% 4.9%
1.6%
0%
daily weekly monthly less than once never
per month
Sample - implemented
Regularity of computer use
Sample - did not implement

Figure 2: Regularity of Computer Laboratory Use

From Figure 2 it is evident that 57.1% of those who have not implemented what they
learnt in their training, never use their computer laboratory. A further 42.9% of those
responding with ‘never’ do in fact make use of their computer laboratories, although not
to implement technology-integrated lessons. Cohen (2004, p.164), in a study on ICT in
South African use, found that the ‘most fundamental use being made of the computer in
all the schools was for administration purposes.’ It would seem that “representational
use” of computers is still a dominant use of ICTs at school, which once again suggests the
“Applying” stage of the UNESCO model. The questions included in the survey about
reasons for not implementing new technology-integrated lessons also suggest reasons,
such as lack of access to required software, too little preparation time, and lack of both
administrative and technical support available. Figure 3 provides a summary of responses
given as to why educators had not yet made use of technology in their teaching.
 Lack of technical support 52.6% 12.3% 35.1%

Lack of admin support 57.9% 8.8% 33.3%

Too little preparation time 52.6% 10.5% 36.8%

Not confident enough with technology skills 69.6% 5.4% 25.0%

Teaching assignment changed 66.7% 15.8% 17.5%

Will not help to meet learning outcomes 80.4% 12.5%7.1%

Unsatisfied with my lesson 69.6% 19.6% 10.7% Disagree

No opinion
Lesson did not fit my curriculum 64.9% 8.8% 26.3% Agree

Plan to use my lesson by the end of the year 47.4% 28.1% 24.6%

Did not consider implementing 69.6% 8.9% 21.4%

Technology-integrated lesson too difficult 69.6% 12.5% 17.9%

No internet connection 42.1% 14.0% 43.9%

Software not available 44.8% 6.9% 48.3%

Necessary computers not available 21.7% 3.3% 75.0%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 3: Reasons for not implementing technology-

integrated lessons

The most commonly noted reason for not implementing a technology-integrated lesson
was that ‘necessary computers were not available’ (75%). This was particularly so for
educators in schools where large class sizes are common (see also Cohen, 2004; Lundall
& Howell, 2000). Other reasons noted by 30% or more of the sample included:
• Software not available (48.3%);
• No Internet connection (43.9%);
• Too little preparation time (36.8%);
• Lack of technical support (35.1%); and
• Lack of administrative support (33.3%).
Similar trends were found in the data analysis conducted across all countries
implementing Intel® Teach to the Future where 59.4% of the sample agreed with the
statement ‘necessary computers were not available’, 53.2% agreed that they had ‘too little
preparation time’, 47% agreed that they ‘did not have adequate technical support’ and
44.5% agreed that they ‘did not have adequate administrative support’ (Martin & Light,
2004). However, this finding is inconsistent with the data reported on the extent to which
access to computers inflences ICT integration (See Figure 1 and associated discussion).
Further research is needed to explain some of the tensions, one of which seems to be that
while computer access is at least at the “Applying” phase for most of the schools,
teachers may still be operating at the “Emerging” stage.

Learner responses to the use of computers, as reported by teachers

Those respondents who did implement lessons in which they integrated technology in a
new way, were asked a series of questions about their experience of implementing these
lesson and the response of learners to these lessons (Figure 4).
 Disagree
No opinion
Agree

Help each other 2% 7% 91%

Accommodates different skills level 7% 8% 85%

Gave positive feedback 2% 6% 92%

Communicate ideas and opinions 5% 8% 88%

More in-depth understanding 3% 14% 83%

Work is more creative 3% 10% 88%

Different learning styles accommodated 3% 13% 84%

Worked together 3% 9% 88%

Motivated & actively involved 3%3% 94%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Figure 4: Learner responses to technology

integrated lessons

Figure 4 reflects that overall, educators report that learners have responded very
positively to ICT integrated lessons. The three most frequently reported benefits of
technology-integrated lessons were that learners were motivated (94%), gave positive
feedback (92%) and helped each other. This indicates quite a high “mediational” role of
the technology-integrated task and suggests that the learners may be approaching the
“Transforming” stage.

When asked about the challenges that were experienced whilst implementing technology-
integrated lessons the most common responses educators gave included:
• Too few computers (67%);
• Time constraints and hence lesson not completed (62%);
• Learners did not have enough computer skills (61%); and
• Difficulties with scheduling enough time (59%).
Once again the access to computers is being “blamed”by the educators. Further research
does need to attempt to ascertain to what extent the lack of access is really the problem,
or if other aspects are hindering the integration.