Hydrodynamic

Introduction
Pictures from and based on the books : Ship Dynamics for Mariners (IC Clark, The Nautical Institute) Ship resistance & flow (SNAME 2010) Viscous Fluid Flow (Franck White)

Fluid characteristic
Definition of a fluid : A continuous, amorphous substance whose molecules move freely past one another and that has the tendency to assume the shape of its container; a liquid or gas. Properties : Isotropy : same characteristics whatever the considered direction Mobility : it will take the shape of a tank Viscosity : is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress or tensile stress Compressibility : the density depends on the temperature and the pressure (for water, we consider its independent of the pressure
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Forces on a fluid
Gravity : volume force Pressure : force per surface Friction : interaction between particles and surface Inertia : proportional to acceleration Capillarity In general, Surface tension smaller than Chemical forces the other 4. Magneto hydrodynamic force

In static
Only the first 2 forces have to be considered: So, it become : p + g h = 0 The difference of pressure between two points depends only on the vertical distance between the points : Pb-Pa = g Z Unit of the pressure : Pascal (Pa) 1 Pa = 1 N/m
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Statical pressure on a boat

The pressure forces are perpendicular to the plate.

The statical pressure is quite easy to calculate.

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Dynamic pressure
The static pressure is a kind of potential energy per unit volume. If we make a small hole, because of this pressure, there will be a jet. Potential energy will be changed into kinetic energy It give the dynamic pressure : g h = V

Bernoulli
Daniel Bernoulli (Groningen, 8 February 1700 Basel, 8 March 1782) was a Dutch-Swiss mathematician and was one of the many prominent mathematicians in the Bernoulli family. He is particularly remembered for his applications of mathematics to mechanics, especially fluid mechanics, and for his pioneering work in probability and statistics. (from wikipedia)
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Bernoulli
Bernoullis theorem shows the conservation of energy.

It can be written : g h + V + p = constant

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Bernoulli
Lets consider this pipe. Liquid incompressible, so same volumetric flow rate : A1V1=A2V2 g h1 + V1 + p1 = g h2 + V2 + p2 Because same pressure

V1

2g h A1
2

A2

2
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Bernoulli : the pitot tube

The pitot tube measure the pressure (static and dynamic) with one opening and the static pressure with the other one.

2 ( pt

ps )

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Bernoulli around a ship

Around the hull, the flow is modified as in the previous tube. There are 3 zones (high, low and high pressure), wave Two stagnation point : pressure =1/2 V Too simple. No friction considered
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Surface tension
Due to molecular forces Try to reduce the surface for the volume (thats why the drops are spherical). In still water, force to open the sea = force to close no effect. In rough water, the spray : it costs energy

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Viscosity
Due to intermolecular attractive forces When we move the upper plate, there is a resistance force. F / A Viscosity is define as the ratio Shear stress so
Strain rate V /S

So the frictional force : F = A V / S

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Viscosity
The classical formulation is (for 2D) : Behaviour of the fluids : Fortunately, water is a newtonian fluid Unit of Ns/m or kg/(ms)
u y

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Laminar flow
All the particle trajectories are parallel. The energy is transfered by the viscosity. Resistance proportionnal to the speed of the flow.

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Turbulent flow
If the speed increases or if the surface length becomes too big, it will be instable. Turbulent Particles move in all direction and the Kinetic energy is directly transfered. Resistance proportionnal to the square of the flow speed.
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Turbulent flow
At the beginning, laminar. After, turbulent. It occur in the boundary layer (zone in which viscosity is considered). At the end of the plank, the wake. Bernoullis law doesnt apply as energy is being dissipated in turbulence. The streamline doesnt fully converge increase of resistance : form drag.
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Reynolds
Osborne Reynolds (23 August 1842 21 February 1912) was a prominent innovator in the understanding of fluid dynamics. Separately, his studies of heat transfer between solids and fluids brought improvements in boiler and condenser design.

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Reynolds number
O. Reynolds worked on the transition of laminar to turbulent flow in pipe.
Re

VD

VD

He concluded that the transition is function of the ratio inertia force / viscosity force.

is the dynamic viscosity is the kinematic viscosity

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Reynolds number for a ship

The length to consider is no more the diameter. We consider the hull length. The critical Re (for transition) is from 0.4x106 to 106 (even 107), function of the hull and the roughness.

For sea water, =1.87x10-3 at 0C and 0.97x10-3 Ns/m at 25C. So, with =1.4x10-3 and =1025 kg/m, Re=112x107 Transition point is around 0.2 % of the length.

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Foil
A flow on a profile produces a lift and a drag forces.
Great to make the aircraft flying but also for the ships :

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Foil
The force is created by the asymmetrical flow. Its the combination of a symmetrical flow (no lift) And the circulation Difference of pressure proportionnal to V

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Foil
The drag costs energy and the lift is what we want. If the profile is symmetrical and no angle of attack no lift If the profile is asymmetrical or angle of attack lift

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Foil
Along the profile, the separation occurs at the end of the profile. So, there is a wake. If the angle of attack is to big, the seperation point will be more in the beginning of the profile stall

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Foil
What does the lift depend on?

So : - The angle of the rudder should be limited. - The rudder area of a fast boat will be smaller. - The force will increase linearily with the area.
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Cavitation
2 problems : the lifting force can not increase (the difference of pressure is limited). The bubbles appear but collapse when the pressure decrease damage It can be a problem for propellers

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Cavitation
If the difference of pressure is to big, the water will boil (changes state from liquid to water vapour) The vapour pressure should counteract the surface tension.

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Resistance : the separate components

Hull still water resistance

Frictional or skin resistance

Form drag
Wave making Eddy making Appendages

Residuary resistance
Air resistance

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Resistance : skin friction

Skin friction and residuary resistance are not linked. Skin friction is function only of the speed, the viscosity, the wetted area and the length of the hull. So, it depends on Re and the wetted area Tests were done with plates in towing tanks (so no residuary resistance) and curve fitting has been doen.

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Resistance : skin friction

We often work with coefficient of resistance. Its a way to have adimensional value.
R C
f f 2

1 2

So, following the ITTC conference of 57 : C

0 . 075
f

log

10

Re

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Eddy making resistance

If the change of flow direction is too severe (>20), it will fail to follow the contour Separation and creation of eddy making resistance

Increase of resistance and, here, problem for steering

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Eddy making resistance

Separation occurs later when turbulent boundary layer (water fills more easily the available space) For eddy making resistance, it is better to have turbulent flow

It can also appear in the fore part, if the waterline is too convex.

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Eddy making resistance

When a ship is relatively slow moving for its length : 2 main components of resistance : - Friction - Eddy making resistance if bad shape Spherical to reduce the wetted area Aft part very narrow to redure eddy making resistance Large bow because slow speed, so no wave

Cods head and mackerel tail (1585)

To increase the deadweight, adding at the midship section

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Lord Kelvin
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, (26 June 1824 17 December 1907) was a mathematical physicist and engineer. At the University of Glasgow he did important work in the mathematical analysis of electricity and formulation of the first and second Laws of Thermodynamics, and did much to unify the emerging discipline of physics in its modern form. Lord Kelvin is widely known for realising that there was a lower limit to temperature, absolute zero.
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Kelvin wave pattern

Pattern of waves following a ship

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Kelvin wave pattern of a moving disturbance

Group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the overall shape of the wave's amplitudes The phase velocity of a wave is the rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space Here, group velocity=0.5 phase velocity
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Kelvin wave pattern of a moving disturbance

Speed of the wave phase Cw =V sin Q Speed of the wave group Cg =0.5 V sin Q

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Kelvin wave pattern of a moving disturbance : two kinds of waves

Transverse waves: same phase velocity, perpendicular to the motion Divergent waves : slower phase speeds, angle which decreases for waves of lower phase speed. (includes a whole spectrum of waves)

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Kelvin waves : submarine

During the 2nd world war, the waves created by the periscope made them visible

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Kelvin waves for a ship

On a ship, creation of such wave system on points where we have change of pressure gradient. On a ship : 2 points High pressure centre at about 5% aft of the bow where the streamlines start to converge causing pressure to reduce downstream, so the waves originates as crests Low pressure at ~5% forward the stern, divergence of streamline, pressure increases troughs

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Interference
Because wavelengths depend on the speed and 2 systems of waves are created Interference between the waves Speed of wave:V Half l:
0 .5 V g
2

g 2

Number of half l:
N 0 . 9 L PP 0 .5 g 0 . 9 L PP V
2

Because 180 difference of phase: odd N : constructive interference 41 even N : destructive

Trend in wave making

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Wave resistance
Fr = 0.38 is the limit for displacement ship (Friction resistance has to be added) Above that, the bow wave increases. To reduce the wave resistance, the waterline should be as smooth as possible. But contradiction with the goal of merchant ship which is to increase the deadweight concave shape Contradiction with seakeeping performance (concave ships have more buoyancy reserve).

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Bulbous bow
Goal of the bulbous bow: to create a wave, which will make destructive interference

Problem : it is done for certain speeds. At different speed, we may have constructive interference Other advantage: add forward buoyancy waterplane may be finer 44

Appendage resistance
Rudder, stabilisers fins, propeller, etc increase the resistance

Not placed for towing tank test (too many variable) They have their own Fr and Re
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Air resistance
In air resistance, we consider frictional and eddy making resistance In calm conditions : ~4% When wind, it can increase considerably

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Form drag
Frictional resistance is considered equal to the resistance of a flat plate with the same wetted area

But, if we make test at low Froude (so wave making resistance can be considered as negligible), the total resistance is not the frictional resistance. There is an additional residuary resistance : the form drag
Form drag is siginificant for wider boat

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Form drag
It is due to the boundary layer which is thicker when the beam to length ratio increase. Bernoulli flow is forced to undergo a greater acceleration, which make the boundary layer thickness. The stern pressure is lower, so the wake is bigger.

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Towing tank
Why? CFD is not yet very accurate to estimate the power of a boat. Statistical laws are limited Is it possible to use the results? Yes, with some conditions

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Towing tank
3 kinds of forces are involved :
Inertial force (ma) proportional to r U l Gravitationnal force (mg) proportional to g lr

Viscous force proportional to U l

If the ratio of these forces are the same, the flow will be similar
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Towing tank
Inertia Gravity U l g l
2 3 2 2

U gl

Fr

U gl

Inertia Viscous

U l Ul

Ul

Re

Ul

Ul

Gravity Viscous

Inertia Gravity

Inertia Viscous

So, it means that if the Re and the Fr numbers are the same, the flows will be similar.
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Same Fr and Re numbers

The scale
lS lM

Fr M

Fr S

gl M
U
S M M

gl S
U S lS

gl M
S

gl S
M S

Re

Re

lM

U
M S

lM lS

S 3 2

Great, we can have similar flows We just need to respect the two relations above. No problem, lets replace the water by a liquid with another viscosity, there is just 2 100 000 l to put and if we change the scale,
we will replace it again, its easy

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Towing tank test

Following Froude, friction and residuary coefficient are independent.
C T Re, Fr C F Re C R ( Fr )

So, if we can obtain the friction resistance, we can calculate the total resistance with respect of Froude number.

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Towing tank test

Froudes method :
C T Re, Fr C F Re C R ( Fr )

Perform the resistance tests with the model. So, we have RTM We know that : C 1 2 R V S And that C C C for the model and the ship
TM TM 2 M M M

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Towing tank test (2)

Following ITTC 57 : log Rn 2 (we can calculate it for the model and the ship C C Calculate CRM C Thanks to Froude similitude :
10 2
RM TM FM

CF

0 . 075

C RM

C RS

We make the same procedure by the other side

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Towing tank test (3)

Following ITTC 57 : for the ship C Calculate CTS C
TS

C FS log

0 . 075
10 2

Rn

RS

C FS

CF

(the last term is the roughness allowance :0.0004)

Finally :

R TS

C TS

VS

SS

So, we can calculate the power : P

R TS

VS

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Towing tank test (ITTC-78)

Some differences with the 57th method. The decomposition is in a viscous resistance, which includes the form effect on friction and pressure and wave resistance. 1 k C Re C F Assumption is : C Re Fn Compute CFM R C Calculate the form factor k 1 2 V S
T F 0 w n
TM TM 2 M M M

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Towing tank test (ITTC-78)(2)

Calculate CWM Remark : the wave resistance is smaller than the residuary resistance for Froude method Compute the roughness allowance (according to 1 Bowden):
C
f

105

k MAA L

0 . 64

10

Where kMAA is the roughness in microns according to the MAA method. ITTC recommend 150 microns. A 0 . 001 Determine the air resistance coefficient: C S Where AT is the frontal area of the ship above the waterline
T AA

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Towing tank test (ITTC-78)(3)

Calculate the total resistance coefficient CWM
C TS 1 k C FS C WS CF C
AA

Calculate the total resistance coefficient as before. Calculate the effective power as before also.

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Form factor
It includes the ratio of the viscous resistance and the resistance of the equivalent flat plate. So, it includes the form effect. Empirical formula (Watanabe):
k 0 . 095 25 . 6 L B CB
2

B T

Another way is to calculate it at low Fr (<0.15) (Cw=0) but small forces, so problems on measurement
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Form factor
Method of Prohaska : assumption: wave resistance coefficient is proportional to the 4th power of the Fr. 1 k C k Fn So: C 4 Or: C T Fn
4 T F 1

CF

k1

CF

If the assumption in the wave resistance is correct:

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Planing
When a ship goes faster and exceed Fr = 0.38 (with enough power and adequate shape), it can go faster than its wave. A lifting force appears. So, displaced water decreases and resistance is smaller.

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Planing
A part of the flow goes forward : spray Hard chine is better.

The weight has to be lower

Planing hull is common for pleasure craft (in some case, not enough buoyancy)
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Shallow water
The Bernoulli pressure distribution distorts the waterline. It will be more pronounced if the depth is small. Between the river bottom and the hull, water is accelerated, creating a depression reduction of the under keel clearance, called the squat. It depends on :
Static pressure, so it will increase in proportion of V/g The sectional area of the water flow ( blockage factor) The block coefficient (the flow will be more restricted in case of high Cb

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Squat
Squat is NOT an augmentation of the draft. It is the total reduction in under keel clearance. (water level also goes down)

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Squat
Blockage factor : B d So, S
0 .5 D W 1 W0
Ships immersed midship sectional area S=

Sectional area of the unobstructed canal

Squat can be like :

S K1 V g
2

K 3C B

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Squat in narrow channels

Following A. D. Watt :
Squat s 2 .2 V g
2

S2

CB

With

S2

AS AC AS

And V the speed in m/s (and g=9.81 m/s)

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Squat in narrow channels

Following Dr C. B. Barrass:
Squat s Vk
2 . 08 0 . 81

With

20 S AS AS

CB

And Vk the speed in knots Attention: these formulas are available in a narrow channel
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Comparison of the method

Speed : 8 kts Sectional area Ac = 0.5 (40+60) x 12 = 60 m Sectional area As = 8 x 20 m Block coefficient : 0.8 8 0 . 514 Following Watt : Squat S 2 . 2
9 . 81 Squat S 1 .1 m
2 . 08

160 600 160

0 .8

Following Barrass :

Squat Squat

S S

160 600

0 . 81

0 .8

20 1 . 04 m

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Squat in open shallow water

The previous formulas were available for narrow channel, but in shallow water, the squat phenomenon is also present. Dr I. Dand proposed a formula :
Squat S 1 95 Vk
2

d D

CB

With : Vk speed in knots, d deep water draft, D water depth and CB the block coefficient

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Squat in open shallow water

Barrass proposed an empirical formula. His philosophy was to consider a width of influence, function of the beam of the ship.

Width of influence : C Open water blockage factor S

FB
B

7 . 04 B
0 . 85

(m )

Open water squat

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Effect of squat on trim and list

Distorsion of waterline may change the fore and aft position of the center of buyoancy. If a vessels centre of buyancy is forward of midship (the bow is fuller than the stern) head trimming moment Faster flow on the fore part, so more succion head trimming moment Acceleration on the propeller stern trimming moment
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Squat over a shoal

If the water depth is small: constant squat But if the vessel sails over a shoal ?

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Squat and heel

What about the heel?

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Other effects of squat

Frictional resistance is increased, wave making resistance also the ship slows down This increase of resistance loads more the propeller more slip and the propeller revolution tend to decrease Proximity of the seabed greater vibration Increase of turbulence and vibration under the stern if soft sediment, water can be discoloured. Higher bow wave Response to helm action slower Motions (rolling, pitching) tend to be dampened by the cushioning effect of the seabed
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Wave making resistance in shallow water

Waves depend on the water depth (when water depth is reduced to less than ~40% of the wavelength, its influenced by the seabed). Phase and group speed decreases First, the waves with longer wavelength are modified : higher and longer l (deep water)=
2 V g
2

64 m

l (12m water)=
2 V g
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2

tanh

2 D

101 m

Waves in shallow water

Waves are longer when depth decreases So, angle of 19.28 is no more available It will increase when the speed increases and the depth decreases.

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Waves in shallow water

Limit speed : kind of wall in front of the ship: as sound wall After this limit, resistance decreases

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Waves in shallow water

This effect was discovered accidentally in British canals, around 1844 when barges were towed by horses. A horse took fright and ran with the barge. The prominent bow wave suddenly disappeared and the speed was much more bigger. It was because :
Canals were artificially built with a depth around 1 m (critical speed 3 m/s) Barges: long and narrow Barges towed from ashore, so no squat by the propeller

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