Topic 1: Statistical Analysis

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1.1.1 State that error bars are a graphical representation of the variability of data. Error bars can be used to show either the range of the data or the standard deviation 1.1.2 Calculate the mean and standard deviation of a set of values. Mean: the average, or the sum of the values given divided by the number of values Calculate the mean of 7, 9, 11, and 17 44/4 = 11 Standard deviation: is a measure of how the individual observations of a data set are dispersed or spread out around the mean. Calculate standard deviation using calculator or excel. In excel use =STDEV(X1:X2) 1.1.3 State that the term standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean, and that 68% of the values fall within one standard deviation of the mean. Standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean. 68% of the values fall within +/-1 SD of the mean, 95% of the values fall within +/-2 SDs of the mean.

1.1.4 Explain how the standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and the spread of data between two or more samples. Standard deviation shows the variation around the mean. A small standard deviation indicates that the data is clustered closely around the mean value. Conversely, a large standard deviation indicates a wider spread around the mean. - SD tells you how many extremes are in the data y Many extremes = large SD y Few extremes = small SD - Widespread variation in data set makes you question the experimental design. - If you only calculate the mean, variability in the data would not be recognized

- Allows you to as the question why is the information the way it is ? Ho can you tll if an SD is large or sall? - If the SD is close to or greater than 1 3 of the mean that is a large SD - Anything below 1 3 of the mean is a small SD and is suggesting that the experiment is more reliable 115 Deduce the significance of the diff erence beteen to sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables The t-test is used to determine whether or not the difference between two sets of data is a significant (real) difference. A t-test can be used to support/reject the null hypothesis (H 0) It compares 2 sets of data. E.g. Heights or bean plants grown in sunlight Heights of bean plants grown in shade. Things to remember about the t-test 50% or 0. 5 = not a signifi cant (real) difference. 95% or 0.05 = significant (real) difference. 116 Explain that the existence of a correlation does not establish that there is a causal relationship beteen to variables - Observation = correlation - Correlation does not equal causation - Evidence from specially designed experiments shows cause. y y Correlation is a measure of the association between 2 factors Positive correlation o The increase in one factor is associated with a increase in the other factor. E.g. increase training = faster running y Negative correlation o The increase in one factor is associated with a decrease in the other factor. E.g. increase smoking = decrease running speed y No correlation o Increase in one factor is not associated with a consistent change in the other factor. E.g. the speed you write and the speed you run

An association in which all values closel y follow the trend is described as being a strong correlation

An association in which there is much variation, with many values being far from the trend, is described as being a weak correlation y A value can be given to the strength of the correlation (r) o R = +1 a complete positive correlation o R = 0 no correlation o R = -1 a complete negative correlation Note: Just because event X is regularly follo
ed by event Y, it does not necessarily follo
that X causes Y.

Experiments are needed to provide evidence for causation.

Example Smoking lung cancer? 1) Cars with low mileage per litre of fuel cause global warming. 2) Drinking red wine protects against heart disease. 3) Tanning beds cause skin cancer 4) UV rays increase the risk of cataracts Causation Strong positive correlation No correlation Relationship correlation/causation Both Correlation

Topic : Ce s
2.1 Cell Theory
2. 1. 1 Outline the cell theory 1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells 2. Cells are the smallest unit of life 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells 2. 1. 2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory 165 Hooke examines cork under mi croscope 1674 Leeuwonhoek observes simple organisms in pond water 1838 Schleiden studies plant tissue under microscopes Schwann studies animal tissue under microscopes Virchow proposes the Cell Theory

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2. 1. 3 State the unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of lif e Unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life including metabolism, response, homeostasis, growth, reproduction and nutrition. 2. 1. 4 Compare the relative sies of molecules, cell membrane thickness viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells, using the appropriate SI unit Remember: 1m = 1000mm 1mm = 1000 m 1m = 1000 nm A molecule = 1 nm Thickness of cell membrane = 10 nm Viruses = 100 nm Bacteria = 1m Organelles = up to 10 m Eukaryotic cells = 10 to 100 m 2. 1. 5 Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual sie of specimens in images of known magnification
agnifi cation = size of image/actual size of specimen

2. 1. 6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a f actor limiting cell sie

The smaller an object is the larger the surface area to volume ratio Cells remain small due to surface area to volume ratio being a factor limiting cell size In a cell, the rate of heat and waste production and rate of resource consumption are functions (depend on) of volume Cells with more surface area per unit volu me are able to move more materials in and out of the cell via the cell membrane whi ch control movement of materials into and out of the cell A large cell has relatively less surface area to bring in needed material and to rid the cell of waste, than a small cell. Because of this, cells are limited as to the size they can attain and still be able to carry out the functions of life efficiently 2. 1. 7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties
ulti cellular organisms show emergent properties . This means that the whole is greater

than the sum of its parts. These properties result from the complex interactions that occur between cells 2. 1. 8 Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialied functions by expressing some of their genes but not others Cells in ulticellular organisms become specialized for more parti cular function. The chance of a cell from a generi c (unspecialized) cell into a specialized cell is called differentiation. All cells in an individual h ave the same genes, however, genes are switched on or switched off according to the needs of the cell Each cell contains all the geneti c information for the production of the complete organisms. However, each cell becomes a specific type of cell depend ant on whi ch DNA segment becomes active 2. 1. 9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to diff erentiate along diff erent pathways Stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways. Adults have stems cells in the tissues in their bodies that need to be frequently replaced such as the skin. Stem cells have the ability to produce a wide range of cells which means that they are pluripotent. They retain their ability to divide and produce many different cells by cell division and the process of differentiation. or example, one type of stem cells in the bone marrow produce a variety of red and white blood cells. 2. 1. 10 Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells Bone marrow transplants are one of the many therapeutic uses of stem cells. Stem cells found in the bone marrow give rise to the red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets in

the body. These stem cells can be used in bone marrow transplants to treat people who have certain types of cancer. When a patient has cancer and is given high doses of chemotherapy, the chemotherapy kills the cancer cells but also the normal cells in the bone marrow. This means that the patient cannot produce blood cells. So before the pat ient is treated with chemotherapy, he or she can undergo a bone marrow harvest in whi ch stem cells are removed from the bone marrow by using a needle whi ch is inserted into the pelvis (hip bone). Alternatively, if stem cells cannot be used from the patient then they can be harvested from a matching donor. After the chemotherapy treatment the patient will have a bone marrow transplant in whi ch the stem cells are transplanted back into the patient through a drip, usually via a vein in the chest or the arm. These transplanted stem cells will then find their way back to the bone marrow and start to produce healthy blood cells in the patient. Therefore the therapeutic use of stem cells in bone marrow transplants is very important as it allows some patients with c ancer to undergo high chemotherapy treatment. Without this therapeuti c use of stem cells, patients would onl y be able to take low doses of chemotherapy which could lower their chances of curing the disease.

2.2 Prokaryotic cells

2. 2. 1 Draw and label a di agram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E.coli) as an example of a prokaryote

2. 2. 2 Annotate the diagram from 2.2.1 with the functions of each named structure Part Cell Wall Plasma membrane Cytoplasm Pili Flagellum Ribosomes Nucleoid Function Protects and maintains the shape of the cell Controls the movement of material s in and out of the cell and also plays a role in binary fission All cellular processes take places here as there is no compartmentalization Used for attachment to other bacterial cells for transport of DNA from one cell to another Cell motility The sites of protein synthesis Cell control and reproduction

2. 2. 3 Identif y structures f rom 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E.coli

2. 2. 4 State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission Prokaryoti c cells divide by binary fission. Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction involving the splitting of the parent organism into two separate organisms.

2.3 Eukaryotic cells

2. 3. 1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an animal cells

2. 3. 2 Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each named structure Part Lysosome Function A specialised compartments in the cytoplasm of cells that contains enzymes responsible for breaking down substances in the cell. Nucleus An organelle that contains the DNA and controls its metabolism, growth and reproduction. Mitochondria Golgi apparatus The site of aerobic respiration (energy production). Consisting of stacks of flat membranous sac that modify, store, and route products of the endoplasmi c reti culum. Rough endoplasmic reticulum A system of membranous tubes and sacs containing ribosomes, whi ch function in the manufacture of membrane-bound proteins.

Ribosomes

Involved in the production of polypeptides (proteins).

2. 3. 3 Identif y structures f rom 2.3.1 in electron micrographs of liver cells

2. 3. 4 Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Prokaryotic Cells Naked DNA DNA in cytoplasm No mitochondria 70s ribosomes No internal membranes Eukaryotic Cells DNA associated with proteins DNA enclosed in a nucleur envelope (membrane)
itochondria are present

80s ribosomes Internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions (i.e they have membrane bound organelles)

2. 3. 5 State three differences between plant and animal cells Plant Cells Plant cells have chloroplasts Plant cells have a cell wall Animal Cells Animals do not contain chloroplasts Animal cells do not have a cell wall

Plant cells have large vacuoles

Animal cells usually do no have them or they are very small

Plant cells show carbohydrates as starch Exterior of cell includes an outer cell wall with a plasma membrane just inside Because a rigid cell wall is present, this cell type has a fixed, often angular, shape

Animal cells usually do not have them or they are very small Animal cells show carbohydrates as glycogen Without a cell wall, this cell is flexible and more likely to be a rounded shape

2. 3. 6 Outline two roles of extracellular componen ts The plants cell wall maintains cell shape, prevents excessive water uptake, and holds the whole plant up against the force of gravity Animal cells secrete gl ycoproteins that form the extracellular matrix. Thi s functions in support, adhesion and movement.

2.4 Membranes
2. 4. 1 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes

2. 4. 2 Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic pro perties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes - The head of the phospholipid is polar and hydrophilic (water -loving), and these heads make up the outside of the phospholipid bilayer.

- The tail of the phospholipid that is located inside the membrane is non -polar and hydrophobi c (water-hating). - Because one end of the phospholipid is hydrophobic and the other i s hydrophilic, phospholipids naturally form bilayers in whi ch the heads are facing outward (toward the water), and the tails are facing inward (away from the water). Therefore, the characteristics of phospholipids enable the phospholipids to form a stable structure. 2. 4. 3 List the functions of membrane proteins Hormone-binding sites Immobilized enzymes Cell adhesion Cell-too-cell communication Channels for passive transport Pumps for active transport 2. 4. 4 Define diffusion and osmosis Diffusion is the passive movement of parti cles from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules, across a partially permeable membrane, from a region of lower solute concentration to a re gion of higher solute concentration. 2. 4. 5 Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion The passive movement implies that there is no expenditure of energy i n moving the molecules from one side of the membrane to the other Simple diffusion - This occurs across the plasma membrane. Substances transported this way include water, carbon dioxide, oxygen and lipid -soluble substances such as steroids. Diffusion is one type of passive transport. Parti cles of a certain type move from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. However, in a living system, diffusion often involves a membrane. E.g., oxygen gas moves from outside a cell to inside.
acilitated diffusion - is the movement of molecules across the cell membrane via special

transport proteins that are embedded within the plasma membrane.

Protein channels form a water-filled pore or channel in the membrane. Thi s allows charged substances (usually ions) to diffuse across membranes. ost channels can be gated (opened or closed), allowing the cell to control the entry and exit of ions. Carrier proteins have a binding site for a specifi c solute and constantly flip between two states so that the site is alternately open to opposite sides of the membrane. The substance will bind on the side where it is at a high concentration and be released where it is at a low concentration. Substances transported this way incl ude glucose amino acids 2. 4. 6 Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes Activ e requires the expenditure of energy (Adenosine triphosphate - A TP) Active transport is the pumping of substances across a membrane by a protein pump molecule. The protein binds a molecule of the substance to be transported on one side of the membrane, changes shape, and releases it on the other side. The proteins are highly specifi c, so that there is a different protein pump for each mole cule to be transported. The protein pumps use energy (in the form of A TP) for this process. It is the only transport mechanism that can transport substances against a concentration gradient. 2. 4. 7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials withi n a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane Vesicles are membranous sacs in which materials are stored and transported throughout the cell. In order for the materials within a vesicle to go through a membrane (the membranes of organelles, or the cell's plasma membrane), the membranous vesi cle becomes part of the organelles membrane or the plasma membrane, releasing the materials inside. The materials that were inside the vesi cle are now free on the opposite side of the membrane. In this way, vesicles are used to transport material between rough endoplasmi c reti culum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane. 2. 4. 8 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re form during endocytosis a nd exocytosis Endocytosis is the movement of material into a cell by a process in whi ch the plasma membrane engulfs extracellular material, forming membrane-bound sacs that enter the cytoplasm.

Exocytosis is the movement of material out of a c ell by a pr ocess in whi ch intracellular material is enclosed within a vesi cle that moves to the plasma membrane and fuses with it, releasing the material outside the cell. The cell membrane is fluid in that it is constantly in motion. The movement of the phospholipids changes the membrane's shape, and allows for temporary holes in the membrane that let materials flow in and out of the cell. If the membrane were not fluid in nature, it would not be able to fuse with vesi cles in endocytosis and exocytosis.

2.5 Cell Division

2. 5. 1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and cytokinesis Phases of interphase G1 S G2 Growth of cell and increase in number of organelles Replication of chromosomes with copies remaining attached to one another Further growth occurs, organelles increase in number, DNA condenses to form visible chromosomes, microtubules begin to form Overall Cell is performing the tasks appropriate to its type e.g. a pancreas cell may be secreting insulin to reduce glucose levels in the body Major events

Outline Mitosis During itosis the replicated chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles of the cell thus providing the same geneti c material to each of these locations. When the chromosomes are at the poles of the cell, the cytoplasm divides to form two distinct cells from the larger parent. These two cells have the same geneti c materials and are referred to as daughter cells.
itosis involves 4 stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

Outline Cytokinesis Cytokinesis is the final phase of cell division. It occurs at the end of itosis The table below summari ses the 2 types of cytokinesis: Cell Example Animal Description of cytokinesis Cell membrane pinches inward forming cleavage furrows that ultimatel y separate the two cells Plant Cell plate forms from inside producing the rigid cell walls that separate the two cells

2. 5. 2 State that tumors (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue Tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and these can occur in any organ or tissue. 2. 5. 3 State that interpha se is an active period in the lif e of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts

Interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts. 2. 5. 4 Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase)

PROPHASE Chromosomes condense by supercoiling, becoming visible Centrioles move to opposite poles Nucleolus disappears Nuclear membrane disappears
i crotubular spindle apparatus form s at each pole

METAPHASE Spindle microtubules attach to chromosome centromeres Chromosomes move to the equator ANAPHASE Centromeres split as spindle mi crotubules pull chromatids to opposite poles (after centromeres split, sister chromatids are known as sister chromosomes) Sister chromosomes move to opposite poles as microtubules shorten TELOPHASE Sister chromosomes have arrived at poles Spindle disappears Centrioles replicate

Nuclear membrane becomes visible Nucleolus becomes visible Chromosomes decondense, becoming ch romatin 2. 5. 5 Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei Mitosis involves a series of steps that starts with the replication of the chromosomes and therefore DNA. Each chromosome consists of an identi cal sister c hromotid. The chromosomes condense and the nuclear membrane begins to break down, once the nuclear membrane has broken down completely the chromosomes line up alone the equator (Metaphase), here spindle fibres attach to the opposite sides of the chromosomes, the centromeres split and the sister chromosomes are pulled to opposite poles (anaphase). At this point, identical daughter cells are formed. The steps are directly related to the phases of mitosis prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. 2. 5. 6 State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis Growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis.

The Chemis r of Life

3.1 Chemical elements and water

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3. 3. 1 State that the most f requently occurring chemical elements in living things are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. The most frequently occurring chemical elements in living thing s are: y y y y Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen

3. 1. 2 State that a variety of other elements are needed by living organisms, including sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, iron and sodium A variety of other elements are needed by living organisms, including: y y y y y Sulphur Calcium Phosphorus Iron Sodium

3. 1. 3 State one role for each of the elements mentioned in 3.1.2 Element Sulphur (S) Calcium (Ca) Example role in plants In some amino acids Co-factor in some enzymes Example role in animals In some amino acids Co-factor in some enzymes and component of bones Phosphorus (P) Iron (Fe) Phosphate groups in ATP Is cytochromes Phosphate groups in ATP In cytochromes and in haemoglobin Sodium (Na) In membrane function In membrane function and sending nerve impulses In membrane function Phosphate groups in ATP In cytochromes Example role in prokaryotes In some amino acids Co-factor in some enzymes

3. 1. 4 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of water molecules to show their polarity and hydrogen bond formation

3. 1. 5 Outline the thermal, cohesive, and solvent properties of water Name of property Cohesion Water molecules sti ck to each other because of the hydrogen bonds that form between them Columns of water can be sucked up through trees without breaking. Mosquito larvae use the surface of water as a habitat even though they are more dense than it, they do not sink Solvent properties Many substance dissolve in water due to its polarity. Including Na and C 6H12O6 Heat capacity Thermal properties Water has a large heat capacity due to the strength of hydrogen bonds (hard to break) Boiling point The boiling point of water (100C) is high, because to change it from a liquid to a gas all of the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules have to be
+

Outline of property

Significance to living organism

Allows many substances to be carried dissolved in water in the blood of animals and the sap of plants. Water can be used as a transport medium Water temperature is quite stable. Useful for habitats. Blood can carry heat from warmer body parts to cooler In natural habitats, water rarely boils. Living organism could not survive otherwise. I ce that forms on the surface insulates the water underneath thus living organisms can survive there

broken The cooling eff ect of evaporation Water can evaporate at temperatures below boiling point. H ydrogen bonds have to be broken to do this. The energy needed to break the bonds is taken from the liquid water, cooling it down. 3. 1. 6 Explain the relationship between the properties of water and its uses in living organisms as a coolant, medium for metabolic reactions and transport medium. Property Coolant Use in living things Water has a high specific heat capacity whi ch means that water can give off a great deal of heat without changing temperature greatly. Water has a high heat of vaporisation this means that water absorbs a great deal of heat when it evaporates whi ch makes it an excellent cooling mechanism for living organisms e.g. through perspiration Medium for metabolic transport The solvent properties of water make it a good medium for metabolic transport that is many different substances dissolve in water because of its polarity. Most chemi cal reactions in living organism take place with all of the substances involved in the rea ctions dissolved in water. The fact that water is below boiling point almost everywhere on earth and is in a liquid state makes it a good medium for metaboli c transport Transport Medium Water has strong cohesive properties that are strong pulling forces that can be exerted to move the molecules to where they are needed. E.G. columns of water move up plants. The solvent properties of water allow many substances to be carried dissolved in it in the blood of animals and the sap of plants. Evaporation of water from plant leaves (transpiration) and form the human skin (sweat) has useful cooling effect. Water can be used as a coolant

3.2 Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins

3. 2. 1 Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds Organic compounds containing carbon that are found in living organisms (except hydrogen carbonates and oxides or carbon)

Inorganic compounds that contain carbon but are widely found in the environment (e.g. Carbon Dioxide) 3.2.2 Identify amino acids, glucose, ribose and fatty acids from diagrams showing their structure Structure Name Identifiable Characteristics This is the generalised structure as each of the twenty amino acids have their own specific structure. The thing to look out for Amino acid when identifying the amino acid structure is the R group, it is here that each of the twenty amino acids have a specific molecule attached that identifies them. When identifying glucose, count the carbons it is a 6 carbon monosaccharide in a Glucose ring shape (6 points on the ring)

Very similar to glucose, except that it is a 5 point Ribose monosaccharide, and only has 5 points on its ring. (Pentagon)

Fatty Acids

Must have a methyl (CH3) group at one end, and a COOH group at the other end. The number of carbons in the middle, is how we identify which fatty acid it is Sometimes the number of carbons in the middle can be written as (CH2)n

3.2.3 List three examples each of monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides Carbohydrate Monosaccharides Example y y y Disaccharides y y y Polysaccharides. y y y Glucose Galactose Fructose Maltose Lactose Sucrose Starch Glcogen Cellulose

3.2.4 State one function of glucose, lactose and glycogen in animals, and of fructose, sucrose and cellulose in plants Carbohydrate Glucose Lactose (monosaccharide (disaccharide
 

Function in Animals Chemical fuel for cell respiration Makes up some of the solutes in milk Stores glucose in liver and muscles

Glycogen (polysaccharide Carbohydrate

Function in Plants.

Fructose Found in many fruits it makes them sweet ! (monosaccharide Sucrose " (disaccharide Often transported from leaves of plants to other locations in plants by vascular tissue for energy

Cellulose (polysaccharide)

One of the primary components of plant cell walls gives them strength

3. 2. 5 Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationships between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides; between f atty acids, glycerol and triglycerides; and between amino acids and polypeptides

Hydrolysis:
y When animals eat food, the food is digested (or hydrolysed) into the building blocks. Once these building blocks are transported to body cells, they are bonded together to form large molecules once again y y Foods are broken down in your alimentary canal. The digestive enzymes that accomplish this are hydrolysing enzymes Each reaction is called a hydrolys is reaction and requires a molecule of water as a reactant. This is a good way to recognize hydrolysis reactions water is always split as part of the reaction y When larger molecules split up to release base unit molecules, water is added back to the new molecules. This is called hydrolysis Examples of Hydrolysis y y y y Hydrolysi s of a disaccharide to two monosaccrides: o Lactose + water glucose + galactose Hydrolysi s of a polysaccharide to many monosaccharides o Starch + (many) water (many) glucose Hydrolysi s of a triglyceride to glycerol and fatty acids: o Trygylceride + 3 water glycerol + 3 fatty acids Hydrolysi s of a polypeptide (protein) to amino acids: o Protein + (many) water (many) amino acids

Condensation:
y y y y y Condensation are in many ways the opposite of hydrolysis reactions In cells, condensation reactions occur to re -form the larger biochemically important molecules In condensation reactions, the water molecule is a product rather than a reactant Condensation reactions use a catal ysing enzyme, these crea te covalent bonds rather than breaking them Condensation reactions release a water molecule when base unit molecules join to make larger molecules Condensation of amino acids to form a polypeptide

Example of Condensation y

o (many) amino acids protein + (many) water o monosaccharides joins to form a polysaccharide 3.2.6 State three functions of lipids y y y 1. Energy storage in the form of fat n humans and oil in plants 2. Thermal insulation a layer of fat (lipids) under the skin reduces heat loss 3. Buoyancy lipids are less dense than water to help animals to float

3.2.7 Compare the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage y y y Both lipids and carbohydrates can be used for energy storage in living organisms Both types of storage compound have advantages Carbohydrates are usually used for energy storage over short periods, and lipids for long term storage Advantages of Lipids as stores of carbohydrates Lipids are insoluble in water, so they do not cause problems with osmosis in cells Play a role in the structure of the membrane Good for thermal insulation 3.3 DNA Structure 3.3.1 Outline DNA nucleotide structure in terms of sugar (deoxyribose , base and phosphate
#

Advantages of Carbohydrates lipids so the energy stores by them can be released more rapidly Carbohydrates are soluble in water so are easier to transport to and from the store

Stores of lipids contain twice as much energy Carbohydrates are more easily digested than

Each nucleotide of DNA is composed of a phosphate group, a sugar called deoxyribose and a molecule called a nitrogenous base

3.3.2 State the names of the four bases in DNA

y y y y y

Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C)

3. 3. 3 Outline how DNA nucleotides are linked together by covalent bonds into a single strand Two DNA nucleotides can be linked together by a covalent bond between the sugar of one nucleotide, and the phosphate group of the other. The process can be repeated to build a polynucleotide chain with a sugar-phosphate backbone and the nitrogenous bases projecting outwards. 3. 3. 4 Explain how a DNA double helix is formed using complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds y y y y The combination of hydrogen bonds between A -T and G-C holds the two strands of DNA together, forming a double helix Adenine and Thymine are held together by 2 hydrogen bonds Cytosine and guanine are held together by 3 hydrogen bonds Because A and G are twi ce the size of T and C, complementary base pairing is the only arrangement that gives a consistent distance from one strand to the other strand and also leads to bonding between the bases 3. 3. 5 Draw and label a simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA 3. 4. 1 Explain DNA replication in terms of unwinding th e double helix and separation of the strands by helicase, followed by formation of the new complementary strands by DNA polymerase

STEP 1 The DNA double helix is unwound and separated into strands by breaking the hydrogen bonds. Helicase is the main enzyme that does this STEP 2 The single strands act as templates for new strands. Free nucleotides are present in large numbers around the replication fork. The bases of these nucleotides form Hydrogen bonds with the bases on the parent strand. The nucleotides are linked up to form the new strand. DNA polymerase is the main enzyme involved STEP 3 The daughter DNA molecules each rewind into a double helix 3.4.2 Explain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation of the base sequence of DNA 3.4.3 State that DNA replication is semi-conservative DNA replication is semi-conservative (Semi-conservative means that each molecule formed by replication consists of one new strand and one old strand conserved from the parent DNA molecule) 3.5.1 Compare the structure of RNA and DNA 3.5.2 Outline DNA transcription in terms of the formation of an RNA strand complementary to the DNA strand by RNA polymerase 3.5.3 Describe the genetic code in terms of codons composed of triplets and bases

3. 5. 4 Explain the process of translation, leading to polypeptide formation 3. 5. 5 Discuss the relationship between one gene and one polypeptide 3. 6. 1 3. 6. 2 3. 6. 3 3. 6. 4 3. 6. 5 3. 7. 1 3. 7. 2 3. 7. 3 3. 7. 4