CONCISE HISTORY OF ROMAN CIVILIZATION

by RONALD ONGUDA

Foundation of Rome
Rome was founded around seven hills by twin brothers Remus and Romulus who were raised by a she-wolf. Romulus murdered Remus and named the city after himself- Rome. He then became the first king of the city-state of Rome.

The Tyrannical Kingdom

Rome expanded from a city-state to become a kingdom with an autocratic form of government. On the other hand, the Etruscans from Etruria (central Italy) have established political control in the region, promoting a monarchical and aristocratic way of life. However, they apparently lose power and a republic was set up.

The Civic Republic

After the overthrow of the last Roman king, a republic was established with a constitution and laws that would govern Roman society. Roman society is classified into two: the Patricians (Aristocrats) and the Plebeians (Commoners). There are also elections, although only wealthy men can vote and wealth serves as a means of gaining power. The chief executives of the Roman Republic are two co-Consuls elected every year as a means of checks and balances of power. There is also the Roman Senate who create, amend, and regulate the laws of the republic under the motto SPQR (Senatus PopulusQue Romanus) which means "Senate and the People of Rome". Over time, the laws of the republic changes allowing leading Plebian families to have right to higher positions and offices or become aristocrats themselves. Moreover, Rome begins to expand throughout Italy, causing conflicts with other nations.

Expansion and Dominance

The Punic wars between the Roman Republic and Carthage would formally established the beginning of Roman dominance of Western civilization. The first Punic War is centered upon control of the island of Sicily in which the Romans succeeded. The second Punic War is centered upon control of the Iberian peninsula (Spain and Portugal) wherein the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca invaded the peninsula. His conquest was continued by his famous son Hannibal who crossed the mountainous Alps with war elephants. His military excellence was demonstrated by his victories against the Romans, particularly at the Battle of Cannae. However, the delaying tactics of the Romans slowed Hannibal's advances and finally weakened his army. He is finally defeated by the Roman general Scipio at the Battle of Zama, the victory which would give Scipio the surname/title Africanus (the African). The third Punic war permanently destroyed Carthage and established Roman control over the Mediterranean sea.

The Roman Dictatorship

The civic nature of the Roman Republic began to decline with the rise of powerful generals who commanded personal loyalty among their soldiers. The most famous of these generals is Julius Gaius Caesar who rose to power by forming the First Triumvirate with Marcus Crassus and Pompey the Great. With financial support from Crassus, Caesar was elected Consul and was made governor of the southern part of Gaul (modern-day France). Caesar proved to be a military genius, conquering the whole of Gaul but threatening his opponents in Rome. After the death of Crassus, a rivalry ensued between Caesar and Pompey over the control of the republic. It led to a civil war in which Caesar won and Pompey escaped to Egypt only to be assassinated by the agents of the Pharaoh. However, Caesar avenged his former friend and executed the Pharaoh of Egypt. He then made Cleopatra the ruler of Egypt, as well as his lover. The victories of Julius Caesar earned him great respect and popularity that he was elected dictator for ten years and later as dictator for life. However,

the Roman senate under Brutus and Cassius assassinated Caesar on the Ides of March (44BC), citing that he is establishing a monarchy. He was stabbed 23 times at the floor of the Roman Senate-house. After the assassination, three men emerged to form the Second Triumvirate: Mark Antony (Caesars trusted lieutenant), Octavian (Caesars adopted son and heir), and Lepidus (Caesar's general). They defeated the armies of the assassins at the battle of Philippi, and divided Rome among themselves: the Eastern provinces under Antony, the Western provinces of Gaul and Italy under Octavian, and the provinces of Spain and Africa under Lepidus. However, the Second Triumvirate proved to be a fragile alliance due to the frequent quarrels between Octavian and Mark Antony. On the other hand, Lepidus was later deprived of his authority as member of the triumvirate.

The Roman Empire

The republic has practically ended under the dictatorship of Julius Caesar and later under the Second Triumvirate. The conflicts between Octavian and Antony culminated into another civil war between the two former allies. This is mainly because of Antonys relationship with Queen Cleopatra of Egypt. The civil war was concluded by the Battle of Actium (31BC) in which Octavian's fleet under Marcus Agrippa defeated the joint-forces of Antony and Cleopatra. Facing defeat, they committed suicide before Octavian conquered Egypt and made it into a Roman province. He then formally established the Roman Empire and became Emperor Augustus. The rule of Emperor Augustus would commence the Pax Romana (Roman Peace) wherein Rome would enjoy a long period of internal peace and stability. This peace would continue until the death of Marcus Aurelius, the last of the so-called Good Emperors. After that, the Roman Empire experiences a long period of decline, but recovered under competent emperors such as Aurelian and Diocletian. The empire also attempted to persecute Christianity until Emperor Constantine legalized the religion and become the first Christian emperor. The status of Christianity rose from an underground religion into the official religion of the Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire was soon divided into East (with Constantinople as capital) and West (with Rome as capital) in order to govern its vast dominions. However at the turn of the 5th century, the western part of the Roman Empire is constantly under attack by various barbarian tribes, including the Goths, the Vandals, and the Huns. Then, Rome was sacked by the Visigoths led by Alaric, thus permanently weakening the empire. Finally, the Western Roman Empire fell when the Germanic warlord Odoacer forced the last Roman emperor to abdicate. While the western part of the empire fell into barbarian conquests, the Eastern Roman Empire survived and prospered as the Byzantine Empire.