High Strength Microalloyed Linepipe: Half a Century of Evolution

J. Malcolm Gray, F. Siciliano Microalloyed Steel Institute 5100 Westheimer, Suite 540, Houston, TX 77056 USA

INTRODUCTION Microalloyed low carbon steels, originally termed High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steels, were first introduced in the late 1930s. The elements niobium vanadium and titanium were added singly, in amounts as low as 0.005 to 0.010 percent in early steels, but later in combination as strengths increased and the metallurgical approach became more refined. The predominant melting method at that time was the Siemens - Martin Open Hearth Process, the steels were ingot cast, usually semi-killed, and in many cases were normalized. Over time this manufacturing approach has dramatically changed. Very low carbon, fully killed, steels are now continuously cast than converted to plate and coil using complex thermomechanical controlled processing (TMCP) regimes. Via this revolution the rolling mill has emerged as a sophisticated metallurgical tool, not simply a means of achieving the final product shape. Microalloying was first introduced in ship plate, beams, bridge steels, reinforcing bar and heat treated forgings and was not introduced into linepipe steels until 1959 [1]. However, the escalating technological demands of high pressure pipeline systems can be credited with the rapid evolution of HSLA technology since then. Todays pipeline designs consider all aspects of a steels performance, including strength, toughness, weldability, fatigue and collapse resistance, strain tolerance, as well as environmental degradation such as stress corrosion cracking, and resistance to sour hydrocarbons containing H2S and CO2, which combination of properties must be achieved at affordable prices. Some of the technological gains and escalating end user expectations have evolved naturally, as competitive producers applied technology developed primarily for other steel products, whereas other requirements may have been provoked by catastrophic and costly failures. The time period of interest involves the last 50 years during which dramatic changes have taken place in steel manufacturing, plate rolling and pipe making technology. Nowadays the melt shop is concerned with ultra purification (impurities measured in ppm), rather than with

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raw productivity, plus all subsequent processing steps are metallurgically integrated since they have an influence on final mechanical properties of the pipe. Emergence of HSLA (Microalloyed) Steels The effect of vanadium in increasing strength of normalized steels is reported in German literature, circa 1945, whereas the effect of niobium in increasing the strength of hot-rolled carbon-manganese steels is reported in the patent literature as early as 1938-1939 [2-3]. The exact strengthening mechanism was not known but it was surmised that the benefit was predominantly due to beneficial grain refining effects of niobium and vanadium carbides and nitrides. Other reports at the time [4] indicated that the new steels had poor notch toughness due to the formation of cementite networks on ferrite grain boundaries, or the formation of Widmanstatten ferrite during normal air cooling [5]. Later it was discovered that hardening or strengthening by the precipitation of vanadium or niobium carbonitrides could also harm toughness [6]. In time it was discovered that these problems could be eliminated by increasing manganese content [7] and refining the austenite grain size during hot rolling. In 1967 the effect of niobium in retarding austenite recrystallization was discovered [8-9] which later became the foundation for the large scale introduction of controlled rolling and other thermomechanical processing methods of austenite [10]. Other microalloying elements, plus molybdenum and aluminum, retard austenite recrystallization to some degree but niobium has been found to be most effective Figure 1 [11], and termed indispensable by Kosazu, et al [12].

Figure 1: Retardation of recrystallization by microalloying elements

In the ensuing years (1968-1975) the strengthening mechanisms operating in microalloyed steels became better understood and quantified [13-14] and optimized compositional and

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processing regimes were established. The available strengthening mechanisms used today can be depicted as simple incremental building blocks as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Required combination of strengthening components for hot rolled plate and skelp. These strengthening components are all utilized to varying degrees in modern high strength linepipe.

Microalloyed Steels in Linepipe Applications The first reported use of microalloying techniques in linepipe steels occurred in Europe (Mannesmann) in normalized API Grade X-52 vanadium grades around 1952. This was later extended to API Grade X-56 and X-60 in 1953 and 1962 respectively [15-16]. Hot rolled steel utilizing microalloying concepts emerged in North America in 1959 [1, 17] and completely replaced normalizing in Europe by 1972 [15-16]. However normalizing of medium carbon (0.17%) microalloyed steel was still used in the Soviet Union until the mid 1990s. The new hot-rolled semi-killed medium carbon steel [1] shown in Table 1 below, was substituted for steels having much higher carbon and manganese contents thereby improving field weldability.

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Chemical Composition Min. Max. Mean

C 0.20 0.27 0.24

Weight Percent Mn 0.89 1.28 1.10

Nb (Cb) 0.004 0.015 0.008

Table 1: Chemical Composition of semi-killed niobium steel [1].

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In retrospect the carbon content was still relatively high since carbon contents have steadily decreased, Figure 3, as strengths have increased and larger amounts of microalloying elements have become necessary. The current limit on the combined microalloying content Nb+V+Ti for steels with yield strength >60 ksi is 0.15 percent [18-19]. Individual limits are presented in Figure 4.

Figure 3: Relationship between carbon content and yield strength for high strength pipeline steels [16].

Figure 4: Comparison of limits for vanadium and niobium for different pipe grades. There has been a steady increase in available yield strengths from 52 ksi in the 1950s to 120 ksi today Figure 5.

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Figure 5: Line pipe grade evolution

Despite the considerable amount of research on X-100 and X-120 steels since 1985 and 1998 respectively [20-32] pipes with strengths above 80 ksi have yet to see commercial service in pipelines, even though they have been incorporated into the latest revisions of International specifications [18-19]. Small quantities of X-100 linepipe have been installed in the Trans Canada System [33] to demonstrate construction feasibility, but the pipe nevertheless is operating at a relatively low stress (0.60 SMYS) relative to its real capability. The metallurgy of X-90 to X-120 linepipe is based on very low carbon microalloyed steels, additionally alloyed with molybdenums, chromium, nickel, copper and occasionally boron, Table 2, combined with elegant TMCP cooling practices, Figures 6 & 7. Some of these concepts have been adopted in second generation X-70 and X-80 steels.

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Figure 6: Four processing methods utilized in TMCP, conventional ACC, intensified ACC, and intensified ACC with low FCT or normal coiling, and their characteristics in control of microstructures with reference to a CCT diagram. Figure 7: Relation between Pcm value and tensile strength for various cooling methods.

Figure 7: Relation between Pcm value and tensile strength for various cooling methods.

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During evolution of linepipe steels over the period depicted in Figure 5, several essential events, chronicled below, can be credited with changing of specifications or with stimulating metallurgical developments in both linepipe and plate steel. These factors are presented in Table 3 below:

Date 1943

Event Discovery of ductile-brittle transition in carbon steels. Above characteristics considered relevant to pipelines.

Industry Reaction Introduction of 15 ft-lb CVN energy requirement into specifications for ship plate. TV introduced 3.5 mkg/cm2 energy requirement for pipelines. Development of Battelle drop weight tear test (BDWTT). Introduction of minimum Charpy energy requirements based on various fracture models. Steel development frenzy centered on X-80 (551 MPa) and -69 C (-90 F) toughness requirements. Introduction of BP test (NACE TM-02-84 [Solution B]). Introduction of crack arrestors, improved fracture arrest modeling and revision of rolling ideas for high strength linepipe. Better metallurgical (hardness) controls and improved external coatings. Improved operating practices. Mo designed out of X-70 steels. Nb-Cr design introduced plus TMCP. Vanadium eliminated from many steels. Mo and Cr + TMCP substituted.

1954

1960

Brittle fracture propagation of 13 km in NPS 30 pipeline. Propagating ductile fracture in non-brittle, supposedly crack resistant, material.

Dec. 1968 Jan. 1969

1970

Proposed construction of Alaskan/ Canadian gas pipelines (CAGSL)

1972 1974

HIC failure in X-65 BP pipeline in Ummshaif (Arabian) Gulf. Unpredictable fracture arrest in full scale (CAGSL) tests. Attributed to rich gas, separations, high hoop stress and faulty models. Stress corrosion cracking failures in newly installed Australian and Canadian pipelines.

1978

1978

Molybdenum "shortage" and price escalation.

1988/89

Vanadium price increase to $50/kilo

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1990

Development of deepwater oil and gas reserves and design of Oman-India and Black Sea pipeline.

1997

Need for very high pressure systems for Arctic developments in remote areas.

1998

Limit state, strain based designs introduced.

2005-2008

Very large vanadium and molybdenum price increase.

Very heavy wall thickness (44 mm) collapse-resistant DSAW linepipe developed for pipelines and TLP tendons as well as high strength (80 ksi) seamless risers. Ultra high strength (135 ksi UTS) steels considered and composite reinforcement of conventional steels introduced. Better characterization of material behavior and influence of manufacturing process and coating. Nb-Cr type steels redeveloped to eliminate molybdenum and vanadium especially in China and USA.

Table 3: Technology development incentives 1943 - Present The trend toward higher strength levels (up to 120 ksi yield strength and above) has been led by developments in DSAW linepipe where the benefits translate into lighter wall thicknesses for high pressure, long distance onshore pipelines. Similar metallurgical approaches are used for HFERW linepipe, which is made from hot-rolled coiled skelp, but yield strength levels have not yet exceeded 80 ksi. In offshore pipelines the useful yield strength is limited to 65-70 ksi due to the need for negative buoyancy and to guard against plastic collapse. In the most extreme cases wall thicknesses in the range 1.125-1.875 inch are being installed in water depths >8000 ft. as detailed later. In the case of seamless linepipe, quenching and tempering is used to achieve the desired yield strength level which is now approaching 100 ksi in offshore riser applications. Examples of the chemical compositions and microalloying element contents used for each grade, product type, and application will be presented later. It should be noted that the early lower strength steels presented in Figure 5 had very poor toughness from both a fracture energy absorption and impact transition temperature viewpoint. The low absorbed energies in the Charpy test were related to high carbon and sulfur contents and poor steel cleanness, especially in the case of semi-killed steels, whilst the high Charpy and Battelle Drop Weight Tear Test transition temperatures were caused by the coarse ferrite grain sizes and high carbon contents. As a consequence, the early high strength steels often relied on normalizing to achieve adequate grain refinement. In the mid to late 1960s the benefits of low finish rolling temperatures were discovered and thermomechanical processing was quickly introduced on a broad scale. Simultaneously, lower carbon contents were

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introduced, which were stimulated both from an alloy design perspective, to aid niobium carbide solubility, and from an end user (specification) initiative to improve field weldability. This led to dramatically improved toughness in the X-60 and X-70 steels shown in Figure 8. These levels of toughness at low temperatures have been preserved/maintained as strengths have almost doubled.

Figure 8: Progress of development showing simultaneous increase in toughness with strength and passage of time. A representative controlled rolled X-60 steel composition, circa 1980, is presented in Table 4 below. Such steels were used for construction of several major pipelines in Saudi Arabia and the North Sea. Size 30 OD x 0.600 wt C 0.07 Mn 0.95 Chemical Composition wt, percent Si S P Al Nb 0.20 0.003 0.015 0.03 0.04

Ti 0.012

N 0.005

Table 4: Typical X-60 Steel Composition Steels of API Grade X-70 were successfully used in the construction of the Alyeska oil pipeline in 1973. A typical chemical composition for such steels, which were produced in Japan, is shown in Table 5 below: C 0.12 Mn 1.50 Si 0.25 S 0.006 P 0.020 Al 0.025 V 0.08 Nb 0.03 N 0.007

Table 5: Example of X-70 Steel Used in Alaska, circa 1972 As mentioned earlier linepipe steels with strengths over X-80 have not been used except in

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small (5 km) demonstration projects. The workhorse grades for onshore pipelines are currently API Grade X-70 (482 MPa) and API Grade X-80 (550 MPa) with the latter taking on increasing importance. The chemical compositions in current use are presented in Table 6 below. Niobium and vanadium may be used in combination with molybdenum, chromium, copper and nickel depending on pipe wall thickness, alloy costs and available manufacturing equipment. Each pipe mill thus arrives at an optimized steel composition and production cost matched to its engineering capability. Type Nb-V Nb-Mo Nb-Cr C 0.08 0.04 0.03 Mn 1.63 1.68 1.70 Nb 0.04 0.08 0.095 V 0.08 Ti 0.013 0.015 0.013 Mo 0.10 0.30 0.10 Cr 0.28 Other* Cu, Ni 0.30 Cu 0.20 Ni Ni

* S<0.005 N<0.008 Al 0.02-0.05 Table 6: Examples of X-80 Steels in Current Use. The Nb-Cr alloy design has emerged in the past few years as a favorite of Chinese [34-44] and other pipe producers. The 0.10 percent niobium (HTP) steel has a much wider processing window than conventional Nb-V type steels, Figures 9-11 [45] which results in less variation in toughness and yield strength, the later being an important consideration in the current regulatory climate in the United States.

Figure 9: Wide Processing Window for Yield Strength of 22 mm Plates ACC at 6 C/s [45].

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Figure 10: Wide Processing Window for Tensile Strength of 22 mm Plates ACC at 6 C/s [45].

Figure 11: Wide Processing Window for Charpy Toughness of 22 mm Plates ACC at 6 C/s [45].

Figure 12: Tensile Strength of 3,200 HTP Plates, ArcelorMittal Burns Harbor Plant, USA [45].

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Industry specification have been updated in many countries to accommodate the HTP concept [1819] and over 5 million tons of this very low carbon steel have been installed since 1972 [48]. However, there are still opportunities for changing restrictive microalloying element limits in specifications in Iran, India, CIS and elsewhere.

Figure 13: Progress in adopting X-80 Steel [33].

The rate of adoption of API Grade X-80 since 1985 is presented in Figure 13 above. A list of the projects comprising Figure 13 is presented in Table 7 [47]. The growth is becoming exponential as API Grade X-80 is being utilized in China for major portions of the 9250 km Second West-East Pipeline Project [33].

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The steels used for production of large diameter DSAW linepipe are processed on conventional plate mills [30, 47, 48], Steckel mill facilities [49], or heavy strip mills (for 24 inch diameter spiral seam linepipe), whereas skelp for HFERW linepipe is produced either on conventional hot strip mills or increasingly by direct conversion of thin (50-125 mm) slabs. Typical steel compositions for Grade X-80 linepipe produced on a conventional hot strip mill are presented in Table 8 [45-46].

Table 8: Chemical compositions of API Grade X-80 ERW linepipe. Seamless product for use in linepipe and oil and gas riser systems is becoming available in strengths up to the 90-100 ksi level and is invariably produced by quenching and tempering. In recent years carbon contents have been reduced to below 0.10 percent to improve field weldability, to improve weld heat affected zone (HAZ) toughness and fatigue resistance, and to reduce HAZ hardness so as to improve SSC resistance. Examples of the chemical compositions of seamless linepipe are presented Table 9 below [52-54]: Grade C Mn X-80 0.04 1.50 X-80 X-70 (sour) Si Ni Nb 0.06 V 0.05 Cu 0.90 0.03 0.16 Mo 0.25 Cr 0.50 Dia. wt. 8" 19.1 mm 14" 25.4 0.0008 mm 10" 34.0 mm B Ref. [52] [53] [54]

0.15 1.00 0.06 1.29 0.20 0.019 0.07 1.35 0.15 0.03

Table 9:Chemical composition of API Grade X-80 Seamless linepipe. The aforementioned examples of linepipe steel compositions mainly relate to product required for low temperature or sweet (i.e. treated non-corrosive) gas service. However, many developments have occurred in regions producing gas containing H2S, CO2 and chlorides. Depending on the concentrations of each of the above, the moisture content and ease and feasibility of inhibition, the end user may elect to use either carbon steels or more highly alloyed corrosion resistant grades. Examples of modern sour service carbon steels used for production of DSAW linepipe for the Black Sea Pipeline are presented in Table 10 below [56].

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Table 10: Chemical Composition of 30 O.D. X-65 31.8 mm Linepipe (Blue Stream Project) [55]. Steelmaking and Manufacturing Developments At their inception microalloyed (HSLA) steels were based on Open Hearth or Basic Electric Arc steelmaking. Thus there were limitations on reducing carbon contents (to improve solubility of niobium and titanium) and impurity levels were very high. Typical sulfur and phosphorus levels were around 0.025 percent and sometimes twice this level. This level of sulfur had a very detrimental on notch toughness especially when combined with the very high oxide contents of semi-killed steel. Sequential technical demands for improved linepipe referenced earlier in Table 3 eventually led to dramatic improvements in steel cleanness, reduction in impurities such as phosphorus and sulfur, as well as reduced nitrogen and hydrogen contents. These developments occurred very rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s especially in Japan [56-58] Figure 14 and were similarly adopted in Europe. The benefit of reduced sulfur on Charpy shelf energy is presented in Figure 15.

Figure 14: Progress in improving impurity removal through 1985.

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Figure 15: Effect of sulfur content on toughness of linepipe. Other manufacturing developments occurring since 1959/60 in response to end user demands, production economics, new test methods (e.g. HIC testing) and other factors discussed in this and other* papers are presented chronologically in Table 11 below: Year 1960s 1960 1967 1968 1971 1972 1972 1974 1975 1977 1978 1978 1978 1979 1983 1986 1992 Item Greater usage of fully-killed steel. Normalizing of linepipe plate. Controlled rolling adopted. Continuous casting applied. Pig iron desulfurization developed. Inclusion shape control industrialized. Calcium argon blowing introduced. Slag free tapping practices. (Phos. reduction). Nitrogen or argon stirring. Degassing adopted on large scale. Plate stacking for hydrogen control. TMCP and direct quenching. Top and bottom blowing. Steel desulfurization. Soft reduction. Interpass cooling of austenite. Thin slab casters used for linepipe.

Table 11: Manufacturing Developments 1960-2009

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Examples of the chemical compositions of X-65 sour service linepipe produced with the new technology (circa 1995) are presented in Table 12.

Table 12: Chemical Composition of API Grade X-65 for Sour Service Evolution of Linepipe Producers & Production As stated earlier manufacturing technologies for all HSLA steels improved rapidly from 1970 onward often due to demands from the linepipe arena. The demands occurred regionally, first in Alaska and later in the North Sea, followed by the demand for massive volumes of 56 OD X-70 (K60) linepipe from the former Soviet Union from 1970 through 1992 at which point the market collapsed. Middle East demands from Saudi Arabia, Oman, Iran etc were for sour service X-60 and X-65 grades. In North America Canadian gas transmission companies such as TCPL and West Coast Energy led the move to higher strength levels. For example: X-70 Nb-Mo steel was adopted by TCPL in 1970 produced at that time by IPSCO from semi-killed ingot steel [59]. Nowadays the pipe is produced from fully-killed continuously cast very low carbon (0.035%) skelp [60]. In the 1990s there was diversified demand on pipe makers in traditional steelmaking regions from projects offshore China and Brazil, from the Gulf of Mexico and the Middle East. Starting in 1999 Indian and Chinese pipe producers emerged mostly equipped with modern steelmaking and pipe making facilities. India became a major exporter of line pipe to North America, whereas Chinese demand was generated internally. Between 1999 and 2005 Chinese producers developed API Grade X-70 and utilized it for the First West East Pipeline Project [33] which extends 4500 km from the autonomous regions of Lunnan and Haoerguosi in the West to Shanghai in the East. After 2005 API X-80 was systematically developed and in a crowning achievement is being used for approximately half of the Second West East Pipeline Project (18.4 to 25.0 mm x 48 OD). A list of major large diameter pipe mills in China with details of their estimated production capacities and size ranges is presented in Table 13. A listing of Indian pipe mills is shown in Table 14. Globalization of Procurement In the early 1970s pipe manufacturer were located close to traditional steelmaking factories in Germany, UK, USA, Canada and Japan and Italy. Later, pipe making became more Internationalized and increasingly non-integrated see Table 15 below and 16 for longitudinal seam and helical respectively. For example countries such as Turkey, Greece and India have built pipe manufacturing facilities based on imported coils or plate, meanwhile procurement

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became less nationalistic. In the period since 2000 North American pipeline construction has been based to a major extent (>50%) on imported pipe from producers in India and elsewhere. This has recently stimulated the construction of 8 or 9 green field spiral seam pipe manufacturing plants in the USA which will once again affect the dynamics of the market place.

Table 13: Chinese (CNPC and Sinopec) Pipe Mills

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Table 14: Compilation of Indian DSAW Pipe Mills

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Table 15: Compilation of Large OD Longitudinal Seam Pipe Mills Worldwide

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Table 16: Compilation of Spiral Pipe Mills Except China and India

References [1] A. G. Barkow, Columbium Steel in High-Pressure Line Pipe Service, AISI Regional Technical Meeting No. 59, Buffalo, N.Y., 1960. See also U.S. Patent No. 3,010,822, Nov. 1961 F. M. Becket and R. Franks, Steel, U.S. Patent No. 2,264,355, December 1941 F. M. Becket and R. Franks, Steel, U.S. Patent No. 2,158,651, May, 1939 C. A. Beiser, The Effect of Small Columbium Additions to semi -killed Medium-Carbon Steels, ASM Preprint No. 138, 1959. Regional Technical Meeting, Buffalo, NY F. DeKazinczy, A. Axnas and P. Pachleitner. Some Properties of Niobium Treated Mild Steel. Jernkontorets, Annglar v. 147, 1963, p. 408 W. B. Morrison, The Influence of Small Niobium Additions on the Properties of Carbon-Manganese Steels, JISI, Vol. 201, p. 317, 1963 J. D. Baird and R. R. Preston. Relationships Between Processing Structure and Properties in Low Carbon Steels. Processing and Properties of Low Carbon Steel. The Metallurgical Society of AIME, 1973 J.J. Irani, D. Burton, J.D. Jones and A.B. Rothwell, Beneficial Effects of Controlled Rolling in the Process of Structural Steels Strong Tough Structural Steels Scarboro, U.K., April 4-6, 1967 ISI Special Publication No. 104 J.M. Gray, R.B.G. Yeo, P.Repas, A. Melville. Written discussion of Reference 8.

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Akasaki, 2004, Metallurgical Design of High Strength Steels and Development of X120 UOE Linepipe, Proc 4th Intl Pipeline Technology Conf, Oostend, Belgium, May 9-13, 2004 N. Nozaki, T. Hashimoto, Y. Komizo, H. Nakate and J. M. Gray "A New Low-Carbon-Niobium Steel Designed for Accelerated Cooling" Proc. Accelerated Cooling of Steel Pittsburgh, PA, August 19-21, 1985 TMS/AIME pp 331. L. E. Collins. X-100 Linepipe; A Canadian Steelmakers Perspective, Materials for Resource Recovery & Transport. Proceedings of the International Symposium - The Metallurgical Society of CIM. Calgary, Alberta, August 16-19, 1998, pp. 251-266 Moriyasu Nagae, Shigeru Endo, Noritsugu Mifune, Noriaki Uchitomi and Osamu Hirano. Development of X-100 UOE Line Pipe. NKK Technical Review No. 66, 1992 Tamotsu Hashimoto, Yu-ichi Komizo, Masatoshi Tsukamoto, Yishihiko Shirakawa and Akira Yamashita. Recent Development of Large Diameter Line Pipe (X -80 and X-100 Grade). The Sumitomo Search, No. 37, November 1988 Dr. Hans-Georg Hillenbrand, Dr. Andreas Liessem, Dr. Gerhard Knauf, Dr. Jurt Niederoff and Dr. Jurgen Bauer. Development of Large-Diameter Pipe in Grade X-100, Pipeline Technology, Vol. 1, p. 469, Brugge, Belgium, May 21-24, 2000 R. K. Ohm, J. T. Martin and K. M. Orzessek. Characterization of Ultra High Strength Linepipe, Pipeline Technology, Vol. 1, p. 483, Brugge, Belgium, May 21-24, 2000 A. Glover et al, The Application of X-100 to Gas Pipeline Symposium Microalloyed Steels for the Oil & Gas Industry, Araxa MG, Brasil, January 23 -26, 2006. Published by TMS Yi-Kang Wang, Jia-Hua Pan, Ke Yang and YiYin Shan High Performance Microalloyed Line Pipe Steel China, Proceedings of Microalloyed Steels for the Oil and Gas Industry Symposium, TMS, 2007, pp. 135-179. Wang Xiao Xiang The Development of Grade X-80 Linepipe and Induction Bends in China TRGC Seminar on X-80 Linepipe Steels, Xian PRC June 2008. Zhu Lixia et al Effect of M/A Constituents on Mechanical Properties of X-80 Linepipe Steels Proceeding International Seminar on X-80 and Higher Grade Line Pipe Steel 2008, Organized by CNPC-TGRC Xian, PRC June 23-24, 2008, pp. 156-158. Kong Junhua et al Experience of Mass Produced X-80 Strip for the Second West East Gas Pipeline, ibid pp. 231-234. Zhang Yongqing et al Chemical Design Microstructure and Properties of Hot -Rolled Strip, ibid pp. 235.242. Huong Yixin et al Production Practice of X-80/X100 Pipeline Steels by Steckel Mill, ibid pp. 243-247. Sun Weihua et al Development and Production of X-80 Pipeline Steel Plates ibid pp. 254-258. Ma Quiurong et al Research and Evaluation of X-80 SSAW Linepipe, ibid pp. 259-262. Li Weiwei et al Study on Toughness of X-80 Pipeline Steel Welding HAZ, ibid pp

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129-132. Liu Wencheng Demand and Development of X-80 Pipeline Steel for the Second West-East Pipeline Project, ibid pp 13-18. Nie Wenjin Control of Fracture Toughness at Low Temperature for X80 Steel Plates with Heavy Thickness, ibid pp 104-111 Wang Shuren et al Analysis and Study of the Strength of Grade X80 Coil, ibid pp 172-177. M. Lin and R. L. Bodnar, Effects of Comparsion and Processing Conditions on a 0.03%C-0.095% Nb X-70 Linepipe Steel, 40 MWSP Conference Proc. ISS 1998
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