Munchen Scientic Computing in Computer Science, Technische Universitat

Part IV More on Python

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More on Strings
Special string methods (excerpt)
s = " Frodo and Sam and Bilbo " s . islower () s . isupper () s . startswith ( " Frodo " ) # try s . startswith (" Frodo " , 2) s . endswith ( " Bilbo " ) s = s . strip () s . upper () s = s . lower () s . capitalize () # capitalize first character s = s . center ( len ( s )+4) # center ( padding default : space ) s . lstrip () s . rstrip ( " " ) s = s . strip () s . find ( " sam " ) s . rfind ( " and " )
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More on Strings (2)

Searching, splitting and joining (excerpt)
s . find ( " sam " ) s . rfind ( " and " ) s . replace ( " and " , " or " ) s . split () # or s . split ( None ); arbitrary numb . whitesp . s . split ( " " ) s . split ( " and " ) s . split ( " and " , 1) s = """ Line by Line """ s . splitlines () " , " . join ([ " sequence " , " of " , " strings " ])
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More on Built-in Sequences

Dictionaries
Map keys to values, arbitrary types Only immutable objects as keys Can serve as database d = {} d [ " Bilbo " ] = " Hobbit " d [ " Elrond " ] = " Elf " d [42] = 1234 d . has_key ( " Bilbo " ) d . keys () # unordered d . items () d . values () del d [42] d . clear ()

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More on Functions
Functions have to be dened before actually called for the rst

time

Note: Python is an interpreted language

Variables
Variables dened or assigned to in functions have local scope Global variables (surrounding context) can be accessed To modify global variables use global count = 0 ... def count_it ( n ): global count count += 1 In general: avoid global variables (pass as params instead)
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Call by Reference vs. Call by value

Call by reference: address (id) of parameter is handed over Call by value: value of parameter is handed over In Python: always call by reference But: assignment changes reference within function >>> >>> >>> >>> >>> >>> 3 def add_one ( x ): x = x + 1 x = 3 add_one ( x ) x

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Call by Reference vs. Call by value (2)

After assignment: local variable references to a new object. Using methods, the original object can be modied. >>> def append1 ( l ): >>> l = l + [4] >>> >>> def append2 ( l ): >>> l . append (4) >>> >>> l = [1 ,2 ,3] >>> append1 ( l ); l [1 ,2 ,3] >>> append2 ( l ); l [1 ,2 ,3 ,4]

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More on Functions (2)

Return values
Functions can have multiple return values (returned as tuple) def get_hobbits (): return " Bilbo " , " Frodo " h = get_hobbits () (a , b ) = get_hobbits () Assignment rules correspond to slice assignment l = [4 , 2] (a , b ) = l # implicit type conversion a, b = l l [0:3] = (3 , 2) # implicit type conversion

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More on Functions (3)

Docstrings
Functions (and classes, modules, ...) can provide help text String after function header (can be multiline) def answer (): " Returns an answer to a question " print " answer " help ( answer )

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Arithmetic Operations
Classical operations
x x x x x x x x + y # Addition - y # Subtraction * y # Multiplication / y # Division // y # Truncated division ** y # Exponentiation % y # Modulo -= 2; x *= 4; ... Division differs for int and float (Python < 3.0) 7/4 7.0/4

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More Operations
General functions
abs ( x ) divmod (x , y ) pow (x , y [ , modulo ]) round (x , [ n ]) # ( x // y , x % y ) # x ** y % modulo # round to 10**( - n )

Operations on integers
x << y x >> y x & y x | y x ^ y ~x # # # # # # Left shift Right shift Bitwise and Bitwise or Bitwise xor Bitwise negation

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File I/O
Opening les
Create le object (text les) fd fd fd fd = = = = open ( " testfile . txt " ) open ( " testfile . txt " , r ) open ( " testfile . txt " , w ) open ( " testfile . txt " , a ) # # # # read read write append

Create le object (binary les) fd = open ( " testfile . txt " , rb ) fd = open ( " testfile . txt " , wb ) fd = open ( " testfile . txt " , ab ) # read # write # append

open has more options (encoding, how to handle newlines, . . . )

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File I/O (2)

Methods of le objects Reading
fd . read () fd . read ( n ) fd . readline () fd . readlines () Writing fd . write ( " New Text \ n " ) fd . writelines ([ " first line \ n " , " Second \ n " ]) Dont forget to write newlines Closing fd . close ()
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# all # n Bytes # one line #

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File I/O (3)

Iterating over textle for loop over le line by line
fd = open ( " fulltext . txt " ) for line in fd : # rather than : in fd . readlines () print line # or : while True : line = f . readline () if not line : break print line

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File I/O (3)

Iterating over textle for loop over le line by line
fd = open ( " fulltext . txt " ) for line in fd : # rather than : in fd . readlines () print line # or : while True : line = f . readline () if not line : break print line

Some more functions on le objects fd.tell() get current le position fd.seek(offset) set le to position fd.flush() ush output buffer. Note: buffered for efciency
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Getting more. . .

Modules Outsource functionality in separate .py les Import them as library module Example (tools.py):
""" This module provides some helper tools . Try it . """ counter = 42 def readfile ( fname ): " Read text file . Returns list of lines " fd = open ( fname , r ) data = fd . readlines () fd . close () return data def do_nothing (): " Do really nothing " pass

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Modules (2)
Import module import tools tools . do_nothing () print tools . counter Import module and change name import tools as t t . do_nothing () Import selected symbols to current namespace from tools import do_nothing , readfile from tools import counter as cntr do_nothing () print cntr
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Modules (3)
Import all symbols to current namespace from tools import * do_nothing () print counter Modules can control which symbols are imported by from module import *: # module tools . py __all__ = [ readfile , counter ]

Then do_nothing() is unknown after import *

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Modules (3)
Import all symbols to current namespace from tools import * do_nothing () print counter Modules can control which symbols are imported by from module import *: # module tools . py __all__ = [ readfile , counter ]

Then do_nothing() is unknown after import * Inspect namespace Inspect namespace of module with
dir ( tools )
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Modules (4)
Getting help Access docstrings
import tools help ( tools ) help ( tools . do_nothing )

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Modules (4)
Getting help Access docstrings
import tools help ( tools ) help ( tools . do_nothing )

Execute module as main program tools.py should serve as program and module
# tools . py ... if __name__ == __main__ : print " tools . py executed " else : print " tools . py imported as module "

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Modules (5)
Reload module
When debugging a module reload with reload (Python<3.0) reload ( tools )

Module search path

Modules have to be in current directory or in directory in search

path

import sys sys . path . append ( " folder / to / module " ) import ...

Automatically extend sys.path by setting environment variable

PYTHONPATH
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Packages
Group modules Modules can be grouped together Folder structure determines modules, e.g.:
tools / __init__ . py files . py graphics . py stringtools / __init__ . py ... further

# contents for " import tools " # for " import tools . files " # for " import tools . graphics " # for " import tools . stringtools " nesting

If from tools import * should import submodules, tools/__init__.py has to contain

__all__ = [ " files " , " graphics " ]

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Command-Line Options
Using sys
sys.argv is list of command-line options First one (sys.argv[0]) is program name import sys print " Executing : % s " % ( sys . argv [0]) if len ( sys . argv ) < 2: print " Not enough parameters " sys . exit (1) print " Parameters : " print " , " . join ( sys . argv [1:]) Parse parameters...

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Command-Line Options (2)

Module optparse Class OptionParser in module optparse simplies option parsing
# !/ usr / bin / python import optparse p = optparse . OptionParser () # specify options p . add_option ( " -o " , action = " store " , dest = " opt " ) p . add_option ( " -v " ," -- verbose " , action = " store_true " , dest = " verbose " , help = " Produce more output " ) # parse options ( options , args ) = p . parse_args () if options . verbose : print " Starting program ... " print options , args
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Module optparse (2)

Program now supports

Default help Two custom parameters

Try (parameters.py): ./ parameters . py ./ parameters . py -h ./ parameters . py -o " Enjoy it " -- verbose ./ parameters . py -v file1 . txt file2 . txt

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Module optparse (3)

Some parameters of add_option One character "-x" and/or multiple character switches "--xyz" action can be store, store_true, store_false, append,
count dest name of option default default value help help text type one of string (default), int, long, float, complex, choice choices = [first, second, third] for type=choice

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Module optparse (3)

Some parameters of add_option One character "-x" and/or multiple character switches "--xyz" action can be store, store_true, store_false, append,
count dest name of option default default value help help text type one of string (default), int, long, float, complex, choice choices = [first, second, third] for type=choice

Help text with set_usage Reference to program name with %prog

p . set_usage ( % prog [ options ] file ( s ) Do nice things with file ( s ) )
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Standard Input, Output, and Error

Module sys provides three standard le objects
sys.stdin read only sys.stdout, sys.stderr

write only

import sys sys . stdout . write ( " Enter line :\ n " ) # = print "..." line = sys . stdin . readline () # or : line = raw_input (" Enter line :\ n ") if error : sys . stderr . write ( " Error !\ n " ) write does not add newlines raw_input([text]) strips endling newline Input and output buffered
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More on Lists
List comprehension
Short notation to create lists even_squares = [] for i in range (10): if i %2 == 0: even_squares . append ( i * i ) even_squares = [ i **2 for i in range (10) if i %2==0]

Compare: i 2 | i {0, . . . , 9}, i even

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More on Lists
List comprehension
Short notation to create lists even_squares = [] for i in range (10): if i %2 == 0: even_squares . append ( i * i ) even_squares = [ i **2 for i in range (10) if i %2==0]

Can contain more than one for ... in ... [if ...] [( x , y . upper ()) for x in range (4) if x %2 == 0 for y in [ " a " , " b " , " c " ]]

Compare: i 2 | i {0, . . . , 9}, i even

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More on Lists (2)

Advanced slice assignement Note: assigning slices of mutable sequences can change size
l = range (5) l [1:3] = [7 ,8 ,9] l [4:6] = [6]

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More on Lists (2)

Advanced slice assignement Note: assigning slices of mutable sequences can change size
l = range (5) l [1:3] = [7 ,8 ,9] l [4:6] = [6]

range and xrange

range([i,] j [, stride]) creates list Memory allocated for whole list, even when only iterating over xrange object calculates values when accessed (generator) for i in range (650000): do_something () for i in xrange (650000): do_something ()

them, especially in loops

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Even more on Built-in Sequences

set and frozenset set is mutable, frozenset is not
s = set ([3 ,1 ,2 ,3 , " foo " ,2]) len ( s ) l = [2 ,8 ,7] # any iterable sequence s . difference ( l ) s . intersection ( l ) s . union ( l ) s . s y m m e t r i c _ d i ffe re nc e ( l ) s . issubset ([3 , " foo " ]) s . issuperset ([3 , " foo " ]) For set s . add (42) s . remove (3) s . i n te r s ec t i on _u pdat e ( l )
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# and more methods ...

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Even more on Functions

Anonymous functions
Can be dened using keyword lambda Lambda functions allow functional programming def inc ( i ): return i +1 inc = lambda ( i ): i +1 ( lambda i : i +1)(4) Common use: map function on list items / lter list l = range (10) map ( lambda x : x * x +1 , l ) filter ( lambda x : x %2==0 , l )

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