FOUNDATION

Foundation: It is the part of any engineered system (structure), which transmits to and into the underlying soil or rock, the loads supported by it and its self-weight. Objects or Function of Foundation: Foundation is provided for the following purposes: To distribute the load of the structure, on large area, so that the intensity of load does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of underlying soil. To distribute the load on underlying soil evenly and thus to prevent unequal settlement of the foundation may be caused by (a) Weak sub-soils such as made up ground, (b) Shrinkable and expansive soil (such as clay), (c) Excessive vibration due to traffic, machinery etc. (d) Movement of ground water etc. To provide a leveled and hard surface, for the super-structure to built over it. To increase the stability of the structure as a whole, against sliding, overturning or other disturbing forces like wing, rain etc. To prevent lateral movement of the supporting material so that safety of the structure is not endangered.

Essential Requirement of a Good foundation: Foundations should be constructed to satisfy the following requirements The foundations shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed loads and to transmit these to the subsoil in such a way that pressure on it will not cause settlement which would impair the stability of the building or adjoining structures. Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are minimized, especially for the case when super-imposed loads are not evenly distributed. Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building against damage or distress caused by swelling or shrinkage of the sub-soil. The foundation of the structure should be located in such a way that it is capable to resist any unexpected effect which may adversely affect the performance of the structure.

Causes of failures of foundations and remedial measures:

Unequal settlement of sub-soil- Unequal settlement of sub-soil may lead to cracks in the structural components and rotation there of. Unequal settlement of sub-soil may be due to (i) Non-uniform nature of sub-soil throughout the foundation. (ii) Unequal load distribution of the soil strata and (iii) Concentric loading. The failures of foundation due to unequal settlement can be checked by (a) Resting the foundation on rigid strata such as rock or hard moorum. (b) Proper design of the base of footing so that it can resist cracking, (c) Limiting the pressure in the soil and (d) Avoiding eccentric loading. Unequal settlement of masonry- The portion of masonry, situated between the ground level and concrete footing (base) has mortar joints which may either shrink or compress, leading to unequal settlement of masonry. Due to this, the super structure will also have cracks. This could be checked by (i) using mortar of proper strength, (ii) using thin mortar joints, (iii) restricting the height of masonry to 1m per day if lime mortar is used, (iv) properly watering the masonry. Sub-soil moisture movement- Major causes of failures on cohesive soils where sub-soil water level fluctuates. When water table drops down, shrinkage of subsoil takes place, resulting crack in footings. During upward movement of moistures, the soil swells resulting high swelling pressure. Lateral movement of subsoil- This is applicable to very soft soils which are liable to movement or squeeze out laterally under vertical loads specially at locations when the ground is sloping. In granular soils where a big pit is excavate near vicinity of foundation, due to such movement excessive settlements take place on the structure may even collapse. In such a situation, sheet piles should be driven to prevent the lateral movement or escape of the soil. Weathering of subsoil due to trees or shrubsSmall trees is grown near the wall. The root absorbs moisture from the foundation soil, resembling reduction of voids and even weathering causes wall depress down. Also, if root penetrates below the level of footings, foundation cracks. Lateral pressure on the walls- Wall transmitting the load to the foundation may be subjected to lateral pressure from an arch or wind action. Due to this, the foundation will be subjected to a movement. If foundation has not been designed for such a situation may fail by either overturning or by generation of tensile stress on one side & high compressive stress on other side. Atmospheric action- Atmospheric action such as sun, wind, rains affected the foundation adversely. If depth of foundation is shallow, moisture movement due to rains or drought causes trouble.

Spread Footings: In case of spread footings, the base of the member transmitting load to the soil is made wider so as to distribute the load over wider area. The various footings described under this classification are: Wall footings: In this foundation, courses of bricks below the super structure wall are laid by giving 5cm out ward offsets on either side of the wall. The depth of each course is normally 10cm. A layer of lime concrete or lean cement concrete of thickness not less than 15 cm is spread on the compacted sub-soil under the layer of brick courses. The concrete bed rectifies the inequalities of excavation and provides plain surface upon which footing masonry can be built. Reinforced concrete footings: If a masonry wall is subjected to a very heavy load and bearing capacity of the soil on which footing is to rest is very low, reinforced cement concrete footing may be provided. Column footings or Pad footing: A spread footing for a single column is known is pad. Eccentrically Loaded footings: Normally, the footings are so designed and proportioned that the C.G of the superimposed load coincides with the C.G of the base area, so that the footing is subjected to concentric loading, resulting in uniform bearing pressure. However in some cases, it may not be possible to do so. For example if the wall under construction is near some property, it will not possible to spread the footing to both the sides of the wall or column.

Grillage Foundation: A grillage foundation is generally provided for heavily loaded steel stanchions, especially in those locations where bearing capacity of soil is poor. The load of the column or stanchion is distributed or spread to a very large area by means of layers or tiers of joists, each tier being placed at right angles to next tier. The depth of foundation is limited from 1m to1.5m. Grillage foundations are of two types: (a) Steel grillage foundation (b) Timber grillage foundation. Combined Footings: A combined footing is the one which supports two columns. If the footing supports more than two columns, it is known as a continuous footing. A combined footing is provided under the following circumstances: When the columns are very near to each other so that their footings overlap. When the bearing capacity of the soil is less, requiring more area under individual footing. When the end column is near a property line so that its footing cannot spread in that direction. A combined footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. If the outer column near the property line carries havier load, provision of trapezoidal footing becomes essential to bring the c.g. of the footing in the line with the c.g. of the two column loads. In other cases, a rectangular footing may be preferred. Strap or Cantilever footing: Strap footing comprises of two or more footings of individual columns, connected by a beam, called strap. When the distance between the outer column (near the property line) and the adjoining column is large, the combined trapezoidal footing will be quite narrow with high bending moments. In that case strap footing provided. The strap beam does not remain in contact with soil.

Grillage foundation

Rectangular and Trapezoidal Combined Footings

Strap Footing

Raft foundation Raft foundation is such a foundation that covers the entire area under the structure. This foundation may have only R.C.C. slab covering the entire area or it may be a system of slab and beams with slab at the bottom and beams above it. This foundation is found most suitable when heavy structures are to be constructed on soft made up ground or marshy sites having uncertain behaviour. Following are some of the advantages of this foundation: It is the most suitable foundation under conditions when soil at the site of proposed structure is erratic, soft and marshy having lot of compressible lenses. Overall settlement of the structure is reduced as the total load of the structure is distributed over large area and thus intensity of pressure of the foundation soil is reduced to minimum. Distribution of load on entire area of foundation is uniform.

Pile foundation Pile Foundation denotes a construction for the foundation of a wall or pier which is supported on piles. This type of foundation is adopted when very poor soil conditions extend to large depths and load to be supported is quite heavy. Waterlogged soils, made-up soils, compressible soils are the soil condition in which pile foundations provide the solution of all the difficulties.

Situations which demand Pile Foundations: Sub-soil water table is so high that it can easily affect the other foundations. Load coming from the structure is heavy and non-uniform. Where grillage or raft foundations are either very costly or their adoption impossible due to local difficulties. When it is not possible to maintain foundation trenches in dry condition by pumping, due to very heavy inflow for seepage or capillary water. There is a large fluctuation in subsoil water level. When overlay soil is compressible and water- logged and firm hard bearing strata is located at quite a large depth. When structures are located on river bed or sea shore and foundations are likely to be scoured due to action of water. They are also used for marine structures. In the construction of docks, piers and other marine structures they are used as fender piles.

Classification of pile based on function: Based on function piles may be classified as : (1) Bearing Piles, (2) Friction Piles, (3) Sheet Piles, (4) Compaction Piles, (5)Tension Piles, (6) Batter Piles, (7) Anchor Piles (8) Fender Piles. End Bearing Piles: These piles are driven through the soft overlay soil and their bottom is made to rest on the hard stratum or bed. The end bearing piles act as vertical columns or piers. They form a medium to transmit the load of the structure through piles to hard underlying stratum. The soft soil through which the piles are driven, also provides lateral support to the piles and hence helps in increasing the bearing capacity of the piles. Friction Piles: When overlay soft soil is for large depths and it is possible to rest the bottom end of the piles on the hard stratum, the load is borne by the piles through friction developed between the surrounding soil and surface of the piles. The load carrying capacity of friction pile can be increased by increasing diameter, by driving the pile for larger depth, grouping of piles and by making surface of the pile rough. Sheet Piles: Sheet piles never used to provide vertical support but mostly used to act as retaining walls. They are used for the following purposes To construct retaining walls in docks and other marine works. To protect erosion of river banks. To retain the sides of foundation trenches. To confine the soil to increase its bearing capacity. To protect the foundation of structures from erosion by river or sea. To isolate foundations from adjacent soils. Compaction Piles: Compaction piles are used to compact loose granular soils, thus increasing the bearing capacity of the poor soils. Tension Piles: Tension or uplift piles anchor down the structures subjected to uplift due to hydrostatic pressure or due to over turning moment. Batter Piles: These piles are not vertical but driven inclined to resist horizontal and inclined forces more effectively. Anchor Piles: These piles provide anchorage against horizontal pulls and thrusts. Fender Piles: Fender piles protect the berthing ships from damage. They also protect concrete deck or other water front structures from impact caused by ships. These piles are generally made from timber.

Classification of pile based on material and composition:

Concrete Piles: (a) Pre-cast piles These are cast and cured in a casting yard and then transported to the site for driving. They are driven with the help of pile hammer. Diameter of piles varies from 35mm to 65mm & their length varies from 4.5 m to 30m. (b) Cast-in-situ piles These are cast in position inside the ground with necessary reinforcement are provided. These piles are made by first making a hole in the ground either by driving a casing or by boring. The hole is then filled with concrete. When the casing is removed by lifting after concrete is placed, it is known as uncased type & if the casing is left in the ground after concreting, it is called cased pile. (i) Driven Piles (A) Cased - Raymond piles, Mac-Arthur piles, Swage pile etc. and (B) Uncased - Simplex piles, Franki piles, Vibro piles, Vibro-expanded pile, Pedestal piles etc. (ii) Bored piles Pressure piles, Under-reamed piles, Bored compaction pile etc. (c) Pre-stressed concrete pile- These piles are casted in the same manner as R.C.C precast piles, with the difference that these are reinforced with pre-tensioning cables. They are comparatively light in weight and hence easy to handle. Piles having 50cm dia or side are cast iron solid, whereas those above this size are casted with 20cm to 30 cm diameter fibre tube inside the pile at the time of casting of the pile. Timber Piles-These are cheap but are prone to damage by hard driving and should not be driven through hard stratum or boulders. Steel Piles- Steel piles are strong and can withstand high impact stresses developed during driving operation. After the piles have been driven to the required depth, the pile heads are embedded in R.C.C pile cap. Steel piles may divided into - (i) H-beam Piles (ii) Box Piles (iii) Screw Piles (iv) Steel Pipe Piles Composite Piles These are used when the use of conventional piles is found either uneconomical or unsuitable from the point of view of durability, or where the design length of the pile works out to be greater than that available for the cast-in-situ pile. Two types - (i) Concrete and timber (ii) Concrete and steel.

Well foundation (or Open Caissons) : Well foundation are the deep foundation, generally used for structures across rivers or streams where heavy scouring is involved such as for supporting the piers of a road or a railway bridge, or a barrage or an aqueduct. Well foundation may also be adopted for structures supported on soils containing layers of boulders, through which piles cannot be driven. A foundation well, which supports the pier over its top, are called well cap. The well usually consists of masonry or cement concrete side walls, called steining. A strong cutting edge is provided at the bottom to facilitate sinking. The tapered portion of the well above the cutting edge is known as the well curb and is usually made in reinforced cement concrete. The steining of a foundation well must be heavy and strong, as to facilitate the sinking of the well by self weight and to withstand the lateral forces that are likely to come on the well. After the well has been sunk to final designed depth, bottom plug is formed by mass concreting. The bottom plug serves as the base of the well. The well is filled with sand, at the top of the well; a top plug is formed by concreting. A R.C.C well cap is provided at the top, to transmit the load of the super structure to the well. Such a foundation well may be of any shape in plan, such as circular, rectangular, elliptical, oval etc. The most commonly adopted shape is circular, which provides high structural strength and easy uniform sinking. The maximum diameter of circular well is generally limited to 9m. For longer piers, rectangular or oblong shapes are often adopted.

Typical section of a foundation well

Different shapes (in Plan) of foundation wells

Questions on Foundation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Discuss various functions served by foundations. What are the causes of failure of foundation? What remedial measures would you adopt? Explain with the help of sketches, various types of foundations? Enumerate different types of foundations you would recommend under different situations and soil conditions. Explain them briefly. Explain the criteria for determining minimum depth of shallow foundations. What do you understand by Well foundation? When do you prefer this? Explain the situations in which the pile foundation is preferred. Classify various types of piles based on (i) function and (ii) materials & composition.