Renewable Energy (RE) Integration

Master of Engineering in Energy and

Environmental Management (EEM)
Flensburg, June 2012
1
By: Theoneste Uhorakeye
Italo Roberto Flores Zambran
Session one: 19.06.2012
Basic concepts of electrical systems
Current, voltage, resistance, capacitor, inductor, power, energy, power factor, losses
on line, DC and AC systems
Power quality: harmonics, flicker, voltage dips, transients & frequency variations

Session two: 26.06.2012
Basic concepts of electrical systems (cont.)
Generators, motors, transformers
Transmission line, protections
Student presentations

Session three: 03.07.2012
Introduction to power system representation and equations, power flow analysis and
faults calculations
Grid connection requirements for RE technologies

Session four: 07.07.2012
Case study (Power flow analysis with NEPLAN software)

Course content
2
1. Michel Crapper, (2008): Electric Power Systems, Wiley.
2. H. Wayne Beaty, (2001): Handbook of Electric Power calculations, Third edition, McGraw Hill.
3. Ali Keyhani, Mohammad N. Marwali M. D., (2010): Integration of Green and Renewable Energy
in Electric Power Systems, Wiley.
4. Gilbert M. Masters, (2004): Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems, Wiley Interscience,
Stanford University.
5. Brendan Fox, Damien F. Leslie B. Nick J. David M. Richard W. and Olimpo A. (2007): Wind
power integration: connection and system operational aspects, IET.
6. M. Shahidehpour, Hatim Yamin, Zuyi Li (2002): Market operations in electric power systems:
forecasting, scheduling, and Risk Management, Wiley Interscience.
7. Remus Teodorescu,Marco Liserre,Pedro Rodrguez,Frede Blaabjerg (2011): Grid Converters
for Photovoltaic and Wind Power Systems, Wiley
8. Stephen J. Chapman (2002): Electric Machinery and power System. Fundamentals, Mac Graw
Hill

Bibliography
3
Course organization:
Presentation topics
4
Topic Date Name
1 Load forecasting 26.06.2012
2 Smart grid & Super grids 26.06.2012

3 Forms of energy storage 26.06.2012

4 Power system stability analysis 26.06.2012

5 Optimal power dispatch 26.06.2012

5
M Metre
Base unit of length or distance
K Kilogram (kg)
Base unit of mass
S Second
Base unit of time
A Ampere (A)
Base unit of current
International System of Units MKSA
6
Basic Concepts :
Electrical power system
Hybrid A power system with more than one power generation sources
(e.g. a mix of Solar-Diesel, Wind-Diesel, etc)
Minigrid a small network of energy users in close proximity, which are
connected to a local supply system
Substation
(25 132 kV / 3 30 kV)

Substation
(3 30 kV / 125 - 220)

End-users
Basic Concepts:
Hybrids and Minigrids Systems
Atom
An atom consists of an atomic nucleus and atomic shells (or orbits)
The nucleus: protons (positive charge) and neutrons (zero charge)
The shell: negative charged particles called electrons
There is an attractive force between electrons and protons
When an atom loses or gain an electron it is called a ve or +ve ion respectively)

2. Basic concepts: the atom
8
Aluminium atom Hydrogen atom
Basic Concepts:
The current
Atoms are stable only when their shells and sub-shells are filled
Electrons in the highest shell levels are called valence electrons
The number of valence electrons possessed by an atom governs the manner
atoms will combine to make stable molecules
There are three ways to do this:
Ionic bonding (e.g. NaCl)
Covalent bonding (e.g. H
2
)
Metal bonding (e.g. Copper, steel, aluminum)
For this course, we are interested with metal bonding

9
Basic Concepts:
The current
10
2 atoms of Cu put together, the valence electrons find themselves
midway between the 2 nuclei
Therefore they can move freely and randomly from one atom to
another in the formed material called conductor
This free movement of free electrons in an electric conductor is
called electric current.
Basic Concepts:
The electric current
11
I: Current (Ampere =A)
Q: Charged Quantity (Coulomb =C,
or Ampere hours, Ah)
1 C=6.24 * 10
18
electrons
1 Ah=3600 C
t: time (second=s)
Definition:
the current is a flow of electric charge through a medium
(Iron, Copper, Aluminum)
the flow of electric current is due to the movement of the
free electrons of the conductor material.
Basic Concepts:
The electric current
2. Basic Concepts
2.3 Electric Current
12
How to measure the current?
Example: If a current of 10 A flows for 10 minutes through an electric
circuit, how many are the transported charge quantity?
Given: t = 10 min = 600 s, I = 10 A Required: Q
Solution: Q = I * t = 10 A * 600 s = 6000 As = 1.66 Ah
Ammeter
13
The movement of free electrons in a conductor are random and average out over
a period of time so that there is no net motion in any one direction.
Therefore, an external force, called electromotive force (emf) or potential
difference, or simply voltage is required to enable the free electrons travel the
length of the conductor to a required direction.
The external forces include batteries and DC and AC generators.

Basic Concepts:
The electric Voltage
Basic Concepts
The electric Voltage
14
J: Joule (= Newtonmeter)
C: Coulomb, 1C=6.24 * 10
18

electrons
V: Volt
Definition:
the voltage is a force that pushes the current through the circuit
It is a quantitative expression of the potential difference in charge between
two points
How to measure the voltage?
Voltmeter
Basic Concepts:
Voltage
15
A water pump pushes water (gives energy to it by raising its pressure),
so the voltage source pushes the charges (gives energy to the
charges by raising the voltage of the charges).

A pump needs water coming into it in order to pump water out, so the
voltage source needs charges coming into it (into the negative terminal)
in order to pump them out (of the positive terminal).
Water Electricity
Transportation medium Pipes Wires (conductors)
Direction of flow From high to low
pressure
From high to low potential
(voltage)
Cause of flow Pressure difference Potential difference
What flows Water Electric charges (current)
Basic Concepts:
The Electric Resistance
16
R: Resistance (, Ohm)
l : length of the conductor (meters)
: (rho) is the electrical resistivity (m)
A: is the cross-section area of the conductor (m
2
)
G: conductance (S, Siemens)
is a term that describes the forces that oppose the flow of
electric current in a conductor.

How to measure electrical resistance?
Ohmmeter
2. Basic Concepts
2.4 DC and AC
17
Direct current - DC
Alternating current - AC
v,
v,
18
Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854)
Basic Concepts:
Ohms law
Expresses the mathematical relationship
between electric current, resistance and
voltage.
V: Voltage (volt)
I: Current (Amper)
R: Resistance (, Ohm)
Basic Concepts
Ohm's Law
19
Given: V = 4.5 V; R = 50 unknown: I = ?
Example 1:
An incandescent lamp of 50 is connected to abattery of 4.5 V. How
much is the current?

Solution: I = V / R I = 4.5 V / 50 I = 0.09 A = 90 mA
Given: R = 4 k = 4000 ; I = 20 mA = 0.02 A, unkown: V = ?
Example 2:
A resistance of4 k and is crossed by a current of 20 mA. What
is the source voltage?
Solution: V = R * I; V= 4000 * 0.02 A;
V= 80 V
Basic Concepts:
Kirchhoffs Law
20
a. Kirchhoffs Current Law

The current entering any junction is equal to the
current leaving that junction.

i
1
+ i
4
= i
2
+ i
3
Circuit
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
(1824 1887)
Basic Concepts:
Kirchhoffs Law
21
b. Kirchhoffs voltage law

The sum of the electrical voltage around any
closed circuit is zero. v
1
+ v
2
+ v
3
- v
4
= 0
Circuit
+ -
+ -
+







-

I

Basic Concepts:
Electric Circuit
22
a. Series Connection

Two or more components are
connected in series if the same current
flows through all these components V
Total
R
1
R
2
R
3
V
3
V
2
V
1
V
Total
= V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
+ ...
I

V
1
= I * R
1
; V
2
= I * R
2
; V3=I*R
3
R
total
= R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3

V
1
/ V
2
= R
1
/ R
2
or V
2
/ V
3
= R
2
/ R
3
Basic Concepts:
Electric Circuit
23
a. Series Connection
Examples:
1.- Two resistances of 20 and 60 are connected in series. The
voltage accross the 20 resistance terminals is 6 V. What is the
voltage accross the 60 resistance and what is the source voltage?
given: R
1
= 20 , R
2
= 60 , V
1
= 6 V
required: V
2
and V= ?
solution:
I = V
1
/ R
1
, I = 6 V / 20 , I = 0.3 A
V
2
= I * R
2
, V
2
= 0.3 A * 60 , V
2
= 18 V
V = V
1
+V
2
= 6V+18V=24V

Basic Concepts:
Electric Circuit
24
a. Series Connection
Examples:
2.- Three resistances of 30 , 50 and 80 are connected in series.
How much is the total resistance, total current and voltages across R
1
,
R
2
and R
3
if the source voltage is 220V?
given: R
1
= 30 ; R
2
= 50 ; R
3
= 80 ; V = 220 V
required: R
tot
= ?; I = ?; V
1
, V
2
, V
3
= ?
solution: Rtot = R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
; R
tot
= 30 + 50 + 80 R
tot
= 160
I = V / R; I = 220 V / 160 ; I = 1.375 A
V
1
= I * R
1
; V
1
= 1.375 A * 30 ; V1 = 41.25 V
V
2
= I * R
2
; V
2
= 1.375 A * 50 ; V2 = 68.75 V
V
3
= I * R
3
; V
3
= 1.375 A * 80 ; V3 = 110 V
Basic Concepts:
Electric Circuit
25
b. Parallel Connection

Two or more components are
connected in parallel if the same
voltage appears accross all these
components.
I = I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
+ ...
I
1
= V / R
1
; I
2
= V / R
2
; I
3
=V / R
3
1 / R
eq.
= 1 / R
1
+ 1 / R
2
+ 1 / R
3

I
1
/ I
2
= R
2
/ R
1;
I
2
/ I
3
= R
3
/ R
2
R
3

I
Total
V

I
1
I
2 I
3
R
2

R
1
1
Basic Concepts:
Electric Circuit
26
b. Parallel Connection
Examples:
1.- Three resistances of 20 , 40 and 60 are connected in
parallel and the voltage source is 12 V. What are the equivalent
resistance, the total and the branch currents?
given: R
1
= 20 ; R
2
= 40 ; R
3
= 60 ; V = 12 V
required: R
tot
= ?; I = ?; I
1
, I
2
, I
3
= ?
solution:1 / R
eq.
= 1 / R
1
+ 1 / R
2
+ 1 / R
3
; 1 / R
eq.
= 1 / 20 + 1 / 40 + 1 / 60
1 / R
eq.
= 0.09166 / ; R
eq.
= 10.9
I = V / R
eq.
; I = 12 V / 10.9 ; I = 1.1 A
I
1
= V / R
1
; I
1
= 12 V / 20 ; I1 = 0.6 A
I
2
= V / R
2
; I
2
= 12 V / 40 ; I2 = 0.3 A
I
3
= V / R
3
; I
3
= 12 V / 60 ; I3 = 0.2 A
I = I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
; I = 0.6 A + 0.3 A + 0.2 A; I = 1.1 A
Basic Concepts:
Electric Circuit
27
b. Parallel Connection
Examples:

2.- A parallel connection consists of three resistances. R
1
= 0.012 M; R
3
=
0.36 k. I
1
= 600 A; I
2
=0.3 mA. Calculate: V, I, I
3
, R
2
and R
eq.
?
given: R
1
= 0.012 M; R
3
= 0.36 k; I
1
= 600 A; I
2
= 0.3 mA
required: V = ?; I = ?; I
3
= ?; R
eq.
= ?; R
2
= ?
solution: V = I
1
* R
1
; V = 600 *10*-6 A * 0.012 * 10*6 ; V = 7.2 V
I
3
= V / R
3
; I
3
= 7.2 V / 0.36 * 103 ; I
3
= 0.02 A = 20 mA
R
2
= V / I
2
; R
2
= 7.2 V / 0.3 * 10-3 A; R
2
= 24.000 = 24 k
I = I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
; I = 600 *10-6 A + 0.3 * 10-3 A + 0.02 A
I = 0.0209 A; I = 20.9 mA
R
eq.
= V / I; R
eq.
= 7.2 V / 20.9 *10-3 A; R
eq.
= 344.5
Basic Concepts:
Series & parallel circuits
28
Series circuit
All in a row
1 path for electricity
1 light goes out and the
circuit is broken


Parallel circuit
Many paths for electricity
1 light goes out and the
others stay on

Basic Concepts:
Electric Circuit
29
C. Series and Parallel Connection
Examples: In the following circuit, How much is the total resistance?

Ans: 153
Basic Concepts:
Capacitor
30
d. Capacitance.- describes the ability of a circuit component to
store energy in an electrical field.

Charged plates
Dielectric,
glass, plastics.
Air and
nitrogen .
C: capacitance (farads, F)
: is permittivity (F/m)
A: is area of one plate (m2)
d: is separation distance (m).
Capacitance values
Microfarad (106 F = F)
Picofarad (1012 = pF)
Basic Concepts:
Capacitor
31
Example
Capacitance of Two Parallel Plates. Find the capacitance of two 0.5-m2 parallel
conducting plates separated by 0.001 m of air with permittivity 8.8 1012 F/m.

Solution
C = 8.8 10
12
F/m 0.5 m
2
/ 0.001 m = 4.4 10
9
F = 0.0044 F = 4400 pF
Capacitors in Parallel Capacitors in Series
C
total
= C
1
+ C
2
. C
n
1/C
total
= 1/C
1
+ 1/C
2
. 1/C
n
V
32
e. Inductor
It is made of a coil of conducting wire
l
A N
L

2
=
(H/m) 10 4
7
0
0
2

=
=
=
t

r
l
A N
L
core the of ty permeabili :
Basic Concepts:
Inductor
L: inductance
l: length
N: number of turns
A: cross-sectional area
33
An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in the magnetic
field while a capacitor stores energy in the electric field.
Basic Concepts:
Inductor
When the current through an inductor is a constant, then the voltage
across the inductor is zero, same as a short circuit.
No abrupt change of the current through an inductor is possible except an
infinite voltage across the inductor is applied.
The inductor can be used to generate a high voltage, for example, in
transformers.
dt
di
L
dt
d
v = =
|
v
i
L
34
N eq
L L L L L + + + + = ...
3 2 1
Basic Concepts:
Inductors in series & parallel
N eq
L L L L
1 1 1 1
2 1
+ + + =
35
Find the equivalent inductance of the circuit shown in Fig. 6.31.
Basic Concepts:
Inductors in series & parallel
10H 12H, , H 20 : Series
H 6
42 7
42 7
=
+

H 18 8 6 4 = + + =
eq
L
H 42
Basic Concepts:
Electrical conductors
36
a. Type of conductors
Solid wire (Single strand)
Stranded wire (many strands)
Bare conductors Insulated conductors
Basic Concepts:
Electrical conductors
37
a. Type of conductors
Copper
Steel
Aluminum
Copper
Aluminum
Steel
Bare conductors Insulated conductors
Basic Concepts:
Electrical conductors
38
b. Insulated conductors
Insulator
copper
PVC- Thermoplastic Insulation
PVC
Mineral insulated
Basic Concepts:
Electrical conductors
39
b. Insulated conductors
Common conductors for electricity distribution (ACSR and AAAC)
Single conductor
ACSR - Triplex
ACSR - Quadruplex

2X7 + 1X7
3X7 + 1X7
1X19
Basic Concepts:
Electrical conductors
40
c. Bare conductors
wire ropes of 1 x 37, and 1 x 61
wire ropes of 6 x 7 and 6 x 19 with
steel cores
Aluminium Wires with steel core or
Reinforced
AAC All Aluminum Conductor

Basic Concepts:
Electrical conductors
41
d. Conversion: American wire gauge (AWG) to metric (mm2)
[Inch] [Inch]
Basic Concepts
Electrical conductor
42
a. Resistance of conductors
The resistance of a conductor depends on ist material (specific
Resistivity = , mm / m).
1. How big is the resistance of a Aluminium wire with l = 200 m and A = 1 mm ?
Examples:
given: l = 200 m, A = 1 mm; Al = 0.029 ( mm) / m
required: R = ?
Solution: R = ( * l) / A, R = (0.029 ( mm / m) * 200 m) / 1 mm; R = 5.8
, = 1/
Basic Concepts
Electrical conductor
43
b. Resistance and Temperature
If electrons in a metallic conductor move, they collide with other atoms
and molecules, which releases heat.
temperature coefficient: the change in resistance of 1 with 1 K temperature rise.
R = * R
0
* T R
T
= R
0
+ R T = T
h
T
0
R = Difference in Resistance
R
0
= Resistance in cold condition
R
T
= Resistance in warm condition
= Temperature coefficient in 1 / K
T
h
, T
0
= Temperatures in warm and cold conditions respectively
T = Temperature difference Tw Tk (called Delta) in K
Basic Concepts
Electrical conductor
44
Examples:
1. How much is the resistance of copper winding in a transformer at 80 C, if a
resistance of 30 is measured at 20 C?
Given: R
0
= 30 Cu = 0.0039 1 / K
Required: R
80C
= ?
Solution: R = * R
0
* T, R = 0.0039 1 / K * 30 * (80 20) K, R = 7.02
R
T
= R
0
+ R RW = 30 + 7.02 RW = 37.02
2. The starting current of a lamp is required. Following data are known: in use
the current I is 0.43 A with 230 V and with 2000 C filament temperature.
Temperature coefficient of the tungsten filament wire: Tun = 0.0041 1/K.
Ambient temperature T1 = 20 C
Basic Concepts
Electrical conductor
45
Example 2:
Given: T
h
= 2000 C I = 0.43 A V = 230 V = 0.0041 1/K
Required: I in starting moment
Solution: R
T
= V/ I = 230 V / 0.43 A = 534.9
R
h
= RK + R = R
0
+ R
0
* * T
Then comes: R
h
= R
0
(1 + * T)
or R
0
= R
h
/ (1 + * )
R
0
= 534.9 / (1+0.0041 * (2000-20)) = 58.7
I = V/ R = 230 V/ 58.7 = 3.92 A
Basic Concepts
Electrical conductor
46
c. Current Density
The heating up depends on the density of the current flow
Current Density (J): = I / A (A / mm)
Example: A current of I = 0.2 A flows through a lamp. How much is the
current density
a) In the main line with 1.5 mm conductor cross-section area
J = I / A = 0.2 A / 1.5 mm J = 0.1333 A / mm
b) In the bulb spiral wire with 0.03 mm diameter?
A = * d / 4 = * 0.03 mm / 4 = 0.0007069 mm
J = I / A = 0.2 A / 0.0007069 mm J = 283 A / mm
Basic Concepts
Electrical conductor
47
d. Acceptable Current Load of Conductors
Current density should not be excess for the long time
Depends on:
Cross section area of conductor
Conductor material
Number of strands
Type of installation
Insulating material
Ambient temperature
G1: One strand in a conductor
G2: Multi-strands conductors
G3: Single-wire
Basic Concepts
Electrical conductor
48
e. Security of Electrical Conductors
Maximum acceptable current load
Over-current protection:
Fuses
Breakers
Conductor material
Number of strands
Type of installation
Insulating material
Surrounding temperature
Line Protections: Norm VDE0636
G1: One strands in a conductor
G2: Multi-strands conductors
G3: Single-wire
Basic Concepts
Electrical conductor
49
Cable catalogs, SURAL company, Bare AAC
Basic Concepts
Electrical conductor
50
Cable catalogs, Paradise Cables, Single Core Round wire, copper
Basic Concepts
Electrical Power and work
51
a. Electrical Power
lamps, where electricity is
converted into heat and light,
these radiations are the given
as power output.
The turbine in a hydro-electric
power plant generates power
From Ohm's law :

V = R * I or I = V / R
P = V* I or P = V
2
/ R
or P = I * R
b. Electrical Work (Energy)
Electric motor converts
electricity into mechanical work
Heating resistor converts
electricity into heat
E = W
(year)
= P
max
* 365 * 24 * Cf


P = V * I
E = W = P * t
Analog
electricity
meter
Basic Concepts
Electrical Power and work
52
d. Work (Energy) Price - Tariff
The tariff in Germany is approx. 0.26 Euro per kWh.
For a household that consumes 3000 kWh annually, it spends:
3000 kWh * 0.26 / kWh = 780
e. Efficiency
Efficiency for work () = W
out
/ W
in
or power () = P
out
(Watt) / P
in
(Watt)
Example: Electrical motor 0.80
Transformer 0.95
Generator 0.90
Electrical Motor Efficiency () = P
out
*746 (horsepower)/ P
in
(Watt)
Basic Concepts
Electrical Power and work
53
Example:
Calculate the energy consumed by an electric cook stove (230 V, 3.40 A)
connected 1 hour and 30 minutes.
Given: V= 230 V, I = 3.26 A, t = 1.5 h
Required: P and W

Solution:
P = V * I, P = 230 V * 3.26 A = 750 W = 0.75 kW
W = P * t, W = 0.75 kW * 1.5 h = 1.12 kWh
Basic Concepts
Voltage Drop (DC)
54
Voltage drop is the reduction in voltage in the passive elements of an
electrical circuit.
R
l
: Resistance of conductor
A: Cross section in mm
l: length of cable in m
I: Current in A
X : Conductivity in (m/ mm) = 1/
P: Power transfered on the line in W
P
l
: Power losses on the lines in W
V
d
:Voltage drop in V on the lines
V : Supply voltage in V

Vd = R
l
* I
with
Basic Concepts:
Voltage Drop (DC)
55
Example: An electrical door bell (6 V, 1 A) for the front gate of an office is
connected by a copper wire ( = 56 m/ mm ) of 0.8 mm. The cable
distance between the push-button at the front gate and the bell is 50 m..
Technical installation not acceptable!
Basic Concepts:
Power loss (DC)
56
Example: Select a cable of 50 m to transfer a power of 240 W with max.
power loss of 5 % and supply voltage of 24 V, (copper = 56 m/ mm).
with I = P/V = 240 W/24 V = 10 A
P
l
= 0.05 * 240 W = 12 W
Selected: A = 16 mm
57
Alternating current
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
58
Circuit 1 Circuit 2 Circuit 3
59
AC electrical power changes constantly in amplitude and polarity
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
: angular frequency (unit: radians per second)
: initial phase angle (radians).
A
0
: is the amplitude (volts or amperes)
T: Period (seconds)
f : is the frequency (Hz)
V
0 :
Voltage peak
V
pp :
Voltage peak to peak
V
pp

V
rms

Cos
Cos
60
a. Effective Voltage = Vrms , Voltage root mean square (230V)
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
=
61
b. Effective Current = Irms , Current root mean square
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
c. RLC circuits and impedance

1
/
max , max ,
C
I V
D
C C C
e
= X
V
C
lags I
C
by p/2
Capacitive Reactance
V
R
& I
R
in phase
Resistance
R I V
R R

max , max ,
/
L I V
D L L L
e = X
max , max ,
/
V
L
leads I
L
by p/2
Inductive Reactance
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
V
L
= I
L
X
L
+90 (p/2) Lags V
L

by 90
X
L
=w
d
L L Inductor
V
C
= I
C
X
C
-90 (-p/2) Leads V
C

by 90
X
C
=1/w
d
C C Capacitor
V
R
= I
R
R 0 (0 rad) In phase
with V
R
R R Resistor
Amplitude
Relation
Phase
Constant
Phase of
Current
Resistance
or Reactance
Symbol Circuit
Element
R
L
C
V
V
R
V
C
V
L
Z
I
m
V
m
F
w
D
t-F
V
L
-V
C
V
R
X
L
-X
C
R
sketch shows
X
L
> X
C
] ) X (X R [ Z
1/2 2
C L
2
+
) tan(
R
X X
V
V V
C L
R
C L

=

u

Z
I
m
V

Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
Example: Analyzing a series RLC circuit
A series RLC circuit has R = 425, L = 1.25 H, C = 3.50 F.
It is connected to an AC source with f = 60.0 Hz and
m
= 150 V.
(A) Determine the impedance of the circuit.
(B) Find the amplitude of the current (peak value).
(C) Find the phase angle between the current and voltage.
(D) Find the peak and instantaneous voltages across each circuit element.
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
R
L
C
Vm
V
R
V
C
V
L
A series RLC circuit has R = 425, L = 1.25 H, C = 3.50 F.
It is connected to an AC source with f = 60.0 Hz and v
m
=150 V.
1
377 ) 0 . 60 ( 2 2

= = = s Hz f
D
t t e
O = O O + O = + = 513 ) 758 471 ( ) 425 ( ) (
2 2 2 2
C L
X X R Z
O = = = X

471 ) 25 . 1 )( 377 (
1
H s L
D L
e
O = = = X

758 ) 10 50 . 3 )( 377 /( 1 / 1
6 1
F s C
D C
e
O = 425 R
(A) Determine the impedance of the circuit.
Angular frequency:

Resistance:
Inductive reactance:
Capacitive reactance:

Answer
V A X I V
L m m L
138 ) 471 )( 292 . 0 (
,
= O = =
V A X I V
C m m C
222 ) 758 )( 293 . 0 (
,
= O = =
m C L R
V V V V V V = = = + + 150 483
Note that:
Why not?
Voltages add with proper phases: | | ( ) V 150
2 / 1
2
2
= + =
C L R m
V V V V
V A R I V
m m R
124 ) 425 )( 292 . 0 (
,
= O = =
(D) Find the peak and instantaneous voltages across each circuit element.
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
A
V
Z
V
I
m
m
293 . 0
513
150
=
O
= =
(B) Find the peak current amplitude:


. 593 . 0 0 . 34 )
425
758 471
( tan ) ( tan
1 1
rad
R
X X
C L
= =
O
O O
=

=

|
Current vector I
m
leads the Voltage V
m

Phase angle should be negative
X
C
> X
L
(Capacitive)
(C) Find the phase angle between the current and voltage.


66
d. The real, reactive, apparent and power factor
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
67
d. The Power Triangle and Power Factor Correction
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
Example: Good Versus Poor Power Factor.
A utility supplies 12,000 V (12 kV) to a customer who needs 600 kW of real
power. Compare the line losses for the utility when the customers load has a
power factor of 0.5 versus a power factor of 1.0.
.
Solution: power factor = 0.5
I =
600
12 * 0.5
= 100 A
I =
P
V * PF
Solution: power factor = 1 I =
600
12 * 1
= 50 A
68
d. The Power Triangle and Power Factor Correction
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
Example Power Triangle for a Motor.
A 230-V induction motor draws 25 A of current while delivering 3700 W of power
to its shaft. Draw its power triangle.
Solution
Real power P = 3700 W = 3.70 kW
Apparent power S = 25 A 230 V = 5750 volt-amps = 5.75 kVA
Phase angle = cos
1
(0.6435) = (0.8717 X 180)/3.1416 = 50

5750 VA
= = 0.6435
3700 W
69
d. The Power Triangle and Power Factor Correction
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
Example Power Triangle for a Motor.

Reactive power Q = S sin = 5750 sin 50

= 4400 VAR = 4.40 kVAR

70
d. The Power Triangle and Power Factor Correction
Basic Concepts
Alternating current (AC)
How can the power factor be brought closer to a perfect 1.0?
Original circuit With PF correcting capacitor
71
e. Three-phase AC
2. Basic Concepts
2.12 Alternating current (AC)
Three-phase transformer with four wire
output for 208Y/120 Volt service: one wire
for neutral, others for R, S and T phases.
72
Delta Connection Star Connection
0
gR gS gT
R S T
R S T
Z Z Z
U U U
U U U
= =
= =
+ + =
the three-phase supply is in balance when:
the three-phase load is balanced when:
1 2 3
Z Z Z = =
Basic Concepts
Type of electrical connection
73
Line R
Line S
Line T
neutral
load Supply
Basic Concepts
Type of electrical connection
74
Phase
voltage
Line
voltage
Star Delta
Basic Concepts
Type of electrical connection
Basic Concepts
Voltage Drop and Power Loss (AC)
75
a. Single-Phase AC
R
l
: Resistance of conductor
A: Cross section in mm
l: length of cable in m
I: Current in A
X : Conductivity in (m/ mm) = 1/
P: Power transfered on the line in W
P
l
: Power losses on the lines in W
V
d
:Voltage drop in V on the lines
V : Supply voltage in V

Voltage drop:
Load:
Power losses:
76
Example: A motor (230 V, 2 kW, = 0.85, cos = 0.8) for water pumping
is connected via 200 m cable (1.5 mm) to the grid. Calculate the power
losses and voltage drop (to remind: the power data of a motor always
means the mechanical power o u t p u t !).
V = 230 V, l = 200 m, X = 56 m/ mm, A = 1.5 mm, cos = 0.8
Mechanical efficiency of motor = 0.85 = P
out
/ P
in

Output power of motor P
out
= 2000 W
Required input power P
in
for motor: P
in
= P
out
/ = 2000 W / 0.85 = 2350 W
Basic Concepts
Voltage Drop and Power Loss (AC)
77
Voltage drop:
V
d
= R
l
* I = 2*200 /(56*1.5) * 12.77 = 60.8 V
V
d
/ V = 60.8 /230 = 0.26 or 26 %
Power loss:
The cable is not suitable for this purpose!
= 776 W
= 0,33 or 33%
Basic Concepts
Voltage Drop and Power Loss (AC)
78
Voltage drop: 3 phase Star system can be calculated like single phase
with only single length.
Power on one phase:
Power loss is calculated by voltage drop and current on one phase:
With
b. 3 Phase AC
Basic Concepts
Voltage Drop and Power Loss (AC)
Voltage drop:
And
Total loss for 3 phases is
79
Example: AC System line with 21 mm and a spacing of 0.5 m (r = 1.39
/km, x = 0,49 /km) is used to bring power 0.5 km from power house to
a load of 3 kW and a power factor of cos = 0.95 (means = 18).
Basic Concepts
Voltage Drop and Power Loss (AC)
AC single phase, 1 section only
Voltage drop:
Power Loss:
80
Basic Concepts
Voltage Drop and Power Loss (AC)
AC Three phase Star , symmetric load at the end of the grid
Total power with 3 phases
81
Basic Concepts
Voltage Drop and Power Loss (AC)
each phase current is
total loss on 3 phases
82
c. Summary of formulas
Power consumed by each phase load:
P= V* I * cos
Current in phase line:
I = P / (V* cos)
Voltage drop along lines serving each
load: V
d
= 2*l *(r cos+X sin)*I

Single Phase Configuration: split phase
Power consumed by each phase load:
P / 2 = V* I * cos
Current in phase line:
I = P / (2 V * cos)
Voltage drop along lines serving each
load: V
d
= l *(r cos+X sin)*I

Basic Concepts
Voltage Drop and Power Loss (AC)
Single phase
Split phase
83
Three Phase Configuration:
Power consumed by each phase load:
P/3 = V * cos * I
phase

Current in phase line:
I
line
= 3 *P / (3 *V * cos)
Voltage drop along lines serving each
load: V
d
= l *(r cos+X sin)*I
line
Three Phase Configuration:
Power consumed by each phase load:
P / 3 = V * cos * I
phase

Current in phase line:
I
line
= P / ( 3 *V * cos)
Voltage drop along lines serving each
load: V
d
= l *(r cos+X sin)*I

Basic Concepts
Voltage Drop and Power Loss (AC)
c. Summary of formulas
Three phase, delta
Three phase, c
84
Basic Concepts
Definitions
Harmonics
Harmonics are associated with steady-state
waveform distortion of currents and voltages
The term Harmonic is normally applied to
waveform components that have
frequencies other than the fundamental
frequency
Flicker
A fluctuation in system voltage that can lead
to noticeable changes in light output.
85
Basic Concepts
Definitions
Voltage dips
A very short drop in voltage in a system
(generally home AC wiring). It is most
commonly observed when a high-current
device (such as a hair dryer, microwave, or
table saw) is switched on and lights in the
same system will dim momentarily
Transient
An electrical transient is a temporary excess
of voltage and/or current in an electrical
circuit which has been disturbed
86
Thank you for your attention!