Outline the major concepts in the discourse of Digital Divide and provide relevant examples.

Digital divide is the gap between members who have consistent and effective access to digital technologies (the haves) and those who do not have such access (the have-nots). It implies those who are able to harness the benefits of technologies for their benefit as compared to those who cannot do the same. In a broader sense, it also signifies the ability to use ICT (Information and Communications Technologies) effectively, in addition to effective access to the quality of the digital content, in terms of the quality of connection, services and other factors that are important for effective use. According to Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD), the term digital divide refers to the gap between individuals, households, businesses and geographic areas at different socio economic levels with regard both to their opportunities to access information and communication technologies (ICTs) and to their use of the Internet for a wide variety of activities. The digital divide reflects various differences among and within countries. Digital Divide can occur in three aspects which are: 1. The global divide, which defined as the divergence of Internet and technological access between industrialized and developing countries. As an example, the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) indicates that only 3 percent of the population in India used the Internet in 2004. In contrast, more than 50 percent of the population in all developed countries used the Internet. 2. The social divide, which is the gap between the information rich and information poor within a society or nation. The differences in access between various social groups are due to socio-demographic barriers such as class, income, education, gender and race. For example, according to a random survey among 959 students from two of the most developed states in Malaysia-Penang and Kuala Lumpur, the statistical analysis indicates significant ethnic-based differences exist with regard home personal computer ownership and Internet connection, even with household income accounted for. In addition, according to NTIA 1999 version, it revealed that race was a factor in digital divide as the Blacks and Hispanics are less likely to be connected anywhere compared to whites at home. 3. The democratic divide; which exists in our world today between those who use the internet for civic participation and those who are passive consumers of internet resources. The democratic divide concerns the potential impact of the digital world on the distribution of power and influence in political systems. According to the cyber-optimists' perspective, the internet allows ordinary citizens to be involved in direct democracy, through political chat-rooms, electronic voting, and the mobilization of virtual communities, revitalizing levels of mass participation in public affairs. As an example, during the 2008 US presidential election campaign season, Social networking sites emerged as a prevalent tool for electoral campaigns. This election was the first in which all candidatespresidential and congressionalattempted to connect directly with American voters via online social networking sites like Facebook and MySpace. On the other hand, the cyber-pessimists regard digital technology (mainly internet) unleashing inequalities of power and wealth, reinforcing deeper divisions between the information rich and poor. The main idea is that the internet politics will disproportionately benefit the elite. That is the case for countries such as China, Cuba, Saudi Arabia, Vietnam, Syria and Tunisia where the control of the Internet is very strict and aimed at stopping the free circulation of ideas that can pose a threat to National Security; in many other countries - like North Korea, Laos, Burma - the use of Internet is literally prohibited to the population while it is allowed to a small elite connected with the Government.

Efforts in Bridging the Digital Divide Recognizing that ICT is here to stay and is certainly the crucial enabling tool to increase the efficiency, productivity and competitiveness of any nation, various initiatives have been taken to narrow the digital divide in Malaysia. The approach Malaysia has taken to bridge its digital divide can be described as a pragmatic one that acknowledges the commercial reality of the situation and the need for extensive government leadership and financial support to achieve results. While the government has assumed leadership in this effort, it nevertheless seeks to harness the strengths of private industry, particularly in the area of technology where constant advances promise a reduction in the cost of deploying ICT infrastructure in rural areas. The cornerstone of Malaysias effort to achieve universal service nationwide is its Universal Service Provision program (USP), which is managed by the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission. Under the program, MCMC has established and operated the Universal Service Provision Fund (USPF) in 2002. Under these regulations, all licensees, except Content Applications Service Provider (CASP), with net revenues greater than RM 500,000 were required to contribute 6% of their revenues to USPF. This threshold was raised from RM500000 to RM2 million by amendments to the CMA in 2003 in order to lessen the financial burden placed on smaller licensees and to promote their growth. In addition, the Government through the MCMC has set up Community Broadband Centers (CBC), to provide collective community Internet access to remote areas identified under the Universal Service Provision (USP) program. Each CBC set up is equipped with IT equipment and personal computers connected to internet broadband access to allow rural communities to enjoy the benefits of the internet. To further improve their social and economic status, software and training is also provided at each CBC. It is hoped that the setting up of CBCs will contribute towards achieving success in the national initiative to bridge the digital divide between urban and rural communities. On the other hand, the government has also targeted a 90-percent online usage of its services among the public by 2015. Malaysias National Broadband Plan aims at increasing household broadband in ternet penetration from 26% to 50%, thereby enabling Connected Government, an initiative launched in 2007 for zero face-to-face interaction to boost information sharing, integration and interoperability amongst government bodies and the public; Government portals help people access their services easily, from anywhere and at any time. The recently launched 1Malaysia Broadband Affordable Package offered for as low as RM20 per month for wireless network and as low as RM38 per month for wired network, also is a part of the government's initiatives to close the digital gap among the people in the country. Furthermore, through the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), the government attracts world-class technology companies while grooming the local ICT industry. The private industry plays a vital role too. They must work hand in hand with other parties in the effort to bridge the digital divide as they have the capital to make a vast difference to evolve the society, economy and technology. Big national companies like Telekom Malaysia Berhad (TMB), Jaring, Petronas and multinational companies like IBM, Motorola and Fujitsu, have donated generously towards the eradication of the digital divide problem. Maxis has done good work through its Maxis Cyberkids program which aims to bridge the digital gap by targeting school children in rural areas.

Challenges in Bridging the Digital Divide in Malaysia The challenges that are faced in using ICTs for bridging the digital divide are largely related to the following aspects: 1. Costly infrastructure, connectivity and use. While computer prices have declined, the high cost of installing and maintaining ICT services in remote and sparsely populated areas, however, make it difficult for commercial operators to provide telecommunications services in such areas at urban prices even though there is considerable demand. In deploying networks to some remote areas, operators have had to spend up to RM6000 per line in comparison to a per line cost of less than one tenth of that in urban are as. A host of obstacles stand in the way of cheap deployment costs. In terms of geography, parts of Malaysias rural population, particularly in Sabah and Sarawak, live scattered in the midst of dense rainforest, often in hilly terrain that obscure line of sight. Severe weather conditions that can alternate between flooding and drought further complicate telecommunications infrastructure deployment and the maintenance of equipment. Depending on their level of isolation, the level of infrastructure development in some rural areas can also be relatively poor. Electricity in rural locations, particularly in rural Sabah and Sarawak, is often only provided by diesel generators that operate only during certain hours of the day. The lack of paved road access also requires additional costs to be incurred in delivering and maintaining equipment at these sites. 2. Language of resources. The contents of training manual and the materials that are available on the Internet are primarily in English, which are not understood by many people in the rural areas. Although the members of the community had tremendous eagerness to learn, their little command of the English language, which undeniably is the IT language, presented a huge challenge to many of them. As such, the government had to redesign the present manual into a simplified manual and in Bahasa Malaysia. Additionally, the resources that are found on the Internet are mostly written in English, which pose a challenge for the rural people to comprehend due to their poor command of the English language. 3. Coordinated approaches and skilled human resources. The application of ICTs-based development efforts at community levels implies new skills and approaches from a variety of professions, some of which challenge traditional practices in several disciplines. For example, the e-Bario project, undertaken by a group of researchers from Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) in Bario, has experienced this challenge in many ways. As project implementers and promoters, the research team encountered a huge range of skills, disciplines and professions as part of its regular deliberations. Members had to be capable of associating and dealing with illiterate farmers, local administrators, technicians, small businessmen, officials, local and national community representatives, senior government officers and government ministers. Thus, new approaches to ICTs implementation will be necessary if rural communities are to be given the opportunity to benefit from connectivity. 4. Awareness of development in ICTs among rural communities. Although the Government of Malaysia has been aggressively promoting ICTs as one of the major components of its drive to fully developed nation status by the year 2020, the base-line survey indicated that 99.0 percent of the people in the Bario community had no knowledge of the Internet. It was surprising, and a little alarming, to discover an entire community have heard little of such developments. Despite its remoteness and isolation, it seemed reasonable to suppose that Bario was not alone in this finding.