1880s

Throughout the nineteenth century, a series of 'magic lantern' optical toys (such as the Phenakistoscope, the Zoetrope, and the Biophantic Lantern) presented short, repetitive animations exploiting the eye's persistence of vision (a phenomenon first reported y Peter !ark "oget in #$%&)' (mil "eynaud, the inventor of one such device (the Praxinoscope), converted it into a pro)ector and *as thus a le to present animated images, dra*n on celluloid strips, to large audiences' "eynaud called his modified device a Theatre +pti,ue, and used it to pro)ect Pantomimes Lumineuses presentations featuring films such as Un Bon Bock (#$$$)' -is first pu lic screening *as a pro)ection of Pauvre Pierrot (#$.%)' /imilarly, in #$$0, 1illiam 2riese34reene colla orated *ith 5ohn 6rthur "oe uck "udge on a Biophantascope capa le of pro)ecting magic lantern slides in rapid succession'

Motion Photography
(ad*eard !uy ridge used a series of Zoopraxiscope cameras, operated in rapid succession, to photograph the movements of a horse's legs7 his results, pu lished in #$8$, seem retrospectively to e prototypical (al eit hori9ontal) film strips'

(tienne35ules !arey developed !uy ridge's techni,ue, creating a single camera capa le of capturing a series of rapid exposures *hich he called :hronophotographie' !arey, *hose images *ere a ma)or inspiration for the 2uturismo art movement, used :hronophotographie to make a short film in #$$., demonstrating the movements of the human hand' +tto 6nschut9 invented a device capa le of pro)ecting :hronophotographie images in rapid se,uence7 he first demonstrated this (lectrotachyscope in Berlin in #$.&' The very first moving photographic images *ere filmed in #$$$' Louis LePrince, using a camera he had invented himself, recorded approximately t*o seconds of 6ctuality footage kno*n as Roundhay Garden Scene in Leeds, (ngland' -e is also thought to have pro)ected the footage, from a paper filmstrip at t*elve frames3per3second, in the same city' (Pro)ection speeds for silent films *ere not standardised, though t*enty3four frames3per3second ecame the standard speed for all sound films')

1890s
Thomas (dison, inventor of the cylinder phonograph, also experimented *ith cylindrical film recordings, using a ;inetoscope camera developed *ith his assistant, 1;L <ickson7 the first such film *as Monkeyshines I, recorded in #$.=' <ickson then modified the ;inetoscope, producing the hori9ontal, three3second film Dickson Greeting (#$.#)' >n #$.?, the device *as consolidated as a hand3cranked machine displaying celluloid filmstrips to individual vie*ers, kno*n as a ;inetograph7 the first film sho*n to the pu lic in this manner *as Blacksmith Scene (#$.?)' >n Berlin, 4ermany, the rothers !ax and (mil /klado*sky designed a Bioskop camera *hich recorded and pro)ected t*o simultaneous images, each at eight frames3per3second therefore creating the illusion of sixteen frames3per3second pro)ection' The Bioskop *as demonstrated to the pu lic in #$.@, though it is another pair of rothers, *ho also pro)ected moving images in that same year, that history has remem ered as the pioneers of film pro)ection'

From Film To Cinema

The rothers Louis and 6uguste Lumiere, from 2rance, are generally credited (despite numerous antecedents) as the inventors of pro)ected film' Asing their :inematographe cameraBpro)ector, moving images could e vie*ed on a large cinema screen rather than through a ;inetograph vie*3finder' The first film the Lumieres pro)ected *as La Sortie De L'Usine Lumiere A Lyon, in Paris in #$.@' The Lumiere's early films *ere all rief 6ctualites, documentaries detailing events from everyday life, sole exception eing their short comedy Le ardinier! L'Arroseur Arrose, also from #$.@, technically the first film *ith a fictional narrative' The significance *as not the content of these films ut rather the medium itself' Like still photography, x3rays, air travel, and high speed land travel, all popularised at the turn of the t*entieth century, the cinema offered a ne* perspective from *hich to vie* the *orld' 1hen the Lumieres' films *ere screened in 5apan, they *ere accompanied y live narration performed y ' enshi', and each se,uence *as pro)ected on a continuous loop (a techni,ue kno*n as Tasuke)' The enshi originally introduced each film y providing an explanation of its exposition, though later their performances ecame more sophisticated' 6ctors *ould stand ehind the screen, interpreting the film as a live drama, kno*n as ;age9erifu' (-istory came full3circle in %==?, *hen 6nastasia 2ite developed 'movieoke', a variant of karaoke in *hich the pu lic performed dialogue to accompany mute film pro)ections' 1hile collective interactive experiences emphasise karaoke3style participation, interactive film3making for individual vie*ers has een developed for computer games such as "ahrenheit (<avid :age, %==@), in *hich the player's actions affect the progression of the narrative')

1900s
:inema's exponential technological advancement *as demonstrated in #.== y "aoul 4romoin3/anson, *ho unveiled his :ineorama system' :ineorama featured an enormous panoramic screen, onto *hich *ere pro)ected ten simultaneous images side y side' The result *as certainly spectacular, though the flamma ility of nitrate film reels, coupled *ith the logistics of synchronising ten pro)ectors, curtailed the system's commercial potential' >t *ould later influence 6 el 4ance's #a$oleon and -olly*ood's :inerama process' Primitive cinema initially consisted of 6ctualities (from the Lumieres) and Photoscenes (simple recordings of popular entertainers, released y 4aumont), though 2rench stage magician 4eorges !elies sought to fully explore the camera's potential for illusion' -e used editing and trick photography to create films in *hich o )ects and people appear, disappear, multiply, explode, gro*, and shrink' These stop3motion effects influenced early cartoon animators such as 5ames /tuart Blackton (%umorous Phases &' "unny "aces, #.=07 (he %aunted %otel, #.=8) and (mile :ohl ("antasmagorie, #.=8)'

Sustained Narratives
!elies's masterpiece *as a science3fiction tale a out a group of curious Cictorians exploring the lunar surface, Le )oyage Dans La Lune (#.=%)' >t *as ased on a story y 5ules Cerne, *ho inspired many such narratives of fantastical )ourneys' ("etrospectively, it has also een adopted as a prototype of the /teampunk genre, in *hich consciously anachronistic, futuristic technology is introduced into narratives set in the Cictorian period') Le )oyage *as more than ten times longer than any previous film, a remarka le attempt at a sustained narrative *hich predates (d*in / Porter's early *estern (he Great (rain Ro**ery (#.=?)' The first feature3length film *as made in 6ustralia, :harles Tait's (he Story &' (he +elly Gang (#.=0)'

1910s
<1 4riffith's early short films, such as (he Lonely )illa (#.=.), for Biograph /tudios, *ere the first to com ine all the ne* narrative devices, including cross3cutting, multiple camera positions, inter3titles, and close3ups' 4riffith can thus e seen as the first 'modern' director, *hose greatest achievements *ere the historical epics (he Birth &' A #ation (#.#@) and Intolerance (#.#07 su titled A Sun,Play &' (he Ages! A Drama &' -om$arisons and Love's Struggle (hroughout (he Ages)' >t *as, ho*ever, the >talian studios that produced the very first epic films, including .uo )adis/ ((nrico 4ua99oni, #.#?) and the stunning -a*iria )isione Storica Del (er0o Secolo A- (4iovanni Pastrone, #.#&)' >n contrast to these historical epics *as a short3 lived cycle of films influenced y the >talian 2uturismo art movement, such as 6nton 4iulio Bragaglia's Per'ido Incanto and 6rnaldo 4inna's )ita "uturista ( oth #.#0), directed according to the cinema manifesto pu lished y 2T !arinetti in L'Italia "uturista (#.#0)' /creen comedian :harlie :haplin emigrated from London to -olly*ood' There, he directed and starred in a series of single3reel silent comedies, nota ly (he (ram$ (#.#&), *hich made him the most recognisa le film star in the *orld' Together *ith <1 4riffith, !ary Pickford, and <ouglas 2air anks, :haplin founded the independent studio Anited 6rtists in #.#.' The studio *as eventually sold in #.@%, and later merged *ith !4!' The *orld3famous stage actress /arah Bernhardt starred in the (li9a ethan costume drama Les Amours De La Reine 1lisa*eth (Louis !ercanton, #.#%), one of 2rance's 2ilm <'6rt productions' The first example *as L'Assassinat Du Duc DeGuise (#.=$), directed y 6ndre :almettes and :harles LeBargy' 2ilms <'6rt *ere significant for their extended running3times, though their static camera*ork and stage3like sets *ere more regressive than innovative' The rief period et*een #.=$ and #.## *as seen as a ' ela epoca' for Bra9ilian cinema, among the most popular productions eing 2itas :antatas films accompanied y live singers' /imilar to Bra9il's 2itas :antatas *ere the 5apanese "ensa34eki films, in *hich each se,uence *ould e follo*ed y a short dramatic scene (an innovation first introduced in #.#0)' +ther 5apanese genres of the period *ereD Eonsensu3!ono (comedies), !atata i3!ono (films a out *andering outla*s), Bunka (iga (documentaries, later called ;iroku (iga), and 5i)i (iga (also documentaries, though specifically )ingoistic)'

Avant- arde Cinema

The cinematic avant3garde can e traced ack to 6 el 4ance's short, experimental La "olie Du Dr (u*e (#.#@), and the extraordinary horror masterpiece Das -a*inet Des Dr -aligari ("o ert 1eine, #.#.), the first film of the 4erman (xpressionismus movement (though the 6merican avant3garde has much later originsD !aya <eren and 6lexander -ammid's Meshes &' (he A'ternoon from #.&?)' -aligari *as a 2ilm <'6rt production in all ut name, *ith its painted scenery and static camera, though its angular sets *ere designed *ith complete disregard for realism' This resulted in a film *hich stylistically echoed the un alanced psychology of its sinister central character and his somnam ulistic assistant'

19!0s
(rich Con/troheim emigrated from 6ustria to 6merica, and soon gained a reputation for over3indulgence' -is film udgets ,uadrupled, and the excessive running3times of his films *ere drastically cut efore distri ution' Greed (#.%&), for example, lasted over nine hours in rough3cut' 2rench director 6 el 4ance's films (nota ly La Roue from #.%? and the ' iopic' #a$oleon from #.%8) *ere similarly extravagant' #a$oleon had a running3 time of over five hours, and *as pro)ected using the Polyvision systemD three screens *ere used, ena ling incredi le panoramic images to e presented'

Polyvision *as influenced y the ten3pro)ector panoramas of :ineorama, and it inspired the 6merican :inerama process of the #.@=s' -o*ever, the most important technical innovation of the #.%=s related not to the screen ut to the soundtrackD the sporadic lines of spoken dialogue in 6lan :rosland's 'talkie' (he a00 Singer in #.%8 caused an instant sensation' -o*ever, (he a00 Singer *as retrogressive rather than progressive7 it's 'soundtrack' *as recorded not on the film itself ut on a separate disc' True optical sound had in fact een demonstrated as early as #.%#, y :harles -oxie' 6merican film production in the early #.%=s *as increasingly consolidated around a small num er of film studios, all ased in -olly*ood, *hich ecame synonymous *ith the 6merican film industry' This system of classical -olly*ood studio production survived until the #.0=s, *hen it *ould e challenged y the increasing popularity of television and the rise of independent film production' :harlie :haplin's silent comedy shorts of the #.#=s developed into feature3films in the #.%=s, such as (he Gold Rush (#.%@)' Buster ;eaton's (he General (#.%8, directed y ;eaton and :lyde Bruckman) is another enduring silent comedy' +ther -olly*ood stars of the era included sex3sym ol "udolph Calentino, *hose most popular leading role *as in the exotic drama (he Sheik (4eorge !elford, #.%#)' >n contrast to the decadence of -olly*ood's emerging star and studio systems *as "o ert 2laherty's humanist documentary #anook &' (he #orth (#.%%)'

"eimar #$pressionism
4erman (xpressionismus produced such diverse films as the 4othic horror #os'eratu! 1ine Sym$honie Des Grauens y 21 !urnau (#.%#) and the expensive science3fiction epic Metro$olis (#.%0), directed y former sculptor 2rit9 Lang' Lang specialised in spectacular superproductions for 4ermany's premier studio, A267 he directed the contemporary Dr Ma*use Der S$ieler (#.%%) and the historical Die #i*elungen (#.%&7

released in t*o partsD Sieg'ried and +riemhild's Rache)' !urnau and Lang oth emigrated to -olly*oodD Lang left 4ermany after filming his psychological masterpiece M in #.?# and later directed the 6merican thriller (he Big %eat (#.@?)7 !urnau directed the naturalistic ;ammerspielfilm Der Let0te Mann (#.%&) in 4ermany and Sunrise! A Song &' (2o %umans (#.%8) in 6merica, only to e killed in a road accident a fe* years later' >n contrast to (xpressionismus's extreme stylisation *as a series of 4erman Eeue /achlichkeit films, eginning *ith Die Strasse (;arl 4rune, #.%?) and Die "reudlose Gasse (41 Pa st, #.%@)' 1hereas the Eeue /achlichkeit art movement introduced *hat *ould later e regarded as !agical "ealist elements, the films of the period *ere concerned *ith poverty3stricken life on the streets (hence they are sometimes called /treet films)'

%apanese Cinema
1ith the introduction of sustained narratives to 5apanese cinema, the country's film industry egan to polarise into t*o distinct stylesD 4endai34eki (dramas *ith contemporary settings, initially influenced y 4erman (xpressionismus and also kno*n as 4endai3!ono) and 5idai34eki (period dramas influenced y ;yu34eki historical films, also kno*n as 5idai3!ono)' ;ichi9o :hi a's &noga (sumi (#.=.) is one of the earliest examples of 4endai34eki, though the most famous are ;en)i !i9oguchi's -hi (o Rei (#.%?) and !inoru !urata's Ro3o #o Reikon (#.%#)' >n the mid3#.%=s, there *as a noticea le stylistic shift in the 4endai34eki genreD the films egan to dra* more influence from 6merican cinema and less from 4erman (xpressionismus' Futaka 6 e's Ashi #i Sa2atta &nna (#.%0) is a typical example, its director having previously *orked as an actor in -olly*ood' +ne of the earliest 5idai34eki films is -hushingura (#.=8), y "yo ;onishi' +thers include Tomiyasu >keda's Sonno oi (#.%0) and Bansho ;anamori's 4uki,4oe Shi! Murasaki 5ukin (#.%?)' The latter film is also an early example of the ;en34eki genre (/amurai s*ord3fighting films, also kno*n as :ham ara)' <aisuke >to's #.%8 -hu3i (a*i #ikki trilogy (Goyo %en, Shinshu +essho %en, and +oshu (ate %en) represents the pinnacle of early 5idai34eki cinema and is also a prototype Faku9a34eki film' Fasu)iro +9u, initially influenced y 6merican cinema, directed /homin34eki films (comedies of social o servation a out lo*er3middle3class life, also kno*n as /hoshimin3 4eki) such as Daigaku 6a Deta +eredo (#.?%) and (okyo #o &nna (#.??)' 6t the time, the most famous /homin34eki director *as Fasu)iro /hima9u, *ho directed &tosan

(#.%?) and (onari #o 4ae,-han (#.?&)' The /homin34eki social comedies led to a series of satirical comedies kno*n as !odan3!ono, such as Futaka 6 e's Ashi #i Sa2atta &nna (#.%0)' 6 group of overtly !arxist films, kno*n as ;eiko3(iga, *ere s*iftly suppressed y the 5apanese authorities' 6mongst them *as ;en)i !i9oguchi's (okai +okyogaku (#.%.)' +ne of the final ;eiko3(iga films *as /higekichi /u9uki's #ani Gakano3o 6o So Saretaka (#.?=), the highest3grossing film in 5apanese silent cinema' /adly, the vast ma)ority of 5apan's silent films are no* no longer extant'

Surrealism And A&stra'tion

>n 2rance, Luis Bunuel (*ith minimal assistance from artist /alvador <ali) gained entry into the /urrealist group *ith Un -hien Andalou (#.%$), an iconoclastic masterpiece of enigmatic, shocking, and deli erately provocative dream imagery' This truly uni,ue film features a *oman's eye eing sliced open *ith a ra9or, ants cra*ling from a hole in a man's hand, and dead donkeys lying on pianos' Bunuel follo*ed it *ith the /urrealist lasphemy of L'Age D'&r (#.?=), featuring a priest thro*n out of a *indo*, a young oy shot in the head, and an implicitly /adean :hrist' The other key /urrealist film3maker *as the poet 5ean :octeau, *hose de ut Le Sang D'Un Poete (#.?=) *as surpassed y his Poetic "ealist La Belle 1t La Bete (#.&0) and &r$hee (#.@=)' /o3called 6 solute films, influenced y the <ada art movement, included Rhythmus 78 (-ans "ichter, #.%#), Diagonalsym$honien (Ciking (ggeling, #.%#), 1ntr'acte (#.%&, y "ene :lair, *ho directed Paris .ui Dort in #.%@), Lichts$iel &$us I (1alther "uttmann, #.%#7 the first a stract film screened to the pu lic), and the 'city symphony' documentary Berlin! Die Sym$honie 1iner Grosstadt (1alther "uttmann, #.%8)' The <ada artists !arcel <uchamp (Anaemic -inema, #.%@) and !an "ay (La Retour A La Raison, #.%?7 L'1toile De Mer, #.%$) also made experimental films at this time' !any of these semi3a stract art films, along *ith 4ermaine <ulac's La Souriante Mme Beudet (#.%?), are examples of cinematic >mpressionisme, )uxtaposing images to give them ne* meanings as the !onta9h theorists in "ussia *ould later advocate' 2ernand

Leger's Le Ballet Mecani9ue (#.%&) *as another experimental semi3a stract film, specifically influenced y "ussian !onta9h editing' Total a straction *as achieved y -enri :homette, the 2rench director *hose *orks of :inema3Pur included -in9 Minutes De -inema,Pur (#.%@), depicting a stract patterns of light'

Soviet Montage
>mpressionisme in film *as made possi le y the *ork of Lev ;uleshov, the "ussian director *ho investigated the psychological impact of !onta9h, the )uxtaposition of images' >n an untitled experimental film circa #.#., ;uleshov intercut a picture of >van !o9hukhin's expressionless face *ith images of a o*l of soup, a dead ody in a coffin, and a little girl' 6fter the shot of the soup, audiences perceived the face as appearing hungry7 it *as perceived as mournful after the shot of the coffin7 finally, it *as vie*ed as happy after the little girl' Thus, ;uleshov discovered that editing could alter the meaning of images' 2ollo*ing in the tradition of the agit3trains *hich pro)ected 6gitka political propaganda to "ussian peasants, theorist /ergei (isenstein harnessed the political potential of ;uleshov's !onta9h' (isenstein pu lished several essays on !onta9h, the first eing Monta0h Attraktsionov in #.%?' -e *as then commissioned y the "ussian government to produce cinematic commemorations of the "ussian "evolutionsD Stachka (#.%@), Bronenosets Potyomkin (#.%@), and &ktya*r (#.%$)' Bronenosets Potyomkin, *hich dramatised the #.=@ naval revolt at +dessa, contains argua ly the most cele rated se,uence in silent cinemaD the massacre on the +dessa /teps' 2ollo*ing the 4erman invasion during 1orld 1ar >>, "ussian cinema *as again harnessed for propagandist purposes, *ith a series of short films kno*n collectively as ;inos orniki' The first of these anti3Ea9i shorts *as Boyevoy +inos*ornik I, directed y /ergei 4erasimov, > !utanov, and F Eekrasov in #.&#' The "ussian pu lic, ho*ever, *ere eager for escapism rather than propaganda, and the most successful films *ere glamorous ;olkho9 musicals such as (sirk (4rigori 6leksandrov, #.?0)' 1hile (isenstein used !onta9h to simulate and heighten reality, <9iga Certov's ;ino3 +ki philosophy sa* it as a tool for the manipulation of realism' Certov (and his ;inoks group) pu lished a series of manifestos (such as My! )ariant Mani'esta, #.%%) and produced a ne*sreel series (+ino,Pravda) et*een #.%% and #.%@, though his

outstanding contri ution to cinema is -helovek S +inoa$$aratom from #.%.' The film is essentially a :ity /ymphony documentary a out everyday life in !osco*, though it uses techni,ues such as split3screen, dou le3exposure, trick editing, stop3motion, and free9e3 frames to constantly remind the audience of the camera's presence' The innovations of "ussian !onta9h and the 2rench avant3garde *ere part of a general modernist movement throughout the arts, and !arcel L'-er ier's L'Inhumaine (#.%?) is a clear example of this trend 3 it is resolutely modernist in its set design, though its outstanding artistic radicalism (like that of the overtly (xpressionistic -aligari) inevita ly made it commercially unsuccessful'

19(0s
5ean Cigo's 5ero De -onduite (#.??) and L'Atalante (#.?&), and 5ulien <uvivier's Pe$e Le Moko (#.?0), *ere the first films in 2rance's "ealisme Poeti,ue movement, a style that *ould encompass some of 2rance's greatest films and influence 6merican 2ilms Eoirs' "ealisme Poeti,ue's most significant director *as !arcel :arne, *hose greatest films are Le .uai Des Brumes (#.?$), Le our Se Leve (#.?.), and Les 1n'ants Du Paradis (#.&@)' 5ean 4a in, the star of Pe$e Le Moko and .uai Des Brumes (and 5ean "enoir's La Bete %umaine, #.?$), ecame the movements's greatest icon, and appeared *ith (ric Con/troheim in 5ean "enoir's masterpiece La Grande Illusion (#.?8)' "enoir's deep3focus photography, constantly moving camera, long takes, and tragi3comic narratives *ere all used to greatest effect in La Regle Du eu (#.?.), and the film is still acclaimed as (uropean cinema's greatest achievement' (uropean cinema's most ,uestiona le achievement is perhaps the Ea9i documentary (rium$h Des 6illens (Leni "iefenstahl, #.?&)D an outstanding technical accomplishment, though also a lionisation of 6dolf -itler' "iefenstahl had previously starred in several of the popular mountainside films (kno*n as Bergfilme) y 6rnold 2anck, including Der %eilige Berg (#.%0), though she did not

appear in 2anck's first example of the genre (Das 6under Des Schneeschuhs, #.%#)' 6longside the Bergfilme during the #.%=s *ere a series of educational documentaries, made primarily y the A26 studio, kno*n as ;ulturfilme' The first significant example *as 6ege 5u +ra't Und Schonheit in #.%@, directed y Eicholas ;aufmann and 1ilhelm Prager'

The Classi' )olly*ood System+ Studios, enres, And Stars

The #.?=s is regarded as -olly*ood's 'golden age', in *hich the hardships of the <epression *ere temporarily replaced y the glamour of Technicolor' Gone 6ith (he 6ind (produced y <avid + /el9nick for his o*n studio) and (he 6i0ard &' &0 (from !4!), oth directed y Cictor 2leming in #.?., are the greatest films of this period' Gone 6ith (he 6ind is a sumptuous, epic romance, resplendent in Technicolor' Three3 strip Technicolor *as used for the first time in Becky Shar$ ("ou en !amoulian, #.?@), follo*ing the hand3colouring of the #.==s, the tinting of the #.#=s, and the t*o3strip Technicolor of the #.%=s' The first feature3length Technicolor film *as (he Gul' Bet2een (1ray Bartlett Physioc, #.#8), though it is no longer extant' (he 6i0ard &' &0 is particularly memora le for the moment *hen its sepia3tinted prologue in ;ansas is transformed into the Technicolor paradise of the land of +9' 6lso significant are the Technicolor 's*ash ucklers' -a$tain Blood (#.?@) and (he Adventures &' Ro*in %ood (#.?$), oth y !ichael :urti9' >n Britain, (hings (o -ome (1illiam :ameron !en9ies, #.?0), though filmed in lack3and3*hite, *as a similarly spectacular production (in contrast to the cheap ',uota ,uickies' churned out follo*ing a #.%8 6ct re,uiring a proportion of all exhi ited films to e dosmestically produced)' The -olly*ood studio system, y no* at the height of its artistic and commercial success, egan more than ever to produce films formulated according to specific genres' 2or example, many hundreds of *esterns (kno*n as 'horse operas', 'sage rushers', and

'oaters') *ere made during the decade, the est of *hich *as 5ohn 2ord's Stagecoach (#.?.), starring 5ohn 1ayne' 1ayne *ould later star in many of 2ord's greatest *esterns, including his 'cavalry trilogy', though -enry 2onda starred in 2ord's archetypal My Darling -lementine (#.&0)' Aniversal produced many horror films in the #.?=s, nota ly "rankenstein (#.?#), Bride &' "rankenstein (#.?@), and the *onderful (he &ld Dark %ouse (#.?%), all y British director 5ames 1hale' The cycle *as initiated in #.?# y the popular yet stilted Dracula (directed y Tod Bro*ning), though the most unusual example is (dgar 4 Almer's i9arre (he Black -at (#.?&)' +f all the Aniversal horror films, Bride &' "rankenstein is the most significant, eing oth a prototypical horror film and a lackly comic parody of the genre's conventions' >t is an incredi ly su versive film, *ith arely disguised gay and lasphemous su texts' 6longside horror, the gangster genre also esta lished itself in the early #.?=s' !ervyn Le"oy's some*hat dated Little -aesar (#.?=) *as the first of the cycle, though far more po*erful is 1illiam 1ellmann's (he Pu*lic 1nemy (#.?#), released shortly after*ards' Both films, made y Aniversal, *ere s*iftly surpassed, ho*ever, y -o*ard -a*ks's Scar'ace (#.?%) starring Paul !uni, produced y -o*ard -ughes' The popularity of horror and gangster pictures, and !ae 1est's innuendo3filled comedies such as She Done %im 6rong (Lo*ell /herman, #.??) and I'm #o Angel (1esley "uggles, #.??), *as a cause of concern for the :atholic Legion of <ecency and the !otion3Picture Producers and <istri utors 6ssociation' The president of the !PP<6, 1ill -ays, dre* up a Production :ode for idding excessive cinematic sex and violence' The musicals :7nd Street (Lloyd Bacon), Gold,Diggers &' 8;<< (!ervyn Le"oy), and "ootlight Parade (Lloyd Bacon), all choreographed y Bus y Berkeley for 1arners in #.??, *ere popular *ith audiences eager for escapism' (They also inspired Bra9il's :hanchada musicals such as -arnaval #o "ogo y 1atson !acedo, #.&.') 1arners also produced a series of social realist films, the est of *hich is !ervyn Le"oy's I Am A "ugitive "rom A -hain Gang from #.?%, though the greatest example of #.?=s social realism is Le*is !ilestone's All .uiet &n (he 6estern "ront (#.?=) for Aniversal' 1estern3style "ancheras films *ere hugely popular in !exico, *ith the most successful eing 2ernando <e2uentes's Alla 1n 1l Rancho Grande (#.?0)' 6nother !exican genre from the period, :a aretera, involved innocent *omen venturing into slea9y nightclu s and eing seduced into lives of *anton de auchery, *ith 6l erto 4out's Aventurera (#.&.) eing the ackno*ledged classic of this cult exploitation genre' The /cre* all comedy su 3genre made a star of :ary 4rant, *ho appeared in Leo !c:arey's (he A2'ul (ruth (#.?8) and -o*ard -a*ks's Bringing U$ Ba*y (#.?$)' /cre* all comedies, from 2rank :apra's It %a$$ened &ne #ight and -o*ard -a*ks's (2entieth -entury ( oth #.?&) on*ards, *ere characterised y their fast3paced dialogue and ' attle of the sexes' humour' /cre* all films *ere essentially frenetic variants of 'rom3com' romantic comedies, and a more startling variation, the 'rom39om3com' romantic

9om ie comedy Shaun &' (he Dead ((dgar 1right) *ould arrive in %==&' Traditional rom3coms *ere cited, some*hat dismissively, as films for *omen, also kno*n as 'chick flicks', epitomised y the melodramatic #o2 )oyager (>rving "apper, #.&%)' The most popular stars of the period *ere /*edish icon 4reta 4ar o and Teutonic legend !arlene <ietrich' 4ar o had een a silent film star since the early #.%=s, nota ly in "lesh And (he Devil (:larence Bro*n, #.%0), and she later appeared (and, famously, spoke) in :larence Bro*n's Anna -hristie (#.?=) and (dmund 4oulding's creaky Grand %otel (#.?%)' <ietrich starred in a series of films directed y 5osef Con/tern erg, including Der Blaue 1ngel (#.?=) in 4ermany and (he Scarlet 1m$ress (#.?&) in 6merica' /he *as e,ually famous as an actress and singer, and her most memora le song is Ich Bin )om +o$' Bis "uss Au' Lie*e 1ingestellt from Der Blaue 1ngel' 4ar o and <ietrich *ere great rivals, though had actually appeared together in the same film (Die "reudlose Gasse) in #.%@' >n the #.?=s, they tried to out3do each other *ith increasingly exotic and opulent roles, culminating in 4ar o's regal .ueen -hristina ("ou en !amoulian, #.??) and <ietrich's extravagant (he Scarlet 1m$ress' Both stars eventually ecame reclusesD in 4ar o's case this happened rather suddenly in #.&#, though <ietrich *as a film and ca aret star until the #.8=s'

19-0s
The most important film of the decade *as un,uestiona ly -iti0en +ane, directed y +rson 1elles in #.&#' 1ith its deep3focus photography, stylised lighting, overlapping dialogue, and roaming camera, +ane is perhaps 6merica's most significant contri tion to the development of the cinema' 2urthermore, it *as 1elles's cinematic de ut, directed *hen he *as a mere t*enty3six years old' Previous to directing and starring in +ane, 1elles had directed and starred in (he 6ar &' (he 6orlds, often cited as the *orld's

greatest radio production' -e follo*ed +ane *ith (he Magni'icent Am*ersons (#.&%), though the film *as re3edited and partially reshot y the studio ehind his ack' /everal of his later films, including (he Lady "rom Shanghai (#.&$) suffered a similar fate' >n :arol "eed's British classic (he (hird Man (#.&.), the anticipation of 1elles's character -arry Lime rivals that of ;urt9 in A$ocaly$se #o2' !ichael Po*ell and (meric Press urger co3directed a series of British masterpieces in the #.&=s, including the celestial fantasy A Matter &' Li'e And Death (#.&0), the sexual frustration of Black #arcissus (#.&8), and the alletic (he Red Shoes (#.&$), produced y their company The 6rchers (launched in #.&?, *ith a five3point unpu lished manifesto)' 6lso in Britain, (aling perfected their niche for delightful and satirical comedies *ith +ind %earts And -oronets ("o ert -amer, #.&$), starring 6lec 4uinness' <uring 1orld 1ar >>, producer 1alt <isney's animated features, including Pinocchio (Ben /harpsteen, #.&=), Dum*o (Ben /harpsteen, #.&#), and Bam*i (<avid -and, #.&%), provided much3needed escapism, as Technicolor had done during the <epression in the #.?=s' They consolidated <isney's position at the forefront of animation, follo*ing the success of Sno2 6hite And (he Seven D2ar's (<avid -and, #.?8)' The self3 mythologising <isney studio claims Sno2 6hite as the first feature3length animated film, ho*ever that honour actually elongs to the 6rgentine film 1l A$ostol y Guirino :ristiani (#.#8, no longer extant)'

Film Noir
6fter the 1ar, directors turned increasingly to*ards social realism and reverted to monochrome cinematography' This visually, thematically, and psychologically dark style *as kno*n as 2ilm Eoir, influenced y 4erman (xpressionismus, the 2rench "ealisme Poeti,ue films of the #.?=s, and the B3movie Stranger &n (he (hird "loor (Boris >ngster, #.&=)' (2rit9 Lang's do*n eat 4ou &nly Live &nce from #.?8 has also een cited as a key Eoir influence') "ecurrent motifs of 2ilm Eoir include *orld3*eary detectives, sultry femmes3fatales, and ur an crime narratives' :lassic 2ilms Eoirs include Billy

1ilder's Dou*le Indemnity (#.&&), (dgar 4 Almer's Detour (#.&@), 5ac,ues Tourneur's &ut &' (he Past (#.&8), and 5ohn -uston's (he As$halt ungle (#.@=)' 2ilms Eoirs *ere named after a series of 2rench crime novels, and a cycle of 4erman films derives its name from a similar sourceD ;rimi films, including Der "rosch Mit Der Maske (-arald "einl, #.@.) *ere named after a series of 4erman crime novels' Ted Tet9laff's (he 6indo2 (#.&.) has een termed ;id Eoir, as its central protagonist is a young oy' Tech Eoir and Psycho Eoir su genres *ere initiated in the #.$=s y, respectively, Blade Runner and Blue )elvet' 6nother Eoir offshoot, 2ilm Blanc, has een utilised to descri e Eoir's ideological and visual opposites' 1hereas 2ilms Eoirs are realistic and pessimistic, 2ilms Blancs such as Beyond (omorro2 (6 (d*ard /utherland, #.&=) portray supernatural forces *hich resurrect the spirit of human optimism' <ark, chiaroscuro Eoir cinematography finds its opposite in rightly lit 2ilms Blancs (or 2ilms :lairs) such as "argo (5oel :oen, #..0)' -umphrey Bogart played the archetypal Eoir detectives /am /pade in (he Maltese "alcon (5ohn -uston, #.&#) and Philip !arlo*e in (he Big Slee$ (-o*ard -a*ks, #.&0)' !arlo*e *as also played y <ick Po*ell in Murder My S2eet ((d*ard <mytryk, #.&&) and y "o ert !ontgomery in Lady In (he Lake (#.&8, directed y !ontgomery)' The latter film is shot entirely from a first3person3perspective, thus !ontgomery is only ever seen y the audience *hen he is reflected y a mirror' Bogart *as perhaps the iggest star of the #.&=s, and appeared in !ichael :urti9's *artime romance -asa*lanca (#.&%) in addition to his 2ilm Eoir roles' +ther ma)or stars of the time *ere 5ames /te*art in 2rank :apra's It's A 6onder'ul Li'e (#.&0) and :ary 4rant in -o*ard -a*ks's rilliant /cre* all comedy %is Girl "riday (#.&=)'

Neo-.ealism
Throughout the 2ascist regime in >taly, one method of avoiding political censorship *as simply to concentrate on producing escapist, non3political cinema' These opulent, glamorous films *ere kno*n as Telefoni Bianchi, as they all seemed to include *hite telephones amongst their props (although actually identifying such films amongst the many >talian comedies of the #.?=s is not al*ays easy)' 6fter the collapse of 2ascism and >taly's defeat in 1orld 1ar >>, and the resultant lack of funds for its national film industry, the opulent escapism of the past *as impossi le' >nstead, Luchino Cisconti's &ssessione (#.&?) and La (erra (rema! 1$isodio Del Mare (#.&8) took >talian cinema in a ne* directionD Eeo3"ealismo' &ssessione *as filmed on location, ypassing the need for expensive studio sets' >t also used non3professional actors and relied upon donated film3stock' Eeo3"ealismo came to international attention *ith the release of "o erto "ossellini's Roma! -itta A$erta in #.&@ and Paisa in #.&0' (,ually significant are the films of Cittorio <e/ica, especially Sciuscia (#.&0), Ladri Di Biciclette (#.&$), and Um*erto D (#.@%)' &ssessione is also regarded as the first 4iallo film, a genre later dominated y superior exploitation director !ario Bava' >n the early #.@=s, the >talian government funded film production only selectively, denying funds to overtly political films' Thus, elements of escapist comedy *ere introduced into Eeo3"ealismo films, to make them more politically accepta le' This ne* style *as kno*n as Eeo3"ealismo "osa, and is typified y films such as Due Soldi Di S$eran0a ("enato :astellani, #.@%)' The comic element soon eclipsed the Eeo3"ealismo components altogether, and a distinctive >talian comedy style, :omedia 6ll'>taliana, *as orn *ith the films of !ario !onicelli, nota ly his I Soliti Ignoti (#.@$)' The location3shooting of Eeo3"ealismo *as replicated y -olly*ood in the latter half of the decade' Eoir themes such as ur an crime *ere given more naturalistic treatments in a num er of films oth set in and filmed on the city streets' The first of these documentary3 style, 'police procedural' thrillers *as (he %ouse &n ;7nd Street (#.&@) y -enry -atha*ay, *ho also directed +iss &' Death (#.&8) and -all #orthside === (#.&$), though the most *ell3kno*n example is 5ules <assin's (he #aked -ity (#.&$)' (lia ;a9an directed t*o of the est documentary3style thrillers, Boomerang (#.&8) and Panic In (he Streets (#.@=)' >n contrast to the prevailing Eoir and Eeo3"ealismo aesthetic, producer Cal Le*ton's series of horror films for ";+ *ere more nota le for their atmospheric, suspenseful style' 5ac,ues Tourneur directed -at Peo$le in #.&% and I 6alked 6ith A 5om*ie the follo*ing year, oth of *hich *ere produced y Le*ton' 2ilm Eoir's most striking antithesis *as the -olly*ood musical, *hich Cincente !innelli reinvented *ith Meet Me In St Louis (#.&&) y integrating songs directly into the melodramatic narrative'

19/0s
The #.@=s *ere over*helmed y a cycle of science3fiction B3movies, some good, some ad, and some so ad they're goodD (he (hing "rom Another 6orld (:hristian Ey y, #.@#7 produced y -o*ard -a*ks), the 5apanese Go3ira (an exercise in crypto9oology y >noshiro -onda, #.@&, spa*ning the ;ai)u (iga genre of 5apanese monster films), (he Incredi*le Shrinking Man (5ack 6rnold, #.@0), and Invasion &' (he Body,Snatchers (<on /iegel, #.@0)' There are many more examples of these films, featuring deadly alien invasions (*ith anti3 :ommunist su texts) and monsters a*akened andBor mutated (exploiting anxiety a out atomic radiation), though their lurid posters are often more interesting than the films themselves' The cycle *as initiated y >rving Pichel's documentary3style Destination Moon (#.@=), produced y 4eorge Pal (*ho also produced 6ar &' (he 6orlds and 6hen 6orlds -ollide), though the more exciting Rocketshi$ >M (;urt Eeumann, #.@=) *as rushed into production to compete *ith it' The most lamenta le science3fiction films of the period *ere directed y (d 1ood, often cited as the *orld's *orst director' 1ood's films, including the notorious camp classic Plan #ine "rom &uter S$ace (#.@0), *ere certainly incompetent, though they *ere never dull' 1ood's i9arre sex3change melodrama Glen &r Glenda/ (#.@?) is an early example of 'mockumentary'B'docudrama' film3makingD a fictional (though, in this case, asically auto iographical) narrative presented as if it *ere a documentary' !4! made a long series of Technicolor musicals produced y 6rthur 2reed in the #.&=s and #.@=s, including Meet Me In St Louis and, most famously, Singin' In (he Rain (4ene ;elly and /tanley <onen, #.@%)' +ften acclaimed as the greatest musical film ever made, Singin' In (he Rain *as a comedy ased on -olly*ood's transition to sound in the #.%=s' The other key -olly*ood3on3-olly*ood film of the era *as the 4othic melodrama Sunset Blvd, *hich starred t*o figures from the silent eraD actress 4loria /*anson and director (rich Con/troheim' 6lfred -itchcock relocated from London to -olly*ood in the #.&=s' (-is greatest British films *ere (he Man 6ho +ne2 (oo Much from #.?&, (he <; Ste$s from #.?@, and (he Lady )anished from #.?$'), and directed several films (including "oreign -orres$ondent

in #.&=, and #otorious in #.&0) under contract to <avid + /el9nick' -itchcock directed his most acclaimed films during the #.@=s, after extricating himself from the /el9nick contractD Strangers &n A (rain (#.@#), Rear 6indo2 (#.@0), )ertigo (#.@$, argua ly over3rated), and #orth By #ort2est (#.@.)' -itchcock's greatest film, the shocking Psycho, *as released in #.0=, and influenced horror films such as Bo :lark's Black -hristmas (#.8&) and 5ohn :arpenter's %allo2een (#.8$)' -itchcock's last great film *as (he Birds (#.0?)' >sidore >sou, founder of the Lettriste avant3garde art movement, directed (raite De Bave 1t D'1ternite in #.@=' The film *as deli erately asynchronous, a techni,ue >sou called :inema <iscrepant' +ther Lettriste films featured spoken soundtracks though no images (kno*n as :inechronic films), the first eing 4il 5 1olman's Atochrone (#.@=)' 1olman's L'Anticonce$t (also #.@=) consists of intermittent light pro)ected onto a alloon' >sou and 1olman oth contri uted to 4uy <u ord's :inechronic %urlements 1n "aveur DeSade (#.@%)' >n protest at the lack of social realism in British films, a 2ree :inema group *as esta lished, *ith a short manifesto pu lished in #.@0' The group initially produced three short documentaries *hich focused on *orking3class culture and recreationD & Dreamland (Lyndsay 6nderson, #.@?), Momma Don't Allo2 (;arel "eis9 and Tony "ichardson, #.@@), and (ogether (Loren9a !a99etti, #.@0)' The 2ree :inema directors then progressed from documentaries to feature3filmsD 'kitchen sink' dramas a out Eorthern 'angry young men', such as Room At (he (o$ (5ack :layton, #.@.) and Look Back In Anger (Tony "ichardson, #.@.), true to the social realist origins of the movement' Britain's other great contri ution to #.@=s cinema *as the series of comedies produced y (aling, the est of *hich eing (he Ladykillers (#.@@) directed y 6lexander !ackendrick and starring 6lec 4uiness' !ackendrick *ould later direct the acclaimed melodrama S2eet Smell &' Success (#.@8) in -olly*ood' The greatest star of the decade *as undou tedly !arilyn !onroe, *ho, like !arlene <ietrich efore her, is remem ered for her singing and acting in e,ual measure' >n !onroe's case, her renditions of Diamonds Are A Girl's Best "riend in Gentlemen Pre'er Blondes (-o*ard -a*ks, #.@?) and I 6anna Be Loved By 4ou in Some Like It %ot (Billy 1ilder, #.@.) are her career highlights'

The Threat From Television

The increasing popularity of television forced -olly*ood to introduce numerous technological innovations in order to compete for audiences' The most successful of these innovations *ere *idescreen and ?3< formats ased, ironically, on experiments conducted since the #$.=s' The first *idescreen process of the #.@=s, the triptych :inerama format used for (his Is -inerama (!erian : :ooper, #.@%), *as directly inspired y the Polyvision system used in the #.%=s, though it added a curved screen to provide a feeling of immersive depth' %=th :entury 2ox's :inema/cope anamorphic *idescreen system soon replaced the more cum ersome :inerama' :inema/cope *as ased directly on -enri :hretien's -ypergoner system, *hich he had first demonstrated in -onstruire Un "eu (#.%.)' -ypergonar ena led not only hori9ontal panoramic pro)ection ut also uni,ue vertical *idescreen images' The first film in the :inema/cope format *as the rather dull epic (he Ro*e (-enry ;oster, #.@?)' >n order to fully demonstrate the panoramic potential of the ne* *idescreen formats, a num er of i lical epics of the #.%=s *ere remade in *idescreen Technicolor splendour, including Ben,%ur! A (ale &' (he -hrist (1illiam 1yler, #.@.) and :ecil B <e!ille's remake of his o*n #.%? (he (en -ommandments in #.@0' /ince the #.@=s, ultra3*ide formats have only rarely een utilised for narrative films, relegated instead to novelty attractions such as >max ((iger -hild y <onald Brittain, #.8=), +mnimax (Garden Isle y "oger Tilton, #.8?), and /ho*scan (#e2 Magic y <ouglas Trum ull, #.$?)' 6nother gimmick used y -olly*ood to lure audiences a*ay from TC *as ?3<, *hich had een used previously in isolated experimental films though *as first deployed as a mainstream attraction in B2ana Devil (6rch + oler, #.@%)' ?3< lent itself most naturally to science3fiction films such as It -ame "rom &uter S$ace (5ack 6rnold, #.@?)' <irector 1illiam :astle ((he (ingler, #.@.) *as the undisputed king of gimmicks in the #.@=s, though his inventive marketing schemes *ere far more memora le than the films they promoted' To provide a uni,ue alternative to television, 6merican drive3in cinemas egan screening sensationalist, melodramatic exploitation films, directed according to ne* genre

formulas' There *ere many ne* exploitation genres, aimed largely at a teenage audienceD 1>P (1omen3>n3Prison) films such as -aged (5ohn :rom*ell, #.&.), 5< (')uvenile delin,uent') films such as %igh School -on'idential? (5ack 6rnold, #.@$), and iker films such as Motorcycle Gang ((d*ard L :ahn, #.@8)'

The Method
Though most #.@=s exploitation films *ere lo*3 udget, a surdly moralistic, and instantly out3of3date, there are t*o clear exceptionsD (he 6ild &ne starring !arlon Brando and Re*el 6ithout A -ause starring 5ames <ean' Brando *as one of a num er of young male actors *ho starred in )uvenile delin,uent films a out youth re ellion, the prototypical example eing Brando's o*n performance in (he 6ild &ne (Laslo Benedek, #.@?)' 5ames <ean starred in the yet more iconic Re*el 6ithout A -ause (Eicholas "ay) in #.@@ (the film *as actually released after <ean had een killed in a car accident)' These films sought to condemn the teenage lifestyle yet also to appeal to a teenage audience, thus Black*oard ungle ("ichard Brooks, #.@&), for example, pro lematised youth violence though also introduced "ock 'n' "oll into cinema for the first time' 6 parallel trend existed in 5apanese cinema, *ith a genre kno*n as Taiyo9oku inaugurated y Takumi 2uruka*a's (aiyo #o +isetsu (#.@0)' >n A Streetcar #amed Desire ((lia ;a9an, #.@#), !arlon Brando introduced a ne* acting style to the cinemaD the !ethod' Trained at the 6ctors' /tudio, he rought an unprecedented intensity to screen acting, nota ly in &n (he 6ater'ront ((lia ;a9an, #.@&)' <irector ;a9an named names to senator 5oe !c:arthy during the :ommunist *itch3hunts, and &n (he 6ater'ront, in *hich Brando's character testifies against organised criminals, can e seen as self3)ustification for ;a9an's actions'

The ne* realism of Brando and <ean's acting style *as complemented y a ne* generation of directors *ho produced their o*n films and thus ypassed the studio system' /tanley ;ramer, for example, *as the director and producer of a series of 'social conscience' films, including (he De'iant &nes (#.@$, starring /idney Poitier)' -e *as also the producer of (he 6ild &ne and %igh #oon' /tanley ;u rick also produced his o*n films, directing independently since the early #.@=s' 6rgua ly, no other director has matched ;u rick's perfectionism or his consistent genius' >n the #.0=s, he relocated to (ngland, *here he directed the satirical masterpiece Dr Strangelove &r %o2 I Learned (o Sto$ 6orrying And Love (he Bom* (#.0&) and the stunning science3fiction epic 7@@8! A S$ace &dyssey (#.0$)' The most determined of the independent producer3directors *as +tto Preminger, *ho released (he Moon Is Blue (#.@?) and (he Man 6ith (he Golden Arm (#.@@) *ithout Production :ode approval' (-e also directed one of the est documentary3style Eoir thrillers, 6here (he Side2alk 1nds, in #.@=') 5ames /te*art exposed the fla*s in 6merica's )ustice system in Preminger's Anatomy &' A Murder (#.@.)' /idney Lumet's (2elve Angry Men (#.@8) *as an e,ually perceptive and meticulous criti,ue of the courtroom'

"orld Cinema
>n >ndia, /atya)it "ay directed the '6pu trilogy' (Pather Panchali in #.@@, A$ara3ito in #.@0, and A$ur Sansar in #.@.), in stark contrast to the musical decadence of Bolly*ood films such as Alam Ara (6rdeshir >rani, #.?#), +ismet (4yan !ukher)ee, #.&?) and Bharat Mata (!eh oo ;han, #.@8)' The 6pu trilogy marked a temporary shift a*ay from populist Bolly*ood fantasies, helping to foster an >ndian culture of non3populist films kno*n roadly as Parallel :inema, including art films (;alamatka) and experimental cinema (Prayogika)' 6 decade later, Ee* >ndian :inema *as fully esta lished as an alternative to formulaic mainstream populism, led y !rinal /en (Bhuvan Shome, #.0.) and !ani ;aul (Uski

Roti, #.0.)' 1ith 6run ;aul, !rinal /en *rote a Mani'esto &' (he #e2 -inema Movement, criticising traditional >ndian musical films, in #.0$' +ther ne* *ave movements *ere soon esta lished in the region, nota ly further south in ;annada (Patta hi "ama "eddy's film influenced y the Eavya literary movement, Samskara, #.8=7 4irish ;arnad's +aadu, #.8?) and !arathi (/atyadev <u ey's Shantata? -ourt -halu Aahe, #.8#)' >n /*eden, Smultronstallet, the masterful religious allegory Det S3unde Inseglet ( oth #.@8), and later Persona (#.00), marked director >ngmar Bergman as one of *orld cinema's greatest artists' -e later directed the emotionally harro*ing )iskningar &ch Ro$, in #.8%' Bergman's /candinavian compatriot, the <anish director :arl Theodore <reyer, is e,ually acclaimed, and directed &rdet in #.@@' (<reyer's first masterpiece *as La Passion De ean D'Arc, filmed in 2rance in #.%$') >n >taly, 2ederico 2ellini directed La Strada (#.@&), *hich *as compared to 2rench "ealisme Poeti,ue, in contrast to >taly's prevalent Eeo3"ealismo style' >talian cinema *as gradually moving a*ay from the social *orthiness of Eeo3"ealismo, and populist genres such as the /paghetti *estern, the 4iallo, and the Peplum *ould all flourish in the #.0=s' Peplum films egan *ith Le "atiche Di 1rcole (Pietro 2rancisci, #.@$), co3directed y !ario Bava' <uring the #.@=s, directors such as /atya)it "ay, 2ederico 2ellini, and >ngmar Bergman all esta lished international reputations for the cinema industries of their respective countries, and the most significant example of this internationalisation *as 5apan's master director 6kira ;urosa*a' -is Rashomon (#.@=) and his epic ;en34eki film Schinin #o Samurai (#.@&), oth starring Toshiro !ifune, rought the 5apanese film industry to the forefront of international attention' -is other siginificant films of the period include Ikiru (#.@%), +umonosu o (#.@8), +akushi (oride #o San Akunin (#.@$), and 4o3im*o (#.0#)' 5apan's other greatest film3makers, ;en)i !i9oguchi and Fasu)iro +9u, had, unlike ;urosa*a, een directing ever since the silent era, though their greatest films *ere also made in the #.@=s' !i9oguchi's *ork 3 Ugetsu Monogatari (#.@?) and Sansho Dayu (#.@&) 3 has een compared to the *ork of 2rench director 5ean "enoir, as he shares "enoir's use of deep3focus photography, constantly moving camera, and tragi3comic narrative' By contrast, +9u's Eoriko trilogy (Banshun from #.&., Bakushu from #.@#, and (okyo Monogatari from #.@?) contains virtually no camera movement at all' !i9oguchi's Ugetsu Monogatari is an example of 5apan's ;aidan (iga, films featuring ghost stories (an early example of *hich is !i9oguchi's o*n +yoren #o &nna Shisho, #.%0)' The dramatic realism of Ugetsu Monogatari is atypical of the genre, ho*ever, as most examples are supernatural horror stories' The most famous 5apanese ;aidan story is 4otsuya +aidan, *hich *as first filmed in #.&. as Shinshaku 4otsuya +aidan y ;eisuke ;inoshita and remade in #.@. y Eo uo Eakaga*a as (okaido 4otsuya +aidan' Eakaga*a, the greatest of all 5apanese horror directors, produced an + aneneko3!ono

film a out a ghostly cat (Borei +ai*yo 4ashiki) in #.@$, and the sadistic igoku in #.0=' >n #.0&, !asaki ;o ayashi's +2aidan *as the first ;aidan film to gain international recognition (it *as pro a ly made *ith an international audience in mind, offering a convenient compilation of classic ;aidan scenarios)' The genre's real reakthrough came decades later, in #..$, *hen -ideo Eakata's 53-orror Ringu 3 follo*ing in the *ake of ;orea's ;3-orror ghost film 4eogo Goedam (Park ;i3-yung, #..$) 3 ecame the first *orld*ide ;aidan lock uster'

enre .evisionism
-olly*ood genre cycles from the #.?=s *ere revisited in the #.@=s, nota ly the gangster film and the *estern' 5ames :agney starred in 6hite %eat ("aoul 1alsh, #.&.), e,ualling and perhaps even exceeding the achievements of his original #.?=s classic (he Pu*lic 1nemy' The *estern under*ent considera le revision, influenced y the surprisingly radical %igh #oon (2red Zinnemann, #.@%)' 5ohn 1ayne, *ho starred in -o*ard -a*ks's Red River (#.&$) and 5ohn 2ord's 'cavalry trilogy' ("ort A$ache, #.&$7 She 6ore A 4ello2 Ri**on, #.&.7 Rio Grande, #.@=), gave argua ly his greatest performance in 2ord's (he Searchers (#.@0), introducing a ne* psychological complexity to the genre and presenting the traditional *estern hero as an anachronistic outcast' >n contrast, Shane (4eorge /tevens, #.@?), *as a self3consciously archetypal classical *estern' The dark and amoral *orld of 2ilm Eoir reached its logical conclusion *ith the apocalyptic +iss Me Deadly ("o ert 6ldrich, #.@@)' +rson 1elles, director of -iti0en +ane, egan his Eoir masterpiece (ouch &' 1vil (#.@$) *ith a se,uence that rivals Bronenosets Potyomkin's '+dessa /teps' as the greatest se,uence ever filmed' >ts opening shot is a stunning and seemingly never3ending tracking se,uence' Like (he Magni'icent Am*ersons, (ouch &' 1vil *as utchered y the studio against 1elles's *ishes' Like the #.%=s, the '@=s represent a golden age for 5apanese cinema' >n the #.?=s, a series of literary adaptions (Bungei (iga) *ere produced, including I0u #o &doriko (-einosuke 4osho, #.??) and 6akai %ito (/hiro Toyoda, #.?8)7 in the #.&=s, there *ere )ingoistic

*ar dramas (;okusaku (iga) such as %a2aii,Mare &ki +aisen (;a)iro Famamoto, #.&%)7 ho*ever, in terms of variety and ,uantity, the #.%=s and, especially, the '@=s, remain unmatched in 5apan' The short3lived ;eiko (iga films of the #.%=s inspired a ne* genre of social3realist 5apanese cinema, kno*n as /hakai3!ono' The director *ho dominated this genre *as Tadashi >mai, *hose films include Pen Itsu2ara0u! Boryoku #o Machi (#.@=) and (aiyo #o #ai Machi (#.@&)' >mai *as *ell3kno*n for the unsentimental nature of his films (called 'nakani'), such as %imeyuri #o (o (#.@?)' By contrast, most 5apanese films *ere highly melodramatic ('namida chodai'), typified y ;inoyu Tanaka's -hi*usa 4o 1in #are (#.@@)' 6nother #.%=s 5apanese genre, /homin34eki, *as also revived in the #.@=s, ranching into several ne* su 3genres' !ikio Earuse's Meshi (#.@#), for instance, *as an example of the Tsuma3!ono su 3genre (films a out *ives)' ;eisuke ;inoshita's #ihon #o %igeki (#.@?) represents the -aha3!ono su 3genre (films a out mothers)' The most popular of these Eeo3/homin34eki films *as -einosuke 4osho's 1ntotsu #o Miero Basho (#.@?)'

The Ne* "ave

>n a reak a*ay from the prevalent 2rench "ealisme Poeti,ue, film critics *riting for -ahiers Du -inema maga9ine (edited y 6ndre Ba9in) egan making their o*n films, in a movement that ecame kno*n as the Eouvelle Cague' -ahiers *riters such as 5ean3 Luc 4odard and 2rancois Truffaut recognised the individualism of directors such as -o*ard -a*ks and 6lfred -itchcock, and this realisation led to the 'politi,ue des auteurs' 3 the notion, popularised y 6lexandre 6struc, that a director has artistic control over a film in the same *ay as an author has over a novel' They key text in the formation of the Eouvelle Cague *as 2rancois Truffaut's Une -ertaine (endance Du -inema "rancais, pu lished in -ahiers in #.@& and decrying *hat he sa* as the retrogressive state of 2rench cinema (he dismissively renamed the popular 'cinema de ,ualite' as 'cinema du papa')'

4odard's A Bout De Sou''le (#.@.), *ith its hand3held camera*ork, location3shooting, and )ump3cut editing, the first sensation of the Eouvelle Cague film, signalled a reinvigoration of 2rench cinema' The movement's other early masterpieces are the enigmatic collage3film %iroshima Mon Amour (6lain "esnais, #.@.) and Truffaut's Les :@@ -ou$s (#.@.), though 5ean3Pierre !elville's Bo* Le "lam*eur from #.@@, *hich predates all of them, is regarded as a key influence on the group' 6side from the Eouvelle Cague, 2rench cinema of the period is remem ered for its suspenseful and atmospheric horror films' /pecifically, -enri34eorges :lou9ot's Les Dia*oli9ues (#.@&) and 4eorges 2ran)u's Les 4euA Sans )isage (#.@.) *ere oth significant influences on 6lfred -itchcock's Psycho'

1900s
5ean "ouche's :inema3Cerite documentary -hroni9ue D'Un 1te (#.0#) moved a*ay from 4odard's Brechtian and alienating devices, in an attempt to achieve a more realistic vision' The political documentary Primary ("o ert <re*, #.0=) and 'rockumentary' ('rock documentary') Don't Look Back (<6 Penne aker, #.08) *ere part of a <irect :inema movement, also kno*n as Living :inema, influenced y :inema3Cerite' La Battaglia Di Algeri (4illo Pontecorvo, #.0@) *as a Cerite3style reconstruction of the 6lgerian "evolution, and 6lgerian director !ohamed Bouamari (1l "aham, #.8?) called for a ne* :inema <)idid movement to respond to the pro lems facing the ordinary people of the country' British cinema continued its realist aesthetic *ith films such as Saturday #ight And Sunday Morning (;arel "eis9, #.0=), A +ind &' Loving (5ohn /chlesinger, #.0%), (his S$orting Li'e (Lyndsay 6nderson, #.0?), and ;en Loach's +es (#.0.)' Their polar opposite *as La2rence &' Ara*ia (#.0%), one of <avid Lean's most spectacular British epics' >n >taly, 2ederico 2ellini's La Dolce )ita (#.0=) egan *ith a technically perfect se,uence in *hich a statue of :hrist is carried y helicopter over the streets of "ome' The decadent lifestyles of the characters in 2ellini's La Dolce )ita and &tto,1,Me00o (#.0?),

and in !ichelangelo 6ntonioni's L'Avventura (#.0=) effectively mark the end of Eeo3 "ealismo' 6 ne* kind of stylish, violent (and often exploitative) >talian cinema, *hich lasted throughout the #.8=s, can e traced ack to the horror films I )am$iri ("iccardo 2reda and !ario Bava, #.@8) and La Maschera Del Demonio (!ario Bava, #.0=), and to !ario Bava's 4iallo thrillers La Raga00a -he Sa$eva (ro$$o from #.0? and Sei Donne Per L'Assassino from #.0&' The 'man *ith no name' trilogy of /paghetti *esterns (Per Un Pugno Di Dollari in #.0&, Per .ualche Dollaro In Piu in #.0@, and Il Buono Il Brutto Il -attivo in #.00) *as made in >taly y /ergio Leone, later eclipsed y his epic -'1ra Una )olta Il 6est (#.0.)' /paghetti *esterns *ere influenced y 4erman /pat9le *esterns such as Der Schat0 Im Sil*ersee (-arald "einl, #.0%) and later satirised y the 5apanese comedy (am$o$o (5u9o >tami, #.$@), a self3styled Eoodle 1estern' >n 5apan, Takashi !iike directed a /ushi 1estern, Sukiyaki 6estern D3ango (%==8)' Predating >taly's /paghetti *esterns, production of (astern (uropean and "ussian revisionist *esterns (+sterns) *as thriving thanks to the success of /amson /amsonov's &gnenni )ersti (#.@8)'

Ne* "aves
The 2rench ne* *ave movement, *hich egan in the #.@=s, expanded significantly in the #.0=s' 6lain "esnais directed L'Annee Derniere A Marien*ad (#.0#), *hich challenged the formal conventions of the cinema like almost no other film' The Eouvelle Cague *as still dominated, ho*ever, y 5ean3Luc 4odard' >n 4odard's Pierrot Le "ou (#.0@) and 6eek 1nd (#.08, the last film efore his later, some*hat pretentious period), the )ump3cuts and hand3held cameras of A Bout De Sou''le gave *ay to increasingly alienating devices, such as inter3titles and direct3to3camera monologues, *hich roke a*ay from the illusion of realism' The apocalyptic, satirical 6eek 1nd *as released the year efore the !ay #.0$ student riots in Paris, though it certainly captured the mood of the time' >n #.0%, a ne* *ave of young directors in Bra9il colla orated on the portmanteau film -inco )e0es "avela' The film *as divided into five sections, each *ith a different directorD 5e Da -achorra y !iguel Borges, 1scola De Sam*a Alegria De )iver y :arlos <iegues, Um "avelado y !arcos 2arias, Pedreira De Sao Diego y Leon -irs9man, and -ouro De Gato y 5oa,uim Pedro <e6ndrade' Though -inco )e0es "avela introduced a ne* generation of Bra9il's young directors, it *as the :inema Eovo movement that dre* international attention to the country's most impoverished people and to its most accomplished director, 4lau er "ocha' "ocha directed Barravento (#.0%, inspired y Eeo3"ealismo), the mythological Deus 1 & Dia*lo #a (erra Do Sol (#.0&), and the frenetic (erra 1m (ranse (#.08)' -is manifesto La 1stetica Del %am*re (#.0@) defined the :inema Eovo movement, though it *as anticipated y Eelson Pereira <os /antos *ith Rio 5ona #orte (#.@8, a film a out the "io 'favelas') and )idas Secas (#.0?)'

>n #.0$, 2ernando /olanas and +ctavio 4etino formed a group called :ine Li eracion, *ith a manifesto (%acia Un (ercer -ine, #.0.) calling for a ne* Tercer :ine linking the emerging cinemas of /outh 6merica and 6frica' They also co3directed a film of their o*n in #.0$D La %ora De Los %ornos' >n 5apan, +shima Eagisa's early films Ai (o +i*o #o Machi (#.@.) and #ihon #o 4oru (o +iri (#.0=) marked him out as the most radical of that country's Eu eru Bagu of young directors, all *orking for the /hochiku studio' /hochiko *ithdre* #ihon #o 4oru (o +iri and denounced the director's su se,uent films as incoherent, prompting him to form his o*n production company' >n #.@@, a conference *as held in the /panish to*n of /alamanca' The -onversaciones So*re La -inematogra'ia conference, *hich praised >talian Eeo3"ealismo, called for contemporary /panish cinema to openly defy the political censorship of the 2rancoist regime' 5uan 6ntonio Bardem co3*rote Luis 4arcia Berlanga's Bienvenido Mr Marshall (a Eeo3"ealismo parody of (spanolada exoticism, #.@#) and directed the itterly anti3 2ranco Muerta De Un -iclista (#.@@)' 1ith Berlanga, he came to sym olise a ne* generation of radical film3makers *hose *ork constituted a Euevo :ine (spanol' The group's international figurehead *as :arlos /aura, *ho directed La -a0a (#.00)' /paniard Luis Bunuel returned to his /urrealist roots (though not to his homeland) *ith the social satire 1l Angel 1Aterminador (#.0%) and the sexual fantasy Belle De our (#.08)' 6 :9echoslovakian ne* *ave *as led y !ilos 2orman's +onkurs (#.0?) and Lasky edne Plavovlasky (#.0@), 5iri !en9el's &stre Sledovane )laky (#.00), and &*chod #a +or0e (#.0@) y 5an ;adar and (lmar ;los' 2orman *ent on to direct &ne "le2 &ver (he -uckoo's #est (#.8@) in 6merica' >n Fugoslavia, 6leksandar Petrovic, Zivo)in Pavlovic, and <usan !akave)ev initiated a Eovi 2ilm movement that came to e kno*n as the :rni Talas, its milestone films eing Petrovic's Dvo3e, (#.0#), (ri (#.0@), and Sku$l3aci Per3a (#.08)' Pavlovic directed +ada Budem Mrtav I Beo and !akave)ev directed the sexually radical L3u*avni Sluca3 Ili (ragedi3a Slu0*enice P((, oth in #.08'

Counter-Culture
5onas !ekas, director of Guns &' (he (rees (#.0&), *rote increasingly a out the ne* generation of 6merican underground film3makers influenced y the earlier avant3garde films of !aya <eren' -e coined the term Ee* 6merican :inema and *rote (he "irst Statement &' (he #e2 American -inema Grou$ in #.0%' Ee* 6merican :inema *as an um rella term descri ing the *orks of, amongst others, the formalist !ichael /no* and the voyeuristic artist 6ndy 1arhol' /no* *as a key figure in the /tructural film movement, dra*ing attention to the movement of the camera rather than to any narrative content (his 6avelength from #.08, for example, is a long, slo*, continuous 9oom)' +n the fringe of the Ee* 6merican :inema *as Tony :onrad, *hose (he "licker (#.0&) introduced the concept of the 2licker film, a film *hose editing is so rapid that its images appear for only a single frame' Asing a similar techni,ue to the 2licker films, 6ustrian director ;urt ;ren documented 6ktionist performance art events using a techni,ue he called 2lash editing' ;ren's films, such as Mama Und Pa$a (#.0&), often present a )ect and o scene imagery, though they are edited so rapidly that the vie*er is una le to fully register *hat they have seen' This om ardment of distasteful images results in a frenetic and unsettling vie*ing experience, compara le to the chaotic excesses of the original 6ktionist performances themselves' /uch radical experiments *ith film form are largely limited to avant3garde and underground cinema' 1hen similar attempts are made y narrative film3makers the results appear gimmicky rather than innovative' 2or instance, 6icked 6icked ("ichard L Bare, #.8?) *as filmed entirely in a split3screen process called <uovision, (he Door In (he 6all (4lenn - 6lvey, #.@0) utilised a techni,ue called <ynamic 2raming *hich involved masking various sections *ithin the frame, Ro$e (6lfred -itchcock, #.&$) *as filmed in a series of reel3length single takes, and Russkiy +ovcheg (%==%) *as filmed entirely in a single take on a digital hard3drive' "ather than simply dra*ing attention to itself, the formal experimentation of :hris !arker's La etee (#.0%) actually enhances the film's emotional impact, especially in its climactic transition from still images (Photo3 "oman) to fleeting movement' Like*ise, <erek 5arman's Blue (#..?) is formally inventive (consisting of a soundtrack accompanied y a lank, lue screen) yet also profoundly moving' The most famous name in #.0=s 6merican underground cinema *as 6ndy 1arhol, *ho directed (or at least supervised) a series of long, static films in *hich motionless su )ects *ere filmed for several hours (such as an eight3hour film of the (mpire /tate BuildingD 1m$ire, #.0&)' 1arhol's early films link him to the !inimalist film movement, de3 emphasising narrative and techni,ue, and his more am itious later *orks (such as (he -helsea Girls, #.00) *ere actually directed y Paul !orrissey' 1arhol may also have een the first video artist' >n #.0@, he orro*ed a prototype video camera to make some experimental videos, incorporating some of his early video footage

into the film &uter And Inner S$ace (#.0@)' This *as shortly efore the 'official' irth of video art, *hen, in #.0@, Eam 5une Paik video3taped the Papal procession of 4iovanni Battista (nrico 6ntonio !aria !ontini' Eam 5une Paik *as primarily a 2luxus artist, and produced one of their first 2luxfilms, 5en "or "ilm (#.0%)' 1arhol may e the underground's most famous name, though its greatest influence *as the prolific and radical /tan Brakhage, *hose most *idely3kno*n film is Dog Star Man (#.0&)' >n the #.$=s, Eick Zedd (under the pseudonym +rion 5eriko) *ould esta lish a ne* 6merican underground movementD the :inema of Transgression' Zedd pu lished a -inema &' (ransgression Mani'esto (#.$@) in his 9ine (he Underground "ilm Bulletin and directed the Transgressive film Police State (#.$8)' !ainstream 6merican cinema egan to em race the radical counter3culture of underground cinema *ith su versive films such as (he Graduate (!ike Eichols, #.08) and 1asy Rider (<ennis -opper, #.0.), and the increasing radicalisation of the mainstream eventually led to the collapse of the old -olly*ood studio system' :ompare, for instance, the revitalising innovation of (he Graduate *ith the lavish emptiness of 5oseph L !ankie*ic9's -leo$atra (#.0?)' Television also played its part, as an increasingly significant medium for film distri ution and even productionD the first made3 for3TC film, See %o2 (hey Run (<avid L+*ell "ich), *as roadcast in #.0&' The release of t*o -olly*ood films *ith unusually violent climaxes, 6rthur Penn's Bonnie And -lyde (#.08) and /am Peckinpah's (he 6ild Bunch (#.0.), precipitated the collapse of the Production :ode' Bonnie And -lyde's amoral account of a young outla* couple *ould later influence Terrence !alick's road movie Badlands (#.8?)' 1asy Rider marked the mainstream reakthrough of actor 5ack Eicholson, *ho had spent many years making lo*3 udget exploitation films for "oger :orman, including (he 6ild Angels (#.00, the first of the #.0=s iker films) and (he (ri$ (#.08, the definitive L/< film)' Eicholson also starred in %ell's Angels &n 6heels ("ichard "ush, #.08), *hich rivalled :orman's 6ild Angels at the ox3office' <uring the #.0=s, exploitation films *ere more popular then ever in 6merica, *ith films such as "aster Pussycat? +ill? +ill? ("uss !eyer, #.0@) playing to drive3in audiences' (xploitation trends include '!exploitation' (!exican Lucha Li re *restler3hero films such as Benito 6la9raki's Santo -ontra Los 5om*ies, #.0#) and 'nunsploitation' (;en "ussell's profane orgy (he Devils, #.8#'

1910s
2ilms such as a2s (/teven /piel erg, #.8@) and Star 6ars (4eorge Lucas, #.88) dominated the mainstream 6merican ox3office, setting ne* profit records and initiating the no*3familiar ' lock uster'B'event movie' phenomenon' Star 6ars, like the later Raiders &' (he Lost Ark (/teven /piel erg, #.$#), *as an updated version of #.?=s adventure serials such as "lash Gordon (2rederick /tephani, #.?0)' (The first film series, *ith self3contained yet individual episodes, *as Cictorin 5asset's #ick -arter from #.=$7 serials, *ith episodic narratives and 'cliffhanger' endings, *ere typified y 6hat %a$$ened (o Mary/ (:harles Bra in) from #.#%, (he Adventures &' +athlyn (2rancis 5 4randon) from #.#&, and (he Perils &' Pauline (<onald !ac;en9ie and Louis 5 4asnier) from #.#&') 1oody 6llen *ith Annie %all (#.88) and Manhattan (#.8.), and !artin /corsese *ith Mean Streets (#.8?) and (aAi Driver (#.80), directed argua ly their greatest *orks during this decade' "oman Polanski's -hinato2n (#.8&) heralded a revival of the 2ilm Eoir detective films from the #.&=s' !ore precisely, -hinato2n has een cited as an example of 2ilm /oleil, a su 3genre featuring Eoir narratives coupled *ith sun3drenched locations' Plein Soleil ("ene :lement, #.0=) may ,ualify as the original 2ilm /oleil, predating -hinato2n y more than a decade, though the film credited *ith instigating the movement is actually the later Blood Sim$le' !ethod actor !arlon Brando gave his greatest performances since the #.@=s, in (he God'ather (2rancis 2ord :oppola, #.8%), and particularly the reath3taking A$ocaly$se #o2 (2rancis 2ord :oppola, #.8.)' -is performance in A$ocaly$se #o2 has een criticised as incoherent and self3indulgent, though, in fact, such traits are entirely consistent *ith the character he plays' The long uild3up to his character's eventual shado*y appearance evokes (he (hird Man from the #.&=s, and Brando's performance in A$ocaly$se #o2 is the e,ual of +rson 1elles's in that earlier film' "o ert <eEiro, argua ly the greatest screen actor since Brando, starred in /corsese's Mean Streets and (aAi Driver, in *hat *ould ecome one of the greatest actorBdirector partnerships' -e later appeared in /corsese's gangster epics Good"ellas (#..=) and -asino (#..@)' 5ack Eicholson and 6l Pacino *ere also key actors of the #.8=s'

Eicholson starred in "ive 1asy Pieces (Bo "afelson, #.8=), after *orking for years on "oger :orman exploitation films' Pacino is most famous for his operatic histrionics as a gangster in Scar'ace (Brian <ePalma, #.$?), a remake of the original #.?=s -o*ard -ughes production' <eEiro and Pacino oth appeared in (he God'ather II (#.8&), :oppola's God'ather se,uel' >n 5apan, Tadashi /a*ashima had introduced more chivalrous characters into the Faku9a3 4eki gangster genre *ith his insei Geki3o! %isha +aku in #.0?, creating a su 3genre kno*n as Einkyo (iga' Einkyo (iga films aimed to su vert traditional Faku9a stereotypes, a tactic most demonstra ly employed y ;in)i 2ukasaku in his series of five ingi #aki (atakai films ( ingi #aki (atakai, #.8?7 %iroshima Shito %en, #.8?7 Dairi Senso, #.8?7 -ho3o Sakusen, #.8&7 +anketsu,%en, #.8&)' 2ukasaku's *ork marks the origin of the 5itsuroku (iga su 3genre of violent, documentary3style Faku9a films'

#$ploitation Cinema
1nter (he Dragon ("o ert :louse, #.8?) cashed in on the #.8=s vogue for kung3fu y giving actor Bruce Lee his first 6merican role' Like Re*el 6ithout A -ause, it *as released after its main star had died' 1hile -ong ;ong kung3fu (or 'chop3socky') stars such as Lee demonstrated impressive though largely realistic martial3arts skills, the stars of another form of martial3arts cinema (:hinese 1uxia Pian films, also kno*n as !o -ap Pin) *ere endo*ed *ith supernatural and mythological po*ers' The first 1uxia film *as the serial %uo Shao %ong Lian Si (/hichuan Zhang, #.%$), though the genre's modern form *as esta lished y ;ing -u's Long Men +e 5hen (#.00)' The intermina le Air$ort (4eorge /eaton and -enry -atha*ay, #.8=) launched a mercifully short3lived genre cycleD the <isaster film, featuring fires, earth,uakes, and other catastrophies' The key films of the cycle are (he Poseidon Adventure ("onald Eeame, #.8%), 1arth9uake (!ark "o son, #.8&), and (he (o2ering In'erno (5ohn 4uillermin and >r*in 6llen, #.8&)'

(,ually short3lived *as the ' laxploitation' cycle, *hich started *ith -otton -omes (o %arlem (+ssie <avis, #.8=)' 1hile many laxploitation films *ere as exploitative as their name suggests, there *ere several intelligent examples, such as Sha't (#.8#), directed y 4ordon Parks' (Like /tanley ;u rick, Parks *as formerly a professional maga9ine photographer') !elvin CanPee les criti,ued the laxploitation cycle *ith his incendiary film S2eet S2eet*ack's Baadasssss Song in #.8#' The follo*ing year, 5ohn Boorman's Deliverance (#.8%) introduced *hat ecame kno*n as 'hixploitation'D films *ith menacing yokels and fore oding ack*oods'

Ne* "aves
>n 4ermany and 6ustralia, ne* *ave movements promoted international interest in the respective nations' film industries' 6 large group of young 4erman directors had signed a manifesto at + erhausen in #.0%, calling for a revival in 4erman cinema' They formed the 5unger <eutscher film group, and the central focus of their manifesto *as to replace the nostalgic, nationalistic, and escapist -eimat films popular in 4ermany throughout the #.@=s (a style they dismissively la elled 'Papa's ;ino')' -eimat films served to oost 4erman national feeling follo*ing 1orld 1ar >>, and can e compared to the Technicolor escapism of -olly*ood during the 6merican <epression' #.@0 *as the high point of the -eimat film, *ith Alrich (rfurth's Drei Birken Au' Der %eide eing a typical film from that yearD a man returning to the village of his irth realises the importance of his idyllic rural homeland' >n #.00, the 5unger <eutscher group released t*o important anti3-eimat filmsD Colker /chlondorff's Der unge (orless and 6lexander ;luger's A*schied )on Gestern' They *ere, ho*ever, eclipsed y an internationally3acclaimed group kno*n as Eeue ;ino, led y 1im 1enders and 1erner -er9og' 1enders *as fascinated y open spaces, as his 'road movie' Im Lau' Der 5eit (#.80) demonstrates' /pecifically, he *as fascinated y the *ide open spaces of the 6merican out ack, as seen in Paris (eAas (#.$&), though *ith his fantasy Der %immel U*er Berlin (#.$8) he returned to his native 4ermany' -er9og's extravagant, mythological epics Aguirre Der 5orn Gottes (#.8%) and "it0carraldo (#.$%) oth star the manic ;laus ;inski, *hom an exasperated -er9og tried to kill on one occasion'

4overnment su sidy of the 2ilm <evelopment :orporation in 6ustralia financed such films as Picnic At %anging Rock (Peter 1eir, #.8@), (he Last 6ave (Peter 1eir, #.88), My Brilliant -areer (4illian 6rmstrong, #.8.), and Breaker Morant (Bruce Beresford, #.$=), though the revival of 6ustralia's film industry is credited to a more unlikely source 3 puerile yet popular +cker comedies such as Stork (Tim Burstall, #.8#) and (he Adventures &' Barry Mc+en0ie (Bruce Beresford, #.8%)'

Ne* )olly*ood
6 ne* generation of directors from film3schools, including /corsese and :oppola, esta lished a Ee* -olly*ood follo*ing the collapses of the -ays :ode and the studio system' >ndeed, :oppola esta lished his o*n studio, 6merican Zoetrope, *ith 4eorge Lucas in #.0. (though sold it in #.$&)' The Ee* -olly*ood directors introduced an unprecedented authenticity into 6merican cinema, evident, for example, in the inter*oven narratives and overlapping dialogue of "o ert 6ltman's MBABSB% (#.8=) and #ashville (#.8@), and in the no3holds3 arred language and violence of /corsese's (aAi Driver' This unrestrained attitude, free from the previous Production :ode restrictions, *as also demonstrated y 1illiam 2riedkin in his ur an crime thriller (he "rench -onnection (#.8#) and his shocking supernatural horror film (he 1Aorcist (#.8?)' (he 1Aorcist is especially note*orthy, not for its gory excesses ut for its su liminal, split3second shots of demonic faces, *hich provoke fear on a purely su conscious level' This techni,ue *as first utilised in #.@$, *hen it *as kno*n as PsychoramaD -arold <aniels included su liminal shots of spiders and snakes in his other*ise unimaginative horror film My 6orld Dies Screaming'

1980s
The :hinese government's restrictions on access to *estern films *ere finally lifted in the early #.$=s, and the first :hinese film3makers to enefit from this *ere the 2ifth 4eneration group, graduates of the reopened Bei)ing 2ilm 6cademy' 2ifth 4eneration films, such as %uang (udi (;aige :hen, #.$&) focussed on the history of rural :hina' /imilarly, a ne* generation of film3makers in Tai*an *as concerned at the increasing ur anisation of their society, and the Tai*anese :entral !otion3Picture :orporation received government funding *hich supported their *ork' The leading figures of this -sin35ui movement *ere -ou -siao3-sien, *ho directed the auto iographical (ong #ien 6ang Shi (#.$@) and the historical epic Bei9ing -hengshi (#.$.), and Fang <echang (also kno*n as (d*ard Fang), *hose Guling ie Shaonian Sha Ren Shi3ian (#..#) is an epic evocation of #.0=s street life' Fang's later 4i 4i (%===) is another com ination of intimate narrative and epic scope' 2ollo*ing the /oviet Anion's ne*found tolerance of freedom of speech ('glasnost'), its films ('otechestvennye filmy') *ere predominantly leak examinations of life's harsh realities' These some*hat depressing films *ere kno*n as :hernukha, the dominant aesthetic of #.$=s /oviet cinema as seen in films such as Malenkaya )era (Casily Pichul, #.$$)' 6 small group of ;a9akh directors, given the opportunity to study at the C4>; film insititute in !osco*, sought to counteract the grim realism of :hernukha *ith a ;a9akh ne* *ave eginning *ith Fermek /hinar ayev's Sestra Moya Lyusya (#.$@)' The movement's leading director, /erik 6primov, is est kno*n for Gi$noti0er (#.$$) and +onechnaya &stanovka (#..=)' >n 5apan, 6nime films (also kno*n as '5apanimation') such as Akira (;atsuhiro +tomo, #.$8) and +okaku +idotai (!amoru +shii, #..@) *ere adapted from the country's popular comic maga9ines (the Akira !anga comic *as dra*n y ;atsuhiro +tomo himself)' 6rgua ly the most important animation artist since 1alt <isney, -ayao

!iya9aki directed many enchanting 6nime films, released y 4hi li, the studio he co3 founded in #.$@' !iya9aki's first critical success came *ith +a0e #o (ani #o #aushika (#.$&, ased on his o*n !anga), and his Sen (o -hihiro #o +amikakushi (%==#) features a magical lyricism compara le to (he 6i0ard &' &0' (Before directing his o*n films, !iya9aki *as part of the animation team for >sao Takahata's (aiyo #o &3i! %orusu #o Dai*oken in #.0$') The 6nime industry in 5apan has existed since the #.0=s, producing countless animated series and serials aimed at children, *ith specific genres catering for oys (/honen) and girls (/ho)o)' There are also 6nime genres for young *omen (5osei) and adolescents (/einen)' :artoons featuring attractive oys are kno*n as Bishonen, *hile those featuring pretty girls are called Bisho)o' :artoons featuring superheroes are kno*n as /entai' !aho /ho)o is a genre featuring girls *ith magical po*ers' 6nime *ith especially cute characters are kno*n as !oe' The !echa genre features giant ro ots' 6nime is not only produced for children and adolescents, ho*everD there is also a market for a*dy ((cchi) and pornographic (-entai) 6nime, *hich can e su 3divided into several specific genres' 2or example, Faoi cartoons feature gay characters (though are aimed at a female audience), /honen36i are gay cartoons aimed at a male audience, Furi and /ho)o36i feature les ian characters, /hota are erotic cartoons featuring young oys, and Lolicon are similarly erotic 6nime featuring young girls' La*rence ;asdan's steamy Body %eat (#.$#), 5oel :oen's de ut Blood Sim$le (#.$%), 5ames :ameron's Tech Eoir (he (erminator (#.$&), and "idley /cott's :y erpunk Blade Runner (#.$%) *ere all part of a revival of the 2ilm Eoir style, kno*n as Eeo3Eoir or, alternatively, 6pres3Eoir' /cott, like many directors of the #.$=s, egan his career in advertising, and feature3films of the period egan discerna ly to adopt the rapid editing and overt stylisation of advertisements and music videos' This tendency, *hich came to e kno*n as :inema du Look, *as most evident in 5ean35ac,ues Beineix's Diva (#.$#)' The high3concept films produced y <on /impson and 5erry Bruckheimer also share this fast3paced !TC aesthetic7 #.$=s icon Tom :ruise starred in their lock uster (o$ Gun in #.$0, directed y Tony /cott' ;ung3fu films, and softcore 2engyue exploitation such as "engyue .itan (Li -anxiang, #.8%), dominated -ong ;ong cinema in the #.8=s' -o*ever, in #.8., director Tsui -ark made his de ut *ith the da99ling and hallucinatory Die Bian, leading a ne* *ave of commercial -ong ;ong cinema' Tsui, *ho *as criticised for the increasing populism of his films, *as also a successful producer, *orking *ith fello* -ong ;ong director 1u Fusen (also kno*n as 5ohn 1oo)' The epic gangster films 4ingAiong Bense (#.$0) and Die >ue Shuang >iong (#.$.) *ere instant lock usters, produced y Tsui -ark, directed y 1u Fusen, and starring :ho* Fun32at' Du Sheng, starring :ho* /ing :hi (also kno*n as /tephen :ho*) in a parody of :ho* Fun32at, introduced a ne* -ong ;ong comedy style kno*n as !o Lei Tau, and *as directed y :hun31ai Lau (also kno*n as 5effrey Lau) and :orey Fuen in #..='

6merican cinema in the #.$=s, despite a glut of om astic -olly*ood action movies (typified y "am o in Ted ;otcheff's "irst Blood, #.$%), did generate t*o clear masterpiecesD !artin /corsese's Raging Bull (#.$=) and <avid Lynch's Blue )elvet (#.$0)' Raging Bull stars "o ert <eEiro as a rutal middle3*eight oxer, and Blue )elvet examines the corruption ehind the immaculate exterior of su ur an 6merica' Tim Burton directed a num er of modern 4othic films in the #.$=s, though his greatest film is the dark fairy3tale 1d2ard Scissorhands (#..=)' The successes of /pike Lee's independent films She's Gotta %ave It (#.$0) and Do (he Right (hing (#.$.) led to the la el Ee* Black :inema' The Brat Pack, a group of young 6merican actors ((milio (steve9, 6nthony !ichael -all, "o Lo*e, 6ndre* !c:arthy, <emi !oore, 5udd Eelson, !olly "ing*ald, and 6lly /heedy) starred in (he &utsiders (2rancis 2ord :oppola, #.$?), St 1lmo's "ire (5oel /chumacher, #.$@), and (he Break'ast -lu* (5ohn -ughes, #.$@)' 6fter the Brat Pack came the 2rat Pack (Ben /tiller, Cince Caughn, 1ill 2errell, +*en 1ilson, and Luke 1ilson), stars of )uvenile comedies such as Ben /tiller's 5oolander (%==#) and &ld School (%==?) y Todd Phillips' 2urthermore, a group of TC comedians (:hris 2arley, :hris "ock, 6dam /andler, "o /chneider, and <avid /pade) formed the /lap Pack and starred in lo*3 ro* comedy films such as Airheads (!ichael Lehmann, #..&)'

2ideo
<omestic video players created a ne* market for old films, and for unpromising ne* onesD distri ution companies could no* release films <TC ('direct3to3video') if they felt that a theatrical release *ould e uncommercial' >n 5apan, *here direct3to3video films *ere not regarded in such pe)orative terms, they *ere kno*n as C3:inema' 6lso in 5apan, many 6nime series deemed too short for television transmission *ere instead released direct3to3video as +C6s ('original video animations'), the first example eing Darossu (!amoru +shii, #.$?)' +nce <C<s replaced videos as the domestic medium of choice, <TCs ecame <C<Ps ('<C< premieres')'

1990s
6fter %ong Gao Liang (his de ut film) in #.$8 and u Dou ( anned in :hina) in #..=, 2ifth 4eneration film3maker Fimou Zhang produced his masterpiece, Dahong Denglong Gaogao Gua (#..#), a film *hose sumptuous cinematography is contrasted *ith its themes of repression and )ealousy' -is fello* 2ifth 4eneration director, ;aige :hen, made the lavish Ba 6ang Bie i in #..?' 1ith the collapse of the military dictatorship in /outh ;orea in the early #..=s, restrictions on foreign media *ere lifted' This led to an influx of -olly*ood films, *ith *hich the country's national film industry could not compete' 6fter securing corporate sponsorship, a ne* *ave of /outh ;orean films such as So$yon3e (>m ;*on3Taek, #..?) and -heo*,Sok (5ang Foon3-yun, #..8) achieved increasing success' >t *as the instant and unprecedented ox3office success of S2iri (;ang 5e34yu, #...), ho*ever, that reasserted the dominance of /outh ;orea's film industry *ithin 6sia, a trend kno*n as -allyu' #..8 *as a reakthrough year for the cinema of >ran' The country's long history of exploitative 'filmfarsi' productions had occasionally een punctuated y *orthier films such as Gaav (<ariush !ehr)ui, #.0.), though the international acclaim garnered y t*o films in #..8 instigated a ne* *ave led y t*o key directorsD !ohsen !akhmal af (Ga**eh) and 6 as ;iarostami ((a'm 1 Guilass)' ;iarostami had previously directed +hane,4e Doust +od3ast/ (#.$8) and *ritten 5afar Panahi's Badkonake Se'id (#..@)7 his Bad Ma Ra +hahad Bord (#...) and !akhmal af's later Sa'ar 1 Ghandehar (%==#) took >ranian cinema, y no* at the forefront of international appreciation, into the next century' Sa'ar 1 Ghandehar, *hich follo*s a *oman travelling in the 6fghan desert, *as released at the same time as 6fghanistan's Tali an regime *as overthro*n' Bahman 4ho adi's 5amani Baraye Masti As*ha (%===) and Lak$oshtha %am Parva0 Mikonand (%==&) present a ;urdish perpective on conflict in the !iddle (ast' This ne* cinema of

>ran *as the most prominent example of a ne* *ave of !uslim film3making, such as the Palestinian Paradise #o2 (-any 6 u36ssad, %==@)' 6 group of <anish directors formed <ogme '.@, and agreed to a )o2 &' -hastity manifesto (#..@) pledging never to use artificial lighting, post3synchronised sound, camera tripods, or studio sets' >n an anti3auteurist gesture, they also refused to allo* themselves directorial credits' (ach <ogme '.@ film *as prefaced *ith a title3card certifying its accordance *ith the <ogme code' The first such film *as Thomas Cinter erg's "esten (#..$)' /uch ultra3realism *as challenged y (he MatriA (6ndy and Larry 1acho*ski, #...), *hich *as concerned *ith the mutli3layered and illusory nature of reality itself, a more technologically sophisticated version of earlier 'virtual reality' films such as /teven Lis erger's (ron and <avid :ronen erg's Biopunk )ideodrome ( oth #.$%)' British cinema *as given a (literal) shot in the arm y (rains$otting (<anny Boyle, #..0), a successful cult film a out a group of /cottish heroin addicts' >n 2rance, La %aine (!atieu ;assovit9, #..@) *as argua ly the film of the decade, highlighting police rutality, racial tension, and youth alienation in ' anlieu' ghettos' 6merican cinema egan incorporating digital imagery into its lock uster films, nota ly morphing metal in 5ames :ameron's (erminator II! udgement Day (#..#) and incredi le digitally3generated dinosaurs in /teven /piel erg's urassic Park (#..?)' The next step, total digital animation, *as taken y the Pixar studio *ith (oy Story (5ohn Lasseter, #..@)' 6 ma)or ne* studio, <ream*orks /;4, *as esta lished in #..& y /teven /piel erg, 5effrey ;at9en erg, and <avid 4effen' 6fter several years of construction delays, <ream*orks egan active film production in #..8 and ,uickly ecame one of the most successful film studios in -olly*ood' >ts greatest commercial successes *ere the digital animations it produced to compete *ith Pixar, including Shrek (6ndre* 6damson, %==#)' Shrek *as nota le for its conscious attempts to appeal to oth children and adults, and it also contained several thinly3disguised <isney parodies (follo*ing 5effrey ;at9en erg's split *ith <isney and several PixarB<isney colla orations)' <ream*orks *as sold in %==@, and is no* under the same o*nership as Paramount' "o ert 6ltman's Short -uts (#..?), Bryan /inger's (he Usual Sus$ects (#..@), and Paul Thomas 6nderson's Magnolia (#...) all *eave together complex inter3connected stories (as did :hristopher Eolan's reverse3narrative Memento in %==#), though the last masterpiece of the century *as (odo So*re Mi Madre (#...) y /panish director Pedro 6lmodovar, *ho later directed the emotionally devastating %a*le -on 1lla (%==%)' (6lmodovar's uninhi ited earlier films, such as Pe$i Luci Bom 4 &tras -hicas Del Monton (#.$=), signified his association *ith La !ovida !adrilena, a hedonistic youth su culture in #.$=s !adrid')

The most promising ne* director in *orld cinema at the turn of the %#st century *as perhaps -ong ;ong's 1ong ;ar31ai' -is -hong .ing Sen Lin (#..&) developed a cult follo*ing, and his epic 7@:C (%==&) *as an international arthouse success'

3ndie Cinema
"o ert "odrigue9's 1l Mariachi (#..%, kno*n as a Burrito *estern) and ;evin /mith's -lerks (#..&) *ere 'indie' films produced on ultra3lo* udgets, inspired y SeA Lies And )ideota$e (/teven /oder ergh, #.$.) and Slacker ("ichard Linklater, #..#)' 6 group of independent films *ith gay themes (such as 4us Can/ant's My &2n Private Idaho, #..#) *as defined y critics as Ee* Gueer :inema, a trend that egan *ith the film festival success of Poison (Todd -aynes, #..=)' Throughout the decade, indie cinema *as dominated y former video3)unkie Guentin Tarantino, *hose audacious de ut Reservoir Dogs (#..%) *as follo*ed y the highly acclaimed Pul$ "iction (#..&)' 6longside 6 el 2errara's Bad Lieutenant (#..%), Tarantino's Reservoir Dogs *as cited as an example of Ee* Brutalism, an um rella term for a group of explicitly rutal 6merican films released in the early #..=s'

!000s
Latin 6merican cinema overcame its region's economic insta ility *ith a Buena +nda of internationally successful films from Bra9il and !exico' The revival *as led y 6lfonso :uaron's 4 (u Mama (am*ien (%==#) and 6le)andro 4on9ale9 >narritu's Amores Perros (%===), oth from !exico' 6lso from Latin 6merica, -idade De Deus (%==%), y ;atia Lund and 2ernando !eirelles, is the most commercially successful Bra9ilian film ever made' >ts violence and kinetic editing demonstrate the influences of /corsese and Tarantino, and *ith its theme of poverty in the favelas of "io it echoes the early period of Bra9il's :inema Eovo movement' The film's co3producer, 1alter /alles, directed one of the earliest Buena +nda filmsD -entral Do Brasil (#..$), in a period kno*n as 'retomada de producao' (*hen state funding afforded directors more creative freedom)'

6 renaissance in Thai cinema *as, like that of Latin 6merica, concurrent *ith a financial crisis in the region' The Ee* Thai :inema movement *as instigated almost single3 handedly in the late #..=s y Eon9ee Eimi utr *ith t*o domestic lock ustersD gangster film 7:;; Anta$an +rong Muang (#..8) and horror story #ang #ak (#...)' Eon9ee *ent on to produce 1isit /artsanatieng's "ah (alai one in %===' 1isit (*ho *rote Eon9ee's 7:;; and #ang #ak, and comes from a television advertising ackground) has a uni,uely 'retro' style evoking the melodramas of #.@=s Thai cinema' >n "ah (alai one, -e digitally transforms the environment he films *ith un3naturally right colours, so that each frame resem les an 6ndy 1arhol screen3print' The film *as also released as a novel, *hich *as illustrated y the director' Ee* Thai :inema's other key figure is Pen3(k "atanaruang, *ho *orked *ith 1isit in the Thai TC advertising industry efore ecoming a film3maker' Pen3(k's "an Ba +araoke (#..8) rought Ee* Thai :inema to international attention through film festival screenings' -is films themselves (Ruang (alok C;, #...7 Mon Rak (ransistor, %==#7 Ruang Rak #oi #id Mahasan, %==?) have an international dimension, as he often *orks *ith actors and cre*s from other 6sian countries' 2inally, 6pichatpong 1eerasethakul is Thailand's most prominent avant3garde director7 his films (Dok'a #ai Meuman, %===7 Sud sanaeha, %==%7 Sud Pralad, %==&7 Sang Satta2at, %==0) are enigmatic, allegorical, and contemplative' 6 1uxia revival *as instigated y the *orld*ide arthouse success of 6o %u -ang Long (6ng Lee, %===)' >t *as follo*ed y t*o e,ually alletic, graceful 1uxias, 4ing >iong (%==%) and Shimian Mai'u (%==&), oth directed y Fimou Zhang, and his 1uxia3 influenced tragedy Man -heng in Dai %uang in ia (%==0)' The epic scale of the latter film made it the most extravagant 'dapian' ( ig3 udget lock uster) film in :hina'

4igital Cinema
6t the turn of the %#st century, cinema *as transforming into an increasingly digital medium, converging *ith the realms of computer games and digital graphics' This process effectively egan in the #.8=sD *hen home computers *ere first availa le,

computer motion graphics se,uences *ere programmed as <emoscene clips' Later, it ecame possi le to record a character's progression through computer game levelsD filmed demonstrations of fast game3completion *ere kno*n as /peedruns, the most famous eing .uake Done .uick (#..8)' The convergence later intensified, resulting in !achinima films *ith narratives featuring game characters interacting *ithin ?3< graphic environments' >n another cinemaBcomputer convergence, *e loggers produced online video diaries kno*n as C3BlogsD the first kno*n C3Blogger *as 6drian !iles, *ho posted his original 'vog' in %===' !ashup videos and 6nime !usic Cideos *ere also created online, y re3editing and )uxtaposing existing film footage to ironic effect (the first example eing the pre3internet A$ocaly$se Pooh y Todd 4raham, from #.$8)' The electronic, non3analogue exhi ition of moving images is kno*n y the um rella term (3:inema, though (3:inema *as soon eclipsed y high3definition digital pro)ection (<3 :inema)' <irectors such as "o ert "odrigue9, 5ames :ameron, and 4eorge Lucas 3 not uncoincidentally, directors *ith their o*n production facilities 3 led the shift to*ards digital production and pro)ection, *ith Lucas's Star 6ars pre,uel 1$isode I! (he Phantom Menace (#...) eing the first film to e pro)ected digitally'