Operational Amplier

T.H.Tennahewa (S 10639) PH 3033 Electronics Laboratory October 17, 2013

Contents
Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.1 0.2 0.3 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EXERCISES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3.1 VOLTAGE FOLLOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.3.2 0.3.3 0.3.4 0.3.5 0.3.6 0.4 0.4.1 0.4.2 0.4.3 0.4.4 0.4.5 0.4.6 0.5 0.6 INVERTING AMPLIFIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTEGARTING AMPLIFIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIFFERENTIATION AMPLIFIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PRECISION DIODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VOLTAGE FOLLOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INVERTING AMPLIFIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTEGARTING AMPLIFIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIFFERENTIATION AMPLIFIER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PRECISION DIODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i iii iv 1 1 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 17 18 20 22 23 25 27

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

DISCUISSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of Figures
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 circuit diagram of an operational amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LM 741 IC pin diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equivalent circuit of the amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equivalent circuit for input impedance of the amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Simplied equivalent circuit diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equivalent circuit for output impedance of the amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circuit diagram of voltage divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eect because of Slew rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circuit diagram of inverting amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equivalent circuit for inverting amplier input Circuit diagram of non inverting amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circuit diagram of Voltage follower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of Inverting amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of non inverting amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circuit diagram of integrating amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic dagram of Integrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circuit diagram of dierentiation amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of Dierentiation amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circuit diagram of Dierential amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of Precision diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic diagram of Voltage Follower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PSPICE simulation result for Voltage Follower input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PSPICE simulation result for Voltage Follower output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscilloscope display for input and output of the follower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PSPICE simulation result for inverting amplier at 1 kHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscilloscope display of input and output of the inverting amplier a 1 kHz . . . . . . . . . . . PSPICE simulation result for inverting amplier at 10 kHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bandwidth of the Inverting amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PSPICE simulation result for non inverting amplier at 1 kHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscilloscope display of input and output of the non inverting amplier a 1 kHz . . . . . . . . PSPICE simulation result for non inverting amplier at 10 kHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bandwidth of the non inverting amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PSPICE simulation result for input in integrating amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PSPICE simulation result for output in integrating amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii 2 3 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 7 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 15 15 16 17 17 18 18 18 19 19 19 20 20

35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49

Oscilloscope display for sin wave in integrating amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscilloscope display for square wave in integrating amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscilloscope display for triangular wave in integrating amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PSPICE simulation result for dierentiating amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscilloscope display for sin wave in dierentiating amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscilloscope display for square wave in dierentiating amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscilloscope display for triangular wave in dierentiating amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PSPICE simulation result for Precision diode characteristics at 2 V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscilloscope display for precision diode characteristics at 200 mV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscilloscope display for precision diode characteristics at 2 V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PSPICE simulation result for Precision diode characteristics at 100 kHz . . . . . . . . . . . . modied integrating amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . modied dierentiation amplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An improved precision rectier circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . summarized chart for all congurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 24 24 24 25 26 26 27

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List of Tables

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0.1

INTRODUCTION

Operational amplier or Op-amp is used in many areas of electronics.by using amplier we can do many mathematical operations on signals. Such as, Addition. Subtraction, Integration and Dierentiation. In today op-amp are manufactured by using Integrated Circuit called IC technology. In our practical we used LM 741 Op-amp IC. More details about Operational amplier and its characteristics are discussed under Methodology. The objectives of this experiments are to, 1. Learn the principle of liner feedback systems 2. Measure the properties of dierent ampliers integrators and Dierentiators. 3. Study voltage follower, amplier, and dierentiators and integrator circuits made from OPAMPS. 4. Get some basic idea of behavior of op-amp characteristics by simulating them in PSPICE. Before starting the practical some questions have to answer. Answers of the following questions are in under methodology. (a) What are the conditions need to be satised for maximum power and voltage transfer from a source to a load? Prove the arguments using a mathematical relation. (b) Draw an equivalent circuit for input and output impedance of an amplier. (c) How do you measure output and input impedance of an amplier? (d) What is CMMR of an op-amp? (e) What do you mean by the slew rate of an op-amp? (f) What are the input and output impedance of a non-inverting and a inverting ampliers [draw a schematic diagram and do the derivations based on the schematic diagram] (g) What is the purpose of a voltage follower? Explain the answer by considering power amplication and impedance matching. (h) Draw schematic diagrams for a non-inverting, an inverting, an integrating and dierentiating ampliers and write down their transfer functions. (i) What is a dierential amplier? (j) What is a precision diode? Draw a schematic of a precision diode using op-amps.

0.2

METHODOLOGY

Operational amplier is a high gain, direct coupled (dc) dierential amplier with a single ended output. It has very high voltage gain (nearly 105 to 106 )and output can varying from Vss to +Vss. Power supply of the op amp is a split supply most of the time power supply is 15V .

Figure 1: circuit diagram of an operational amplier

As shown in the gure 1 op amp have two input terminals labeled as + and - . + Terminal is a noninverting input and is the inverting input. If non-inverting input is more positive than inverting input output of the op amp became positive and vice versa. As above gure when it gave V1 and V2 to the op amp output V0 can be written as below. V0 = A(V1 V2 ); A = openloopgain In ideal op amp, Input impedance is innite Output impedance is zero Open loop gain is innite Innite bandwidth Common mode rejection ratio is innite But in real op amp (LM741), Input impedance 2 Output impedance 75 Open loop gain 105 To analyze characteristics of the ampliers it uses two rules, naming Golden Rules. They say, When an op amp operates in the linear mode, the voltage dierence between the two op amp input terminals equals zero. (1)

i.e. V1 V2 = 0 The currents owing into the op amp input terminals equal zero. Below is the pin diagram of LM 741 op amp IC.

Figure 2: LM 741 IC pin diagram

741 is Mini-DIP (dual in-line) package in Silicon chip containing 20 transistors and 11 resistors. ANSWERS OF THE PREPARATORY TASK QUESTIONS (a) For maximum power transfer load resistance should be equal to the source resistance. (b) below gure 3 shows the equivalent circuit diagram of the op amp circuitry.

Figure 3: Equivalent circuit of the amplier

Figure 4: Equivalent circuit for input impedance of the amplier

Figure 5: Simplied equivalent circuit diagram

Figure 6: Equivalent circuit for output impedance of the amplier

(c) According to the above equivalent circuit (gure 5)we could prove that input impedance is equal to the input resistance of the op amp input terminal. input impedance can be written as, Rin = Ra + Rb R R =
Vb if

Vb (AVb ) = if (Rf + Ro ) R =
Rf +Ro 1+A

Rin = Ra +

Rb (Rf +Ro ) Rf +Ro +(1+A)Rb

since Rf + Ro << (1 + A), Rin Ra but in practical situation we calculated input impedance by using voltage divider theorem. what we are doing is inserted a resistor box in series with the input terminal of the op amp and change the resistor box values until output if the amplier became half of the input voltage value.(amplitude) according to the voltage divider theorem we could say that this will happens only when internal and resistor box values are equal.by measuring resistor box value we can get the input impedance of the amplier. Example for a voltage divider circuit diagram has shown under gure 7.

Figure 7: Circuit diagram of voltage divider

practically we calculated output impedance by inserting resistor box with parallel to the output terminal of the op amp. measure the voltage value before inserting the resistor box and after inserting resistor box increasing its value until input voltage amplitude became half of its original value. when it is half, output impedance is equal to the resistor box value at that time. (d) If same voltage source is applied to both inverting and non-inverting terminals output voltage is ideally zero because of dierential voltage is zero. That is called common mode rejection. Dierential voltage input: Vd = V+ V Common voltage input: Vc = 1 2 (V+ + V ) Output voltage: V0 = Gd Vd + Gc Vc Gd = dierential gain Gc = common mode gain Common Mode Rejection Ratio :
Gd Gc
d = 20 log10 ( G gC )(dB )

(e) Slew rate is the maximum rate of change at the output voltage with respect to the input voltage change. It is measured in V per micro seconds (V /s). Higher values of slew rate makes faster outputs and it will reproduce high frequency signals. This will happens because of internal capacitance and unwanted feedback in the op amp. Minimum Slew rate can be measured by using below equation.

SlewRate(V /s) = 2f Vpeak

Figure 8: Eect because of Slew rate

Figure 9: Circuit diagram of inverting amplier

Figure 10: Equivalent circuit for inverting amplier input

(f) Inverting amplier Inverting ampliers have very low input impedance. According to the gure we can derive an equation for the input impedance (Z) at point S.

Z=

V1 (V oltageatS ) = i1 (Resultingcurrent)

V1 (V1 V0 ) R2

R2 R2 = 0 1 +A (1 V ) V1

Since R2 is in kilo ohm range and A = 105 , Z is very much smaller. Below gure 10 is the equivalent circuit for measuring input impedance of the op amp. By looking at that it can say that input impedance of an inverting amplier is equal to the external resistance R1 connected at the input. This idea is used to measure the input impedance practically.

Output impedance of the op amp is a very low value, in ideal case it is equal to zero. But in practical situation it is equal to the value of the feedback resistor R2 in parallel with op amp output resistance.

Non inverting amplier

Figure 11: Circuit diagram of non inverting amplier Non inverting ampliers have very high input impedance and low output impedance. Because of its high input impedance non inverting ampliers are used as voltmeters.

Ri = Ri (1 + A )
1 where = f eedbackf actor( R1R +R2 )

A= gain without feedback

Ri = inputimpedancewithnegativef eedback Ri = inputimpedancewithoutf eedback

1 Ri = Ri (1 + A R1R +R2 )

since second term in the bracket is very much greater than 1. therefore,
1 Ri = ARi ( R1R +R2 )

same as that it can show that output impedance of the non inverting amplier is to be, R0 A R1 + R2 R1

R0 = where R0 = outputimpedancewithoutf eedback R0 = outputimpedancewithnegativef eedback this is very small compared to the R0 .

(g) Voltage follower is constructed by connecting output voltage back to the input of the inverting terminal without a feedback resistor. This is a unity gain amplier. Because of its low output impedance and high input impedance it can use as a power amplier. (P =
V2 R )

, if R is low P is high.then it can be said that power gain of the amplier is high.

Figure 12: Circuit diagram of Voltage follower

(h) Inverting amplier

Figure 13: Schematic diagram of Inverting amplier In inverting amplier inverting input is used to feed input signal and non-inverting input has been grounded. Therefore output of the op amp became with the 1800 phase dierent. Since output is feedback to the input via a resistor, gain of the amplier is called closed loop gain.

Gain =

Vout R2 = ( ) Vin R1 9

Non inverting amplier

Figure 14: Schematic diagram of non inverting amplier

In non-inverting amplier input signal is fed in to non-inverting terminal and output is connected to the inverting input through a potential divider circuit. Both input and outputs are in same phase.

Gain = 1 + (

R2 ) R1

Integrating amplier

Figure 15: Circuit diagram of integrating amplier As its name implies integrator amplier performs mathematical operation of integration. That is output of the integrator is proportional to the integral of the input voltage. When it integrating a sine wave, Cosine wave has generated as an output and for a square wave triangular wave is the output. Below equations shows the output voltage of the integrator. By placing R2 resistor with a capacitor integrator in created. There is a 900 phase dierent in input and output signals. Vi d(CV0 ) Vi d(V0 ) 1 = = V0 = R dt RC dt RC

I=

Vi dt

10

Figure 16: Schematic dagram of Integrator

Figure 17: Circuit diagram of dierentiation amplier

Dierentiation amplier By interchanging capacitor and the resistor in the integrator circuit dierentiation amplier has been created. This circuit performs mathematical dierentiation function that is it produces a voltage output value which is proportional to the input voltages rate-of-change and the current owing through the capacitor. When it is applying signals such as Square-wave, Triangular or Sine-wave types as a input signals the resultant output signal will be changed and whose nal shape is dependent upon the RC time constant of the Resistor/Capacitor combination. When it is applied a square wave, output will be a spikes, for Triangular waves output will be a rectangular and for a Sine wave output will be an Inverted Sine wave.

In this circuit reactance of the capacitor plays a major role in dierentiation process. Capacitor only allows to go to AC type input signals to pass through the op amp.it blocks DC signals. At low frequencies reactance of the capacitor is high and resulting a low gain and low output voltage. At high frequencies reactance is low and gain and output voltage became high. This will cause op amp unstable.

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Figure 18: Schematic diagram of Dierentiation amplier

i=
i i.e V0 = RC dV dt

dQ d(CVi ) V0 dVi V0 = = = dt dt R dt RC

(i) Dierential amplier is used to amplify the dierence between two input voltage signals. For that it is used both inverting and non inverting inputs.below gure 19 shows the circuit diagram of it.

Figure 19: Circuit diagram of Dierential amplier

V0 = i.e, Gain =
R2 R1

R2 (V1 V2 ) R1

(j) Precision diode is a device that can act as a diode for even low voltage signal. When it insert a diode in a feedback path produces an output that gives virtually zero output for a half a cycle and a gain of unity for a other half cycle. Therefore it can rectify signals smaller than a diode drop. Slew rate of the op amp is limited the high frequency response of this device.

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Figure 20: Schematic diagram of Precision diode

0.3
0.3.1

EXERCISES
VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

Below steps had done during the experiment to identify its characteristics.

By using PSPICE in Or Cad Capture CIS drew a circuit diagram to simulate it and to get characteristics. Figure 21 shows the schematic diagram of the voltage follower.

Figure 21: Schematic diagram of Voltage Follower To calculate the Gain of the amplier, connected the signal generator to the op amp input and measure the output and input simultaneously by using the oscilloscope. In this case we set input frequency to the 1 kHz and by changing input voltage (Vpp = peak to peak voltage) to 1 V and 10 V, get the output Vpp values. when connecting oscilloscope to the circuit and signal generator we connected channel one to the signal generator and to the input terminal of the voltage follower and channel two had connected to the output of the circuit. To calculate the output impedance of the signal generator inserted a 100 resistor between ground and the signal generator output terminal. All these measurements are taken by setting signal generator frequency to 1 kHz. 13

 To calculate the output impedance of the voltage follower we inserted a 100 resistor between ground and output of the amplier and measure the changes in output amplitudes via oscilloscope. To nd the input impedance of the voltage follower we had connected a resistor box to the input terminal of the op amp and changed the resistor values until output of the op amp changes to the half of its original value. Results taken from the oscilloscope and PSPICE simulation had shown under results and analysis section.

0.3.2

INVERTING AMPLIFIER

As same as in the rst experiment of Voltage Follower,

Simulate the model by using PSPICE and get the characteristic curves.gure 13shows the schematic diagram of the inverting amplier. To nd the gain by using oscilloscope input and output voltages of op-amp are measured. when connecting oscilloscope to the circuit and signal generator, we connected channel one to the signal generator and to the input terminal of the voltage follower and channel two had connected to the output of the circuit. To nd the input impedance of the inverting amplier we had connected a resistor box to the input terminal of the op amp and changed the resistor values until output of the op amp changes to the half of its original value. What we have done here is calculate the voltage at the point S in gure by using voltage divider circuit. replacing 1k and 10k resistors with 100k and 1M resistors measured input and output impedance again. By using simulator we found the bandwidths and quality factor. All these measurements are taken under input signal with 1 kHz.

0.3.3

NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER

Same procedure under inverting amplier had been done in this exercise too. Figure 14 shows the PSPICE model of non inverting amplier.

0.3.4

INTEGARTING AMPLIFIER

Model the integrating amplier by using PSPICE and Figure 16 shows the schematic diagram of it. By using dierent shapes of input signals [sine, triangular and square] at 1 kHz and check there characteristics in both simulation and practically. Same as above experiments to calculate input impedance of the circuit connect a resistor box to the input terminal of the op amp and changed the resistor values until output of the op amp changes to the half of its original value. 14

0.3.5
it.

DIFFERENTIATION AMPLIFIER

Model the dierentiation amplier by using PSPICE and Figure 18 shows the schematic diagram of

By using dierent shapes of input signals [sine, triangular and square] at 1 kHz and check there characteristics in both simulation and practically. To calculate input impedance of the circuit connect a resistor box to the input terminal of the op amp and changed the resistor values until output of the op amp changes to the half of its original value.

0.3.6

PRECISION DIODE

Generate a sine signal of amplitude is about 2 V and insert a diode to the output of the signal generator and monitor the outputs before and after the diode. Then lower the amplitude up to 0.2 V and see the eect. schematic diagram of PSPICE model is showed in gure 20

0.4
0.4.1

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

VOLTAGE FOLLOWER

Below gures shows PSPICE output graphs and Oscilloscope graphical solutions.

Figure 22: PSPICE simulation result for Voltage Follower input

Figure 23: PSPICE simulation result for Voltage Follower output

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Figure 24: Oscilloscope display for input and output of the follower

Gain of the Voltage follower at 1 kHz, Input voltage amplitude 1.0 0.1V , Output voltage amplitude 1.0 0.1V Gain = Vout 1V =1 = Vin 1V

Gain of the Voltage follower at 1 kHz, Input voltage amplitude 10 0.1V , Output voltage amplitude 10 0.1V Gain = 10V Vout = =1 Vin 10V

By looking at the above results we can conclude that voltage follower is a unit gain amplier. output impedance of the signal generator = 47 what we have to do here is measure the voltage when it is inserted a 100 resistor and then we put 50 resistor and check whether voltage has dropped to the half of the input voltage.in our experiment we inserted 47 resistor instead of 50 and voltage for that became 480 100mV . the actual signal generate input impedance is 50. output impedance of the voltage follower input impedance of the voltage follower To measure the input impedance of the voltage follower we used voltage divider theorem. Input voltage = 1.0 0.1V Change the resistor box values until output voltage became half of the input voltage Output voltage = 0.52 0.1V Then measure the resistor box value. This will equal to the input impedance of the op amp. Resistor box value = 2.2 0.5M Data sheet impedance value = 2M (max)

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0.4.2

INVERTING AMPLIFIER

As an output we got inverted waveform for the input signal. Initially we know that gain of the amplier is 10.Experimental gain at 1 kHz is, Input voltage= 1.0 0.1V Output voltage= 9.5 0.4V

Gain =

Vout 9.5V = = 9.5 Vin 1V

Figure 25: PSPICE simulation result for inverting amplier at 1 kHz

Figure 26: Oscilloscope display of input and output of the inverting amplier a 1 kHz at 10 kHz, Input voltage= 1.0 0.1V Output voltage= 9.5 0.4V

Gain =

Vout 9.5V = = 9.5 Vin 1V Input impedance of the ampli-

input and output impedance with 1k and 10k resistors. er(resistor box value) = 1k

Output impedance of the amplier(resistor box value) = 2.8M

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Figure 27: PSPICE simulation result for inverting amplier at 10 kHz

input and output impedance with 100k and 1M resistors. Input impedance of the amplier(resistor box value) = 100k Output impedance of the amplier(resistor box value) = 110M

Bandwidth of the amplier

Figure 28: Bandwidth of the Inverting amplier

0.4.3

NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER

As an output we got a waveform with same phase as the input signal. Initially we know that gain of the amplier is 11.Experimental gain at 1 kHz is, Input voltage= 1.04 0.4V Output voltage= 11.0 0.4V

Gain =

Vout 11.0V = = 10.58 Vin 1.04V

Figure 29: PSPICE simulation result for non inverting amplier at 1 kHz input and output impedance with 1k and 10k resistors. Input impedance of the amplier(resistor box value) = 1.1M Output impedance of the amplier(resistor box value) = 92

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Figure 30: Oscilloscope display of input and output of the non inverting amplier a 1 kHz

Figure 31: PSPICE simulation result for non inverting amplier at 10 kHz

input and output impedance with 100k and 1M resistors. Input impedance of the amplier(resistor box value) = 0.75M Output impedance of the amplier(resistor box value) = 4.8M

Bandwidth of the amplier

Figure 32: Bandwidth of the non inverting amplier

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0.4.4

INTEGARTING AMPLIFIER

we had measured output waveforms by changing input waveforms to the Sinusoidal pulse, Square pulse and Triangular pulse.below gures are show the Oscilloscope display and PSPICE simulation results.

Figure 33: PSPICE simulation result for input in integrating amplier

Figure 34: PSPICE simulation result for output in integrating amplier

Figure 35: Oscilloscope display for sin wave in integrating amplier

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Figure 36: Oscilloscope display for square wave in integrating amplier

Figure 37: Oscilloscope display for triangular wave in integrating amplier

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0.4.5

DIFFERENTIATION AMPLIFIER

Figure 38: PSPICE simulation result for dierentiating amplier

Figure 39: Oscilloscope display for sin wave in dierentiating amplier

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Figure 40: Oscilloscope display for square wave in dierentiating amplier

Figure 41: Oscilloscope display for triangular wave in dierentiating amplier

0.4.6

PRECISION DIODE

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Figure 42: PSPICE simulation result for Precision diode characteristics at 2 V

Figure 43: Oscilloscope display for precision diode characteristics at 200 mV

Figure 44: Oscilloscope display for precision diode characteristics at 2 V

Figure 45: PSPICE simulation result for Precision diode characteristics at 100 kHz

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0.5

DISCUISSION
very good isolation from the signal source therefore it draw very little power from the source and because of its low output impedance it can transfer more power to the output. because of that voltage follower can be used as a power amplier. Very often this is used as Buers.

Voltage follower is a unit gain amplier for voltage. But because of its high input impedance it give

There is a 180 degree phase dierence between input and output of the inverting amplier.in our experiment initially we set the Voltage gain to the -10 and when we calculated it experimentally it is also nearly equal to the -10 (see gure 26). there is no changes in Gain when it is increasing the input frequency to the system. If we remove R1 resistor in the inverting amplier (see gure 9) practically it will have zero internal resistance. that is a good property of ideal ammeter. so if a voltmeter calibrated in terms of current is connected to the output,the circuit can be used as an ammeter. In non inverting amplier there is no phase change in input and output signals.Because of its extremely high input impedance, the non inverting amplier can be used to construct voltmeters.that is a application of the non inverting amplier. In the DC condition C shows innite resistance and so the integrator circuit will be like an inverting op amp with innite feedback resistance. by applying it to the amplier gain equation we will get gain became innite.Therefore the small input oset voltage will get amplied by this factor and there will be an error voltage at the output. This problem can be solved by adding a feedback resistor Rf parallel to C1 as shown in gure 46 shown below.

Figure 46: modied integrating amplier In dierentiation ampliers when it increase the frequency it generate frequency spikes.The reason for that is,at high frequencies reactance of the capacitor is low and gain and output voltage became high. This will cause op amp unstable. And also in this conguration because of capacitive input, it makes random noise signals and that signal is amplied more than needed input signal. To avoid that errors place a small capacitor across the feedback resistor Rf and Rin resistor to the input of the terminal. Circuit now acts like a dierentiation amplier at low frequencies and an amplier with resistive feedback at high frequencies giving much better noise rejection. Additional attenuation of

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higher frequencies is accomplished by connecting a capacitor C2 in parallel with the dierentiation feedback resistor, R . Figure 47 shows the solution of that.

Figure 47: modied dierentiation amplier precision diode is used in high precision signal processing.It is behave like an ideal diode and also a rectier.since the circuit we used here is not commonly used.if the input became negative op amp works in open loop if there is no feedback signal through the diode then because of that output saturated. If the input then became positive again, the op-amp has to get out of the saturated state before positive amplication happens again. This change generates some ringing and takes some time, It reducing the frequency response of the circuit because of that. solution for that is,

Figure 48: An improved precision rectier circuit

here it is summarized all the combinations of om amp congurations and their transfer functions.

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Figure 49: summarized chart for all congurations

0.6

CONCLUSION

Before starting this practical session we have given some objectives to fullled. Basically those were, Learn the principle of liner feedback systems, Measure the properties of dierent ampliers,Study voltage follower, amplier, and dierentiators and integrator circuits made from OPAMPS and also Get some basic idea of behavior of op-amp characteristics by simulating them in PSPICE. After doing those exercises in the lab we got a good knowledge of dierent op amp congurations and their characteristics. And also we gain a good knowledge of handling Digital Oscilloscope which are well functioned than a analogue Oscilloscope. By revising those op amp congurations we can conclude that, Voltage follower is a device which can used as a power amplier and as a buer. It has high input impedance and low output impedance and a unity gain. Inverting amplier is widely used in making summing ampliers and ammeters. This can have any gain less than zero by choosing the ratio of
R2 R1 .

Non inverting amplier has very high input impedance and low output impedance. Because of its high input impedance non inverting ampliers are used as voltmeters. Gain of the amplier has given by
2 Gain = 1 + ( R R1 )

Dierentiation amplier circuit performs mathematical dierentiation function and it produces a voltage output value which is proportional to the input voltage rate-of-change and the current owing through the capacitor. When it is applying signals such as Square-wave, Triangular or Sine-wave types as a input signals the resultant output signal will be changed and whose nal shape is dependent upon the RC time constant of the Resistor/Capacitor combination. output voltage has given by
i V0 = RC dV dt .

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 In Integrating amplier output of the integrator is proportional to the integral of the input voltage. When it integrating a sine wave, Cosine wave has generated as an output and for a square wave
1 triangular wave is the output. output voltage has given by V0 = RC

Vi dt .

Both Integrating and Dierentiation ampliers cannot be used in high frequencies. Precision diode is a device that can act as a diode for even low voltage signals.Slew rate of the op amp is limited the high frequency response of this device.

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