The liberation of algebra, Peacock, Hamilton, quaternions

liberation of algebra from arithmetic, Peacock, Hamilton.

The

George Mpantes mathematics teacher

www. mpantes. gr

Abstract .
Peacock made the numbers symbols intuitive interpretation with pictures of the real world.
Considered from this point of view ,algebra is severed from its tie to arithmetic , and an
algebra becomes a purely formal deductive study. This new Peacock

described the artificial

numbers of his time in logical symbols instead of their Peacocks algebra is the symbolical
algebra

the first step to abstract algebra. His fundamental logical principle was the

principle of permanence of equivalent forms.

Yet I give the basic concepts of the new

algebra of Hamilton as an example of this liberation.

introduction
Algebra considered with reference to its principles has received
very little attention, and consequently very little improvement , during
the last century. I regard its completeness as an independent science
.Peacock

In

the

early

nineteenth

century,

algebra

was

considered simply symbolized arithmetic. In other words

instead of working with specific numbers , as in arithmetic , in
algebra letters were used that represent these numbers. The
positive integer and the four artificial forms of numbers
constitute the number system of algebra viz the negative,
the fraction, the irrational and the imaginary.
In the mid 19th century, almost simultaneously with the
liberation of

geometry from

the fifth axiom, starts

the

liberation of algebra from its tie to arithmetic, becoming a

purely formal hypothetico-deductive study, as geometry. The discovery of nonEuclidean geometry , greatly influenced the development of axiomatic method in
algebra, the movement of axiomatization in mathematics, but another factor was
the recognition , first by the British mathematicians, (Analytical society of Cambridge)

g. mpantes, mathematics teacher

of the existence of structure in algebra. They conceived that

2
the axiomatic

foundation of algebra means axiomatic foundation of its number system. The

numbers in algebra were as the straight lines in geometry.
This liberation brought in mathematics, new algebras beyond the arithmetical
algebra of positive integers, and eventually new mathematical systems i.e sets
equipped with various structures which had no classical analogues. We had the
algebras of Lie,

of

Jordan, of

Hamilton, of Grassman, the quaternions, the

hypercomplex numbers, as we had the geometries of Lobatchewsky, Riemann etc.

We even had

the algebraic structures of groups, fieds, rings

etc. So in 1870

appeared a new area of mathematics, called until the mid-twentieth century 'area of
modern mathematics. "
The most renowned representatives of Analytical community of Cambridge
were Herschre, Babbage, Morgan and Peacock, who focused to the foundations of
algebra. In his book "A Treatise on Algebra 1840" promoted the idea that the algebra
if addressed properly, it is a productive science as geometry, and attempted to place
algebra on a rigorous footing, basing the axiomatic thinking in algebra (Euclid of
algebra). It is what he calls symbolic algebra.

A modern view of algebra.

The algebra of positive numbers .

Algebra is two things: a set of elements and the operations on this set.
That means the basic laws of the operations and their consequences; example:
Let us take as number system the positive integers, and the operations the
usual addition and multiplication symbolized with + and x .
These two binary operations performed on the set of positive integers posses
certain basic laws. We have
Law . +=+ commutative law of addition
Law . +(+)=++ associative law of addition
Law . x=x commutative law of multiplication
Law V. x(x)=xx associative law of multiplication
Law V. x(+)=x+x the (left) distributive law for multiplication over
addition.

The liberation of algebra, Peacock, Hamilton, quaternions

The five basic laws of the operations and their consequences constitute an
algebra applicable to the set of positive integers.
These statements are symbolic , and it is conceivable that they might be
applicable to some other set of elements for example in even positive integers , in
rationals

in real numbers

with the usual addition and multiplication, all the

polynomials with positive integers coefficients, the set of pairs of positive integers (a ,
b ) with operations as
( a ,b ) + ( c , d ) = (a + c , b + d ) and
(a , b ) x ( c , d ) = (ac , bd)

, etc

it is easily proved that the five properties above, apply to all of the above sets,
and in many others. That is to say that , there is a common algebraic structure (the
five basic properties and their consequences) attached to many different systems.
The five basic properties may be regarded as postulates for a particular type of
algebraic structure and any theorem formally implied by these postulates would be
applicable to each of the examples given above, or to any

other interpretation

satisfying the five basic properties.. These are as Euclids axioms for the straight
line , and algebra of positive integers seems like a deductive system. So algebra
severed from arithmetic as geometry from the Euclidean straight line.
This is the modern view of algebra (the axiomatization of algebra) and the
earliest glimmerings of the above modern view of algebra appeared about 1830 in
England with the work of George Peacock .(H.Eves)

The number system before Peacock

Not one of the artificial numbers

was accepted until its

correspondence to some actually existing thing had been shown, the

fraction and irrational , which originated in relations among actually
existing things, naturally making good their position earlier than the
negative and imaginary , which grew immediately out of the equations ,
and for which a real interpretation had to be sought But the
necessity remained of justifying this acceptance by purely algebraic
considerations, this was first accomplished , though incompletely by
G.Peacock. Henry B.Fine

g. mpantes, mathematics teacher

For example the irrational numbers could be thought of as points on a line,

and as to their utility there could be no question. Hence ,though there was no logical
basis for irrational numbers they were accepted in the number system.
The troublesome and intuitively unacceptable elements were
the negative numbers and the imagine numbers. They were attacked
and rejected in the 19th century with the same virulence as in previous
centuries. Morris Klein

The opposition to the idea of negative numbers was founded on viewing

arithmetic as based on the concept of quantities that can be observed. It reminds us
the intuition of geometrical ideas of Euclid.
In 1758 the British mathematician Francis Maseres was claiming that
negative numbers
"... darken the very whole doctrines of the equations and make dark of the
things which are in their nature excessively obvious and simple" .

Maseres and his contemporary, William Friend took the view that
negative numbers did not exist. However, other mathematicians around the
same time had decided that negative numbers could be used as long as they
had been eliminated during the calculations where they appeared
Negative numbers were accepted that stated amounts as debt, a year before,
opposite direction etc, but as Klein reports they were discharged as roots of an
equation, from the greatest mathematicians. They were false results, (Carnot)
fictitious (Cardan), false (Descartes), inconsistent or vague solutions (Morgan), in
the sense that they represent numbers less than nothing, so meaningless ...
.Newton ".
By the beginning of the 19th century Caspar Wessel (1745 - 1818) and Jean
Argand (1768 - 1822) had produced different mathematical representations of
'imaginary' numbers, and around the same time Augustus De Morgan (1806 - 1871),
George Peacock (1791 - 1858) William Hamilton (1805 - 1865) and others began to
work on the 'logic'of arithmetic and algebra and a clearer definition of negative
numbers, imaginary quantities, and the nature of the operations on them began to
emerge.

The symbolical algebra, the permanence of forms

The liberation of algebra, Peacock, Hamilton, quaternions

The symbolists in England with G. Peacock made the distinction between

what he called arithmetical algebra

and symbolical algebra. The former is

regarded by Peacock as the study that results from the use of symbols to denote
ordinary positive integer numbers, (so it was on firm ground, Morris Kline) together
with signs for the operations , like addition and subtraction, to which these numbers
may be subjected. Now, in arithmetical algebra certain operations are limited in their
applicability. For example , in subtraction ,a-b, we must have a greater than b.

The symbolic algebra was the first attempt of axiomatic foundation of algebra
in the first half of the 19th century, modeled on the Euclidean geometry . In this
algebra the symbols of the operations have no other meaning from that given by the
laws.
Peacocks symbolical algebra adopts the operations of arithmetic algebra
but ignores their restrictions . Thus subtraction in symbolical algebra differs from
the same operation in arithmetical algebra in that it is to be regarded as always
applicable. The justification of this extension of the rules of arithmetical algebra to
symbolical algebra was called, by Peacock, the principle of the permanence of
equivalent forms (H.Eves)
Peacocks symbolical algebra is thus a universal arithmetical algebra
whose operations are determined by those of arithmetical algebra so far as the two
algebras proceed in common , an by the principle of permanence

of equivalent

forms in all other cases. The principle of equivalence is a logical principle and played
a historical role in development of algebra of negatives and complex numbers
All the results deduced in arithmetical algebra, whose
expressions are

general in form but particular in value, are correct

results likewise in symbolic algebra where they are general in value as

well in form.Peacock

g. mpantes, mathematics teacher

We understand this difficult principle in the example of the symbolical

definition of subtraction in the new algebra.
Arithmetical subtraction .
To subtract b from a is to find a number to which if b be added , the sum will
be a. the result is written a-b; by definition , it identically satisfies the equation
Law VI. (a-b) +b= a
Theorem VII: if a+c=b+c a=b
Obviously subtraction is always possible when b is less than a, but then only.
Unlike addition , in each application of this operation regard must be had to the
relative size of the two numbers concerned. From the laws -VII we can prove all the
postulates which follow:
1.-(+)=--=--
2.-(-)=-+
3.+-=
4.+(-)=+-=-+
5.x(-)=x-x
For example 5. is proved
x-x=x(-+)-x
= x(-) +x-x
=x(-)

law VI
law V
postulate 3.

The symbolical subtraction,

If a<b what does the relation VI mean?

Then a-b is not a number, but a symbol of algebra. The meaning of the
equation of arithmetical algebra changes. Now equation is any declaration of the
equivalence of definite combinations of symbols, equivalence in the sense that one
may be substituted by the other and now (a-b)+b=a may be an equation whatever
the values of a,b but now is a definition of this symbol. ( symbolical definition). The
numerical definition is subordinate to the symbolical definition , being an
interpretation of which it admits when b is less than b.
But from the standpoint of the symbolic definition , interpretability the
question whether a-b is a number or not is irrelevant; only such properties may be
attached to a-b, by itself considered, as flow from the generalized equation (a-b)+b=a

The liberation of algebra, Peacock, Hamilton, quaternions

(Henry Fine). Negative number is a symbol that admits of definition by a single

equation of a very simple form viz.

(a-b)+b=a, with the laws I-VI and other theorems

as 1-5 governing this symbol. Subtraction means no more than any process which
obeys the laws I-VII. And the principle of permanence of form justifies logically the

view that the processes in algebra have to be based o a complete statement of the
body of laws or axioms which dictate the operations used in the processes.
Indeed the above postulates 1-5 are the properties of the symbol a-b as for
the number a-b, and the result a-b , as defined for all values of a,b , led to definitions
of the two symbols 0 ,-d , zero and the negative.
For example let us see the introduction in algebra of a new symbol , zero,
which contribute greatly to the simplicity and power of its operations.(Henry Fine)
When b is set equal to a , in the general equation
(a-b)+b=a
It takes one of the forms
(a-a)+a=a
(b-b)+b=b
It may be proved that
a-a=b-b
for (a-a)+(a+b)=(a-a)+a+b

law II

since a-a)+a=a
and (b-b) +(a+b)=(b-b)+b+a=b+a Laws I, II
since (b-b)+b=b
therefore a-a=b-b theorem VII
a-a is therefore altogether independent of a and may properly be represented
by a symbol unrelated to a. The symbol which has been chosen for it is 0, called zero
.

the critique .
But the deepest meaning of the symbolical algebra and the principle of
permanence, is the symbolic form of the equations. The negative is a symbol which
cannot be effected with actually existing sets of things. The equation, the
fundamental judgment in all mathematical reasoning , becomes a mere declaration
regarding two combinations of symbols , that in any reckoning one may be
substituted for the other (Henry Fine)
But the weakness of Peacocks work is the logical principle of permanence of
equivalent forms. This principle does not answer why the various types of numbers
have the same properties with positive integers. This is a hypothesis ad hoc, to

g. mpantes, mathematics teacher

validate what was empirically correct but not logically based . The results of these
calculations actually were right when each number (negative , real or complex ) was
replacing the letters . But these numbers were not actually understood nor their
properties were reasonably disclosed .If Peacock knew quaternions and
Hamiltons algebra (no commutative property in multiplication) will not have
established the principle of permanence, since the letters representing the
quaternions have not all the properties of real and complex numbers. The
quaternions invalidate the principle of permanence! What soon became evident after
the introduction of quaternions , is that there is not one algebra but many. This
principle of permanence has not predicted the new algebras, but symbolic algebra
paved the way for the algebraic research in general. But Peacok was a pioneer as
Leibnitz . His idea was a revolutionary idea of correspondence axiomatic bases of
symbols in number systems. These symbols (the numbers) are based on a complete
statement of the body of laws and axioms which dictate the operations used in the
processes. The operations define the numbers and not the numbers the operations.

.Peacocks Symbolic algebra was the beginnings of 'abstract

algebra' which was a movement of algebra as generalized arithmetic in
a purely formal (formal) algebra. The symbolic algebra underlined the
importance of the structure over the meaning and acknowledged what
has been formulated as

principle of mathematical freedom. This

principle implies that the algebra deals with arbitrary symbols,

meaningless, mathematicians construct their operating rules and
interpretation, follows rather than precedes the algebraic manipulations.
" (Patricia R Allaire, Robert E. Bradley 'Symbolical Algebra as a
foundation of calculus, internet)

For recapitulation of Peacocks work

Dubbey summarises as the main thesis of Peacock's ideas in the book
(Dubbey, Babbage, Peacock, and modern Algebra, Historia Math.(3) 1977 (internet)
1. Algebra had previously been considered only as a modification of
arithmetic
2. Algebra consists of a manipulation of symbols in a way independent of any
particular interpetation

The liberation of algebra, Peacock, Hamilton, quaternions

3. arithmetic is only a special case of algebra a science of suggestion as
Peacock put it
4. the sign = is to be taken as meaning is algebraically equivalent to
5. the principle of permanence of equivalent forms.
But the really big idea in Peacocks work is the decoupling of numbers with
reality, as before him the numbers were not accepted until their correspondence to
some actually existing thing had been shown.

But numbers are symbols of mind , exist only in mind , and as such can
describe things of our imagination far from any intuition , as the non-Euclidean
straight lines. Mathematics are not experiments of physics , mathematics live in
mathematical fancy. Dedekind said that numbers are free creations of human mind
and Peacock was the first who tried to express numbers as such creations. All the
axiomatic movement of modern mathematics aimed at limiting of intuition in the
logical reasoning , and Peacock essentially moved in this direction. On liberating
numbers from reality he liberated algebra from arithmetic.
These symbols(the numbers are based now on a complete statement of the
body of lawsand axioms which dictate the operations used in the processes. The
operations define the numbers and not the numbers the operations

Hamiltons new algebra

Abstract
Complex numbers as ordered pairs, as vectors , as rotations in plane. Hamilton
studied the rotations in space.

Complex numbers as geometrical operators.

Ordered pairs.
The best way to approach the creation of Hamilton is its elegant negotiation
of complex numbers as pairs of real numbers . For
mathematicians of his time considered the complex numbers as
numbers of the form a + bi with a, b real and i2 = -1. The
addition and multiplication of complex numbers held ( as is
known ) manipulating a + bi as a linear polynomial in I, and
substituting i2 where appeared to -1 . Thus after a + bi is well
defined by two real a, b Hamilton represents the complex
number with real ordered pair (a, b ) . He stated that two such

g. mpantes, mathematics teacher

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real pairs ( a, b ) , ( c , d ) are equal if and only if a = c and b = d Addition and

multiplication of two such numerical pairs will be designated
(a, b ) + ( c, d ) = (a + c , b + d) and
(a , b ) . ( c , d ) = (ac - bd , ad + bc ) as (a+bi)(c+di)=(ac-bd)+i(ad+bc)
With these definitions we can show that
the addition and multiplication of ordered pairs
of real numbers is commutative , associative
and multiplication is distributive over addition
It should be noted that the system of real
numbers is embedded within the system of
complex numbers . This meant that if any real r
identified by numeral pair (r, 0) then the
correlation is maintained by the operations of
addition and multiplication of complex numbers because
(a , 0 ) + ( b , 0 ) = (a + b , 0 )

( a, 0) ( b , 0 ) = ( ab, 0)

To achieve the old form of a complex number from the form of Hamilton, we observe
that each complex (a , b ) can be written
(a, b ) = (a , 0 ) + ( 0, b ) = (a , 0 ) + ( b , 0 ).(0,1 ) = a + bi , where (0.1) denoted by
the symbol i and (a , 0), ( b , 0 ) the reals a, b.
Eventually we see that i2 = (0,1) (0,1) = (-1,0) = -1

Vectors and spins in plane .

But the system of the complex numbers is a very appropriate numerical
system to study vectors and spins in the plane.
The relationship of complex numbers with the geometry are known from high
school . The complex numbers are two-dimensional . While the reals correspond in
points on a straight line , the complex correspond to points in the ( complex ) plane.
The complex x + yi corresponds to the point with coordinates ( x , y ) . But what is the
geometric role of the mysterious i, which is known to us as imaginary number ? It's
role is related to the rotation in the plane. Hamilton studied these rotations and
attempted to expand them in space. So he discovered new numbers , unknown
in arithmetic, and a new algebra for them .
The rotation in the plane , as shown in the figure, it is the movement of a figure ,
eventually of a point which is defined by a pair of coordinates , round a fixed point of
the plane . Rotations are related to a reference system , because ultimately the
calculation of the rotation is to calculate the new coordinates of the points, after the

The liberation of algebra, Peacock, Hamilton, quaternions

11

rotation . To calculate the rotation in two dimensions , there are two methods that of
matrices and that of complex numbers ( we are considering ) .
Let's consider a real number , e.g. 3 and we are looking for the geometric
position of its opposite -3 : We rotates the image of A round of O at 180o so that
the point A (3.0 ) is moved to ( -3.0 ) or the complex ( 3 +0i) to (-3 +0i) . This is
equivalent to multiply the number ( 3 +0i ) by -1 .
What happens if we rotate the image of 3 at 90o ? (Always in the positive
direction ) Then the point (3,0) (0,3) or 3 +0 i 0 +3i that is equivalent to
multiplying by i say
i.(3 +0 i) = 0 +3 I

i.(a + bi) =-b + ai

If we perform a second rotation by 90o then have

i.i. (3 +0 i) = -1 (3 +0 i)=-3
which is the result of rotation in 180o as we saw in the beginning.
The number i, beyond that allows all polynomial equations to have a solution
, it also gives a great tool for the rotations in the plane. Multiplying it by the
coordinates of a point that has been written in complex form, we have the
coordinates after rotation by 90o .
So the coordinates of point A resulting from the rotation of A (a , b ) round O
o

in 90 will be found
i. ( a + bi) = ai-b namely A ( - b , a), that is a purely geometric effect.
In the case of a rotation by an arbitrary angle , we have the Eulers formula
I.e. the complex z = x + yi can be rotated by an angle , if it is
multiplied by ei

then z=ei.z In the formula of Euler if

= we have

ei=-1

ei/2=i

that is produced the previous operators of rotations at 180o and 90o

respectively .
We finally conclude that the rotations in the plane dependent on a parameter,
the rotation angle , and as the complex numbers operators of rotation satisfy the
commutative law, the same would occur
with the rotations in the plane. The order
of two successive rotations in the plane
does not change the result of the final
rotation.

g. mpantes, mathematics teacher

12

Rotations in space, quaternions .

Hamilton accepts the algebraic structures of the real and complex numbers
(is the same as positive integers)and extend them in a new one that preserves the
previous.
The complex numbers are two-dimensional numbers and associated with the
rotations in the plane. Hamilton thought to link the existence of three- dimensional
numbers with the rotation in space. However, the rotations in plane occur round a
point ( the beginning O), therefore require one size ( the angle ) to be described ,
but in space (see OP1 to OP2 in the figure) they occur round an axis with one end in
O , so it takes three numbers to determine the other end P1, as well as the angle of
rotation. So for these rotations we need four-dimensional numbers.
Hamilton tried to devise a similar number system for the study of vectors and
rotations in three-dimensional space. In these investigations he was led to a set of
ordered quadruples (instead of ordered pairs) of real numbers (a , b , c , d) having
both real and complex numbers embedded within them . Calling these quadruples
quaternions he defines the equality
(,,,)=(e,f,g,h) if and only if =e,=f,=g, =h.
Hamilton found necessary to define addition and multiplication of quaternions
such that (why?)
(,0,0,0)+(,0,0,0)=(+,0,0,0)
(,0,0,0).(,0,0,0)=(,0,0,0)
(,,0,0)+(,,0,0)=(+,+,0,0)
(,,0,0).(,,0,0)=(-,+,0,0)
These definitions were
(,,,)+(e,f,g,h )=(+e, +f, +g, +h)
(,,,).( e,f,g,h)=( e-f-g-h, f+e+h-g, g+e+f-h

h+g+e- f)

It can be shown that if we identify the real number with quaternion ( ,

0,0,0 ) and complex (a,b) with (a,b,0,0) then the real and complex numbers can be
embedded within the quaternions.

The new albegra of Hamilton .

It can be shown that the addition of quaternions is commutative and
associative and the multiplication is associative and distributive over the addition.

The liberation of algebra, Peacock, Hamilton, quaternions

13

But the commutative law for multiplication ceases to be valid. For example, for
the quaternions ( 0,1,0,0 ) and ( 0,0,1,0 ) we have
(0,1,0,0) (0,0,1,0) = (0,0,0,1) while
(0,0,1,0) (0,1,0,0) = ((0,0,0 , -1) = - ( 0,0,0,1 )
The algebra of quaternions is a new one, that Hamilton tried many years to
realize, but is reduced to the familiar algebra, for the quaternions of the form
(a,0,0,0) and (a,b,0,0) (the old definitions).
If we symbolize the quaternion units ( 1,0,0,0 ) , (0,1,0,0) (0,0,1,0) (0,0,0,1) with 1
i, j, k, we can verify the previously mentioned acts,
i2 = j2 = k2 = -1, ij = -ji = k, jk =-kj =i, ki =-ik = j
Well, we have new numbers and a
new algebra!
It is said that the idea of deleting
the commutative law of multiplication ,
came to Hamilton in a flash after fifteen
years of fruitless meditation and thinking,
on a bridge in Dublin. He was so shocked
by the unexpected idea, that he noted
the main points of the above acts on a
stone of the bridge (figure) .
We can write the quaternion (a , b , c , d ) in the form a + bi + gj + dk
Then two quaternions written in this form can be added and multiplied as
polynomials of j , j, k , and the result to write in the same form by the above
multiplication table .
Hamilton proposed a geometric interpretation of the fantastic triad bi + gj +
dk , by considering the coefficients b , c , d as the rectangular coordinates of a point
in space. The oriented line from the top of the system at the point ( b , c , d ) was
named by Hamilton, vector. So quaternions are mutant sizes, may be numbers or
vectors or numbervectors!
Hamilton strongly believed that quaternions were hiding the secret for a full
description of the laws of universe . Indeed Maxwell formulated the laws of
electromagnetism in quaternions form.
The liberation of algebra .

Finally, developing an algebra that satisfies different laws from those of

common algebra , opened the way for the study of numerous algebraic structures.

g. mpantes, mathematics teacher

14

Eliminating various axioms of common algebra or replacing one or more with others
which are consistent with the rest, we can develop a wide range of algebraic
structures . So we met the structures of group , of ring, of vector spaces , of integral
domains , the Lie algebra if
ab = - ba and a ( bc ) + b ( ca ) + c ( ab ) = 0 a, b , c A
the Jordan algebra if
ab = ba and a2 (ab) = a ( a2 b ) for every a, b , A,
the Grassmann algebra where instead of considering just ordered sets of
quadruples of real numbers , Grassmann considered ordered sets of n real
numbers. It is correct to say that mathematicians have studied well over 200 such
algebraic structures. As written by Americans algebraists Garett Birkhoff and Saunder
MacLane modern algebra has exposed for the first time the full variety and richness
of possible mathematical systems." (Howard Eves).
Something similar happened in the elliptical and hyperbolic geometries .

Comment :
Measurement was a basic equipment for human survival at the dawn of our
history. The study of rotation in
space

that

gave

birth

to

quaternions reflects the ancient

model of the

correspondence

of .. sheep on the fingers of our

hands , which, according to the
logicism of Dedekind, was the
fundamental

mathematical

operation of man (measurement ). Through this correspondence, numbers were born

in our imagination as concepts (abstraction ), became themselves the subject of
study, and the measurement became calculation. Now with Hamilton, this procedure
was repeated, but in place of sheep were rotations in space, which we assigned at
a point P (x, y , z) the axis of rotation, and an angle . Then Hamilton developed
their own algebra. The algebraic properties of operations here, as in integers , spring
from the very correspondence of their birth .
References .

The liberation of algebra, Peacock, Hamilton, quaternions

Number system of Algebra (Henry B. Fine , )

rithmetical and Symbolical Algebra (Peacock , )
Abstract Algebra : P.H.Nidditch
Foundation and fundamental concepts of mathematics, Howard Eves
The loss of certainty (Morris Klein)
( , )
A short account of the history of mathematics (Rousse Ball, Dover)
(Richard Mankiewics, )
George Mpantes

mpantes on scribd

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