3.

5 Thermal Storage System Increasing the number of charging and discharging cycles in Cool Storage Systems tend to re'uire more pumps, which results in greater energy consumption. This higher energy consumption can be minimi,ed by increasing the difference between water supply and return What is Thermal Storage System? temperature b y a few degrees, $swaying them towards the use of ice& thus reducing the volume of water that must be circulated. The pump energy can be minimi,ed with variable-speed drives. Thermal Storage System for space cooling is a relatively mature technology that is continuously improving. It has its roots in early nineteenth-century sch emes but the Colorado Automatic Cold Air Distribution Refrigerator Company, which began operating in enver in late !""#, built the first Thermal Storage System. In using Ice storageSystem systems for cold air distribution, further and cost saving opportunities A Thermal Storage distributes chilled water or other energy media to multiple buildings for air arise. 0y supplying near-free,ing water $actually to air-handling units, weis are able to cool thefrom returning air conditioning or other uses. The cooling heat re%ection& usually pro vided a to a lower temperature. 2rimary air is distributed at 3..4C in a cold air system compared to dedicated cooling plant. Cool storage technology can be used to significantly reduce energy costs !.."4C in a conventional system. This allows airflow to be reduced by about 567 $AS8RA9 by allowing energy-intensive, electrically driven cooling e'uipment to be predominantly !##-&. This colder primary air now is mi+ed withrates a portion of the In return air tosome achieve the operated during off-pea( hours when electricity are lower. addition, system desired room delivery :ith this reduction in airflow, smaller, less costly air configurations result intemperature. lower first costs and)or lower operating costs. handlers and technologies ducting may be installed and there isforms, lesser each power consumption via ventilation Cool storage come in many different with their pros and cons. The fans. If the cooling load e+ceeds the capacity of the e+isting air distribution systems, cold air storage media is most commonly water $with *cold* stored in the form of ice, chilled water, or an distribution could be implemented to increase capacity without significant renovation to the ice)water slurry&, but other media $most notably eutectic salts& have also been used. Storage ducting and air-handling system. media can be cooled $charged& by evaporating refrigerant or a secondary coolant $typically a Cooling the primary air to 3..4C also lower conditioned spacevia relative humidity, which water)glycol mi+ture&. ischargewill is usually accomplished directly circulating water or generally improves the perceived comfort of occupants. Another advantages brought about by indirectly via secondary coolant. At least one system has been developed that discharges storage ice storage system is the reducing in si,e of air-handling e'uipment, which in turn lowers via circulating refrigerant. istrict cooling is now widely used in downtown business districts construction costs for multi-story buildings by reducing the height re'uired per floor for 8;AC and institutional settings such as college campuses. systems Saving Energy and Money Other ene!its The primary ob%ective in developing cool storage is to reduce on-pea( electric demand. This in Thermal Storage System can reduce capital and maintenance costs. :hen setting up a Cool turn capitali,es on the growing difference in tariff between pea( and off-pea( rates, which Storage System, partial storage designs reduce chiller capacity and cost. Savings in chiller and increases cost-effectiveness. related costs are often greater than the incremental costs of the partial storage unit. Similarly, adding storage is loo( a way to is increase a cooling system<s pea( capacity without adding new chillers Another factor to into the lower evapo rator temperatures, which are p articularly true for in situations where cooling load is growing. Retrofit of old rooftop air-conditioning systems with ice storage systems, which re'uire the lowest evaporator temperatures. Although this increases cool storage systems can also be less e+pensive than replacement with new rooftop units. energy consumption, the lower condensation temperatures generally e+perienced offset this 2lacement of the cool storage system on the ground avoids e+pensive crane or helicopter charges disadvantage at nights. Considering the av erage day temperature being -. and average night associated with replacing the old rooftop unit, which dry-bulb is left in place and modified slightly to being .., and ta(ing into consideration Singapore/s and wet-bulb temperature wor( with the storage system. Rooftop replacements may also re'uire structural modifications variations during the day and night, nighttime operation improves the efficiency of all chillers, that can be e+pensive. 1inally, maintenance costs will be less for the downsi,ed components of but especially improves the efficiency of air-cooled chillers, where the condensing temperature is the storage system. Included here are costs associated with refrigerant replacement and cooling controlled by ambient dry-bulb temperature. tower cleaning and water treatment $AS8RA9 !##-&. 0y operating round the cloc(, chiller efficiency is also improved as it now at near full capacity, O"erating Strategies reducing part-load losses. 1urther improvements can be made by adding storage to meet pea( cooling demands, enabling the least efficient chillers to be left off or run much less, increasing Several strategies are available for charging and discharging storage to meet cooling demand savings. during pea( hours. These are=

#ull Storage or $oad Shi!ting %#igure &'( 1ull Storage strateg y or >oad Shifting strategy, as its also coined, operates by shifting the entire on-pea( cooling load to off-pea( hours. This system would re'uire a lar ge storage facility or a small cooling load. It is designed to operate at full capacity during all off-pea( hours to charge storage on the hottest anticipated days. Another point to note is that this strategy is most attractive where on-pea( demand charges are high or the on-pea( period is short.

)artial Storage* $oad $eveling % #igure +'( As for the partial-storage system, while the chiller runs to meet part of the pea( period cooling load, the remainder is met by drawing from storage. 8ere, the chiller has a relatively smaller capacity when compared to that of the design load. 2artial storage systems may be run as load-leveling or demand-limiting operations. In a load-leveling system the chiller is si,ed to run at its full capacity for .5 hours on the hottest days. This strategy is most effective where the pea(-cooling load is much higher than the average load.

)artial Storage* Demand $imiting( In a demandlimiting system, the chiller runs at reduced capacity during on-pea( hours and is often controlled to limit the facility<s pea( demand charge. emand savings and e'uipment costs are higher than they would be for a load-leveling system, and lower than for a full-storage system.

Mediums and Mechanisms

The - basic media for cool storage are chilled water, ice, and eutectic salts. :ith these, there are numerous methods of capitali,ing on the individual advantages of these medians for more efficient Cool Storage Systems. Chilled ,ater( Chilled :ater storage systems capitali,es on the high heat cap acity of water, ta(en as 5.66 ?)@gC, to store cooling capacity. They operate at temperature ranges compatible with standard chiller systems and are most economical for systems greater than .,666 ton-hours in capacity. -.e( Ice Thermal Storage systems capitali,es on the high latent heat of fusion of water, .!66 ?)@g, to store cooling capacity. This re'uires special ice-ma(ing e'uipment or stand ard chillers modified for low-temperature services as free,ing water would re'uires refriger ation e'uipment that provides charging fluids at temperatures below the normal operating range of conventional air-conditioning e'uipment. 0ut this drawbac( is easily ov erloo(ed as the low chilled-watersupply temperatures available from ice storage allow the use of cool air distribution, the benefits of which include the ability to use smaller fans and ducts and the introduction of less humid air into occupied spaces. Eute.ti. salts( 9utectic salt, commonly termed as phase-change material, uses a combination of inorganic salts, water, and other elements to create a mi+ture that free,es at a desired temperature. The material is encapsulated in plastic containers that are stac(ed in a storage tan( through which water is circulated. The most commonly used mi+ture for thermal storage free,es at 3-"4C, which allows the use of standard chilling e'uipment to charge storage, but leads to higher dischar ge temperatures. That in turn limits the operating strategies that may be applied. 1or e+ample, eutectic salts may only be used in full storage oper ation if dehumidification re'uirements are low. Chilled ,ater storage systems rely solely on the heat capacity of water and the temperature difference between supply and return water streams going to and from the cooling load. As a result, the storage volume re'uired is greater which is not really in our interest as we/re dealing with Singapore. -.e harvesting systems feature an evaporator surface on which ice is formed and periodically released into a storage tan( that is partially filled with water. E/ternal melt i.e0on0.oil systems use submerged pipes through which a refrigerant or secondary coolant is circulated. Ice accumulates on the outside of the pipes. Storage is discharged by circulating the warm return water over the pipes, melting the ice from the outside. -nternal melt i.e0on0.oil systems also feature submerged pipes on which ice is formed. Storage is discharged by circulating warm coolant through the pipes, melting the ice from the inside. The cold coolant is then pumped through the building cooling system or used to cool a secondary coolant that goes through the building<s cooling system.

En.a"sulated i.e systems use water inside submerged plastic containers that free,e and thaw as cold or warm coolant is circulated through the storage tan( holding the containers. -.e slurry systems store water or water)glycol solutions in a slurry state--a partially fro,en mi+ture of li'uid and ice crystals that loo(s much li(e a fro,en fruit smoothie. To meet a cooling demand, the slurry may be pumped directly to the load or to a heat e+changer cooling a secondary fluid that circulates through the building<s chilled water system. -nternal melt i.e0on0.oil systems are the most commonly used type of ice storage technology in commercial applications. 9+ternal melt and ice-harvesting systems are more common in industrial applications, although they can also be applied in commercial buildings and district cooling systems. 9ncapsulated ice systems are also suitable for many commercial applications. Ice slurry systems have not been widely used in commercial applications. Detailed Account of Main Methods of Cool Storage Systems Chilled ,ater storage systems rely solely on the sensible $i.e., no phase chan ge or latent energy& heat cap acity of water and the temperature difference between supply and return water streams going to and f rom the cooling load. As a result, the storage volume re'uired is greater than for any of the ice or eutectic salt options. 8owever, using water eliminates the need for secondary coolants and heat e+changers and standard water chillers can be used without significantly degraded performance or capacity. :ater is typically cooled to between -# and 5541, or slightly lower than for a standard chilled water system without storage. The return water temperature may be increased slightly as well, but must remain low enough to ensure ade'uate indoor humidity control. Aa+imi,ing the difference between cooling water supply and return temperatures ma+imi,es the sensible energy storage capacity per unit of water and minimi,es the si,e of the storage tan(. A single tan( is usually used to store both the chilled water and the warm water returning from the cooling load. Separation of the two water bodies is ma+imi,ed by pl acing the cooler, denser water at the bottom of the tan( and the warmer water at the top of the tan(. Specially designed piping networ(s called diffusers allow water to enter and leave the tan( without causing significant mi+ing. The result is a layer of cold water

separated from a layer of warm water by a thermocline, as shown in 1igure !. Chilled water systems tend to wor( best in retrofit situations $no chiller modifications re'uired& and)or higher capacity systems where si,e economies-of-scale lower the unit cost of the tan(. A typical chilled water storage system configuration is shown in 1igure .. Chilled water storage tan(s may also be used as a reservoir for fire-protection water, reducing total facility costs and)or fire insurance premiums.

-.e0harvesting systems form ice on coils or other refrigerant evaporating surfaces and periodically release the ice into a storage tan( that contains a mi+ture of ice and water. :ater is pumped from the bottom of the tan( and passed over the refrigerant evaporating surface during the char ging cycle. uring discharge, water is pumped from the tan( to the load. :arm water returns from the load and is sprayed onto the top of the ice water mi+ture to facilitate mi+ing and heat transfer between ice and water. Compared to ice-on-coil systems, ice harvesters have much less ice-ma(in g surface, but the surface is a speciali,ed design to facilitate ice release, so the potential cost savings is not as great as a comparison based on area would suggest. The average thic(ness of ice on the h eat transfer surface is generally less, however, which improves performance. Bn the other hand, ice harvesters must go through a defrost cycle to release ice from the heat transfer surface, which results in a significant performance penalty. Ice harvesting refrigeration e'uipment tends to be more e+pensive than other cool storage options while the storage capacity itself is generally the least e+pensive. Thus, ice-harvesting systems are most

attractive for applications re'uiring high storage capacity and relatively low refrigeration capacity. -.e0on0.oil systems come in several variations, as noted above. In all variations, ice is formed on a heat transfer surface $generically refer red to as a *coil,* whatever the actual configuration or material& without being released during the charging mode and melted away during the discharge mode. Coils are pac(ed in various arrangements within a tan( and surrounded by water.

Transferring energy from the water to an evaporating refrigerant or secondary coolant $generally a glycol)water mi+ture& passing throu gh the coils forms ice. ischarge is accomplished by circulating warm water past the outside of the ice on e+ternal-melt systems while secondary coolant is usually past through the coils on internal-melt systems.

Condensing a refrigerant discharges at least one internal-melt system designed for retrofit of direct-e+pansion rooftop cooling e'uipment, but this is an e+ception to the general use of a secondary coolant.

Some e+ternal-melt systems bubbles air though the water to facilitate uniform free,ing and melting of ice. This is not re'uired on internal-melt systems that are fro,en solid. 1ree,ing all of the water also results in slightly higher chill storage density for the internal-melt design.

9+ternal-melt systems are able to avoid using a secondary coolant and coolant)water heat e+changers and also benefit from direct-contact heat e+change. 8owever, if not fully discharged, remaining ice on the coil will result in an efficiency penalty during the subse'uent charging cycle. Care must also be ta(en to avoid overcharging the e+ternal-melt storage unit solid as it will become increasingly difficult to dischar ge without ade'uate water flow passages. Charging with

refrigerant is more efficient than with a secondary coolant because one less heat transfer step is involved. Bn the other hand, charging with a secondary coolant uses much less refrigerant and the refrigeration system is generally less complicated. -.e slurry systems produce small particles of ice within a solution of glycol and water, resulting in a slushy mi+ture that can be pumped. >i(e ice harvesters, ice slurry generators are dynamic ice-ma(ing machines, in contrast to the static ice-on-coil systems. Thus, ice slurr y generators do not suffer from the efficiency degradation that occurs as ice builds up on an evaporator surface. 8owever, unli(e ice harvesters, no defrost cycle is re'uired for ice slurry generators, which avoids another efficiency loss. In ice slur ry systems, ice particles are generated by passing a wea( glycol)water solution $C D-!67 glycol& through tubing that is surrounded by an evaporating refriger ant contained within a shell $i.e., the evaporator unit is a shell-and-tube heat e+changer&. As the glycol)water solution is cooled by the evaporating refrigerant, ice particles form. epending on the system configuration, the resulting slush can either drop directly into a storage tan( or be pumped into a storage tan(. Ice-f ree glycol)water solution is pumped from the storage tan(. ischarge is accomplished by pumping the cool solution from the tan( either directly through the cooling load or through an intermediate heat e+changer that isolates the cooling load from the ice slurry system. :arm solution is returned to the top of the tan( and distributed over the ice slurry via multiple spray no,,les. The small si,e of the particles results in better heat transfer between the solution and the ice than is possible for either ice harvesting or ice-oncoil systems. >i(e an ice harvester, ice slurry systems have relatively high fi+ed costs associated with the evaporator or ice generator component, but relatively low incremental costs as storage capacity is added. Thus, ice slurry systems will loo( their best in relatively high storage capacity applications. En.a"sulated i.e systems consist of water contained in plastic containers surrounded by coolant, all contained within a tan( or other storage vessel. uring the charging cycle subfree,ing coolant from a chiller is circulated through the storage tan( and past the plastic containers, free,ing the ice. ischarge is accomplished by circulating warm coolant through the tan( and past the containers, melting the ice. The coolant may be routed directly to the load or be isolated from the load via a heat e+changer. The most common form of plastic

container is a dimpled ball about 5 inches in diameter. The spherical shape creates a relatively high heat transfer area per unit of water bein g fro,en, while the dimples allow for e+pansion and contraction while cycling b etween li'uid and solid states. 9ither atmospheric or pressuri,ed storage tan(s can be used, but a screen must be used near the top of an atmospheric tan( to (eep the balls below the coolant level. Installation is relatively simpleE the balls are simply poured into a tan( and naturally conform to whatever sh ape the storage vessel may be. A typical encapsulated ice system configuration is shown in 1igure !!.