CONTENTS

S.NO

CHAPTER TITLE

PAGE

SYNOPSIS

1. INTRODUCTION
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

3. FABRICATION UNIT 4. WORKING PRINCIPLE 5. DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT 6. MANUFACTURING METHOD INVOLVED 7. ELECTRONICS USED IN THIS PROJECT 8. ADVANTAGES & APPLICATION 9. CONCLUSION 10.SCOPE FURTHER WORK 11.BIBLIOGRAPHY 12.PHOTOGRAPHS

SYNOPSIS

Think that the driver is in trip when the tyre breaks, he is obliged to replace one Changing tyre is a very inconvenient thing, especially by open country highway, in the hot, chilliness weather or the moment raining or snowing.

Using the Manual Jack to change tyre is wasting time and energy. And, some ladies and gentlemen are not enough strength to jack up the automobile by shaking the Manual Jack. But using the electric car jack to change tyre is easy, quick and convenient! Only plug the DC Plug into the vehicles cigarette lighter receptacle, set the Electric Jack on the right position which appointed for Jack, then press the button. The Electric Car Jack can easily lift the automobile by itself. It is relaxing to operate.

For the lady, tall or fat person, it is a very hard thing to replace tyre. But if you have an Electric Car Jack, every question will be solved. It will be relaxing and easy to replace tyre.

INTRODUCTION
A mechanical jack is a device which lifts heavy equipment. The most common form is a car jack, floor jack or garage jack which lifts vehicles so that maintenance can be performed. Car jacks usually use mechanical advantage to allow a human to lift a vehicle. More powerful jacks use hydraulic power to provide more lift over greater distances. Mechanical jacks are usually rated for a maximum lifting capacity (for example, 1.5 tons or 3 tons).

LITERATURE REVIEW
A jackscrew is a type of jack which is operated by turning a lead screw. It is also known as a screw jack, and are commonly used as car-jacks

A jackscrew's compressive force is obtained through the tension force applied by its lead screw. An Acme thread is most often used, as this thread is very strong and can resist the large loads imposed on most jackscrews while not being dramatically weakened by wear over many rotations. These types are self-locking, which makes them more intrinsically safe than other jack technologies like hydraulic actuators which require continual pressure to remain in a locked position. Most jackscrews are lubricated with grease.

FABRICATION UNIT

Fabrication Unit is the topic which deals with the information like Material Selection, Cost Estimation etc.

MATERIAL SELECTION

S.NO 01 02 03 04 05 06

NAME OF THE COMPONENT Car Jack 12 V D.C . Gear Motor Forward and Reverse Switch 2 sq.mm wire 12 V D.C minimum 120amps Battery Spur Gear

MATERIAL Mild steel Mild steel & copper Plastic Flex lead and acid Cast iron

COST ESTIMATION

S.NO 01 02 03 04 05

NAME OF THE COMPONENT Car Jack 12v D.C . Gear Motor Forward and Reverse Switch 2 sq.mm wire Spur Gear Spur Gear

QUANTITY 1 1 1 3 meter 1 1 1

COST R S. 800 1700 60 60 250 200 1000 200

05 06

Fabrication Cost Paint

Total = Rs.4,270.00

WORKING PRINCIPLE

Car Jack operates nut and bolt mechanism, a lead drive the vise up and down position. One end of the lead screw is fitted with spur gear speed reduction gears. A 12 D.C gear motor is drive the gears. Gear motor shaft fitted with spur gear shaft.

The motor clockwise rotation and anticlockwise rotation is control by sifting the switch position. Jack is move up and down easily with help of Battery operated motor.

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
JACK (DEVICE)
A jack is mechanical device used to lift heavy loads or apply great forces. Jacks employ a screw thread or hydraulic cylinder to apply very high linear forces.

MECHANICAL JACK

Jackscrews are integral to one of the simplest kinds of car jacks still used.

Crew member prepares a NASCAR jack A mechanical jack is a device which lifts heavy equipment. The most common form is a car jack, floor jack or garage jack which lifts vehicles so that maintenance can be performed. Car jacks usually use mechanical advantage to allow a human to lift a vehicle by manual force alone. More powerful jacks use hydraulic power to provide more lift over greater distances. Mechanical jacks are usually rated for a maximum lifting capacity (for example, 1.5 tons or 3 tons). The jack shown at the right is made for a modern vehicle and the notch fits into a hard point on a unit body. Earlier versions have a platform to lift on the vehicles' frame or axle.

HYDRAULIC JACK
A hydraulic jack uses a fluid, which is incompressible, that is forced into a cylinder by a pump plunger. Oil is used since it is self lubricating and stable. When the plunger pulls back, it draws oil out of the reservoir through a suction check valve into the pump chamber. When the plunger moves forward, it pushes the oil through a discharge check valve into the cylinder. The suction valve ball is within the chamber and opens with each draw of the plunger. The discharge valve ball is outside the chamber and opens when the oil is pushed into the cylinder. At this point the suction ball within the chamber is forced shut and oil pressure builds in the cylinder.

HOUSE JACK

Threaded rod 7" fully extended

2.5 ton house jack that stands 24 inches from top to bottom fully threaded out.

A House jack is a mechanical device primarily used to lift houses from their foundation. A series of jacks are used and then wood cribbing temporarily supports the structure. This process is repeated until the desired height is reached. The house jack can be used for jacking carrying beams that have settled or for installing new structural beams. On the top of the jack is a cast iron circular pad that the 4" X 4" post is resting on. This pad moves independently of the house jack so that it does not turn as the acme-threaded rod is turned up with a metal rod. This piece tilts very slightly but not enough to render the post dangerously out of plumb.

STRAND JACK
A strand jack is a sophisticated hydraulic jack that grips and lifts steel cables; often used in concert, strand jacks can lift hundreds of tons and are used in engineering and construction.

SMOKE JACK

Smoke Jack from A Treatise of Mechanics (1826) A smoke jack is a jack which gets its energy from a column of rising air or smoke. It is typically used to turn a spit in a cooking fire. It is considered an early example of a steam turbine and steam engine.

Smoke-jacks were first described by Taqi al-Din in his Al-Turuq al-samiyya fi al-alat alruhaniyya (The Sublime Methods of Spiritual Machines, 1551)[1] and by John Wilkins in his Mathematical Magick (1648).

LEAD SCREW
A leadscrew is a screw specialized for the purpose of translating rotational to linear motion. The mechanical advantage of a leadscrew is determined by the screw pitch or lead.

A leadscrew nut and screw mate with rubbing surfaces, and consequently they have a relatively high friction and stiction compared to mechanical parts which mate with rolling surfaces and bearings. Their efficiency is typically only between 25 and 70%, with higher pitch screws tending to be more efficient. A higher performing, and more expensive, alternative is the ball screw.

The high internal friction means that leadscrew systems are not usually capable of continuous operation at high speed, as they will overheat. Due to inherently high stiction, the typical screw is self-locking (ie. when stopped, a linear force on the nut will not apply a torque to the screw) and are often used in applications where backdriving is unacceptable, like holding vertical loads or in hand cranked machine tools.

Leadscrews are typically used well greased, but, with an appropriate nut, it may be run dry with somewhat higher friction. There is often a choice of nuts, and manufacturers will specify screw and nut combinations as a set.

Leadscrew threads typically have an Acme profile. Backlash can be reduced with the use of a second nut to create a static loading force known as preload.

LEADSCREW MANUFACTURING

Leadscrews are manufactured to various tolerances.

Leadscrews are manufactured using various processes. The manufacturing processes can be categorized within two major groups: material removal (machining) and net shape.

Machining

Material removal processes for leadscrew manufacturing include traditional machining by cutting, and machining by grinding.

Net Shape

Net shape processes for leadscrew manufacturing include forming, a cold forging technique called 'rolling', and casting.

Back Driving characteristics

A lead screw will back drive. A leadscrew's tendency to backdrive depends on its thread helix angle, coefficient of friction of the interface of the components (screw/nut) and the included angle of the thread form. In general, a steel acme thread and bronze nut will back drive when the helix angle of the thread is greater than 20 degrees.

Examples of Use

vice lathe

BALL SCREW
A ball screw is a mechanical device for translating rotational motion to linear motion. A threaded shaft provides a spiral raceway for ball bearings which act as a precision screw. As well as being able to apply or withstand high thrust loads they can do so with minimum internal friction. They are made to close tolerances and are therefore suitable for use in situations in which high precision is necessary. The ball assembly acts as the nut while the threaded shaft is the screw.

These items, in contrast to conventional leadscrews, tend to be rather bulky, due to the need to have a mechanism to re-circulate the balls.

To maintain their inherent accuracy and ensure long life, great care is needed to avoid contamination with dirt and abrasive particles. This may be achieved by using rubber or leather bellows to completely or partially enclose the working surfaces. Another solution is to use a positive pressure of filtered air when they are used in a semi-sealed or open enclosure.

While reducing friction, ball screws can operate with some preload, effectively eliminating backlash (slop) between input (rotation) and output (linear motion). This feature is essential when they are used in computer-controlled motion-control systems, e.g. CNC machine tools and high precision motion applications (electronics "Wire Bonding").

Due to their low internal friction, ball screws can be back-driven (depending upon their lead angle). They are usually undesirable for hand-fed machine tools, as the stiffness of a servo motor is required to keep the cutter from grabbing the work and self feeding, that is, where the cutter and workpiece exceed the optimum feedrate and effectively jam or crash together, ruining the cutter and workpiece. Cost is also a major factor as ACME screws are cheaper to manufacture.

Low friction in ball screws yields high mechanical efficiency compared to alternatives. A typical ball screw may be 90 percent efficient, versus 50 percent efficiency of an Acme lead screw of equal size. The higher cost of ball screws may thus be offset by lower power requirements for the same net performance.

Ball screw shafts may be fabricated by rolling, yielding a less precise, but inexpensive and mechanically efficient product. Rolled ball screws have a positional precision of several thousandths of an inch per foot. High-precision types are ground, and are typically precise to one thousandth of an inch per foot or better.

GEAR SELECTION OPTIONS

When a drive application requires rotary motion to be transferred with speed change and or torque change a number of options are available controlled by system layout, economics and power capacity. The drive transmission selection is selected from the options below in order of convenience.

1. Belt Drive (flat, vee , synchronous ) 2. Chain drive 3. Gearbox - geared motor 4. Purchased Stock gears- unlubricated(Plastic/metal- plastic/plastic ) 5. Purchased Stock gears- metal lubricated 6. Engineered gears

It must be emphasised that designing and manufacturing a gear system is relatively, expensive and inconvenient if a proprietory system is available which will do the job.

TYPES OF GEARS

Type

Notes

Further Notes

Spur

Majority of gears are spur. Relatively easy to design and make. Parallel shafts. High efficiency (99% per train). No side thrust. Can back drive. Single Ratio up to 1:10. Can be made very accurate with low vibration /noise. Normally steel pinions require lubrication. Spur Gears Plastic gears can be used requiring no lubrication Similar performance to normal spur. Results in compact drive geometry. Used in manufacture of epicyclic / planetary gears. Single Helical have similar properties to spur. However drive results in axial thrust. Gears are smoother/quieter for the same size/spec. The gears can run at high speeds up to large diameters. Higher torque/life capabilities for same size as spur. Similar benefits to single helical but with no generated side thrust. Higher performance compared to single helical Helical Gears

Internal Spur

Helical

DoubleHelical

CrossedShaft at 90o. Difficult to make accurately. Smooth drive. Helical Offset shafts at 90o. Very high ratios possible in single stage. Sliding action. One gear is normally copper allow (bronze). Low efficiency at higher ratios and low Worm Gears speeds. Lubrication essential for mechanical and thermal reasons. Cannot backdrive at high ratios. Mainly used for drive transmission through 90o. Only low ratios used (4:1 and less). Lubrication required. Some vibration on spur type: Helical type smoother. Perform a similar function to worm boxes but the gears have characteristics which combine those of the bevel and worm gears. High powers and speed ratios are possible and mechanical efficiencies higher than worm boxes for equivalent ratios. Bevel Gears

Worm

Bevel Gear

Spiroid

Performance advantages include high-torque capacity, concentric geometry, lightweight and compact design, Harmonic zero backlash, high efficiency, high ratios (up to 320:1), Harmonic Drive and back drivability. Harmonic drive systems suffer Drives however, from high flexibility, resonance vibration. Used in robotics

BRIEF COMPARISON

Type Spur Helical Double Helical Bevel Worm Crossed Helical

Normal Ratio Range 1:1 to 6:1 1:1 to 10:1 1:1 to 15:1 1:1 to 4:1 5:1 to 75:1 1:1 to 6:1

Pitch Line Velocity (m/s) 25 50 150 20 30 30

Efficiency Range 98-99% 98-99% 98-99% 98-99% 20-98% 70-98%

BEVEL GEARS
Unlike spur and helical gears with teeth cut from a cylindrical blank, bevel gears have teeth cut on an angular or conical surface. Bevel gears are used when input and output shaft centerlines intersect. Teeth are usually cut at an angle so that the shaft axes intersect at 90 deg, but any other angle may be used. A special class of bevels called miter gears have gears of the same size with their shafts at right angles.

Often there is no room to support bevel gears at both ends because the shafts intersect. Thus, one or both gears overhang their supporting of a pinion in a spiral-bevel and the extreme top or bottom position of a worm. This geometry allows the driving and driven shafts to continue past each other so that end-support bearings can be mounted. These bearings provide greater rigidity than the support provided by the cantilever mounting used in some bevel gearing. Also adding to the high strength and rigidity of the hypoid gear is the fact that the hypoid pinion has a larger diameter and longer base than a bevel or spiral-bevel gear pinion of equal ratio. Although hypoid gears are stronger and more rigid than most other types, they are one of the most difficult to lubricate because of high tooth-contact pressures. Moreover, the high levels of sliding between tooth surfaces are ends. This configuration allows the worm to engage more teeth on the wheel, thereby increasing load capacity. In worm-gear sets, the worm is most often the driving member. However, a reversible worm-gear has the worm and wheel pitches so proportioned that movement of the wheel rotates the worm.

In most worm gears, the wheel has teeth similar to those of a helical gear, but the tops of the teeth curve inward to envelop the worm. As a result, the worm slides rather than rolls as it drives the wheel. Because of this high level of rubbing between the worm and wheel teeth, the efficiency of worm gearing is lower than other major gear types.

One major advantage of the worm gear is low wear, due mostly to the full-fluid lubricant film that tends to be formed between tooth surfaces by the worm sliding action. A continuous film that separates the tooth surfaces and prevents direct metal-to-metal contact is typically provided by a relatively heavy oil, which is often compounded with fatty or fixed oils such as acid less tallow oil. This adds film strength to the lubricant and further reduces friction by increasing the oiliness of the fluid. reduces efficiency. In fact, the hypoid combines the sliding action of the worm gear with the rolling movement and high tooth pressure associated with the spiral bevel. In addition, both the driven and driving gears are made of steel, which further increases the demands on the lubricant. As a result, special extreme pressure lubricants with both oiliness and anti-weld properties are required to withstand the high contact pressures and rubbing speeds in hypoids. Despite these demands for special lubrication, hypoid gears are used extensively in rear axles of automobiles with rear-wheel drives. Moreover, they are being used increasingly in industrial machinery.

STRAIGHT BEVEL
Straight-tooth bevel gears are efficient but somewhat noisy.

HYPOID GEARS
Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevels, but the shaft axes do not intersect. Therefore, both shafts can be supported at both ends.

SPIRAL-BEVEL GEAR
Spiral bevel-gears have curved teeth for smoother operation.

SHAFT
A shaft is a rotating or stationary component which is normally circular in section. A shaft is normally designed to transfer torque from a driving device to a driven device. If the shaft is rotating, it is transferring power and if the shaft operating without rotary motion it is simply transmitting torque and is probably resisting the transfer of power.

Mechanical components directly mounted on shafts include gears, couplings, pulleys, cams, sprockets, inks and flywheels. A shaft is normally supported on bearings. The torque is normally transmitted to the mounted components using pins, keys, clamping bushes, press fits, bonded joints and sometimes welded connections are used.

Shafts are subject to combined loading including torque (shear loading), bending (tensile & compressive loading), direct shear loading, tensile loading and compressive loading. Design of shafts must include assessment of fatigue loading and unstable loading when the shaft is rotating at critical speeds (whirling).

1. Produce a free-body sketch of the shaft. Replacing the various associated components with their equivalent load/torque components 2. Produce a bending moment diagram for the xy plane and the xz plane (x = shaft axis direction). Note: The resulting internal moment at any point along the shaft = Mx = Sqrt (Mxy2 + Mxz2 ) 3. Produce a torque diagram. 4. Locate the section(s) on the shaft which the internal loading is the highest..This important stage requires significant effort and judgement 5. Locate the point on the shaft which the internal loading is the highest. This important stage requires significant effort and judgement
6.

Assess the strength of the shaft and determine if the safety margin is The failure criteria (ref Failure theories for the shaft depends on the

sufficient.

material selection (ductile/brittle) and consideration of the loading regime, (constant/ variable loading, rotating speed, degree of shock loading )

INDICATIVE TRANSMITTABLE TORQUE VALUES

This table is provided to allow comparison between shafts and is based on very simplistic assumptions with no allowance for fatigue, additional stresses to Bending Moments etc etc etc

Shaft Dia mm 30 40 50 60 75 80 100

Pure Torque Nm 132 313 612 1058 2068 2510 4900

Power (100RPM) kW 1.4 3.3 6.4 10.6 21.6 26 51.3

Notes on table values

q = The skin torsion stress of a solid round shaft : T= The torque transmitted by the shaft : T = q.D3/5.1 The table is based on a torsion stress level of 25 N/mm2 Power transmitted by a shaft P = 2 * pi * T * N (N = Revs /sec) Table power based on pure torque values

APPLICATIONS
Worm drives are a compact, efficient [efficient only in terms of volume; heat friction issues cause vast inefficiencies ranging up to 50%] means of substantially decreasing speed and increasing torque. Small electric motors are generally high-speed and lowtorque; the addition of a worm drive increases the range of applications that it may be suitable for, especially when the worm drive's compactness is considered.

Worm drives are used in presses, in rolling mills, in conveying engineering, in mining industry machines, and on rudders. In addition, milling heads and rotary tables are positioned using high-precision duplex worm drives with adjustable backlash.

In the era of sailing ships, the introduction of a worm drive to control the rudder was a significant advance. Prior to its introduction, a rope drum drive was used to control the rudder, and rough seas could cause substantial force to be applied to the rudder, often requiring several men to steer the vessel, with some drives having two large-diameter wheels to allow up to four crewmen to operate the rudder.

A worm drive controlling a gate. The position of the gate will not change after being set

Worm drives have been used in a few automotive differentials. The worm gear carries the differential gearing. This protects the vehicle against rollback. This has largely fallen from favour due to the higher-than-necessary reduction ratios. The exception to this is the Torsen differential, which uses worms and planetary worm gears in place of the bevel gearing of conventional open differentials. Torsen differentials are most prominently featured in the HMMWV and some commercial Hummer vehicles, and as a center differential in some all wheel drive systems, such as Audi's quattro. Very heavy trucks, such as those used to carry aggregates, often use a worm gear differential for strength. The worm drive is not as efficient as a hypoid gear, and such trucks invariably have a very large differential housing, with a correspondingly large volume of gear oil, to absorb and dissipate the heat created.

Worm drives are used as the tuning mechanism for many musical instruments, including guitars, double-basses, mandolins and bouzoukis, although not banjos, which use planetary gears or friction pegs. A worm drive tuning device is called a machine head.

Plastic worm drives are often used on small battery-operated electric motors, to provide an output with a lower angular velocity (fewer revolutions per minute) than that of the motor, which operates best at a fairly high speed. This motor-worm-gear drive system is often used in toys and other small electrical devices.

A worm drive is used on jubilee-type hose clamps or jubilee clamps; the tightening screw has a worm thread which engages with the slots on the clamp band.

WORM GEAR

Many worm gears have an interesting property that no other gear set has: the worm can easily turn the gear, but the gear cannot turn the worm. This is because the angle on the worm is so shallow that when the gear tries to spin it, the friction between the gear and the worm holds the worm in place.

This feature is useful for machines such as conveyor systems, in which the locking feature can act as a brake for the conveyor when the motor is not turning. One other very interesting usage of worm gears is in the Torsen differential, which is used on some high-performance cars and trucks.

Gear

Spur gears found on a piece of farm equipment

A gear is a component within a transmission device that transmits rotational force to another gear or device. A gear is different from a pulley in that a gear is a round wheel which has linkages ("teeth" or "cogs") that mesh with other gear teeth, allowing force to be fully transferred without slippage. Depending on their construction and arrangement, geared devices can transmit forces at different speeds, torques, or in a different direction, from the power source. Gears are a very useful simple machine. The most common situation is for a gear to mesh with another gear, but a gear can mesh with any device having compatible teeth, such as other rotational gears, or linear moving racks. A gear's most important feature is that gears of unequal sizes (diameters) can be combined to produce a mechanical advantage, so that the rotational speed and torque of the second gear are different from that of the first. In the context of a particular machine, the term "gear" also refers to one particular arrangement of gears among other arrangements (such as "first gear"). Such arrangements are often given as a ratio, using the number of teeth or gear diameter as units. The term "gear" is also used in non-geared devices which perform equivalent tasks:

"...broadly speaking, a gear refers to a ratio of engine shaft speed to driveshaft speed. Although CVTs change this ratio without using a set of planetary gears, they are still described as having low and high "gears" for the sake of convention."[1]

General

The smaller gear in a pair is often called the pinion; the larger, either the gear, or the wheel.

Mechanical advantage

The interlocking of the teeth in a pair of meshing gears means that their circumferences necessarily move at the same rate of linear motion (eg., metres per second, or feet per minute). Since rotational speed (eg. measured in revolutions per second, revolutions per minute, or radians per second) is proportional to a wheel's circumferential speed divided by its radius, we see that the larger the radius of a gear, the slower will be its rotational speed, when meshed with a gear of given size and speed. The same conclusion can also be reached by a different analytical process: counting teeth. Since the teeth of two meshing gears are locked in a one to one correspondence, when all of the teeth of the smaller gear have passed the point where the gears meet -- ie., when the smaller gear has made one revolution -- not all of the teeth of the larger gear will have passed that point -- the larger gear will have made less than one revolution. The smaller gear makes more revolutions in a given period of time; it turns faster. The speed ratio is simply the reciprocal ratio of the numbers of teeth on the two gears.

(Speed A * Number of teeth A) = (Speed B * Number of teeth B)

This ratio is known as the gear ratio.

The torque ratio can be determined by considering the force that a tooth of one gear exerts on a tooth of the other gear. Consider two teeth in contact at a point on the line joining the shaft axes of the two gears. In general, the force will have both a radial and a circumferential component. The radial component can be ignored: it merely causes a sideways push on the shaft and does not contribute to turning. The circumferential component causes turning. The torque is equal to the circumferential component of the force times radius. Thus we see that the larger gear experiences greater torque; the smaller gear less. The torque ratio is equal to the ratio of the radii. This is exactly the inverse of the case with the velocity ratio. Higher torque implies lower velocity and vice versa. The fact that the torque ratio is the inverse of the velocity ratio could also be inferred from the law of conservation of energy. Here we have been neglecting the effect of friction on the torque ratio. The velocity ratio is truly given by the tooth or size ratio, but friction will cause the torque ratio to be actually somewhat less than the inverse of the velocity ratio.

In the above discussion we have made mention of the gear "radius". Since a gear is not a proper circle but a roughened circle, it does not have a radius. However, in a pair of meshing gears, each may be considered to have an effective radius, called the pitch radius, the pitch radii being such that smooth wheels of those radii would produce the same velocity ratio that the gears actually produce. The pitch radius can be considered sort of an "average" radius of the gear, somewhere between the outside radius of the gear and the radius at the base of the teeth.

The issue of pitch radius brings up the fact that the point on a gear tooth where it makes contact with a tooth on the mating gear varies during the time the pair of teeth are engaged; also the direction of force may vary. As a result, the velocity ratio (and torque ratio) is not, actually, in general, constant, if one considers the situation in detail, over the course of the period of engagement of a single pair of teeth. The velocity and torque ratios given at the

beginning of this section are valid only "in bulk" -- as long-term averages; the values at some particular position of the teeth may be different.

It is in fact possible to choose tooth shapes that will result in the velocity ratio also being absolutely constant -- in the short term as well as the long term. In good quality gears this is usually done, since velocity ratio fluctuatons cause undue vibration, and put additional stress on the teeth, which can cause tooth breakage under heavy loads at high speed. Constant velocity ratio may also be desirable for precision in instrumentation gearing, clocks and watches. The involute tooth shape is one that results in a constant velocity ratio, and is the most commonly used of such shapes today.

Comparison with other drive mechanisms

The definite velocity ratio which results from having teeth gives gears an advantage over other drives (such as traction drives and V-belts) in precision machines such as watches that depend upon an exact velocity ratio. In cases where driver and follower are in close proximity gears also have an advantage over other drives in the reduced number of parts required; the downside is that gears are more expensive to manufacture and their lubrication requirements may impose a higher operating cost.

The automobile transmission allows selection between gears to give various mechanical advantages.

Spur gears

Spur gears are the simplest, and probably most common, type of gear. Their general form is a cylinder or disk (a disk is just a short cylinder). The teeth project radially, and with these "straight-cut gears", the leading edges of the teeth are aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can only mesh correctly if they are fitted to parallel axles.[2]

Helical gears

Intermeshing gears in motion

Unlike most gears, an internal gear (shown here) does not cause direction reversal.

Helical gears from a Meccano construction set.

Helical gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are not parallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix. The angled teeth engage more gradually

than do spur gear teeth. This causes helical gears to run more smoothly and quietly than spur gears. Helical gears also offer the possibility of using non-parallel shafts. A pair of helical gears can be meshed in two ways: with shafts oriented at either the sum or the difference of the helix angles of the gears. These configurations are referred to as parallel or crossed, respectively. The parallel configuration is the more mechanically sound. In it, the helices of a pair of meshing teeth meet at a common tangent, and the contact between the tooth surfaces will, generally, be a curve extending some distance across their face widths. In the crossed configuration, the helices do not meet tangentially, and only point contact is achieved between tooth surfaces. Because of the small area of contact, crossed helical gears can only be used with light loads.

Quite commonly, helical gears come in pairs where the helix angle of one is the negative of the helix angle of the other; such a pair might also be referred to as having a right handed helix and a left handed helix of equal angles. If such a pair is meshed in the 'parallel' mode, the two equal but opposite angles add to zero: the angle between shafts is zero -- that is, the shafts are parallel. If the pair is meshed in the 'crossed' mode, the angle between shafts will be twice the absolute value of either helix angle.

Note that 'parallel' helical gears need not have parallel shafts -- this only occurs if their helix angles are equal but opposite. The 'parallel' in 'parallel helical gears' must refer, if anything, to the (quasi) parallelism of the teeth, not to the shaft orientation.

As mentioned at the start of this section, helical gears operate more smoothly than do spur gears. With parallel helical gears, each pair of teeth first make contact at a single point at one side of the gear wheel; a moving curve of contact then grows gradually across the tooth face. It may span the entire width of the tooth for a time. Finally, it recedes until the teeth break contact at a single point on the opposite side of the wheel. Thus force is taken up and released gradually. With spur gears, the situation is quite different. When a pair of

teeth meet, they immediately make line contact across their entire width. This causes impact stress and noise. Spur gears make a characteristic whine at high speeds and can not take as much torque as helical gears because their teeth are receiving impact blows. Whereas spur gears are used for low speed applications and those situations where noise control is not a problem, the use of helical gears is indicated when the application involves high speeds, large power transmission, or where noise abatement is important. The speed is considered to be high when the pitch line velocity (that is, the circumferential velocity) exceeds 5000 ft/min.[3] A disadvantage of helical gears is a resultant thrust along the axis of the gear, which needs to be accommodated by appropriate thrust bearings, and a greater degree of sliding friction between the meshing teeth, often addressed with specific additives in the lubricant.

Double helical gears

Double helical gears, invented by Andr Citron and also known as herringbone gears, overcome the problem of axial thrust presented by 'single' helical gears by having teeth that set in a 'V' shape. Each gear in a double helical gear can be thought of as two standard, but mirror image, helical gears stacked. This cancels out the thrust since each half of the gear thrusts in the opposite direction. They can be directly interchanged with spur gears without any need for different bearings.

Where the oppositely angled teeth meet in the middle of a herringbone gear, the alignment may be such that tooth tip meets tooth tip, or the alignment may be staggered, so that tooth tip meets tooth trough. The latter type of alignment results in what is known as a Wuest type herringbone gear.

With the older method of fabrication, herringbone gears had a central channel separating the two oppositely-angled courses of teeth. This was necessary to permit the shaving tool to run out of the groove. The development of the Sykes gear shaper now makes it possible to have continuous teeth, with no central gap.

Bevel gears

Bevel gears are essentially conically shaped, although the actual gear does not extend all the way to the vertex (tip) of the cone that bounds it. With two bevel gears in mesh, the vertices of their two cones lie on a single point, and the shaft axes also intersect at that point. The angle between the shafts can be anything except zero or 180 degrees. Bevel gears with equal numbers of teeth and shaft axes at 90 degrees are called miter gears.

The teeth of a bevel gear may be straight-cut as with spur gears, or they may be cut in a variety of other shapes. 'Spiral bevel gears' have teeth that are both curved along their (the tooth's) length; and set at an angle, analogously to the way helical gear teeth are set at an angle compared to spur gear teeth. 'Zero bevel gears' have teeth which are curved along their length, but not angled. Spiral bevel gears have the same advantages and disadvantages relative to their straight-cut cousins as helical gears do to spur gears. Straight bevel gears are generally used only at speeds below 5 m/s (1000 ft/min), or, for small gears, 1000 r.p.m.

Crown gear

A crown gear or contrate gear is a particular form of bevel gear whose teeth project at right angles to the plane of the wheel; in their orientation the teeth resemble the points on a crown. A crown gear can only mesh accurately with another bevel gear, although crown gears are sometimes seen meshing with spur gears. A crown gear is also sometimes meshed with an escapement such as found in mechanical clocks.

Hypoid gears

Hypoid gears resemble spiral bevel gears, except that the shaft axes are offset, not intersecting. The pitch surfaces appear conical but, to compensate for the offset shaft, are in fact hyperboloids of revolution. Hypoid gears are almost always designed to operate with shafts at 90 degrees. Depending on which side the shaft is offset to, relative to the angling of the teeth, contact between hypoid gear teeth may be even smoother and more gradual than with spiral bevel gear teeth. Also, the pinion can be designed with fewer teeth than a spiral bevel pinion, with the result that gear ratios of 60:1 and higher are "entirely feasible" using a single set of hypoid gears.

Worm gear

A worm is a gear that resembles a screw. It is a species of helical gear, but its helix angle is usually somewhat large(ie., somewhat close to 90 degrees) and its body is usually fairly long in the axial direction; and it is these attributes which give it its screw like qualities. A worm is usually meshed with an ordinary looking, disk-shaped gear, which is called the "gear", the "wheel", the "worm gear", or the "worm wheel". The prime feature of a wormand-gear set is that it allows the attainment of a high gear ratio with few parts, in a small space. Helical gears are, in practice, limited to gear ratios of 10:1 and under; worm gear sets commonly have gear ratios between 10:1 and 100:1, and occasionally 500:1.[6] In worm-and-gear sets, because the worm's helix angle is large, the sliding action between teeth is considerable, and the resulting frictional loss causes the efficiency of the drive to be usually less than 90 percent, sometimes less than 50 percent.so comparing to other gears it gives very less efficiency.

The distinction between a worm and a helical gear is made when at least one tooth persists for a full 360 degree turn around the helix. If this occurs, it is a 'worm'; if not, it is a 'helical gear'. A worm may have as few as one tooth. If that tooth persists for several turns around the helix, the worm will appear, superficially, to have more than one tooth, but what one in fact sees is the same tooth reappearing at intervals along the length of the worm. The usual

screw nomenclature applies: a one-toothed worm is called "single thread" or "single start"; a worm with more than one tooth is called "multiple thread" or "multiple start".

We should note that the helix angle of a worm is not usually specified. Instead, the lead angle, which is equal to 90 degrees minus the helix angle, is given.

In a worm-and-gear set, the worm can always drive the gear. However, if the gear attempts to drive the worm, it may or may not succeed. Particularly if the lead angle is small, the gear's teeth may simply lock against the worm's teeth, because the force component circumferential to the worm is not sufficient to overcome friction. Whether this will happen depends on a function of several parameters; however, an approximate rule is that if the tangent of the lead angle is greater than the coefficient of friction, the gear will not lock.[8] Worm-and-gear sets that do lock in the above manner are called "self locking". The self locking feature can be an advantage, as for instance when it is desired to set the position of a mechanism by turning the worm and then have the mechanism hold that position. Tuning gears on stringed musical instruments work that way.

If the gear in a worm-and-gear set is an ordinary helical gear only point contact between teeth will be achieved. If medium to high power transmission is desired, the tooth shape of the gear is modified to achieve more intimate contact with the worm thread. A noticeable feature of most such gears is that the tooth tops are concave, so that the gear partly envelopes the worm. A further development is to make the worm concave (viewed from the side, perpendicular to its axis) so that it partly envelopes the gear as well; this is called a cone-drive or Hindley worm.

Helical and Worm Hand, ANSI/AGMA 1012-G05

A right hand helical gear or right hand worm is one in which the teeth twist clockwise as they recede from an observer looking along the axis. The designations, right hand and left hand, are the same as in the long established practice for screw threads, both external and internal. Two external helical gears operating on parallel axes must be of opposite hand. An internal helical gear and its pinion must be of the same hand.

A left hand helical gear or left hand worm is one in which the teeth twist counterclockwise as they recede from an observer looking along the axis.

Rack and pinion

Rack and pinion animation

A rack is a toothed bar or rod that can be thought of as a sector gear with an infinitely large radius of curvature. Torque can be converted to linear force by meshing a rack with a pinion: the pinion turns; the rack moves in a straight line. Such a mechanism is used in automobiles to convert the rotation of the steering wheel into the left-to-right motion of the tie rod(s). Racks also feature in the theory of gear geometry, where, for instance, the tooth shape of an interchangeable set of gears may be specified for the rack (infinite radius), and the tooth shapes for gears of particular actual radii then derived from that.

BATTERY

Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Plant, are the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having the second lowest energy-to-weight ratio (next to the nickel-iron battery) and a correspondingly low energy-to-volume ratio, their ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells maintain a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. This, along with their low cost, makes them ideal for use in cars, as they can provide the high current required by automobile starter motors. They are also used in vehicles such as forklifts, in which the low energy-to-weight ratio may in fact be considered a benefit since the battery can be used as a counterweight. Large arrays of leadacid cells are used as standby power sources for telecommunications facilities, generating stations, and computer data centers.

CONSTRUCTION OF BATTERY PLATES The principle of the lead acid cell can be demonstrated with simple sheet lead plates for the two electrodes. However such a construction would only produce around an amp for roughly postcard sized plates, and it would not produce such a current for more than a few minutes. Plant realised that a plate construction was required that gave a much larger effective surface area. Plant's method of producing the plates has been largely unchanged. A plate consists of a rectangular lead plate alloyed with a little antimony to improve the mechanical characteristics. The plate is in fact a grid with rectangular holes in it, the lead forming thin walls to the holes. The holes are filled with a mixture of red lead and 33% dilute sulphuric acid (Different manufacturers have modified the mixture). The paste is pressed into the holes in the plates which are slightly tapered on both sides to assist in retention of the paste. This paste remains porous and allows the acid to react with the lead inside the plate increasing the surface area many fold. At this stage the positive and negative plates are identical. Once dry the plates are then stacked together with suitable separators and inserted in the battery container. An odd number of plates is always used, with one more negative plate than positive. Each alternate plate is connected together. After the acid has been added to the cell, the cell is given its first forming charge. The positive plates gradually turn the chocolate brown colour of Lead Dioxide, and the negative turn the slate gray of 'spongy' lead. Such a cell is ready to be used. Many modern manufacturers use pastes in the plates made directly from Lead Dioxide and Lead, thus avoiding the necessity to form the plates. Once acid is added, the cell is ready for use.

One of the problems with the plates in a lead-acid battery is that the plates change size as the battery charges and discharges, the plates increasing in size as the active material absorbs sulphate from the acid during discharge, and decreasing as they give up the sulphate during charging. This causes the plates to gradually shed the paste during their life. It is important that there is plenty of room underneath the plates to catch this shed material. If this material reaches the plates a shorted cell will occur. SEPARATORS Separators are used between the positive and negative plates of a lead acid battery to prevent short circuit through physical contact, Dendrites (treeing) most and shredded active material. Separators cause some obstructions for the flow of ions i.e. electricity between the electrodes. Separators therefore must have the following characteristics: They must be poroushigh porosity gives a high rate of flow of ions. Pore size must be small enough to restrict the flow of colloid particles but not restrict the ions. They must be as thin as possible. Electrical resistance must be very high. They are a little larger than the plates to prevent material shorting the plates. To balance these criteria, the choice of separator shifted from wood to rubber to glass mat to cellulose based separators to sintered PVC separator to microporous PVC/polyethylene separator. An effective separator must meet a number of mechanical properties. Permeability, porosity, pore size distribution, specific surface area, mechanical design and strength, Electrical resistance, ionic conductivity, and chemical compatibility with the electrolyte. In service the separator must have good resistance to acid and oxidation.

BATTERY REACTION:

PbO2 + 2H+ + SO4-2 = PbSO4 + H2O + O2 PbO2 + (oxidizable separator material) + H2SO4 = PbSO4 + (oxidized material) Moreover, the battery service temperature can be as high as 70 to 80 degrees Celsius. The separator must be capable of resisting thermal degradation as far as possible. CLASSIFICATION OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES Flooded/Wet cell batteries VRLA: Valve Regulated Lead Acid batteries AGM: Absorbed Glass Mat batteries Gel cell batteries

OTHER APPLICATIONS Wet cells designed for deep discharge are commonly used in golf carts and other battery electric vehicles, large backup power supplies for telephone and computer centers and offgrid household electric power systems. Gel cells are used in back-up power supplies for alarm and smaller computer systems (particularly in uninterruptible power supplies) and for electric scooters, electrified bicycles and marine applications. Unlike wet cells, gel cells are sealed, so they are less prone to spilling and do not require maintenance of electrolyte levels. Absorbed glass mat (AGM) cells are also sealed and used in battery electric vehicles, as well as applications where there is a fairly high risk of the battery being laid on its side or over-turned, such as motorcycles. Historically, lead-acid batteries were used to supply the filament (heater) voltage (usually between 2 and 12 volts with 6 V being most common) in vacuum tube (valve) radio receivers in areas where no mains electricity supply was available. Such radios typically used two batteries: a lead-acid "A" battery for the filament voltage and a higher voltage (45 V120 V) "dry" non-rechargeable "B" battery for the plate (anode) voltage. A few sets also used a third (3 V9 V with several taps) "dry" non-rechargeable "C" battery for grid bias.Lead-acid batteries are used in emergency lighting in case of power failure.

MF (MAINTENANCE FREE) BATTERIES

The MF (Maintenance Free) battery is one of many types of lead-acid battery. It became popular on motorcycles because its acid is absorbed into the medium which separates the plates, so it cannot spill, and this medium also lends support to the plates which helps them better to withstand vibration. The electrical characteristics of MF batteries differ somewhat from wet-cell lead-acid batteries, and caution should be exercised in charging and discharging them. MF batteries should not be confuse with AGM (Absorbed Glass Mat) batteries, which also have an absorbed electrolyte but again have different electrical characteristics. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS Currently attempts are being made to develop alternatives to the lead-acid battery (particularly for automotive use) because of concerns about the environmental consequences of improper disposal of old batteries. Lead-acid battery recycling is one of the most successful recycling programs in the world, with over 97% of all battery lead recycled between 1997 and 2001.[2] Effective Lead pollution control system is a necessity for sustainable environment. There is a continuous improvement in battery recycling plants and furnace designs for greater efficiencies. These recycling plants are ecology friendly as they follow all emission standards for lead smelters, but new methods should be devised or alternatives developed to the lead-acid battery so that lead pollution can be reduced to an essentially negligible amount.

ELECTRIC MOTOR

An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy. The reverse process, that of using mechanical energy to produce electrical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on locomotives often perform both tasks if the locomotive is equipped with dynamic brakes. Electric motors are found in household appliances such as fans, refrigerators, washing machines, pool pumps, floor vacuums, and fan-forced ovens

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT

The principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821 and consisted of a free-hanging wire dipping into a pool of mercury. A permanent magnet was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury. When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the simplest form of a class of electric motors called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's Wheel. These were demonstration devices, unsuited to practical applications due to limited power.

The first commutator-type direct-current electric motor capable of a practical application was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832. Following Sturgeon's work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American Thomas Davenport and patented in 1837. Although several of these motors were built and used to operate equipment such as a printing press, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same cost issues with primary battery power. No electricity distribution had been developed at the time. Like Sturgeon's motor, there was no practical commercial market for these motors.

The modern DC motor was invented by accident in 1873, when Znobe Gramme connected the dynamo he had invented to a second similar unit, driving it as a motor. The Gramme machine was the first electric motor that was successful in the industry.

In 1888 Nikola Tesla invented the first practicable AC motor and with it the polyphase power transmission system. Tesla continued his work on the AC motor in the years to follow at the Westinghouse company.

CATEGORISATION OF ELECTRIC MOTORS

The classic division of electric motors has been that of DC types vs AC types. This is more a de facto convention, rather than a rigid distinction. For example, many classic DC motors run happily on AC power.

The ongoing trend toward electronic control further muddles the distinction, as modern drivers have moved the commutator out of the motor shell. For this new breed of motor, driver circuits are relied upon to generate sinusoidal AC drive currents, or some approximation of. The two best examples are: the brushless DC motor, and the stepping motor, both being polyphase AC motors requiring external electronic control.

A more clear distinction is between synchronous and asynchronous types. In the synchronous types, the rotor rotates in synchrony with the oscillating field or current (eg. permanent magnet motors). In contrast, an asynchronous motor is designed to slip; the most ubiquitous example being the common AC induction motor which must slip in order to generate torque.

DC motors
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs are Michael Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearing motor, which is (so far) a novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types, which use internal and external commutation respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC source -- so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.

BRUSHED DC MOTORS
The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor with a split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor consists of a coil wound around a rotor which is then powered by any type of battery.

BRUSHLESS DC MOTORS
Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the irregularities in the commutator surface, creating sparks. This limits the maximum speed of the machine. The current density per unit area of the brushes limits the output of the motor. The imperfect electric contact also causes electrical noise. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance. The commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of many parts.

These problems are eliminated in the brushless motor. In this motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically 85-90% efficient, whereas DC motors with brushgear are typically 75-80% efficient.

Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the brushless DC motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use a permanent magnet external rotor, three phases of driving coils, one or more Hall effect sensors to sense the position of the rotor, and the associated drive electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the other, by the drive electronics as cued by the signals from the Hall effect sensors. In effect, they act as three-phase synchronous motors containing their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A specialized class of brushless DC motor controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phase connections instead of Hall effect sensors to determine position and velocity. These motors are used extensively in electric radiocontrolled vehicles, and referred to by modelists as outrunner motors (since the magnets are on the outside).

Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, computer disk drives or in video cassette recorders the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers.

They have several advantages over conventional motors:

Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient,

running much cooler than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's bearings.

Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be

significantly longer compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to cause a great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.

The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide

a convenient tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the tachometer signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal.

The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock,

leading to precise speed control.

Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors,

making them better suited to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels.

Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers

and are generally used to get rid of unwanted heat.

They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in

equipment that is affected by vibrations.

Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant use in high-performance electric model aircraft.

CORELESS DC MOTORS
Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel) portions of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking advantage of this fact is the coreless DC motor, a specialized form of a brush or brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is constructed without any iron core. The rotor can take the form of a windingfilled cylinder inside the stator magnets, a basket surrounding the stator magnets, or a flat pancake (possibly formed on a printed wiring board) running between upper and lower stator magnets. The windings are typically stabilized by being impregnated with epoxy resins.

Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed from copper windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a mechanical time constant under 1 ms. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather than the heavier copper. But because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink, even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air.

These motors were commonly used to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives and are still widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, like radiocontrolled vehicles/aircraft, humanoid robotic systems, industrial automation, medical devices, etc.

UNIVERSAL MOTORS
A variant of the wound field DC motor is the universal motor. The name derives from the fact that it may use AC or DC supply current, although in practice they are nearly always used with AC supplies. The principle is that in a wound field DC motor the current in both the field and the armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) at the same time, and hence the mechanical force generated is always in the same direction. In practice, the motor must be specially designed to cope with the AC current (impedance must be taken into account, as must the pulsating force), and the resultant motor is generally less efficient than an equivalent pure DC motor. Operating at normal power line frequencies, the maximum output of universal motors is limited and motors exceeding one kilowatt are rare. But universal motors also form the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways. In this application, to keep their electrical efficiency high, they were operated from very low frequency AC supplies, with 25 Hz and 16 2/3 hertz operation being common. Because they are universal motors, locomotives using this design were also commonly capable of operating from a third rail powered by DC.

The advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have the typical characteristics of DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems caused by the commutator. As a result such motors are usually used in AC devices such as food mixers and power tools which are used only intermittently. Continuous speed control of a universal motor running on AC is very easily accomplished using a thyristor circuit, while stepped speed control can be accomplished using multiple taps on the field coil. Household blenders that advertise many speeds

frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can be inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC).

Universal motors can rotate at relatively high revolutions per minute (rpm). This makes them useful for appliances such as blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where highspeed operation is desired. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 rpm, Dremel and other similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 rpm. Motor damage may occur due to overspeed (rpm in excess of design specifications) if the unit is operated with no significant load. On larger motors, sudden loss of load is to be avoided, and the possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated into the motor's protection and control schemes. Often, a small fan blade attached to the armature acts as an artificial load to limit the motor speed to a safe value, as well as provide cooling airflow to the armature and field windings.

With the very low cost of semiconductor rectifiers, some applications that would have previously used a universal motor now use a pure DC motor, sometimes with a permanent magnet field.

A typical DC motor.

The armature (rotor)

The stator

WORM DRIVE

A worm drive is a gear arrangement in which a worm (which is a gear in the form of a screw) meshes with a worm gear (which is similar in appearance to a spur gear, and is also called a worm wheel). The terminology is often confused by imprecise use of the term worm gear to refer to the worm, the worm gear, or the worm drive as a unit.

Like other gear arrangements, a worm drive can reduce rotational speed or allow higher torque to be transmitted. The image shows a section of a gear box with a bronze worm gear being driven by a worm. A worm is an example of a screw, one of the six simple machines.

Explanation

A gearbox designed using a worm and worm-wheel will be considerably smaller than one made from plain spur gears and has its drive axes at 90 to each other. With a single start worm, for each 360 turn of the worm, the worm-gear advances only one tooth of the gear. Therefore, regardless of the worm's size (sensible engineering limits notwithstanding), the gear ratio is the "size of the worm gear - to - 1". Given a single start worm, a 20 tooth worm gear will reduce the speed by the ratio of 20:1. With spur gears, a gear of 12 teeth (the smallest size permissible, if designed to good engineering practices) would have to be matched with a 240 tooth gear to achieve the same ratio of 20:1. Therefore, if the diametrical pitch (DP) of each gear was the same, then, in terms of the physical size of the 240 tooth gear to that of the 20 tooth gear, the worm arrangement is considerably smaller in volume.

A double bass features worm gears as tuning mechanisms

Direction of transmission

Unlike ordinary gear trains, the direction of transmission (input shaft vs output shaft) is not reversible, due to the greater friction involved between the worm and worm-wheel, when a single start (one spiral) worm is used. This can be an advantage when it is desired to eliminate any possibility of the output driving the input. If a multistart worm (multiple spirals) then the ratio reduces accordingly and the braking effect of a worm and worm-gear may need to be discounted as the gear may be able to drive the worm.

Worm gear configurations in which the gear can not drive the worm are said to be selflocking. Whether a worm and gear will be self-locking depends on the lead angle, the pressure angle, and the coefficient of friction; however, it is approximately correct to say that a worm and gear will be self-locking if the tangent of the lead angle is less than the coefficient of friction.

An enveloping (hourglass) worm has one or more teeth and increases in diameter from its middle portion toward both ends. 1

Double-enveloping wormgearing comprises enveloping worms mated with fully enveloping wormgears. It is also known as globoidal wormgearing. 2

MANUFACTURING METHOD INVOLVED TURNING

Turning is the process used to produce cylindrical components in a lathe. It can be done manually, or using a CNC machine.

When turning, a piece of material (wood, metal, etc.) is rotated and a cutting tool is traversed along 2 axes of motion to produce precise diameters and depths. Turning can be either on the outside of the cylinder or on the inside (also known as boring) to produce tubular components to various geometries.

Turning can be performed manually on what are known as conventional machines with center lathes which are not computerized. In this case, they require constant supervision. Alternatively, they may be done using automatic lathes (auto lathes) operated by skilled tradesmen called machinists (or fitter and turners). Modern practice is moving towards the use of CNC controls such as a CNC turning center.

Facing is a related term. It involves moving the cutting tool across the face (or end) of the workpiece and is performed by the operation of the topslide, as distinct from the longitudinal feed (turning). It is commonly associated with the use of a lathe although it may be used in relation to vertical boring mills or similar operations.

The bits of waste metal from turning operations are known as chips. In some locales they may be known as turnings or swarf although swarf is generally applied to the waste from grinders.

DRILLING
DRILL

A drill (from Dutch Drillen) is a tool with a rotating drill bit used for drilling holes in various materials. Drills are commonly used in woodworking and metalworking.

The drill bit is gripped by a chuck at one end of the drill, and is pressed against the target material and rotated. The tip of the drill bit does the work of cutting into the target material, slicing off thin shavings (twist drills or auger bits) or grinding off small particles (oil drilling).

TAP AND DIE

Taps and dies are cutting tools used to create screw threads in solid substances including, but not limited to, metal, wood, and plastic. A tap is used to cut the female portion of the mating pair (e.g. a nut). A die is used to cut the male portion of the mating pair (e.g. a bolt). Other than pipes, it is more common to create the hole into which a bolt is screwed than to create the item that is screwed into a hole. Thus, taps are often more commonly available. The process of cutting the threads in a hole is called "tapping" the hole.

The die cuts a thread on a preformed cylindrical rod, which creates a male threaded piece which functions like a bolt.

WELDING
Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a pool of molten material (the weld puddle) that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast with soldering and brazing, which involve melting a lower-melting-point material between the workpieces to form a bond between them, without melting the work pieces.

ARC WELDING
Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding can be done in many different environments, including open air, underwater and in space. Regardless of location, however, welding remains dangerous, and precautions must be taken to avoid burns, electric shock, poisonous fumes, and overexposure to ultraviolet light.

WELDING PROCESSES
These processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well.

ADVANTAGES

Change tyre is easy, quick and convenient Easy Connecting with car Battery via Cigarette lighter Jacket Switch Control is easy through forward and reverse option. Light Weight Long working condition.

APPLICATION

Suitable for the lady, tall or fat person, It will be relaxing and easy to replace tyre. Every one can operate easy.

DISADVANTAGES

High Technical care in Gear box mountings Initial investment is high Battery is compulsory need with full charge Operate within maximum lifting level other vise it damages gears. Proper maintenance is needed

CONCLUSION

We have successfully completed this project. We had challenging experience to over come Practical difficulties and carrying out the work with the suggestions and guidance of our staff and the positive help of our well wishes. The motorized car Jack is fabricated and tested. It is working satisfactory. Moresophisticated screw mechanisms may use a recirculation-ball nut to minimize friction and prolong the life of the screw threads, but such jackscrews are usually not self-locking. We are immensely pleased to have the satisfaction of carrying out of useful project at this stage of the course we have actually become a fall-fledged technician by the satisfactory completion of this work, which gave us a best knowledge to design a Motorized Car Jack. It was more useful for our further study or for our job and we get the self confidence and also creative things for taking up any bold step in the course of our professional career.

SCOPE FOR FURTHER WORK

If High reduction gear box is fitted. More weight can be lifted easily. Reduce the motor weight is very usefull for handle old people and ladies , To Improve the battery amps, motor can easily drive the lead screw with out heat and struggle.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

WEBSITE REFERENCES

www.google.com www.mechanicalengineering.com www.alipaba.com www.howstuffworks.com

PHOTOGRAPHS