Introduction to types of Stress and Strain: In the mechanics of solids, the stress and strain analysis provide an important

insight on the behaviour of solids. In this article we shall deal with types of stress and strain and try and understand them a bit better. The restoring force per unit area, set up inside a body is called stress. It is measured by the magnitude of the deforming force acting on unit area of the body. Stress = Restoring force / area = the body. , where F is the deforming force acting on an area A of

Its unit : N m-2 in SI system and dyne cm-2 in CGS system. Dimensional formula is [ = ML-1 T-2 . Types of Stress and Strain : Stress Different types of stress : Stress is of two different types mainly (i) Normal Stress (ii) Shearing or Tangential Stress . Normal Stress : If the stress is normal to the surface, it is called normal stress. Stress is always normal in the case of a change in length or a wire or in the case of change in volume of a body Longitudinal Stress : When a normal stress change the length of a body then it is called longitudinal stress which is given by Longitudinal Stress = Deforming Force / Area of cross section = The longitudinal stress can be further divided into two types. When a wire or a rod is stretched at the two ends by equal and opposite forces, the stress is called tensile stress. When a rod is pushed at the two ends by equal and opposite forces, it will be under compression. The stress in such a case is called compressive stress. The pillars of a building experience compressive stress. Volume Stress (or ) Bulk Stress : When a normal stress changes the volume of a body then it is called volume stress. When a solid body is immersed in a fluid, the force at any point is normal to the surface of the body and the magnitude of the force on any small area is proportional to the area i.e., the body is under the action of a pressure P. Bulk Stress = = Pressure

Shearing Stress : When the Stress is tangential to the surface due to the application of forces parallel to the surface, then the stress is called tangential or shearing stress. It changes the shape of the body. Shearing Stress = Force / Surface Area = F / A

Types of Stress and Strain : Strain Normal stress on a body causes change in length or volume and tangential stress produces change in shape of the body. The ratio of change produced in the dimensions of a body by a system of forces or couples, in equilibrium, to its original dimensions is called strain. Strain is of three types depending upon the change produced in a body and the stress applied. The three types of strain are (i)Longitudinal strain (ii) Volume strain and (iii) Shearing strain Longitudinal Strain : It is the ratio of the change in length of a body to the original length of the body. If L is the original length of a wire or a rod and the final length of the wire or the rod is L + e under the action of a normal stress, the change in length is e. Longitudinal Strain = Change in length / Original length = e / L

If the length increases due to tensile stress, the corresponding strain is called tensile strain. If the length decreases due to compressive stress, the strain is called compressive strain. Volume Strain : It is the ratio of the change in volume of a body to its original volume.

If V is the original volume of a body and v + v is the volume of the body under the action of a normal stress, the change in volume is v . Volume Strain = Change in volume / Original volume = .

Shearing Strain : If is the angle through which a face originally perpendicular to the fixed face is turned. (or) It is the ratio of the displacement of a layer to its distance from the fixed layer.

As strain is a ratio , it has no units and dimensions.

Types of Strain Gauges for Measurement of Strains Normal Strain: Change in the length divided by the original length is called normal strain. Shear Strain: Change in angle or shape of to the original angle or shape of the body is called shear strain. Mechanical Strain gauges They can measure the surface strains in any direction. We place gauge parallel to the surface in which direction we want to measure the strains. It can measure static strains only. Optical Strain gauges: In this gauges the measurement and magnification are done optically. A system of mirrors may be used to produce large displacement on scale. It is suitable for measuring dynamics strains with a photographic recording system. It is difficult to handle and is a heavy instrument. Vibrating wire type gauges When wire is stretched between two clamps the natural frequency will change. This principle is used to measure the strains in vibrating wire type gauges. A gauge containing the wire is clamped into the test piece and frequency of vibrations is measured. Then it is compared to with the standard known frequency. Easy and rapid measurement of strains can be done by this type of gauge.

Pneumatic Strain gauges This type of strain gauge is very widely used in precise engineering measurement to measure the micro strains. These gauges have very little application in Civil engineering. Working principle of Pneumatic gauges is that pressure drop is directly proportional to amount of fluid passing through the orifice. It has stability over larger period and high degree of precision. Electrical Resistance Strain gauge It is a very fine metal grid which is cemented in paper base material on the surface of the any structural component to measure the surface normal strains in any desired direction. Lord Kevin (1856) first gives the principle of working of strain gauges. He proved that the resistance of conductor changes with the change in length. The idea was used to measure the strain first in 1936 by US Defense department.

Construction of strain gauge Length of filament varies from 2 to 25mm. Normally 10- 25mm is used for tension members and 2-4mm for compression members. Safe current is 25mA 50 mA. Range of voltage is 35 50 V Metal used are Copper (55%) + Nickel (45%) Alloy or can be >Nickel + Chromium Alloy Axial Sensitivity of strain gauges The change in the resistance of a wire is directly proportional to axial sensitivity of the strain gauge. It is also called gauge factor (G.F).

Dummy gauge A strain gauge of the same resistance and sensitivity as that of the actual gauge and is cemented on a separate piece of material of the same type and is kept in the unrestrained condition in the vicinity of that actual gauge called dummy gauge. The work of dummy gauge is to nullify the effect of the temperature changes. If, A is the Strain due to change in length and B is strain due to temperature change then,

Advantages of Electric Resistance Gauge Normal strains can be measured in any desired direction on surface of the structural component. Shear strains can be measured by using some special arrangements. Remote reading is possible. Once the strain gauge is cemented it will be long period of time until the bond between strain gauge and component breaks. Static as well as dynamic strains can be measured. Strain can be measured in any desired position e.g Top fibers, bottom fibers and at neutral axis.

What Is Strain?

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More specifically, strain (e) is defined as the fractional change in length, as shown in

Figure 1. Definition of Strain Strain can be positive (tensile) or negative (compressive). Although dimensionless, strain is sometimes expressed in units such as in./in. or mm/mm. In practice, the magnitude of measured strain is very small. Therefore, strain is often expressed as microstrain (me), which is e x 10-6. When a bar is strained with a uniaxial force, as in Figure 1, a phenomenon known as Poisson Strain causes the girth of the bar, D, to contract in the transverse, or perpendicular, direction. The magnitude of this transverse contraction is a material property indicated by its Poisson's Ratio. The Poisson's Ratio n of a material is defined as the negative ratio of the strain in the transverse direction (perpendicular to the force) to the strain in the axial direction (parallel to the force), or n = eT/e. Poisson's Ratio for steel, for example, ranges from 0.25 to 0.3. The Strain Gage While there are several methods of measuring strain, the most common is with a strain gage, a device whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the amount of strain in the device. The most widely used gage is the bonded metallic strain gage. The metallic strain gage consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly, metallic foil arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the amount of metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the parallel direction (Figure 2). The cross-sectional area of the grid is minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain and Poisson Strain. The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is attached directly to the test specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the test specimen is transferred directly to the strain gage, which responds with a linear change in electrical resistance.Strain gages are available commercially with nominal resistance values from 30 to 3,000 , with 120, 350, and 1,000 being the most common values.

Figure 2. Bonded Metallic Strain Gage It is very important that the strain gage be properly mounted onto the test specimen so that the strain is accurately transferred from the test specimen, through the adhesive and strain gage backing, to the foil itself. A fundamental parameter of the strain gage is its sensitivity to strain, expressed quantitatively as the gage factor (GF). Gage factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to the fractional change in length (strain): The gage factor for metallic strain gages is typically around 2.

Strain Gage Measurement In practice, strain measurements rarely involve quantities larger than a few millistrain (e x 103). Therefore, to measure the strain requires accurate measurement of very small changes in resistance. For example, suppose a test specimen undergoes a strain of 500 me. A strain gage with a gage factor of 2 will exhibit a change in electrical resistance of only 2 (500 x 10 -6) = 0.1%. For a 120 gage, this is a change of only 0.12 . To measure such small changes in resistance, strain gages are almost always used in a bridge configuration with a voltage excitation source. The general Wheatstone bridge, illustrated in Figure 3,consists of four resistive arms with an excitation voltage, VEX, that is applied across the bridge.

Figure 3. Wheatstone Bridge The output voltage of the bridge, VO, is equal to: From this equation, it is apparent that when R1/R2 = R4/R3, the voltage output VO is zero. Under these conditions, the bridge is said to be balanced. Any change in resistance in any arm of the bridge results in a nonzero output voltage. Therefore, if you replace R4 in Figure 3 with an active strain gage, any changes in the strain gage resistance will unbalance the bridge and produce a nonzero output voltage. If the nominal resistance of the strain gage is designated as RG, then the strain-induced change in resistance, DR, can be expressed as DR = RGGFe, from the previously defined Gage Factor equation. Assuming that R1 = R2 and R3 = RG, the bridge equation above can be rewritten to express VO/VEX as a function of strain (see Figure 4). Note the presence of the 1/(1+GFe/2) term that indicates the nonlinearity of the quarter-bridge output with respect to strain.

Figure 4. Quarter-Bridge Circuit

Ideally, you would like the resistance of the strain gage to change only in response to applied strain. However, strain gage material, as well as the specimen material to which the gage is applied, also responds to changes in temperature. Strain gage manufacturers attempt to minimize sensitivity to temperature by processing the gage material to compensate for the thermal expansion of the specimen material for which the gage is intended. While compensated gages reduce the thermal sensitivity, they do not totally remove it. By using two strain gages in the bridge, you can further minimize the effect of temperature. For example, Figure 5 illustrates a strain gage configuration where one gage is active (RG + DR) and a

second gage is placed transverse to the applied strain. Therefore, the strain has little effect on the second gage, called the dummy gage. However, any changes in temperature affect both gages in the same way. Because the temperature changes are identical in the two gages, the ratio of their resistance does not change, the voltage VO does not change, and the effects of the temperature change are minimized. NOTE: In the Wheatstone bridge configuration, the active gage and the dummy gage should be on the same vertical leg of the bridge.

Figure 5. Use of Dummy Gage to Eliminate Temperature Effects The sensitivity of the bridge to strain can be doubled by making both gages active in a halfbridge configuration. For example, Figure 6 illustrates a bending beam application with one bridge mounted in tension (RG + DR) and the other mounted in compression (RG - DR). This half-bridge configuration, whose circuit diagram is also illustrated in Figure 6, yields an output voltage that is linear and approximately doubles the output of the quarter-bridge circuit.

Figure 6. Half-Bridge Circuit Finally, you can further increase the sensitivity of the circuit by making all four of the arms of the bridge active strain gages in a full-bridge configuration. The full-bridge circuit is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Full-Bridge Circuit The equations given here for the Wheatstone bridge circuits assume an initially balanced bridge that generates zero output when no strain is applied. In practice, however, resistance tolerances and strain induced by gage application generate some initial offset voltage. This initial offset voltage is typically handled in two ways. First, you can use a special offset-nulling, or balancing, circuit to adjust the resistance in the bridge to rebalance the bridge to zero output. The equations given above for quarter-, half-, and full-bridge strain gage configurations assume that the lead wire resistance is negligible. While ignoring the lead resistance may be beneficial to understanding the basics of strain gage measurements, doing so in practice can be a major source of error Signal Conditioning for Strain Gages

Strain gage measurement involves sensing extremely small changes in resistance. Therefore, proper selection and use of the bridge, signal conditioning, wiring, and data acquisition components are required for reliable measurements. To ensure accurate strain measurements, it is important to consider the following: Bridge completion Excitation Remote sensing Amplification Filtering Offset Shunt calibration Bridge Completion Unless you are using a full-bridge strain gage sensor with four active gages, you need to complete the bridge with reference resistors. Therefore, strain gage signal Conditioners typically provide half-bridge completion networks consisting of high-precision reference resistors. Figure 9a shows the wiring of a half-bridge strain gage circuit to a conditioner with completion resistors R1 and R2.

Figure 9a. Connection of Half-Bridge Strain Gage Circuit Excitation Strain gage signal conditioners typically provide a constant voltage source to power the bridge. While there is no standard voltage level that is recognized industry wide, excitation voltage levels of around 3 and 10 V are common. While a higher excitation voltage generates a proportionately higher output voltage, the higher voltage can also cause larger errors because of self-heating. Remote Sensing If the strain gage circuit is located a distance away from the signal conditioner and excitation source, a possible source of error is voltage drop caused by resistance in the wires connecting the excitation voltage to the bridge. Therefore, some signal conditioners include a feature called remote sensing to compensate for this error. Remote sense wires are connected to the point where the excitation voltage wires connect to the bridge circuit, as seen in Figure 9b. The extra sense wires serve to regulate the excitation supply through negative feedback amplifiers to compensate for lead losses and deliver the needed voltage at the bridge.

Figure 9b. Remote Sensor Error Compensation Amplification The output of strain gages and bridges is relatively small. In practice, most strain gage bridges and strain-based transducers output less than 10 mV/V (10 mV of output per

volt of excitation voltage). With 10 V excitation, the output signal is 100 mV. Therefore, strain gage signal conditioners usually include amplifiers to boost the signal level to increase measurement resolution and improve signal-to-noise ratios. Filtering Strain gages are often located in electrically noisy environments. It is therefore essential to be able to eliminate noise that can couple to strain gages. Lowpass filters, when used with strain gages, can remove the high-frequency noise prevalent in most environmental settings. Offset Nulling When a bridge is installed, it is very unlikely that the bridge will output exactly zero volts when no strain is applied. Slight variations in resistance among the bridge arms and lead resistance will generate some nonzero initial offset voltage. Offset nulling can be performed by either hardware or software: 1. Software Compensation With this method, you take an initial measurement before strain input is applied, and use this offset to compensate subsequent measurements. This method is simple, fast, and requires no manual adjustments. The disadvantage of the software compensation method is that the offset of the bridge is not removed. If the offset is large enough, it limits the amplifier gain you can apply to the output voltage, thus limiting the dynamic range of the measurement. 2. Offset-Nulling Circuit The second balancing method uses an adjustable resistance, a potentiometer, to physically adjust the output of the bridge to zero. By varying the resistance of potentiometer, you can control the level of the bridge output and set the initial output to zero volts. Shunt Calibration The normal procedure to verify the output of a strain gage measurement system relative to some predetermined mechanical input or strain is called shunt calibration. Shunt calibration involves simulating the input of strain by changing the resistance of an arm in the bridge by some known amount. This is accomplished by shunting, or connecting, a large resistor of known value (Rs) across one arm of the bridge, creating a known DR as seen in Figure 9c. The output of the bridge can then be measured and compared to the expected voltage value. The results are used to correct span errors in the entire measurement path, or to simply verify general operation to gain confidence in the setup.

Figure 9c. Shunt Resistor Connected Across R3 Data Acquisition System

Strain gauge rosette:

A strain gauge rosette is, by definition, an arrangement of two or more closely positioned gage grids, separately oriented to measure the normal strains along different directions in the underlying surface of the test part. Rosettes are designed to perform a very practical and important function in experimental stress analysis. It can be shown that for the not-uncommon case of the general biaxial stress state, with the principal directions unknown, three independent strain measurements (in different directions) are required to determine the principal strains and

stresses. And even when the principal directions are known in advance, two independent strain measurements are needed to obtain the principal strains and stresses. To meet the foregoing requirements, the Micro-Measurements Division manufactures three basic types of strain gage rosettes (each in a variety of forms):

Tee (0-90 degree) Two mutually perpendicular grids. Rectangular (0-45-90 degree) Three grids, with the second and third grids angularly displaced from the first grid by 45 degrees and 90 degrees, respectively. Delta (0-60-120 degree) Three grids, with the second and third grids 60 degrees and 120 degrees away, respectively, from the first grid. Positioning strain gages to monitor bending, axial, shear, and torsion loads: G strain is defined as the ratio of the change in length to the initial unstressed reference length. A strain gage is the element that senses this change and converts it into an electrical signal. This can be accomplished because a strain gage changes resistance as it is stretched, or compressed, similar to wire. The important factors that must be considered before selecting a strain gage are the direction, type, and resolution of the strain you wish to measure. To measure minute strains, the user must be able to measure minute resistance changes. The Wheatstone Bridge configuration, shown in Figure B, is capable of measuring these small resistance changes. Note the signs associated with each gage numbered 1 through 4. The total strain is always the sum of the four strains. M The total strain is represented by a change in VOUT. If each gage had the same positive strain, the total would be zero and VOUT would remain unchanged. Bending, axial, and shear strain are the most common types of strain measured. The actual arrangement of your strain gages will determine the type of strain you can measure and the output voltage change. See Figures C through F. For example, if a positive (tensile) strain is applied to gages 1 and 3, and a negative (compressive) strain to gages 2 and 4, the total strainwould be 4 times the strain on one gage. See
Figure C. If total strain is four times the strain on one gage, this means that the output will be four times larger. Therefore, greater sensitivity and resolution are possible when more than one strain gage is used. The following equations show the relationships among stress, strain, and force for bending, axial, shear, and torsional strain. 1) BENDING STRAIN or moment strain is equal to bending stress divided by Youngs Modulus of Elasticity.

Moment stress (oB) equals bending moment (Fn x l ) divided by sectional modulus. Sectional modulus (Z) is a property of the cross-sectional configuration of the specimen. For rectangles only, the the sectional modulus is bh2/6). Strain gages used in the bending strain configuration can be used to determine vertical load (Fn); this is more commonly referred to as a bending beam load cell. Fn = E eB(Z)/l = E eB(bh26)/l 2) AXIAL STRAIN equals axial stress divided by Youngs Modulus. EA = oA/E oA = FA/A Where axial stress (oA) equals the axial load divided by the cross-sectional area. The crosssectional area for rectangles equals (b x d). Therefore, strain gages used in axial configurations can be used to determine axial loads (F (axial)). F (axial) = E eAbh

g = t/G t = Fn x Q/bI
Where shear stress (t) equals (Q), the moment of area about the neutral axis multiplied by the vertical load (Fn) divided by the thickness (b) and the moment of

inertia ( I ). Both the moment of area (Q) and the moment of inertia ( I ) are functions of the specimens cross-sectional geometry. For rectangles only Q = bh28 and I = bh312 The shear strain (g) is determined by measuring the strain at a 45 angle, as shown in Figure E.

g = 2 X e@ 45 The modulus of shear strain (G) = E/2 (1 + m). Therefore, strain gages used in a shear strain configuration can be used to determine vertical loads (Fn); this is more commonly referred to as a shear beam load cell.
Fn = G (g) bI/Q = G (g) b (bh312)/(bh28) = G (g)bh(2/3) 4) TORSIONAL STRAIN equals torsional stress (t) divided by torsional modulus of elasticity (G). See Figure F.

g = 2 x e@ 45 = t/G t = Mt(d/2)/J

where torsional stress (t) equalstorque (Mt) multiplied by the distance from the center of the section to the outer fiber (d/2), divided by (J), the polar moment of inertia. The polar moment of inertia is a function of the crosssectional area. For solid circular shafts only, J = p(d)432. The modulus of shear strain (G) has been defined in the preceding discussion on shear stress. Strain gages can be used to determine torsional moments as shown in the equation below. This represents the principle behind every torque sensor. Mt = t(J) (2/d) = gG (J) (2/d) = gG (pd 316) = MTL/G(J)

Figure 1: Torque on a Rotating Shaft

Torque Measurement: Torque is measured by either sensing the actual shaft deflection caused by a twisting force, or by detecting the effects of this deflection. The surface of a shaft under torque will experience compression and tension, as shown in Figure 1. To measure torque, strain gage elements usually are mounted in pairs on the shaft, one gauge measuring the increase in length (in the direction in which the surface is under tension), the other measuring The decrease in length in the other direction. Early torque sensors consisted of mechanical structures fitted with strain gages. Their high cost and low reliability kept them from gaining general industrial acceptance. Modern technology, however, has lowered the cost of making torque measurements, while quality controls on production have increased the need for accurate torque measurement. Torque Application Applications for torque sensors include determining the amount of power an engine, motor, turbine, or other rotating device generates or consumes. In the industrial world, ISO 9000 and other quality control specifications are now requiring companies to measure torque during manufacturing, especially when fasteners are applied. Sensors make the required torque measurements automatically on screw and assembly machines, and can be added to hand tools. In both cases, the collected data can be accumulated on dataloggers for quality control and reporting purposes.Other industrial applications of torque sensors include measuring metal removal rates in machine tools; the calibration of torque tools and sensors; measuring peel forces, friction, and bottle cap torque; testing springs; and making biodynamic measurements.

Sensor configurations

Torque can be measured by rotating strain gages as well as by stationary proximity, magnetostrictive, and magnetoelastic sensors. All are temperature sensitive. Rotary sensors must be mounted on the shaft, which may not always be possible because of space limitations.

Figure2 : Inductive Coupling of Torque Sensors A strain gage can be installed directly on a shaft. Because the shaft is rotating, the torque sensor can be connected to its power source and signal conditioning electronics via a slip ring. The strain gage also can be connected via a transformer, eliminating the need for high maintenance slip rings. The excitation voltage for the strain gage is inductively coupled, and the strain gage output is converted to a modulated pulse frequency (Figure 2). Maximum speed of such an arrangement is 15,000 rpm. Strain gages also can be mounted on stationary support members or on the housing itself. These "reaction" sensors measure the torque that is transferred by the shaft to the restraining elements. The resultant reading is not completely accurate, as it disregards the inertia of the motor. Strain gages used for torque measurements include foil, diffused semiconductor, and thin film types. These can be attached directly to the shaft by soldering or adhesives. If the centrifugal forces are not large--and an out-of-balance load can be tolerated--the associated electronics, including battery, amplifier, and radio frequency transmitter all can be strapped to the shaft.