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Tourism Management 28 (2007) 253261 www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Incorporating local and international cuisines in the marketing of tourism destinations: The cases of Hong Kong and Turkey
Bendegul Okumusa, Fevzi Okumusb,, Bob McKercherc
3812 Town Place Square Boulevard, Apartment 422 Orlando, FL 32837, USA Rosen College of Hospitality Management, The University of Central Florida, Universal Boulevard Orlando, FL 32819, USA c School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
b a

Received 1 July 2005; accepted 14 December 2005

Abstract This paper compares how two different destinations use food in their marketing activities. Content analysis of brochures, booklets and web sites was used. One, Hong Kong, makes extensive use of food as part of its core positioning statement. The other, Turkey, makes little reference to it, even though its indigenous cuisine is unique and rich. The ndings imply that when using food in destination marketing, some expertise and knowledge are essential not only in marketing destinations but also in local and international cuisines as well as in socio-cultural characteristics of potential tourists. The study provides discussions on how destinations can learn valuable lessons to differentiate themselves through using their unique cuisines. r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Tourism; Destination; Marketing; Gastronomy; Food; Hong Kong and Turkey

1. Introduction Destination product portfolios consist of a variety of tangible and intangible goods and services. Food (including beverage) can form one of the most important of these elements. It can act as either a primary or secondary trip motivator (Quan & Wang, 2004) that adds value to the image of a destination (Boniface, 2003; Boyne, Hall, & Williams, 2003; du Rand, Heath, & Alberts, 2003; Long, 2004). Food is one of the most enjoyable activities that tourists undertake during their holiday (Ryan, 1997), and, interestingly, is the item that they are least likely to consider reducing expenditure to consume (Pyo, Uysal, & McLellan, 1991). Local cuisines represent a core manifestation of a destinations intangible heritage, and through its consumption, tourists can gain a truly authentic cultural experience. In addition, food is one of the few elements of intangible heritage that has retained its authenticity among
Corresponding author. Tel.: +407 903 8177; fax: +407 903 8105.

E-mail addresses: okumusf@yahoo.com (B. Okumus), fokumus@mail.ucf.edu (F. Okumus), hmbob@polyu.edu.hk (B. McKercher). 0261-5177/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2005.12.020

immigrant populations. Thus, many residents in source markets may be familiar with, and indeed, develop quite a fondness for indigenous cuisines. More and more people are now traveling for reasons of gastronomy (Bessiere, 1998; Hall & Sharples, 2003; Long, 2004). As a result, food tourism, in its broadest sense, has gained a higher prole as a pull factor in destination marketing (Boniface, 2003; Cohen & Evieli, 2004; Hall & Sharples, 2003; Hjalager & Richards, 2002). Moreover, food can play an important role in differentiating destinations in a meaningful way. Because cuisines are branded by nationality (Chinese, French, Italian, Turkish, Mexican, etc.), the opportunity exists to create a positive association between a style of food and a destination. While food is growing in importance, not all destinations capitalize on the potential opportunities it provides, and not all that try to use food in their marketing activities do it effectively. Although there have been numerous studies on promoting tourism destinations (Buhalis, 2000; Echtner & Prasad, 2003; Faulkner, 1997; Gretzel, Yuan, & Fesenmaier, 2000; Hudson & Miller, 2005) the empirical evidence on how far food is used in tourism marketing is still scarce. The primary objective of this study is to address the gap in

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the destination marketing literature. This exploratory study investigates how Hong Kong and Turkey use their cuisines in their print and e-marketing activities. 2. Using food in destination marketing Destination marketing is a challenging task since there are multiple stakeholders in each destination, with different aims, agendas and expectations (Buhalis, 2000; Chacko, 1997; Faulkner, 1997; Fyall, Callod, & Edwards, 2002; Ritchie & Ritchie, 2002). Destination marketing should not only aim to increase the number of tourists traveling to a region, but also aim to facilitate sustainable tourism development. According to Buhalis (2000) understanding the characteristics of a destination is crucial, since each destination can attract only certain types of tourist. Overall, the destination marketing literature emphasizes that each destination should differentiate itself by highlighting its unique tangible and intangible products and services. The point of differentiation should be real and substantial enough to induce visitation. Much has been written about the travelers decisionmaking process. This literature need not be repeated here in detail, since the paper is not about travel decisionmaking. However, the reader is directed to Sirakaya and Woodsides (2005) excellent review of the literature that discusses the evolution of decision theory over the past 30 yr. Essentially, the conceptualization of the decision making process has evolved from a perspective of tourist as a rational decision maker (Homo Economicus) to current belief that the process may not be entirely rational. According to Sirakaya and Woodside (2005) decision making styles are often individualistic and therefore proposing a decision model for every travel purchase situation is not realistic. They further note that consumers follow a funnel-like procedure to narrow down their choices among alternatives and their destination selection decisions are sequential in nature. In this process tourists value more personal sources of information and their prior experiences seem to reduce the extensity and intensity of their information search on potential destinations (Sirakaya & Woodside, 2005). The study by Decrop and Snelders (2005) brings a new approach to travel decision making and views it as an ongoing process with many contextual inuences. They identied different types of vacationers, viz., the habitual, hedonic, opportunistic, constrained and adaptable vacationer and illustrated how people under each typology may search for information and make travel decisions. Their ndings have implications on marketing destinations and designing promotional material for people under each segment. Klenosky (2002) likens travel decision making to meansend theory, whereby the product or destination represents the means by which the consumers can gain the benets they seek. Whether the destination is seen to meet these ends depends on the, often imperfect, images and

perceptions potential travelers use to form their own awareness sets (Sirakaya, Sonmez, & Choi, 2002). Importantly, risk or the desire to minimize risk represents an important moderating factor in this process (Mitchell & Greatorex, 1990), especially when purchasing a high involvement product from a distance about which the tourist may be largely unaware. Tourists wish to experience the exotic, but only to the extent that it is non-threatening. One available technique to create an image of safe exoticism is to highlight unique tangible and intangible products and services, with local cuisine(s) as one such potential point of differentiation (Boyne et al., 2003). While food tourism is a relatively new eld of academic enquiry, a growing body of literature suggests that trying authentic food may be the main or an important reason for traveling (Bessiere, 1998; Boniface, 2003; Long, 2004; Quan & Wang, 2004) and, most signicantly, an important source of visitor satisfaction (Bessiere, 1998; Ryan, 1997). Food related tourism can allow tourists to achieve desired goals of relaxation, excitement, escapism, status, education and lifestyle (Frochot, 2003). For example, Hu and Ritchie (1993) found that food was the fourth most important attribute in the way tourists perceive the attractiveness of a destination, after climate, accommodation and scenery. Similarly, Jenkins (1999) ranked food in the ninth position. In their comparative research among Turkey, Egypt, Greece and Italy, Baloglu and McCleary (1999) found that visitors rated Italy as having appealing local cuisine. Visitors to Turkey gave higher scores on this dimension than visitors to Greece and Egypt. Interestingly, non-visitors to these countries gave the highest scores to Italy, Greece, Turkey and Egypt, respectively. Remmington and Yuksel (1998) found that food was the fourth most important contributor to the satisfaction of visitors, and the most important reason why tourists return to Turkey. Elsewhere Yuksel (2001) found that both the rst time and repeat visitor commonly regard quality of food as one of the main reasons to go back to Turkey. In a recent study by Enright and Newton (2005) food was found as the second most important attractor for Hong Kong, fourth for Bangkok and fth for Singapore. Hall and Sharples (2003) add a cautionary note about the risks of confusing food tourism and the consumption of food as a part of the travel experience. In the former case, food may be identied as a primary trip purpose, while in the latter it could be classied as a secondary or lower order motivator. Thus it is essential to provide a clear denition for food tourism. Hall and Mitchell (2000) dene it as visiting food exhibitions, food festivals, restaurants and specic locations for which food tasting and experiencing are the primary factor for travel. Boniface (2003) Hall and Sharples (2003) and Long (2004) also provide similar denitions for food tourism which is often called as culinary, gourmet and gastronomic tourism. This distinction between food tourism and food as a part of the travel experience is evident in research that has classied tourists based on the importance of food in the

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overall trip decision making process. Boyne et al. (2003) identify a continuum of food tourists ranging from the most committed where food is an important reason for going on holiday, and actively search for information on the gastronomic heritage and availability of food in the area to tourists that have no interest in foods. The Enteleca Research and Consultancy (2000, p. 3) segmented the market into ve groups: (1) food tourists, (2) interested purchasers; (3) the un-reached; (4) the un-engaged; and (5) laggards. The study concluded that food has an important role in the purchase decision for about half of tourists surveyed. Food tourists are the most committed group, but, as with other true special interest populations, represent only between 6% and 8% of the sample. Local food has an important role in their destination choice. Interested purchasers, represent about one-third of the population. Food, to them contributes to holiday satisfaction and they sample local food when the opportunity arises. A third group, the Un-reached tourist (1517%) believes that food can contribute to the enjoyment of their holiday, but they seldom buy local foods. The un-engaged (2224%) and laggards (1728%) are those who have limited or no intention to try local food. Of greater importance is the realization that tourists buying behavior can be inuenced positively towards consuming local food through active marketing. This requires both segmenting potential tourists and targeting them with specic marketing tactics. Telfer (2000) found that the Tastes of Niagara Program in southern Ontario, Canada, generated positive outcomes by forming strategic alliances among food producers, processors, distributors, hotels, restaurants, wineries and chefs to raise the prole of the regional cuisine. Similarly, Boyne, Williams, and Hall (2002), in a study in Scotland, determined that visitors who had read a guidebook were ready to spend more money on meals consisting of locally produced food, preferred eating out more often and would buy local groceries. Nicholson and Pearce (2000), further, found that two food festivals in the South Island of New Zealand attracted a signicant number of young female tourists. These ndings suggest that images of food can be used effectively in destination promotion, although Boyne et al. (2003) note that adopting a marketing philosophy approach to develop food-related tourism is challenging. This is because there is an insufcient understanding of the food buying-behavior of tourists. Notwithstanding this gap, the consensus appears to be that using food will appeal to a wide spectrum of tourists for it is evocative of cultural experiences, cultural identity, communication, sharing and status (Bessiere, 1998; Frochot, 2003). As Hall and Mitchell (2000, p. 29) state food means more than eating. Food relates to issues of identity, culture, production, consumption and, increasingly issues of sustainability. Thus, food should be considered explicitly or implicitly when marketing local and regional destinations. Frochots (2003) analysis of the contents of regional brochures in 19

regions in France showed that country dishes and raw products dominated images of food, while images of procedures of preparing food, chefs, restaurants and the presence of people in the pictures were under-represented. By contrast images of food relating to communicating/ sharing or to statements on status/lifestyle were not used in regional brochures in France. According to du Rand et al. (2003) the way that restaurants are highlighted is an important indication about how well experiences of food are promoted in a destination. Effective information and images need to be constructed carefully (Baloglu, 2000; Getz & Sailor, 1993; Gursoy & McCleary, 2004; Sirakaya & So nmez, 2000) to convey a desired emotional response. Pictures have proven to be effective learning devices for they enhance the consumers visual imagery (Neal, Quester, & Hawkins, 2000) and tend to be stored differently than words (Laskey, Seaton, & Nicholls, 1994). As such, good images can supplement other promotional activities and help foster a positive destination image, while poorly constructed pictures may create an overall negative perception. Designing promotional materials in general and taking good pictures of foods, in particular, can be dened as an art form that requires a great deal of skill, knowledge and experience. Good photographs can add signicantly to promotional materials, while poor images can have an equally negative impact. Food photography is considered as a specialized niche area among advertising executives, with the best photographers charging high prices. The process is quite time consuming and it may take a day to take two nice pictures (McGlynn, 1993), but according to Reilly (1988) if the photography used in brochures and other promotional material is not good, it is better not to use them at all since they can have more negative impact than the intended positive outcomes. Taking photos of food is about selling a dream that sends a clear message to potential consumers (McGlynn, 1993). Tourism imagery sells a similar dream. The combination of two dreams, destination and food, can enhance the overall destination image. Images, therefore, must convey a total emotional experience at both overt and subliminal levels. 3. Methodology The purpose of this study was to compare and contrast the use of food in the marketing of two destinations. A case study approach (Yin, 2003), using content analysis was chosen. The study focused on three interrelated topics: (1) an analysis of the presentation of main and sub-cuisines promoted in each destination; (2) an assessment of the range and diversity of food images presented in each destination; and (3) an assessment of the current role of food in marketing these two destinations. According to Neumann (2003, p. 219) content analysis is a technique for gathering and analyzing the content of text. The content refers to words, meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes, or nay message that can be

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256 B. Okumus et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 253261 Table 1 Information about the content-analyzed brochures and web pages Hong Kong Brochures and booklets A Guide to Quality Shops and Restaurants Best of the Best Culinary Guide Hong Kong Family Fun Guide Junior Explorers Passport Hong Kong Value PlusPlus Hong Kong Visitors Kit Hong KongA Travelers Guide Incentives The Complete Program Planning Guide Hong Kong Travel and Trade Manual Hong Kong WinterFest Activities Guide CD-RomAsias World City Hong Kong Hong Kong Walks Web sites www.discoverHongKong.com Turkey Brochures and booklets The Turkish Cuisine Turkey Turkey Travel Guide Turkey Fall in Love with a Country Turkey Go with the Rhythm Enjoy Turkey Istanbul and the Marmara Region Ankara and the Central Anatolian Region Izmir and Aegean Region Pamukkale Wonderful of Nature Antalya and The Mediterranean Region Black Sea Region South-eastern Anatolia and the Gap Region Web sites www.turizm.gov.tr

communicated. Content analysis is generally based on written or visual materials including booklets, newspapers, magazines, brochures, advertisements, lms, ofcial documents, video tapes, photographs and web pages that can provide rich information about tourism destinations (Jenkins, 1999). This method is non-reactive since the process of placing words, messages or symbols in a text to communicate to a reader occurs without inuence from the researcher who analyzes its content (Neumann, 2003). Several previous studies in the tourism eld employed this approach (Echtner & Prasad, 2003; Hudson & Miller, 2005; Kemp & Dwyer, 2003; Nickerson, 1995; Wan, 2003), including a study on food tourism in France by Frochot (2003). There is no right or wrong way of undertaking content analysis (Finn, Elliot-White, & Walton, 2000; Miles & Huberman, 2002). As stated by Neumann (2003), quantitative and qualitative (or interpretive) versions of this method can be applied depending on the purpose of the research study. The ndings can be treated and presented in quantitative and qualitative forms. For this study, the research ndings are presented in qualitative (descriptive) form around three key areas. This choice of presenting ndings in more a qualitative form was believed to be appropriate, as the objective of this exploratory study was to provide some insights into an area on which there is limited knowledge. A ve-stage content-analysis model was used, following the protocols identied by Finn et al. (2000), Hodson (1999) and Neumann (2003). First, the aims and objectives of the research were identied and a coding scheme was developed. In the second stage, up-to-date print and electronic brochures and booklets in English were collected from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism in Turkey and from the Hong Kong Tourism Board and their respective ofcial websites. Videos attached to websites were also content analyzed. Only materials produced ofcially by national tourism ofces was considered. Table 1 provides detailed information about titles and contents of the brochures, booklets and web pages that were analyzed. On average, over 600 pages of documents were analyzed per destination. This material was analyzed in the third stage, using content-analysis procedures of frequency, intensity and space allocated for food in brochures, booklets and web pages. In stage four, the initial results were compared and, when disagreements arose, the areas of dispute were examined again until a consensus was achieved. In the nal stage, the results were rened and the research ndings were nalized. Many similarities were found in each destinations brochures, as the same written and photographic material was often repeated. It was further discovered that the same written or electronic materials were translated into different languages. Hong Kong and Turkey were selected as destinations that share certain commonalities but also have many contrasts. The authors initially intended to compare Hong Kong and Istanbul. However, insufcient information was

available on Istanbul, and so, the scope was broadened to include Turkey. Thus instead of a city to city comparison, the study becomes a jurisdiction to jurisdiction comparison of how food is used in marketing. Both Hong Kong and Turkey are among the top 15 destinations in the world (WTONEWS, 2005). In 2004 Hong Kong received over 20 million tourists generating over US$11 billion (HKTB, 2005) whereas Turkey received over 17 million tourists generating over US$ 9 billion (Tursab, 2005). A number of studies indicate that both Hong Kong (Au & Law, 2002; Enright & Newton, 2004, 2005; McKercher, Ho, & du Cros, 2004) and Turkey (Baloglu & Mungaloglu, 2001; Kozak, 2001; Yuksel, 2001; Yuksel & Yuksel, 2001) could be classied as culinary destinations, at least in part, and that both offer a rich diversity of foods. Each destination is positioned as an exotic place where East meets West. Hong Kong is a former British colony and often seen as a bridge to China, while Turkey is seen as a gateway to Europe for Asians or as a bridge to Asia for Europeans. 4. Findings Sustainability and prosperity of the tourism industry is considered as crucial for both Hong Kong and Turkey. As the competitive advantage of Hong Kongs tourism industry depends on a number of areas including shopping, quality of food, entertainment, business and convention (Enright & Newton, 2004), the Government of Hong Kong (SAR) and its Tourism Board invests heavily in tourism to produce materials with high production values. This

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feature was noted in the presentation of food. Likewise, tourism in Turkey is crucial in overcoming the countrys balance of payment decit and high unemployment problems. However, Turkey has had mixed results in promoting itself as a leading destination (Karamustafa, 2000; Okumus & Kilic, 2004; Tosun, 2001) with some people observing that the materials produced are not at the same professional standards as found in other places. 5. Hong Kong as a culinary destination Hong Kong, with about 30,000 restaurants, bars and food outlets offering all types of indigenous Chinese and exotic international cuisines, has more restaurants per capita than anywhere else in the world (Au & Law, 2002). The local destination marketing organization (DMO) has identied the rich diversity of local and international cuisines as one of the citys main competitive advantages (Enright & Newton, 2004, 2005). The presentation of food in promotional materials essentially falls into one of three categories: (1) Chinese cuisine, (2) other Asian Cuisines, and (3) western food. Under the category of Chinese cuisines, six sub-cuisines were identied: Cantonese, Chiu Chow, Peking, Shanghaiese, Szechuan and Hunan. Two further groupings were also provided: Chinese vegetarian food and Chinese festive food. Other Asian cuisines include Japanese, Thai, Korean, Vietnamese, Indian, southeast Asian avors and Muslim Halal food. Western cuisines included French, Italian, American and others. In addition, several districts renowned for their foods and nightclubs were highlighted, with clear and easy to follow maps showing directions. Given its location as an Asian/Chinese city, Chinese styles of cuisines received more prominence, as listed in Table 2. Dim Sum, a very rich variety of seafood both fresh and dried, chicken, pork, beef, rice dishes, noodle dishes and desserts were often referred to and illustrated. The decoration of the foods seemed interesting and impressive. Japanese foods, particularly sushi, were also highlighted, reecting, the importance of the Japanese market, the freshness of foods and also hygiene standards. Different

brands of Chinese teas and wine were often highlighted. Fruits and vegetables were highlighted less often, as were images of fresh markets. 5.1. Using cuisine in marketing Hong Kong Not surprisingly, then, food features prominently in both print and online promotional materials, presenting Hong Kong as an international culinary destination. In the content-analyzed material it is explained that the Hong Kong Tourism Board organizes a number of food festivals, competitions (e.g. Best of the Best Culinary Awards) and trade shows. More signicantly, food is used as a cultural marker to position Hong Kong as a sophisticated, international city that caters to all tastes, while at the same time, using indigenous Chinese cuisines as a point of differentiation. Brochures, booklets and web sites provide detailed and appealing materials and photos on food in Hong Kong. Images of food were carefully constructed to portray a sophisticated, world class destination, offering high-quality food with exemplary service. Dining here conveys enhanced social status where sophisticated cuisine reects a desired lifestyle and close interpersonal relationships. Food is also used to bring the tourist closer to the local residents, enhancing the authenticity of the visit. Many images reect positive interactions between locals and tourists, with people shown as being well-dressed, smiling and interacting with each other. They were invariably happy and relaxed. Serving staff are shown as participants in the total experience and the chefs are often present. Food on tables was clearly pictured, well-decorated and delicious looking. About 15% of the total space in the materials examined was allocated for food. For example, the 90-page brochure Hong Kong: A Travelers Guide, dedicates eight full pages to food and related activities, while short explanations and photos of food can be found throughout the brochure supporting activities relating to culture, history, shopping, entertainment, business and relaxation. In addition, as given in Table 1, special shopping and culinary guides are available in tourism ofces and hotels which include numerous free food and drink coupons and tickets. Similar guides are also available online, with the added benets of a search engine to nd special restaurants. A commitment to quality is reinforced, as all restaurants have to pass the Quality Tourism Services (QTS) accreditation scheme before they can be listed. 6. Turkey as a culinary destination Whereas Hong Kong promotes international cuisine, Turkish (and partly Ottoman) cuisine is highlighted exclusively when marketing Turkey as a culinary destination. Regional cuisines are not mentioned, although almost all regions (or even every province) in Turkey offer rich and diverse local cuisines. Likewise, international cuisines are not highlighted, even though larger cities (Istanbul, Ankara

Table 2 Food and beverage promoted in brochures and web pages marketing Hong Kong Foods (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) Dim Sum A variety of sea food (fresh and dried) Chicken dishes Beef dishes Pork dishes Peking duck Rice dishes Noodle dishes Tofu dishes Chinese assorted cakes Drinks (1) Chinese tea (2) Chinese wine

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258 B. Okumus et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 253261 Table 3 Food and beverage promoted in brochures and web pages marketing Turkey Foods (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) Mezes (starters) Bread and pastries Kebabs Fish Vegetables (fresh and dried) Fruits (fresh and dried) Sweets and delights Olive oil Drinks (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Raki Turkish coffee Turkish tea Ayran Sorbet Wine and beer Smoking Nargile

and Izmir) and resort areas (Antalya, Alanya, Bodrum, Kusadasi and Marmaris) offer international fare. Table 3 shows the types of foods highlighted in promotional materials. Foods that were well known internationally, such as mezes (hors doeuvres) and dolma (stuffed wine leaves) were widely shown, while other foods, including special breads and pastries, kebabs, sh, fresh vegetables, fruits, sweets and desserts were also highlighted and pictured. Raki, Turkish coffee and tea were often mentioned and portrayed. Ayran, sorbet, local wine and beer were also referred to occasionally. However, images of foods tended to show local people rather than tourists and often portrayed them pursuing traditional activities like drinking tea and smoking nargile. Entertainment was also shown as being an integral part of food consumption. Perhaps these images convey a message that eating indigenous cuisines is a truly authentic experience. 6.1. Using national cuisine in marketing Turkey Food is not used as strongly as a marker of cultural identity as it is in the case of Hong Kong. While, indigenous foods are emphasized, food promotion receives signicantly less visibility than in Hong Kong. Only about 5% of the space in the material analyzed was dedicated to this activity. No pages were dedicated to Turkish cuisine in the 44-page brochure Turkey: Travel Guide; even though the section on culture and heritage did offer some basic information and photos of Turkish coffee, Turkish delight and pastries. No free guide books for eating and shopping were found on main tourist destinations in Turkey. No information was also evident in web sites. In particular, brochures, booklets and web pages on regional areas in Turkey gave very limited and supercial information about local and regional cuisines. This is disappointing to the authors, since as stated earlier, Turkey offers diverse regional cuisines that could be promoted. The information provided on Turkish cuisine tended to list different types of food and was far from promoting the destination. Overall, the quality and depth of information was not prepared to the same professional standards as Hong Kong nor was the same level of sophistication evident in how images were constructed. In particular, social interaction

was not shown, as chefs, restaurants and the presence of people in the pictures were under-represented. Some interesting descriptive information was provided but very limited information was given about its authenticity. Photos of dishes did not include their names, making it difcult for someone unfamiliar with Turkish cuisine to identify them. People were shown eating in empty restaurants, and it was not apparent how relaxed and happy they were. Another image showed a restaurant full of local people, most of whom were male and smoking. Coca-Cola and ice-cream vending machines could be seen in the background, drawing the viewers attention away from the dish being highlighted. Pictures of Turkish women making dough were included, but there were no tourists around and it appeared that the intention was to promote intangible cultural values rather than food.

7. Discussion and conclusions This article has aimed to investigate how Hong Kong and Turkey use food in marketing their destinations. The ndings indicate that both destinations use food in their marketing efforts. However, Hong Kong is marketed and promoted more as a culinary destination than Turkey. In addition, Hong Kong offers local and international cuisines, whereas Turkey only tries to promote its own national cuisine. Substantial differences were noted between the use, importance and presentation of food and the construction of images. The impression the authors had was that Hong Kong places far more emphasis on food and conveys the message about cuisine in a much more sophisticated manner than Turkey. Admittedly, many of these differences relate to stronger production values and better composed pictures, reecting higher professional standards, greater levels of investment and a longer involvement in tourism promotion in Hong Kong than in Turkey. However, not withstanding these supercial factors, real differences also were noted in destination image, market positioning and product diversity. For the most part, Turkeys destination image is built around a sun, sea and sand, or alternately as an exotic, historic developing country with large rural areas (Baloglu & McCleary 1999; Baloglu & Mungaloglu, 2001). Various studies have noted that Turkey has had difculty positioning itself effectively (Karamustafa, 2000; Okumus & Kilic, 2004; Tosun, 2001). As such, what emphasis placed on food highlights indigenous Turkish food and not the cuisines of other countries. Food plays a less important role in image building here than resorts and historical or archaeological sites. By contrast, Hong Kong is perceived more as a vibrant, multi-cultural, sophisticated urban destination that embodies both Asian and western cultures. International cuisines of a high standard are associated with this type of destination position. Its current marketing campaign based on the slogan Live itLove it also includes

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the tagline Taste it in the song. Food, therefore, plays a central role in supporting the overall position. Certainly, these differences may also be attributed to the overall product range available in each destination and competition for space in promotional material. Turkey, a much larger country, has a greater diversity of products to offer the traveling public, as well as the need to promote a larger number of sub regions. Food, although being important, may be a secondary product that receives lower priority compared to other products or regions. Hong Kong, on the other hand, has relatively fewer products to offer and, therefore, has to rely more on food. The potential of food as marketing factor for Turkey, has yet to be utilized fully, perhaps to Turkeys detriment. This omission is, perhaps a missed opportunity, since food can complement its other positions. Turkey, though, is typical of many developing countries that have identied tourism as one path to modernization and economic development. These destinations typically follow the same evolutionary path, relying on their natural features, appealing climates and resort development as points of differentiation. Cultural differences may or may not be added to this mix. Yet, in reality, sun, sea and sea tourism is largely an undifferentiated product, where they main advantage comes from the novelty of visiting a new place. Such destinations are readily substitutable, and once that novelty wears off, the destination usually differentiates itself as a low cost destination, relying on high volume/low margin tourists to ward off stagnation. True differentiation occurs when the differences between destinations are seen to be real and substantial from the tourists perspective. It is for this reason that many destinations are moving towards cultural tourism, as each destinations cultural assets are unique. Highlighting local culture and traditions provide an opportunity to showcase the destinations rich intangible heritage, local traditions, ethnic backgrounds and cultural landscapes tourism products (Copley & Robson, 1996). Ironically few emerging destinations, including Turkey, capitalize on their rich culinary cultural heritage, even though this is the one aspect of the destination that may be well known among source markets and recognized by country of origin. The list of countries that could make more effective use of food in marketing is extensive and includes virtually every country where immigrant populations have established themselves in source markets. As sophisticated promotional materials inuence tourists destination choices (Baloglu, 2000; Gursoy & McCleary, 2004) good images and information included in such materials can help foster a positive destination image, while poorly designed materials in the case of Turkey may cause more harm than not producing any material at all. This raises an important question about who should design such promotional materials. Creating such materials requires a level of expertise and knowledge not only in destination marketing but also in local and international cuisines. In line with Bessiere (1998) and

Frochot (2003) the study ndings also highlight the importance of reecting social status and cultural identity, communication and sharing when designing promotional materials about food. This expertise may not be available in many emerging destinations, forcing DMOs to buy-in needed talent. The research ndings from Hong Kong and Turkey did not indicate much difference in contents and appearances of food in brochures, booklets and web sites considering different cross-cultural segments of potential tourists. This raises a key question about whether these promotional materials should be differentiated considering different cultural and national background of potential visitors. For example, previous studies indicate that different cultures have diverse perceptions of satisfaction as well as evaluation frameworks for food (Neild, Kozak, & LeGrys, 2000; Riley, 2000). In addition, concerning cultural differences, Money and Crotts (2003) note that uncertainty avoidance can have impact on information search, planning and purchases of international travel vocations. This is not only crucial in using food when promoting a destination in different cultures but also using all different attractions in order to differentiate a destination in tourist generating countries. Future studies can perhaps investigate how to design brochures, booklets and web sites for tourists from different cross-cultural backgrounds. There is still limited evidence about what type of food related information that tourists, either traveling primarily for food or for other reasons, need. Asking potential tourists or incoming tourists who may use brochures, booklets and web sites can provide further insights. In addition, one can even go further and investigate the travel decision making behavior of tourists who primarily go on holiday for food. There may perhaps be important differences between food tourists and un-engaged tourists (the Enteleca Research and Consultancy, 2000) in terms of their information search, using promotional materials and making travel decisions. Investigating these differences can assist DMOs in designing appropriate and effective promotional materials for food tourists and other segments. Future studies employing a similar approach may look at brochures and web sites designed by tour operators and hotels to examine whether and how far local and international cuisines are reected and promoted. Such studies can provide ndings from a different angle. Acknowledgments During the preparation stage of this manuscript, the rst two authors spent some time at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. They would very much like to thank this institution for providing an excellent research environment for them. In addition, the rst two authors would also very much like to thank Mugla University, Turkey for allowing them to spend their sabbatical terms in Hong Kong which made preparation of this manuscript possible.

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