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7 Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language

PowerPoint by Dionne Soares Palmer adapted by Daniel Szeredi to accompany

n !ntroduction to Language "#e$ %&&#' by (ictoria )rom*in$ +obert +odman and ,ina -yams

This wee*

what does grammar *now about sounds/ smallest units of grammar: phonemes features distinguishing phonemes types of phonological processes constraints on possible sound patterns illustration of phonological analysis

Phonology: The Sound Patterns of Language

ll the languages in the world sound so different because the way the languages use speech sounds to form patterns differs from language to language The study of how speech sounds form patterns is phonology Phonology tells us what sounds are in a language$ how they do and can combine into words$ and how sounds change in different en0ironment

-ow Do 2e Study Phonology/

.. 2hat are the smaller units of grammar corresponding to sounds/ 3 syllables$ phonemes$ features %. -ow can we describe processes in0ol0ing phonemes/ 1. 2hat *inds of processes are there/ re there similarities in how these processes wor* in different languages/ 4. 2hat *ind of insight can phonology gi0e on cognition/

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Phonemes: The Phonological 9nits of Language

Phonemes are the basic unit of sound and is sensed in your mind rather than spo*en or heard "preliminary definition' 6ach phoneme has one or more sounds called allophones associated with it$ which represent the actual sound being produced in 0arious en0ironments
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(owel Phonemes in 6nglish

(owel height is phonemic$ though: So if you substitute a 0owel of a different height in a word$ you are li*ely to change the meaning of the word !f you substitute one sound for another and the meaning changes$ then those two sounds are separate phonemes minimal pair is two words with different meanings that are identical e;cept for one sound that occurs in the same place in each word
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(owel Phonemes in 6nglish

2hen you do these substitutions you are creating minimal pairs$ such as in this list:

This list demonstrates that this dialect of 6nglish has .4 different 0owel phonemes: <i e = u o a < and <a<$ <a< and << "see boy > buy'
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(owel ,asalization in 6nglish

n e;ample of phonemes with se0eral allophones in 6nglish (owels are nasalized before a nasal consonant within the same syllable

@ou could change the nasalization when you pronounce these words "if you were aware that you did this' and although it sounds strange$ it would not change the meaning of the words Aecause nasalized 0owels are not used to ma*e a meaning contrast we tend to not e0en notice them
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(owel Phonemes in 6nglish

So in 6nglish$ the pattern is the following:
phoneme <i< // ... /V/ [V], [V] allophones

[i], [i]
[], []

Phonemic distinction: two allophones belong to a different phoneme So for e;ample$ there is distinction between <i< and <=<
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llophones of <t<
Consonants also ha0e allophones: tic* Bth*C stic* Bst*C hits BhtsC bitter BbrC <t< is pronounced BthC before a stressed 0owel and word3 initially <t< is pronounced BtC directly before or after BsC <t< is pronounced BC between a stressed and unstressed 0owel !f we pronounce tic* as Bt*C or B*C instead of Bth*C$ we are still spea*ing the same word$ e0en if it sounds strange

-owe0er$ if we tried to pronounce tic* as Bs*C$ we would be saying sic*$ which has a different meaning The meaning changes because <t< and <s< are separate phonemes
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Phonemic Patterns 7ay (ary across Languages

The same phones may occur in two languages but pattern differently because the phonologies of the languages are different 2hile aspiration is not distincti0e in 6nglish$ it is distincti0e in Thai:

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Complementary Distribution
llophones of a phoneme are in complementary distribution D they ne0er occur in the same type of en0ironment
Li*e Superman and Clar* Eent

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Contrast
2e say that two sounds contrast with each other if they are not in complementary distribution phoneme is a set of phonetically similar sounds that are in complementary distribution
set may consist of only one member$ which would mean that a phoneme is only pronounced in one way for e;ample the <=< phoneme has the allophones B=C and BF G C in 6nglish

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Section Summary

Sometimes$ what we thin* of as one sound is actually pronounced in different ways. Phonemes are abstractions that stand for one or more sounds$ or allophones. llophones of a phoneme are in complementary distribution. Two sounds contrast if they are not in a complementary distribution. Two words are minimal pairs if only one sound is different in them: proof that these sound contrast.
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!s the Phoneme the Smallest 9nit/

)or two phonemes to be in contrast$ there must be some difference between them )or e;ample$ the phonetic feature of 0oicing distinguishes BsC from BzC 2hy is this rele0ant in phonology/ rules can refer to features: B3zC after sibilants B3sC after 0oiceless sounds B3zC elsewhere

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Distincti0e )eatures of Phonemes

2hen a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another$ it is a distincti0e feature or a phonemic feature. Different features are distincti0e in different languages

eg. 0oicing is distincti0e in 6nglish but not in )innish eg. 0owel nasalization is not distincti0e in 6nglish$ but distincti0e in other languages
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)eature (alues
)eatures ha0e two 0alues: BH featureC and B3featureC to indicate the presence or absence of that particular feature )or e;ample$ <b< is BH0oicedC and <p< is B30oicedC

t least one feature difference must distinguish each phoneme of a language

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,ondistincti0e )eatures
)eatures that are not distincti0e for a certain class of sounds are called nondistincti0e or redundant for that class 7ost if not all nondistincti0e features are predictable by a rule )or e;ample$ nasalization is a redundant feature for
6nglish 0owels but is distincti0e for 6nglish consonants
Aut in )rench nasalization is a distincti0e feature for 0owels

lso$ aspiration is a nondistincti0e feature for 0oiceless stops in 6nglish (oicing is a nondistincti0e feature in )innish
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Sign Language Phonology

Signs can also be bro*en down into features: The location$ mo0ement$ and handshape are distincti0e features 7inimal pairs can be found to pro0e that these features are distincti0e There are also nondistincti0e features of SL such as whether a sign is articulated with the right or the left hand

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)eature Specifications for merican 6nglish Consonants and (owels

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7aIor Phonetic Classes of Consonants

,oncontinuants: the airstream is totally obstructed in the oral ca0ity
Stops and affricates

Continuants: the airstream flows continuously out of the mouth

ll other consonants and 0owels

5bstruents: the airstream has partial or full obstruction

,on3nasal stops$ fricati0es$ and affricates

Sonorants: air resonates in the nasal or oral ca0ities

(owels$ nasal stops$ liJuids$ and glides

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7aIor Phonetic Classes of Consonants

Consonantal: there is some restriction of the airflow during articulation Consonantal sounds can be further subdi0ided:
Labials: BpC BbC BmC BfC B0C BwC BC Coronals: BC BKC BtC BdC BnC BsC BzC BC BC BtC BdC BlC BrC
rticulated by raising the tongue blade rticulated with the lips

ll consonants e;cept glides

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7aIor Phonetic Classes of Consonants

Consonantal categories continued:

Produced in the front part of the mouth "from the al0eolar area forward'

nteriors: BpC BbC BmC BfC B0C BC BKC BtC BdC BnC BsC BzC

Sibilants: BsC BzC BC BC BtC BdC

Produced with a lot of friction that causes a hissing sound$ which is a mi;ture of high3freJuency sounds

Syllabic Sounds: sounds that can function as the core of a syllable

(owels$ liJuids$ and nasals in 6nglish

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)eature Specifications for merican 6nglish Consonants and (owels

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,atural Classes of Speech Sounds

Phonological rules often apply to natural classes of sounds
natural class is a group of sounds described by a small number of distincti0e features ,atural classes can be defined by H and L feature 0alues

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Section Summary

)eatures are the smallest units of representation. Distincti0e features are features that can distinguish two phonemes in a language. ,on3distincti0e features are features which are not distincti0e for a certain class of sounds 7ost non3distincti0e features are predictable in a language. Phonemes can be categorized to featurally defined natural classes
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Phonological +ules
Sometimes a sound of a morpheme changes if a
neighboring sound affects it. 6;ample: plural morpheme. Phonological rule: a rule describing what *inds of sounds change into what Eey concepts to formalize: 9nderlying form: needs to be posited.

6n0ironment: neighboring sounds which influence the sound Surface form: what we hear.
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Phonological +ules
Classification of phonological rules: )eature3changing rules

ssimilation Dissimilation Deletion 6penthesis "Dinsertion' 7etathesis

1.

Segmental rules

,eutralization

ssimilation +ules
n assimilation rule is a rule that ma*es neighboring
sounds more similar by duplicating a phonetic property D copying a feature 0alue )or e;ample$ the 6nglish 0owel nasalization rule states that 0owels become nasalized before a nasal consonant within the same syllable

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ssimilation +ules
ssimilation rules reflect coarticulation Coarticulation is the spreading of phonetic features either in anticipation or in the preser0ation of articulatory processes )or e;ample$ it is easier to lower the 0elum while a 0owel is being produced before a nasal stop than to wait for the completion of the 0owel to then lower the 0elum e0en more Juic*ly There are many assimilation rules in 6nglish and other languages 6nglish plural and past tense morphemes *an negati0e morphemes
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ssimilation +ule
Phonological rule: a rule describing what *inds of sounds
change into what Eey concepts to formalize: 9nderlying form: needs to be posited.

6n0ironment: neighboring sounds which influence the sound Surface form: what we hear.

n assimilation rule is a rule that ma*es neighboring

sounds more similar by duplicating a phonetic property

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 n e;ample of assimilation is the 6nglish plural morpheme !t has three different pronunciations depending on what noun you attach it to:

The Pronunciation of 7orphemes: Plurals

!t gets pronounced as a BzC for words li*e cab$ bag$ and bar !t gets pronounced as BsC for words li*e cap$ bac*$ and faith !t gets pronounced as BzC for words li*e bus$ mirage$ range$ and match

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The Pronunciation of 7orphemes: Plurals

To determine a rule for when each 0ariant of the plural morpheme$ or allomorph$ is used$ it is useful to create a chart to e;amine the phonological en0ironments in which each allomorph occurs:

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The Pronunciation of 7orphemes: Plurals

To help us figure out what is different between the phonological en0ironments of the words that ta*e the BsC$ BzC$ and BzC allomorphs$ we can loo* for minimal pairs againN 7inimal pairs whose members ta*e different forms of the plural allomorph are particularly helpful for our purposes )or e;ample$ cab B*=bC and cap B*=pC differ only by their final sound since each of these words ta*es a different allomorph of the plural morpheme$ we can assume that the allomorph is selected based on the final sound of the noun there are more similar minimal pairs
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!t loo*s li*e the final sound of each noun is the only thing that determines the pronunciation of the plural. ,ow we can ma*e our chart a little more succinct

The Pronunciation of 7orphemes: Plurals

Then we can ma*e generalizations about the en0ironment in which each allomorph occurs based on *nowledge of natural classes
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The Pronunciation of 7orphemes: Plurals

2e can simplify this e0en more by creating a rule that assumes <z< is the basic or underlying form of the plural$ then we ha0e two rules to e;plain why the other allomorphs occur:
.. !nsert a BC before the plural morpheme <z< when a regular noun ends in a sibilant$ gi0ing BzC BC<BHsibilantCOz %. Change the plural morpheme <z< to a 0oiceless BsC when preceded by a 0oiceless sound <z<B30oiceC<B30oiceCO
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The Pronunciation of 7orphemes: Plurals

This chart illustrates how the plurals of bus$ butt$
and bug are formed by applying these two rules:

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The Pronunciation of 7orphemes: Plurals

These rules must be ordered so that rule . applies before rule %$ otherwise we would deri0e an incorrect phonetic form The particular phonological rules that determine the phonetic form of morphemes are morphophonemic rules

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dditional 6;amples of llomorphs

The 6nglish possessi0e morpheme and the third person singular morpheme ha0e allomorphs that ta*e on the same phonetic form as the plural morpheme and are go0erned by the same rules:
Possessi0e: dd BzC to woman to get womanPs dd BsC to ship to get shipPs dd BzC to Iudge to get IudgePs Third person singular: dd BzC to need to get needs dd BsC to eat to get eats dd BzC to rush to get rushes

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dditional 6;amples of llomorphs

The 6nglish past tense morpheme also has different pronunciations depending on the last sound of the 0erb 3 <d<

!f the 0erb ends in BtC or BdC then you add B dC to ma*e it past tense !f the 0erb ends in any 0oiceless sound other than BtC$ then you add BtC to ma*e it past tense !f the 0erb ends in any 0oiced sound e;cept BdC$ then you add a BdC to ma*e it past tense

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dditional 6;amples of llomorphs

The 6nglish past tense morpheme also has different pronunciations depending on the last sound )ormalized$ similarly to the plural morpheme: .. BC<BHal0eolar$ 3continuant$ 3sonorantCOd %. <d<B30oiceC<B30oiceCO

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dditional 6;amples of llomorphs

7ost

languages ha0e similar morphophonologic rules. )or e;ample$ *an has three allomorphs for a negati0e mar*er:

!n

the *an negati0e mar*er$ the place of articulation of the nasal matches the following consonant. BHnasalCBHlabialC<OBHlabialC

BHnasalCBHal0eolarC<OBHal0eolarC BHnasalCBH0elarC<OBH0elarC
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Phonological +ules
Classification of phonological rules: )eature3changing rules

ssimilation Dissimilation Deletion 6penthesis "Dinsertion' 7etathesis

4:

Segmental rules

,eutralization

Dissimilation +ules
Languages also ha0e dissimilation rules$ in which a sound becomes less li*e another sound Latin suffi; Lalis to form adIecti0es dissimilates to Laris when an l is in the noun and the dissimilation can be seen in the words borrowed into 6nglish
!t is sometimes easier to articulate dissimilar sounds

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5ther )eature3Changing +ules

ssimilation and dissimilation are feature3 changing rules Aut some feature3changing rules are neither assimilation nor dissimilation rules

)or e;ample$ adding aspiration in 6nglish does not ma*e the 0oiceless stop more or less li*e neighboring sounds B30oicedCBHaspiratedC<QO

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Phonological +ules
Classification of phonological rules: )eature3changing rules

ssimilation Dissimilation Deletion 6penthesis "Dinsertion' 7etathesis

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Segmental rules

,eutralization

Sound !nsertion and Deletion +ules

Phonological rules may also add or delete entire sounds Deleting a sound is *nown as deletion -ungarian e;amples:

BtrmC RroomS > plural Btrm*C BImC Rsil*S > BImC Rsil*yS

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Phonological +ules
Classification of phonological rules: )eature3changing rules

ssimilation Dissimilation Deletion 6penthesis "Dinsertion' 7etathesis

8.

Segmental rules

,eutralization

Sound !nsertion and Deletion +ules

Phonological rules may also add or delete entire sounds dding a sound is *nown as epenthesis 2e ha0e already seen epenthesis: the rules for forming plurals$ possessi0es$ and third person singular 0erb agreement in 6nglish all in0ol0e an epenthesis rule: !nsert a BC before the plural morpheme <z< when a regular noun ends in a sibilant$ gi0ing BzC

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Phonological +ules
Classification of phonological rules: )eature3changing rules

ssimilation Dissimilation Deletion 6penthesis "Dinsertion' 7etathesis

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Segmental rules

,eutralization

7o0ement "7etathesis' +ules

7etathesis rules reorder the seJuence of phonemes
)or some spea*ers$ the word as* is pronounced as B=*sC$ and in this case a metathesis rule reorders the <s< and <*< in certain conte;ts !n 5ld 6nglish the 0erb was a*sian$ and a historical metathesis rule switched the consonants so that most dialects of 6nglish now ha0e the 0erb as*. +ule illustrated with -ungarian alternation: BthrC RweightS > plural Btrh*C BphIC Rfla*eS > plural BpIh*C
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Phonological +ules
Classification of phonological rules: )eature3changing rules

ssimilation Dissimilation Deletion 6penthesis "Dinsertion' 7etathesis

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Segmental rules

,eutralization

,eutralization
,eutralization: a many3to3one relationship between underlying phonemes and surface forms !n 6nglish unstressed 0owels are reduced to BC

Merman has both 0oiced and 0oiceless obstruents as phonemes$ but when they occur at the end of words$ they become 0oiceless

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Deri0ation
Deri0ation: the way the phonological rules apply to the underlying phonemic representation to create the phonetic representation. This is the deri0ation of the word tempest:

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Slips of the Tongue: 60idence for Phonological +ules

Speech errors show phonological rules in action: !ntended utterance: stic* in the mud Bst* n K mdC ctual utterance: smuc* in the tid Bsm* n K tdC lthough the BtC in the intended sentence is not aspirated "it is preceded by BsC'$ it is aspirated e0en when it is in an en0ironment where aspiration is obligatoryT although it really Iust got there by accident. 6;amples li*e this pro0e that our synchronic obser0ation about phonological rules is in fact similar to what goes on in our head
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Section Summary

Phonological rules show the relationship between an underlying form and a surface form in a gi0en en0ironment +ules are not arbitrary .: they refer to features +ules are not arbitrary %: assimilation$ dissimilation$ epenthesis$ deletion$ metathesis ,eutralization is a many phonemes3one surface form relationship Slips of the tongue pro0ide e0idence for phonological rules
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Syllable Structure
2ords are composed of one or more syllables$ which are phonological units composed of one or more phonemes
60ery syllable has a nucleus$ and the nucleus may be preceded and<or followed by one or more phonemes called the onset and the coda The rime is the nucleus H the coda

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2ord Stress
!n 6nglish and many other languages one or more syllables in e0ery word has stress
!n 6nglish stress can be contrasti0e: two words can differ in stress e0en when they differ in nothing else

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Sentence and Phrase Stress

2hen words are combined into phrases and sentences$ one syllable recei0es more stress than others Phrasal stress can distinguish a compound noun from an adIecti0e H noun combination

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!ntonation
Pitch is a phonemic feature in some languages$ and for these languages the pitches are *nown as contrasti0e tones !n intonation languages pitch is important for the pitch contour or intonation
!n intonation languages li*e 6nglish$ intonation can be used to distinguish Juestions from statements can also disambiguate sentences in some cases
UThatPs a ropeNV UThatPs a rope/V

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Section summary

Syllables are larger constituents than sounds Syllables can be di0ided to onset$ coda and nucleus Syllable is a stress3bearing unit in many languages "gi0ing e0idence for syllables' Stress can be contrasti0e in se0eral languages Pitch is used to differentiate between sentence types and emotional properties in many languages... W but it can be contrasti0e on the syllabic le0el in other ones.
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Phonotactic Constraints of Phonemes

Enowledge of phonology includes information about what seJuences of phonemes are possible and which are not in a particular language
The limitations on seJuences of sounds are called phonotactic constraints
Phonotactic constraints are usually based on syllables and 0ary from language to language

6;amples:
!n 6nglish two stops cannot begin a syllable !n Xapanese a syllable can only end in a 0owel or a nasal consonant

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ccidental Maps
ccidental gaps are words that donPt e;ist in a language but could e;ist because they conform to the phonotactic constraints of the language )or e;ample$ the words cru*e B*hru*C$ cruc* B*hr*C$ and cri*e B*hra*C are not currently words in 6nglish$ but they could be d0ertisers ma*e use of their *nowledge of phonotactic constraints to create new product names 2hile Aic$ Yero;$ and Eoda* are 5E$ wePre unli*ely to see a new brand or product called Zhleet BlitC
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Mrammaticality and occurence

There are phonotactically not UpossibleV words$ which nonetheless occur in the language:
possible occurs UimpossibleV

li*e$ brea*$ strand

hmadineIad$ shpiel b*li$ zhwart$ tloo*

does not occur bli*e$ zor*$ hafe

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2hy Do Phonological +ules 6;ist/

2hat is the role of phonological rules/

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2hy Do Phonological +ules 6;ist/

7any phonological rules e;ist to ensure that the phonetic forms of words do not 0iolate the phonotactic constraints of the language )or e;ample$ 6nglish has a phonotactic constraint that pre0ents words from ending with two obstruents whose 0oicing features donPt match "wal*ed pronounced as Bwa*dC is not possible' phonological rule such as the one that de0oices the past tense mar*er in 6nglish changes the pronunciation so that it conforms to this constraint "the pronunciation of wal*ed becomes Bwa*tC'
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2hy Do Phonological +ules 6;ist/

So far we ha0e seen many e;amples of phonological rules$ but we ha0e not seen what purpose these rules ser0e Sometimes$ different rules seem to ser0e the same purpose: that surface forms should fit a gi0en phonotactic constraint. ConspiracyN !t has been proposed that rules ser0e the purpose of satisfying certain uni0ersal constraints "this is called optimality theory' 6;amples include phonotactic constraints$ easy pronunciation$ and telling sounds apart easily
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Section summary

60ery language has constraints on possible seJuences of sounds. 2e call these constraints phonotactics. There are many accidental gaps: words$ which obey phonotactic constraints but are not found in the language. 7any phonological rules seem to ser0e the purpose that surface forms fit phonotactic constraints of a language.
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Phonological nalysis
!n order to determine the phonemes and allophones in a language other than 6nglish$ you should answer the following Juestions:

.. re there any minimal pairs in the data in which these sounds contrast/ %. re any noncontrasti0e sounds in complementary distribution/ 1. !f noncontrasting phones are found$ what are the underlying phonemes and their allophones/ 4. 2hat are the phonological rules by which the allophones can be deri0ed/

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Phonological nalysis
!n the Mree* data below$ our tas* is to determine whether the following sounds are allophones of separate phonemes or allophones of the same phoneme:

B;C 0oiceless 0elar fricati0e B*C 0oiceless 0elar stop BcC 0oiceless palatal stop BC 0oiceless palatal fricati0e 1. [kano] do 9. [e !] hand ". [#ano] lose 1$. [ko !] da%&h'e (. [!no] po% 11. [#o !] dan)es *. [)!no] +o,e 1". [# !+a] +one- .. [kal!] )ha +s 1(. [k !+a] sha+e /. [#al!] pl!&h' 1*. [#%0'a] hand0%l 1. [el!] eel 1.. [k%0e'a] 2on2ons 3. [)e !] )andle 1/. [o!] no

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Phonological nalysis
.. re there any minimal pairs in which the sounds B;C$ B*C$ BcC$ and BC contrast/
.. B*anoC %. B;anoC 1. BinoC 4. BcinoC 8. B*aliC :. B;aliC 7. BeliC ?. BceriC UdoV UloseV UpourV Umo0eV UcharmsV UplightV UeelV UcandleV #. BeriC .&. B*oriC ... B;oriC .%. B;rimaC .1. B*rimaC .4. B;uftaC .8. B*ufetaC .:. BoiC UhandV UdaughterV UdancesV UmoneyV UshameV UhandfulV UbonbonsV UnoV

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Phonological nalysis
.. re there any minimal pairs in which the sounds B;C$ B*C$ BcC$ and B C contrast/

.. B*anoC %. B;anoC 1. BinoC 4. BcinoC 8. B*aliC :. B;aliC 7. BeliC ?. BceriC UdoV UloseV UpourV Umo0eV UcharmsV UplightV UeelV UcandleV #. BeriC .&. B*oriC ... B;oriC .%. B;rimaC .1. B*rimaC .4. B;uftaC .8. B*ufetaC .:. BoiC UhandV UdaughterV UdancesV UmoneyV UshameV UhandfulV UbonbonsV UnoV

)rom these minimal pairs$ we can tell that B*C and B;C contrast and that BcC and BC also contrast$ but we ha0e no e0idence that B*C and BcC contrast$ and we also donPt yet *now about B;C and BC

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Phonological nalysis
%. re any noncontrasti0e sounds in complementary distribution/
5ne way to determine this is to list each phone with the en0ironment in which it occurs:
B*C: before BaC$ BoC$ BuC$ BrC B;C: before BaC$ BoC$ BuC$ BrC BcC: before BiC$ BeC BC before BiC$ BeC

2e can conclude that the stops B*C and BcC are allophones of one phoneme$ and the fricati0es B;C and BC are allophones of one phoneme

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Phonological nalysis
1. 2hich of the phone pairs is more basic$ and therefore the underlying phoneme/
!n many languages of the world$ 0elar sounds become palatal before front 0owels
This is an assimilation rule since palatals are pronounced further forward in the mouth as are front 0owels

Therefore we select <*< to be a phoneme with allophones B*C and BcC$ and <;< as a phoneme with allophones B;C and BC

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Phonological nalysis
4. 2e can now state the rule by which the palatals can be deri0ed from the 0elars: Palatalize 0elar consonants before front 0owel 9sing feature notation we can state the rule as: BH0elarC BHpalatalC < OOO B3bac*C Since only consonants can be 0elar and only 0owels ha0e the feature B3bac*C$ we donPt ha0e to include information about the features BconsonantalC or BsyllabicC Ay lea0ing out this information$ we ma*e our rule as simple as possible

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2hat you need to *now

units of representation: features$ phonemes$ syllables distinct phonemes: minimal pairs$ contrasti0ity allophones: complementary distribution features classification of phonological rules formalization of phonological rules how to write a phonological rule how to do an easy phonological analysis

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