HYDRAULICS

Hydraulics is a topic in applied science and engineering dealing with the mechanical properties of liquids. At a very basic level hydraulics is the liquid version of pneumatics. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the engineering uses of fluid properties. In fluid power, hydraulics is used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range through some part of science and most of engineering modules, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control circuitry, pumps, turbines, hydropower, computational fluid dynamics, flow measurement, river channel behavior and erosion. The basic idea behind any hydraulic system is very simple: Force that is applied at one point is transmitted to another point using an incompressible fluid. The fluid is almost always an oil of some sort. The force is almost always multiplied in the process.

Hydraulic multiplication. The piston on the right has a surface area nine times greater than the piston on the left. When force is applied to the left piston, it will move nine units for every one unit that the right piston moves, and the force is multiplied by nine on the right-hand piston. To determine the multiplication factor, start by looking at the size of the pistons. Assume that the piston on the left is 2 inches in diameter (1-inch radius), while the piston on the right is 6 inches in diameter (3-inch radius). The area of the two pistons is Pi * r2. The area of the left piston is therefore 3.14, while the area of the piston on the right is 28.26. The piston on the right is 9 times larger than the piston on the left. What that means is that any force applied to the left-hand piston will appear 9 times greater on the right-hand piston. So if you apply a 100pound downward force to the left piston, a 900-pound upward force will appear on the right. The only catch is that you will have to depress the left piston 9 inches to raise the right piston 1 inch. The brakes in your car are a good example of a basic piston-driven hydraulic system. When you depress the brake pedal in your car, it is pushing on the piston in the brake's master cylinder. Four slave pistons, one at each wheel, actuate to press the brake pads against the brake rotor to stop the car

ENERGY
In physics, energy is a conserved extensive property of a physical system, which cannot be observed directly but can be calculated from its state. Energy is of central importance in physics. It is impossible to give a comprehensive definition of energy because of the many forms it may take, but the most common definition is that it is the capacity of a system to

perform work. The definition of work in physics is the movement of a force through a distance, and energy is measured in the same units as work. If a person pushes an object x meters against an opposing force of F newtons, Fx joules (newton-meters) of work has been done on the object; the person's body has lost Fx joules of energy, and the object has gained Fx joules of energy. The SI unit of energy is the joule (J) (equivalent to a newton-meter or a watt-second); the CGS unit is the erg, and the Imperial unit is the foot pound. Other energy units such as the electron volt, calorie, BTU, and kilowatt-hour (1 kWh = 3600 kJ) are used in specific areas of science and commerce. Forms of energy Energy exists in many forms: o Kinetic o Ionization, that of binding an o Chemical electron to its atom or molecule o Electric o Elastic o Magnetic o Sound o Radiant, that of electromagnetic o Gravitational radiation o Intrinsic, the rest energy o Nuclear, that of binding equivalent to an object's rest nucleons to form the atomic mass nucleus o Thermal Heat is just that amount of thermal energy being transferred (in a given process) due to temperature differences Mechanical work is just that amount of energy being transferred (in a given process) due to an applied force The above list of the known possible forms of energy is not necessarily complete. Whenever physical scientists discover that a certain phenomenon appears to violate the law of energy conservation, new forms may be added, as is the case with dark energy, a hypothetical form of energy that permeates all of space and tends to increase the rate of expansion of the universe. Types of energy may be classified. Types of stored energy that are dependent upon fundamental forces of nature are called potential energy. Potential energy is stored in the arrangement of objects or particles that are under the influence of a particular type of force (force field, or field). These include gravitational energy (which is stored in the way masses are arranged in a gravitational field), several types of nuclear energy (which utilize potentials from the nuclear force and the weak force), electrical energy (from the electric field), and magnetic energy (from the magnetic field). Other familiar types of energy are a varying mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is mechanical energy which is the sum of kinetic and potential energy in a system. Elastic energy in materials is also dependent upon electrical potential energy (between atoms), as is chemical energy, which is stored and released from a reservoir of electrical potential energy between electrons, and the molecules or atomic nuclei that attract them. Classical mechanics distinguishes between potential energy, which is a function of the position of an object within a field, and kinetic energy, which is a function of its movement. Both position and movement are relative to a frame of reference, which must be

specified: this is often (and originally) an arbitrary fixed point on the surface of the Earth, the terrestrial frame of reference.

PRESSURE AND VELOCITY

Principle of Continuity in Fluids When fluids move through a full pipe, the volume of fluid that enters the pipe must equal the volume of fluid that leaves the pipe, even if the diameter of the pipe changes. This is a restatement of the law of conservation of mass for fluids.

The volume of fluid moving through the pipe at any point can be quantified in terms of the volume flow rate, which is equal to the diameter of the pipe at that point multiplied by the velocity of the fluid. This volume flow rate must be constant throughout the pipe, therefore you can write the equation of continuity for fluids (also known as the fluid continuity equation) as:

This equation says that as the cross-section of the pipe gets smaller, the velocity of the fluid increases, and as the cross-section gets larger, the fluid velocity decreases. You may have applied this yourself in watering the flowers with a garden hose. If you want increase the velocity of the water coming from the end of the hose, you place your thumb over part of the opening of the hose, effectively decreasing the cross-sectional area of the hoses end and increasing the velocity of the exiting water! Bernoulli's Law The Bernoulli equation states that,

where o points 1 and 2 lie on a streamline, o the fluid has constant density, o the flow is steady, and

o there is no friction. Although these restrictions sound severe, the Bernoulli equation is very useful, partly because it is very simple to use and partly because it can give great insight into the balance between pressure, velocity and elevation. How useful is Bernoulli's equation? How restrictive are the assumptions governing its use? Here we give some examples. Pressure/velocity variation Consider the steady, flow of a constant density fluid in a converging duct, without losses due to friction (figure 14). The flow therefore satisfies all the restrictions governing the use of Bernoulli's equation. Upstream and downstream of the contraction we make the one-dimensional assumption that the velocity is constant over the inlet and outlet areas and parallel.

Figure 14. One-dimensional duct showing control volume. When streamlines are parallel the pressure is constant across them, except for hydrostatic head differences (if the pressure was higher in the middle of the duct, for example, we would expect the streamlines to diverge, and vice versa). If we ignore gravity, then the pressures over the inlet and outlet areas are constant. Along a streamline on the centerline, the Bernoulli equation and the one-dimensional continuity equation give, respectively,

These two observations provide an intuitive guide for analyzing fluid flows, even when the flow is not one-dimensional. For example, when fluid passes over a solid body, the streamlines get closer together, the flow velocity increases, and the pressure decreases. Airfoils are designed so that the flow over the top surface is faster than over the bottom surface, and therefore the average pressure over the top surface is less than the average pressure over the bottom surface, and a resultant force due to this pressure difference is produced. This is the source of lift on an airfoil. Lift is defined as the force

acting on an airfoil due to its motion, in a direction normal to the direction of motion. Likewise, drag on an airfoil is defined as the force acting on an airfoil due to its motion, along the direction of motion. Torricellis Law Torricelli's law, also known as Torricelli's theorem, is a theorem in fluid dynamics relating the speed of fluid flowing out of an opening to the height of fluid above the opening.

Torricelli's law states that the speed of efflux, v, of a fluid through a sharp-edged hole at the bottom of a tank filled to a depth h is the same as the speed that a body (in this case a drop of water) would acquire in falling freely from a height h, i.e. , where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 N/kg). This last expression comes from equating the kinetic energy gained, , with the potential energy lost, mgh , and solving for v. The law was discovered (though not in this form) by the Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli, in 1643. It was later shown to be a particular case of Bernoulli's principle. Bernoulli's principle states that:

where v is fluid speed, g is the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s^2), z is the fluid's height above a reference point, p is pressure, and is density. Define the opening to be at z=. At the top of the tank, p is equal to the atmospheric pressure. v can be considered 0 because the fluid surface drops in height extremely slowly compared to the speed at which fluid exits the tank. At the opening, z= and p is again atmospheric pressure. Eliminating the constant and solving gives:

z is equivalent to the h in the first paragraph of this article, so:

Torricelli's law can be demonstrated in the spouting can experiment, which is designed to show that in a liquid with an open surface, pressure increases with depth. It consists of a tube with three separate holes and an open surface. The three holes are blocked, then the tube is filled with water. When it is full, the holes are unblocked. The jets become more powerful, the fluid exit's velocity is greater the further down the tube they are.[1] This doesn't mean that the lower jet reaches a greater distance from the base, at a given altitude. Ignoring viscosity and other losses, if the nozzles point vertically upward then each jet will reach the height of the surface of the liquid in the container.

VENTURI METER Venturi meters are flow measurement instruments which use a converging section of pipe to give an increase in the flow velocity and a corresponding pressure drop from which the flowrate can be deduced. They have been in common use for many years, especially in the water supply industry. The classical Venturi meter, whose use is described in ISO 5167-1: 1991, has the form shown in Figure 1

Figure 1. Classical Vetituri meter design. (From B. S. 7405 (1991) Fig. 3.1.4, with permission of B.S.I.) ORIFICE The orifice meter consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole drilled in it. There is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and another just downstream. There are in general three methods of placing the taps. The coefficient of the meter depends upon the position of taps.

Flange location - Tap location 1 inch upstream and 1 inch downstream from face of orifice "Vena Contracta" location - Tap location 1 pipe diameter (actual inside) upstream and 0.3 to 0.8 pipe diameter downstream from face of orifice Pipe location - Tap location 2.5 times nominal pipe diameter upstream and 8 times nominal pipe diameter downstream from face of orifice The discharge coefficient - cd - varies considerably with changes in area ratio and the Reynolds number. A discharge coefficient cd = 0.60 may be taken as standard, but the value varies noticeably at low values of the Reynolds number. Discharge Coefficient - cd Diameter Ratio d = D 2 / D1 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.6 Reynolds Number - Re 104 0.60 0.61 0.62 0.63 105 0.595 0.603 0.608 0.61 106 0.594 0.598 0.603 0.608 107 0.594 0.598 0.603 0.608

0.7 0.64 0.614 0.609 0.609 The pressure recovery is limited for an orifice plate and the permanent pressure loss depends primarily on the area ratio. For an area ratio of 0.5, the head loss is about 70 - 75% of the orifice differential. The orifice meter is recommended for clean and dirty liquids and some slurry services. The rangeability is 4 to 1 The pressure loss is medium Typical accuracy is 2 to 4% of full scale The required upstream diameter is 10 to 30 The viscosity effect is high

The relative cost is low

VISCOSITY The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal notion of "thickness". For example, honey has a higher viscosity than water. Viscosity is due to friction between neighboring parcels of the fluid that are moving at different velocities. When fluid is forced through a tube, the fluid generally moves faster near the axis and very slowly near the walls, therefore some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to overcome the friction between layers and keep the fluid moving. For the same velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluid's viscosity. A liquid's viscosity depends on the size and shape of its particles and the attractions between the particles. A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures, in superfluids. Otherwise all fluids have positive viscosity. If the viscosity is very high, for instance in pitch, the fluid will appear to be a solid in the short term. A liquid whose viscosity is less than that of water is sometimes known as a mobile liquid, while a substance with a viscosity substantially greater than water is called a viscous liquid. Shear viscosity

Laminar shear of fluid between two plates. Friction between the fluid and the moving boundaries causes the fluid to shear. The force required for this action is a measure of the fluid's viscosity.

In a general parallel flow (such as could occur in a straight pipe), the shear stress is proportional to the gradient of the velocity The shear viscosity of a fluid expresses its resistance to shearing flows, where adjacent layers move parallel to each other with different speeds. It can be defined through the idealized situation known as a Couette flow, where a layer of fluid is trapped between two horizontal plates, one fixed and one moving horizontally at constant speed . (The plates are assumed to be very large, so that one need not consider what happens near their edges.) If the speed of the top plate is small enough, the fluid particles will move parallel to it, and their speed will vary linearly from zero at the bottom to at the top. Each layer of fluid will move faster than the one just below it, and friction between them will give rise to a forceresisting their relative motion. In particular, the fluid will apply on the top plate a force in the direction opposite to its motion, and an equal but opposite one to the bottom plate. An external force is therefore required in order to keep the top plate moving at constant speed. The magnitude of this force is found to be proportional to the speed and the area of each plate, and inversely proportional to their separation . That is,

The proportionality factor in this formula is the viscosity (specifically, the dynamic viscosity) of the fluid. The ratio is called the rate of shear deformation or shear velocity, and is thederivative of the fluid speed in the direction perpendicular to the plates. Isaac Newtonexpressed the viscous forces by the differential equation

where and is the local shear velocity. This formula assumes that the flow is moving along parallel lines and the axis, perpendicular to the flow, points in the direction of maximum shear velocity. This equation can be used where the velocity does not vary linearly with , such as in fluid flowing through a pipe.

Use of the Greek letter mu () for the dynamic stress viscosity is common among mechanical and chemical engineers, as well as physicists. However, the Greek letter eta () is also used by chemists, physicists, and the IUPAC. Kinematic viscosity The kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density of the fluid . It is usually denoted by the Greek letter nu (). It is a convenient concept when analyzing theReynolds number, that expresses the ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces:

where

is a typical length scale in the system.

Bulk viscosity When a compressible fluid is compressed or expanded evenly, without shear, it may still exhibit a form of internal friction that resists its flow. These forces are related to the rate of compression or expansion by a factor , called the volume viscosity, bulk viscosity or second viscosity. The bulk viscosity is important only when the fluid is being rapidly compressed or expanded, such as in sound and shock waves. Bulk viscosity explains the loss of energy in those waves, as described by Stokes' law of sound attenuation.

NORTHERN PHILIPPINE COLLEGE FOR MARITIME, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Marine Transportation Lingsat, City of San Fernando, La Union

Research Work in Physics 2

Submitted by: Jan Michael Norton