THE METHODOLOGY

OF WRITING A SCIENTIFIC PAPER

Students’ Notes
prepared by
Bro. Banzelao Teixeira SDB
and Fr. Kenneth Pereira SDB

for a course in
METHODOLOGY

DIVYADAAN
Salesian Institute of Philosophy
Nashik, Maharashtra

June 2004
 CHAPTER 1

HOW TO WRITE A SCIENTIFIC PAPER

A scientific paper is not a paper written on a scientific topic. Rather, it is a paper done
according to a certain rigorous methodology. Term papers, dissertation papers and theses have to be
done in such a manner. Hence they are called scientific papers. How does one go about writing a
scientific paper?

1.1 Choose an appropriate topic.

(a) Choose a topic of your interest… one which will also be of interest to your readers. You
could choose a topic that will help you in your profession, or a topic that may help you in your
personal growth. Do not get stuck with topics that are of passing interest.
(b) The choice of your topic has to be within the confines of the general subject under
consideration. So, for example, if you are attending a seminar on The Dialogues of Plato, or a seminar
on Communication then your topic will have to be within the scope of this subject/issue. Again if you
are completing your philosophical degree, the topic will have to be within the confines of philosophy.
(c) The topic should be within the limits of available time. Do not choose a topic which is too
vast or vague or cannot be completed within the given time.
(d) Choose a topic on which the necessary material is easily available. This implies that the
books necessary for the particular study are available in the library of your institute. Though not
impossible, it is difficult to consult books from other libraries.

1.2 Make a broad outline of the paper.

Once you have chosen your topic, you may put down on paper some of the main points that
you want to deal with in your paper. This will give you a broad outline of your work. It is like the
initial skeleton that one begins to work with. In the course of the paper, it may be modified, elaborated
or changed. At this stage it is also advisable to put down all the questions that you want to have
answered in your work. Not all of your questions may be answered, but it is good to ask questions so
that your study may have a clear direction and become an enriching one.

1.3 Draw up a basic bibliography.

Make a list of the primary and secondary sources.
1.3.1 Primary sources are those books or that material that would form the main source of your
paper. Primary sources comprise those books and articles that contain seminal and original ideas. If
your topic is limited to a particular author, then your primary sources will be all books by that
particular author. If you are writing a paper on the Bhagavad-Gita, then the primary source will be the
Bhagavad-Gita. If your paper is on the dialogues of Plato, then your primary sources will comprise
the works of Plato.
1.3.2 Secondary sources are those books written by others, which help you to understand the topic or
the thought of the original author. Works that popularise or further study the views of seminal thinkers
would be counted as secondary sources. In the above case, the secondary sources for the Bhagavad-
Gita would be the commentaries and studies on the Gita by various scholars.

1.3.3 A few guidelines for drawing up the Bibliography

* Make a list of all the books available on your topic of study.
* Choose original sources. Avoid spurious and doubtful sources.
* Use the most authoritative editions and preferably the latest ones.
* Consult your guide and those people who are competent in the particular field or topic. Show

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o.) Author’s full name, Title of book (Abbreviation of the Book)

them the list and ask their advice. They may be able to help you with the choice of your books.
* After all this, consult your dissertation guide or seminar professor and get your bibliography
Content? either inapproved.
summary form or as a direct quotation
* Finally, from among the many books in your bibliography, identify the most important ones.
This can be done by glancing through the table of contents of each book and by seeking the help
of some well-informed persons. Soon you will be able to trace the important books. All this is a
matter of practice. We learn by trial and error.

1.4 Read actively and take notes.

1.4.1 What to read. To get a good orientation towards the topic of your study, begin by reading an
article from some authoritative encyclopaedia or other journals. The Routledge Encyclopaedia of
Philosophy is a good way to get acquainted with the topic of your study.
Then begin by reading the primary sources. Skim through the table of contents, the
introduction and conclusion of each book. It is not advisable to begin with secondary sources, as these
tend to limit your scope of understanding. So begin with the primary sources, allowing the text to
speak to you. Read the primary sources with concentration. Some of the primary sources may have to
be read several times in order to grasp the thoughts therein.... And of course, do not forget to take
notes while reading.
Once you have read and understood the primary sources, move on to the secondary sources.
In these books, read only those parts of the text which pertain to your study. Do not waste your time
reading unnecessary things. For this, the table of contents and the index can be of great help. They
help to locate those parts of the book that may be important to you.

1.4.2 How to read. Follow the movement of the book. Read the book in its proper order. Do not
jump from page to page or scan through the book. One should then be able to put in one’s own words
what the author is saying in the text. This shows that one has understood and assimilated the text. Be
slow in making any critical judgments on the author. Instead re-read the book and you will understand
what the author intends to say. Remember, reading is a dialogue with the author, and more especially,
with the book.
1.4.3 Note-taking. Do not rely on your memory. The best way to save time is by taking notes. Follow
a systematic way of taking notes. One of the best ways of taking notes for a scientific paper is by
making schede sheets. Schede are especially helpful when one is referring to many sources. Secondly,
they preserve the material for future use. Schede could be of a postcard size or slightly bigger. One
can conveniently use the blank side of A4 sheets (cut in two halves or four quarters) that have been
used up on one side. On the next page, you can see what a scheda looks like.
1.43.1 Schede should include the following details: Author’s complete name, title of the book, main
heading of classification, summary notes with an indication of the page number of the text.

3
 Schede could be used to copy direct quotes, or for writing brief information about the book, or
to summarise the book in one’s own words. One could also keep schede with one’s own reflections
that burst forth while one is reading the text or while one is reflecting on it.
Schede should be numbered in the upper left corner.
They should contain the name of the author and the name/abbreviation of the book that one is
reading.
While writing out summaries or quotations, note down the page numbers of the original text
on the left side of the schede. It will help you to refer back, when needed, and also while quoting the
references in your paper.
Finally the schede will have to be classified thematically. This is normally done at the end of all the
reading on a particular chapter.
Note-taking on the schede could be either in summary form or in detail. It is advisable to keep
only one idea per scheda. And do not waste time writing unnecessary and valueless information.
Most often try to summarise the particular idea. However, sometimes one may need to copy a few
things word for word. In this case make sure that you copy it accurately, and use “quotation marks”.

1.5 Prepare a working outline.

To prepare the working outline, one may have to re-read the notes or schede and arrange them
in a thematic order. To do this, one must jot down a schematic outline of the paper, with all the sub-
topics noted down in their intended sequence. Let the theme unfold as logically as possible.
Now arrange the schede in the same thematic sequence. Exclude the irrelevant matter. Limit
your paper to the most important issues. This will help you to form the general structure of the paper.
Get your working outline approved by the guide.

1.6 Prepare the first draft and submit it for correction.

Work chapter by chapter. Move on to the next chapter only when the previous chapter is
complete. Arrange the schede of each chapter in some sort of order. Read them again and see if the
flow seems logical.
Begin writing with the help of your general working outline. The beginning is always
difficult, but one has to begin somewhere. Do not be unduly worried about precision and accuracy.
Remember, it is only the first draft. Soon things will fall in place and you can always make changes in
the course of time.
While writing the draft, leave broad margins for the guide to correct and comment. Do not
write the drafts on schede sheets. Rather, use foolscap sheets. Also remember to put the references in
brackets wherever necessary. These references will ultimately be turned into footnotes.
If it is a dissertation or a thesis, it is recommended that one should write it chapter by chapter.
As far as possible write the matter in your own words. Try not to restrict yourself to the language of
the text or the author. Express what you have understood in your own words. Only in case of direct
quotes, stick to the words of the author. On completing the chapter, give it to your guide for
corrections.
After handing over the draft of the first chapter for correction, begin working on the second
chapter. The guide will go through your first draft and give his comments. He may also recommend a
few points for further development or may even ask you to modify the entire chapter. When you get
the first draft back from the guide, try to make the recommended changes. By this time you should be
able to give your next chapter for correction and while this is going on, rework on the (corrected) first
draft of the first chapter.

1.7 Work through subsequent drafts to the final draft.

You may have to write even two or three drafts until the chapter is finally approved. Once all
the chapters have been individually approved, you may be required to give the final draft of the entire

4
ese notes. Also fill some matter in these schede along with other details such as the author’s name, book’s t
for books on this topic. Limit yourself to just 2 or 3 books and then prepare a scheme or working outline for
dissertation to the guide for his final approval.
For term papers or seminar papers, you may not have to submit your assignment chapter by
chapter for correction. You may have to complete the whole paper and then give it for correction.
Ultimately it all depends on the guide and the procedure he wants to follow.
The final draft should be presented the way it will appear in the typed paper. It should include the
following details:
 A good and precise title, which best summarises the theme of the paper
 An appropriate introduction to the topic of your study
 All the footnotes or the endnotes with correct references and proper methodology
 The bibliography in standard format
 A fitting conclusion.
Carefully examine your paper and correct all the grammatical and methodological mistakes.
The final draft helps the guide to look at the entire paper in a single perspective and then offer his
comments.
Once the final draft is approved, type out your dissertation. The details for the typing of the
dissertation are given in the next chapter. But before that, here are a few exercises to assimilate all that
has been said in this chapter.

5
 CHAPTER 2

THE STRUCTURE OF A SCIENTIFIC PAPER

Our main concern in this chapter is to learn the general structure of a B.Ph. dissertation or a
M.Ph. dissertation. The structure could be similar for a doctoral thesis, except for a few additions.
These differences will be indicated when the need arises. Here, we are basically following Kate
Turabian’s A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses and Dissertations (sixth edition).

2.1 Parts of the Paper

The paper can be basically divided into what is called the front matter, the text and the back
matter. What each of these parts is made of is indicated below.

Front Matter Text Back Matter

• Title Page • Introduction • Appendix *
• Copyright page * • Chapter 1 • Endnotes (if there
• Dedication * Sections, are no footnotes)
• Epigraph * Subsections • Bibliography
• Table of Contents Chapter Conclusion • Reference list or
• List of Illustrations* • Chapters 2, 3, …(in a similar analytic index *
• List of Tables* manner)
• Preface • General Conclusion
• Acknowledgements
• List of Abbreviations
• Glossary *
• Editorial Method *
• Abstract *
NB: Those items which are marked * are not necessary for a B.Ph. / M.Ph. paper.

2.2 General Guidelines

2.2.1 Inter-Linear Spacing
All the parts of the basic text of a scientific paper — be it a dissertation or a thesis — should be
in double spacing. (Some guides recommend one-and-a-half spacing.) This means that there should
be a wider gap than normal between any two lines in the dissertation. The following passage is in
double spacing:

Thomas Aquinas was perhaps the first person to speak of analogy in a clear and

distinct manner. He brought in the concept of analogy to solve the problem of religious

language. Analogous terms are halfway between univocal and equivocal terms.

Only direct quotes that run into more than 5 lines in the text of your paper may be presented in
single spacing. In this case, they are placed in a separate paragraph that is indented by half an inch on
the left side. The right indentation of half-inch is optional. In such cases, quotation marks are not
used. For an example, see the box at the bottom of the next page.

6
 There is single spacing within a single footnote item or bibliographical entry. However there is
always double spacing between two consecutive footnotes or two consecutive bibliographical entries.
For example,
1
John Thompson, Critical Hermeneutics: A Study in the Thought of Paul Ricoeur and
Jurgen Habermas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) 41-42.
2
Paul Ricoeur, The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies of the Creation of
Meaning in Language, trans. Robert Czerny, Kathleen McLaughlin and John Costello
(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986) 51.
3
Thompson, Critical Hermeneutics, 44.

There is single spacing between subheadings in the table of contents. For clarification see the
table of contents provided in appendix 2.
In case you are using a typewriter, leave two open spaces after the use of a full stop, question
mark or exclamation mark. Leave a single space after a colon, comma or semicolon.

2.2.2 Pagination
The front matter pages — i.e., the table of contents, list of illustrations, list of tables,
preface, acknowledgements and list of abbreviations — are numbered with lower case roman
numerals (e.g. i, ii, v, x) that are centred at the bottom of those pages. The title page is counted in the
pagination but the page number is not indicated on it.
The pages of the text (chapters) and back matter are numbered with Arabic numerals (1,2,
3…) that are centred at the bottom of every page.

2.2.3 Indentation
At the beginning of every paragraph there is a five-spaced indentation from the left-hand
margin. See below.

Thomas Aquinas was perhaps the first person to speak of analogy in a clear and
distinct manner. He brought in the concept of analogy to solve the problem of religious
language.

Quotations of five lines or more are indented in their entirety, five spaces or half an inch from
the left margin. (Indentation from the right margin is optional.) A colon is normally used before such a
quotation, to mark the break from the main text. The beginning line of these special paragraphs (direct
quotes) should not be further indented. See below.

Aquinas skilfully used the concept of intrinsic analogy to explain how human words
can be applied to God. Aquinas would define intrinsic analogy in the following manner:

Intrinsic analogy is an analogy in which the definition of the term is verified in both the
primary and the secondary analogue. But the difference between the analogues is the
difference in the degree of the same attribute. An obvious example is the difference of life in
God and life in human beings. The degree of life in God is in its fullness since he is infinite,
while that in the case of human beings is finite.1

7
 Quotes of less than five lines should be integrated into the normal paragraph and should have
quotation marks to differentiate them from the rest of the text.
The footnote is indented in a manner similar to the paragraphs of the text. The first line of the
footnote entry is indented five spaces (or half an inch) from the left margin while the subsequent lines
continue directly from the left margin.

John Thompson, Critical Hermeneutics: A Study in the Thought of Paul Ricoeur

1

and Jurgen Habermas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) 41-42.

In the bibliography the first line of every bibliographical entry starts at the left margin while
the subsequent lines are indented five spaces (or half an inch) from the left margin. This format is
known as the ‘hanging indent’.

Thompson, John. Critical Hermeneutics: A Study in the Thought of Paul Ricoeur and
Jurgen Habermas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

2.2.4 Corrections
One can be excused a maximum of six errors in a page. These include spellings,
methodological and minor grammatical errors. Errors corrected with a whitener and retyped over are
still considered as errors. If you have made more than six errors on a typed page, it is recommended
that you retype that particular page.

2.2.5 Margins
The margins are normally 1½ inch from the left, and 1 inch from the top, bottom and the
right. The margin on the left is normally bigger than the other sides for binding purposes. To get a
better idea of the margin settings see appendix 3, which provides a page from the text of a scientific
paper.

2.2.6 Use of Italics

Italics is a font-style that is used for special effect in printed matter. However on the
typewriter one cannot italicise words. Hence, when using a typewriter, one underlines those words
that would have been italicised.
You need to italicise or underline (in case of typewriters) the titles of books, plays, pamphlets,
journals, periodicals, classical works and poems. However the books of the Bible are not italicised or
underlined. If the subtitle accompanies the title, this should also be italicised or underlined. A colon (:)
is used to differentiate the title from the subtitle.

Contemporary Hermeneutics: Hermeneutics as Method, Philosophy and Critique Or

Contemporary Hermeneutics: Hermeneutics as Method, Philosophy and Critique

Italicise or underline words or phrases that are from other languages. E.g. bhakti, au revoir,
schede. However foreign words that are accepted as part of the English vocabulary need not be
italicised or underlined. E.g. par excellence, karma, maharaja, sine qua non, etc.
You may also italicise or underline those words that you would like to emphasise. However
do not do this too often. Also, avoid using bold print for emphasis in a running text. This is better
done by the use of italics.

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2.2.7 Quotation Marks
Use “quotation marks” whenever you quote verbatim from a text, unless the quote extends to
more than five lines... in which case it is presented in single-spaced, indented lines (to show that it is
a direct quote) and quotation marks are not used.
Double inverted commas (resembling quotation marks) are also used to name parts, chapters
or sections of a book. In the bibliography or footnotes, double inverted commas are used when one
has taken a certain article from a book (collection of articles), journal, magazine, newspaper or
internet website etc…see the bibliographical entry given below.

Dornish, Loretta. “An Introduction to Paul Ricoeur.” Theology Digest 24 (1976) 147-153.

2.2.8 Capitals
Capitalise the first word and all the principal words in English titles of publications, in
division of works. But articles (the, a, an), prepositions and conjunctions are not capitalized unless
they are the first word of the title.

Eg.: The Hermeneutics of Paul Ricoeur

2.2.9 Font Size and Style
When one is using a typewriter, one has no options regarding the size or style of the font to be
used in the paper. However, if one is doing his paper at a computer, the following points may be kept
in mind:
There should be consistency in the use of font-size and font-style. If the running matter in one
chapter is done in the Times New Roman font, the same font must be used for the running matter of
all the other chapters as well.
A different font can be used for headings. Indeed, a variety of fonts can be used for headings
of different orders. The chapter title constitutes a first order heading. Section titles are headings of the
second order. Titles of subsections are headings of the third order... etc. The basic rule says: Adopt
the same style and size of font for all headings of the same order.
The font size for running matter (i.e. the main text) can vary from 11 to 13 points, depending
on the font being used. If one is using Times New Roman, it is advisable to use a size of 12 points.
If one is using Bookman Old Style, one may adopt a size of 11 points. The best tip in this regard is:
take the advice of your guide.

2.3 Particular Parts of the Paper

2.3.1 Title Page
The title page contains the full title of the paper, the name of the writer/student, the name of
the guide, the statement regarding the educational purpose of the paper, the date and the name and
address of the institute.
A sample of the title page is given in Appendix 1.

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2.3.2 Table of Contents
The table of contents is simply entitled CONTENTS (in full capitals). All the parts of the
paper that precede the table of contents — e.g. the title page and ‘dedication’ page — are not included
in it. But all that follows the table of contents — including endnotes, bibliography and analytic index
(if any) — must be mentioned in the table of contents. No page number appears on any of the pages
that precede the table of contents but they are counted in the pagination.
There are different styles of presenting the table of contents. In some printed books, the Table
of Contents gives only chapter titles, and excludes all mention of sections and subsections within each
chapter. However, in dissertations one is expected to name all the headings and subheadings in the
table of contents.
From the front matter, the list of illustrations, list of tables, preface, acknowledgements, list of
abbreviations, editorial method and abstract have to be mentioned in the table of contents if they are
present in the paper.
From the main body of the dissertation, chapters are listed under the generic heading
CHAPTER. Chapter numbers are aligned on the left and chapter titles aligned on the first letter. The
page numbers are aligned along the right margin.
If the dissertation comprises parts in which several chapters are included, this fact should also
be indicated in the table of contents.
The back matter — i.e. the endnotes (if any), the bibliography, appendices and the reference
list/index — is listed after the chapters.
There is double spacing between items in the table of contents. However if an item runs to
more than one line, then, the run-over lines are single-spaced.
Subheadings when included in the table of contents are indented. See Appendix 2 for further
details.

2.3.3 Introduction
The main text of the dissertation/paper usually begins with an introduction. This introduction
could alternatively be called Chapter 1. Whatever one prefers to call it — whether Introduction or
Chapter 1 — its first page is marked as page 1 (Arabic numerals).

2.3.4 Chapters
The body of the text is divided into chapters, each beginning on a new page. The chapters
should neither be too short nor too long. The entire title of the chapter is normally centred on the page.
The chapter title has to be in the upper case (block capitals), and should be in bold, if possible. For
example,

CHAPTER 1

THE HERMENEUTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF SYMBOLS

2.3.4.1 Numbering of Sections and Sub-Sections

All subdivisions of a chapter must be numbered. This numbering is done in one of the
following two styles: (a) in the style of decimal numbers (b) with multiple stops.
For example: (a) 3.2.1.4 means: the fourth division of the first subsection of the second
section of the third chapter. (b) 3.214 means the same thing according to the second style.
Here is a typical sequencing of numbers referring to various sections and subsections in
chapter 6 of a particular dissertation paper on Christian Doctrine. The chapter is titled: THE
CHURCH

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 6.0 Introduction
6.1 The Pre-Paschal Community of Jesus’ Disciples
6.2 The
f the information Church
given in this as the Body
chapter of Christ to the sample provided in Appendix 1.
and according
6.2.1 A New Identity
e in Divyadaan: Author: Bro. Anil Pinto. Topic: The Theistic Vision of the Bhagavad Gita, Guide: Fr. Albano Fe
6.2.2 Easter-Pentecost: the Turning Point
6.3 The Church as the Bride of Christ
6.4 The Church as the People of God
6.4.1 The Mission of the People of God
6.4.2 Four Levels of ‘Being Church’
6.4.2.1 The Domestic Church
6.4.2.2 The Parochial Church
6.4.2.3 The Local Church (Diocese)
6.4.2.4 The Universal Church
6.5 The Four Attributes of the Church
6.5.1 The Church is One
6.5.2 The Church is Holy
6.5.3 The Church is Catholic
6.5.4 The Church is Apostolic
6.6 The ‘Communion of Saints’
6.6.1 The Meaning of this Doctrine
6.6.2 The Implications of this Doctrine
6.7 Conclusion: The Ecclesial Vision of Vatican II

In the above example, the numbering is done according to the first method. We may observe
that these notes on Methodology have also adopted the first method of numbering. The second method
can be seen in Appendix 2 (Table of Contents).
The headings of the sections and subsections of every chapter are usually presented in the
‘Title Case’. This means that the first letter of all the words in the heading are put in the upper case,
except for articles, conjunctions, prepositions and other common words. For example, see the box
above.
For a better understanding of the chapter layout, refer to Appendix 3.

2.3.5 The Conclusion

The conclusion is the last part of the text in which the student is expected to give a final word
on the topic of his study. Besides summing up the entire paper in a few paragraphs, one should also
give one’s own views and opinions on the particular theme. This is called the critical appraisal of the
dissertation. Here you may state whether (and why) you agree or disagree with the author(s) you have
studied. Here one could also provide a few indications for further research etc…

2.3.6 Bibliography
The bibliography provides a list of all the sources one has referred to in one’s work. This will
be dealt with at length in chapter 4.

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 CHAPTER 3

NOTES (FOOTNOTES and ENDNOTES)

In this chapter we shall study the method and the style of writing footnotes or endnotes. Now
notes — whether they be footnotes or endnotes — are a must for scientific papers. Footnotes appear at
the bottom of the page, while endnotes appear at the end of the chapter or at the end of the entire
paper or dissertation. Most guides and readers prefer footnotes to endnotes, since this saves one the
trouble of turning pages. Appendix 4 presents a sample page of endnotes. In a scientific paper, these
endnotes would be placed immediately after the general conclusion of the entire paper, and before the
bibliography.
Notes have four main uses:
 to cite the authority for statements in your text.
 to make cross references.
 to make incidental comments.
 to make acknowledgements.

3.1 General Guidelines for Notes

3.1.1 Numbering:
At the place in your text where a note is introduced, the reference number is marked with a
super-scripted Arabic numeral. For example the footnote for the following text will appear at the
bottom of this page:

For Heidegger, understanding consists in gaining access to the mind of the author.
All texts to be interpreted must be placed in their historical context and understood in that
perspective.1

A second important point concerning footnote numbering is that it can be either continuous or
broken. Continuous numbering implies that the footnote numbering is carried on from one chapter
into another. Broken numbering implies that the footnote numbering begins anew with each chapter.
For term papers, it is quite okay to use continuous numbering. But this is not advisable for M.Ph.
theses and longer works. Broken numbering of footnotes is particularly helpful because one could
then store each chapter as a separate file; any changes in the footnotes would affect only that
particular chapter.

3.1.2 Style of the Footnote (for Books)

We now come to the most important part of this chapter: the style or method of writing
footnotes/endnotes.
For a book, when you are giving the reference for the first time, the following information
should be included. It should be put in the order that is given below:

1 Paul Ricoeur, “The Task of Hermeneutics,” Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences: Essays on
Language, Action and Interpretation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988) 45.

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Name of the author or authors,
Title and subtitle (if any),
Name of the editor, compiler, translator (if any)
Number or name of edition (if it is not the first edition)
Name of the series in which the book appears
with volume number or series number (if applicable)
Facts of publication (in brackets). Thus:
(Place of publication: Name of publishing agency, Year of publication)
Page number(s) of the specific citation or reference

The punctuation marks between items are as shown in the example below.
Please note: The page number(s) stated at the end of each footnote must be preceded by a comma
only if there is no other intervening closing-bracket.

1
Paul Ricoeur, The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies of the Creation of
Meaning in Language, trans. Robert Czerny, Kathleen McLaughlin and John Costello
(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986) 84.

EXERCISE 5: Go to the Library and write footnotes for (imaginary) citations from any 10 books.
The footnotes should contain all the details expected, in standard format.

3.1.3 Position of the Notes

The footnotes should be placed in numerical order at the bottom of the page, below a short
rule/separator, like the one we have seen on the previous page. The footnote must begin on the same
page where it is referenced. But a long footnote may extend into the next page.

3.1.4 Short Forms and Abbreviations

The title of the book may be also shortened or abbreviated, but only after the first full
reference. It is also advisable to indicate that one is shortening the name of the book in the subsequent
references. For example,

First full reference:

1
Paul Ricoeur, The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies of the Creation of
Meaning in Language (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986) 84. Henceforth this book
will be referred to as Rule of Metaphor.
Subsequent Reference:
2
Ricoeur, Rule of Metaphor, 87.

If one is intending to use an abbreviation, this must be indicated at the end of the first full
reference. For example: Henceforth this book will be referred to as RM.]
Abbreviations should be used only for those books that are repeatedly cited in the paper.
However for short papers it is advisable not to use abbreviations, since a short paper involves very
few books and resource material.

3
Ricoeur, RM, 95. [Abbreviation]

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3.2 Details of the Footnote
3.2.1 Name of the Author
The author’s name has to be given first in the footnote reference. However in cases when the
authorship is not established, the reference should begin with the title of the work. Examples of such
books are: Catechism of the Catholic Church and Constitutions of the Society of Saint Francis de
Sales.
 When the book is by two or three authors, give the full names of the authors in the order
mentioned in the title page.

1
Micheal Inwood, John Smith and Ivan Holmes, Death as Life (London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul, 1987) 46.

 But if the book has more than three authors, then in the footnote reference, the name of the first
author is followed by the Latin words et alii (in short et al) or the English words: ‘and others’. For
example,

1 1
Mario Scheiner et al, eds., or Mario Scheiner and others, eds.,

 All personal titles before or after the name are to be avoided. These include titles such as Dr., Fr.,
Rev., Prof., SDB, Ph.D., or any other degree or designation.
 Those books or compilations which have only an editor should be cited as in the following
example:
1
Max Komatose, Ira Sneed, and Sarah Swider, eds., Acting in the Off-Loop Theatres
of Chicago (Toledo: Wright-Smart Press,1995) 193.

3.2.2 Title of the Book

Always enter the full title of the book, and the subtitle if there is one. Always italicise or
underline (for typewriters) the title. If there is a subtitle, this should also be italicised.

Idols to Die, Symbols to Live: Dynamic Interaction Between Language, Reality and
the Divine.

3.2.3 Name of Editor, Translator or Compiler

In cases when the works of the author have been translated or edited (or both) by others, the
footnote should run as shown below:

1
Paul Ricoeur, A Ricoeur Reader: Reflection and Imagination, ed. Mario Valdes
(Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1991) 28.
2
August Von Haxthausen, Studies on the Interior of Russia, ed. S. Frederick Starr,
trans. Eleanor Schmidt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972) 65.

When the book has a foreword or introduction by somebody else:

1
Paul Ricoeur, Symbolism of Evil, with a foreword by James McCarthy (New York:
New York Press, 1999) 68.

14
3.2.4 Later Editions
You are expected to name the edition, if the cited work is not the first edition
5 Richard Walls, Now is the Hour, 3rd edn. (London: Clarendon Press, 1982) 123.

3.2.5 Facts of Publication

The facts of publication include the city, the publishing agency and the year of publication.
Please note, the name of the state (e.g. Goa) or country (e.g. India) is not mentioned.

(Panjim: New Age Press, 2001)

However, facts of publication can be avoided for citations from the Bible, classical works,
dictionaries, general encyclopaedias like the Encyclopaedia Britannica and periodicals, magazines
and journals.
With regard to the place of publication, if the book lists two or three places, one need give the
name of the first city only.
When the name of the publisher is not given one may have to write n.p. (i.e. no place) and if
the year of publication is not given then one will have to write n.d. (i.e. no date)

(Ponda: Sunrise Publishers, n.d.)

3.2.6 Page Numbers

This is the last information that appears in a footnote. Once all the general information is
given, one has to now provide the particular reference in the book, that is, the page number or
numbers. Utmost care should be taken to give exact page references, unless one is referring to the
matter in passing. For example,
1
Charles Reagan, Paul Ricoeur: His Life and His Works (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1998) 28.
If you are using/summarizing the information scattered all over the book in a few lines, then
use the word passim which means: ‘here and there’. For example,
1
Charles Reagan, Paul Ricoeur: His Life and His Works (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1998) 4-51 passim.

3.3 Subsequent References

Once the work has been cited with full/complete information, later references should be
shortened or abbreviated. One could follow either of the styles provided below.
Style 1: for a subsequent reference one should give the surname of the author followed by the title of
the book, and then the page number(s). For example,

First reference
1
Charles Reagan, Paul Ricoeur: His Life and His Works (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1998) 4.
Subsequent references
3 Reagan, Paul Ricoeur: His Life and His Works, 32.

Style 2: For subsequent references, the surname is directly followed by the page reference. However
this style can be used when the student is using only one book of the author in his/her paper. Style 1

15
should be used when you are using two or more books by the same author in your paper.
5 Reagan, 57. [Style 2]

3.4 Footnote Style for Other Important Types of Material

3.4.1 Periodicals
Periodicals are publications that are published at regular intervals. These include journals,
magazines and newspapers. Journals are more scholarly and have a limited circulation. Magazines on
the other hand have a wide readership and are usually of social interest. Citations from journals,
magazines and newspapers are much the same, however they do differ on some minor details.

3.4.1.1 Journals
For a scholarly journal the first full reference should include the following details
Author(s),
“Title of the article,” (in inverted commas)
Title of the periodical (in italics),
Volume number (in boldface) and issue number (optional)
Month (optional) and Year of Publication (in brackets)
Page number(s).

For example, first Reference:

1
Paul Ricoeur, “Philosophical Hermeneutics and Theology,” Theology Digest, 24
(1976) 157-158.
2
Teesta Setalvad, “Communalization of Education,” Divyadaan: Journal of
Philosophy and Education, 12 (April 2001) 89.
For subsequent references:
3
Ricoeur, “Philosophical Hermeneutics and Theology,” 159.
4
Setalvad, “Communalization of Education,” 92.

3.4.1.2 Magazines
Though magazines have volume and issue number it is better that they are identified by their
date alone. Here the date takes the place of the volume number and in these cases the date is not put in
brackets. Kindly note that the periodical/magazine name is followed by a comma.

First full Reference

1
Lalita Iyer, “Married to the Mob,” The Week, 3 February 2002, 16.
2
John Dayal, “Poll Muck,” Indian Currents: A Voice to the Voiceless, 17 February
2002, 11.
3
Tavleen Singh, “Dangerous Delusion: America’s War against Terrorism doesn’t
include India’s Battle against the Scourge,” India Today, 18 February 2002, 23.

16
For subsequent references
4
Iyer, “Married to the Mob,” 16.
5
Dayal, “Poll Muck,” 11.
6
Singh, “Dangerous Delusion,” 23.

3.4.1.3 Newspapers
To acknowledge citations from newspapers and newsletters, the name of the newspaper along
with the date is sufficient. However it is worthwhile to also give page number(s) because most
popular newspapers nowadays have 20 to 30 pages. If the same newspaper is published in different
places of the country, also give the place of publication. This is true of The Times of India, The Indian
Express and other national newspapers. Given below are some examples of the same:
1
Vidya Subrahmaniam, “Terrorism means little for UP’s Hotbed of ISI Activity,”
The Times of India (Mumbai), 20 February 2002, 7.
2
Anil Dubey, “Ultras take Six Hostages near Vaishno Devi,” The Indian Express
(Mumbai), 22 February 2002, 1.
For subsequent references
3
Subrahmaniam, “Terrorism means little for UP’s Hotbed of ISI Activity,” 7.
4
Dubey, “Ultras take Six Hostages near Vaishno Devi,” 1.

3.4.2 Encyclopaedias
Well known reference books like the Bible, the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and dictionaries
are not listed in the Bibliography. And when they are cited in the notes, the facts of their publication
are normally not given. But the edition must be acknowledged unless it is the first edition. Again the
title under which the entry occurs in the encyclopaedia should be indicated. The use of s.v. (sub
verbum = ‘under the word’) should be used. For example:
1
Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed., s.v. “Blake, William,” by Cosyns-Carr. Or,
1
Cosyns-Carr, “Blake, William,” in Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed.

But if you are giving references to articles from less-known encyclopaedias, or if you would
not like to take the risk you could offer full details. For example,
2
Micheal Inwood, “Hermeneutics,” Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, gen.
ed. Edward Craig (London: Routledge, 1998) 4: 384–385.

3.4.3 Articles from the Internet

Today many students access the Internet for their source material. Giving references to
citations from an Internet article is quite simple. The reference should contain the name of the writer,
followed by the title of the article, the website which contains the particular article and finally the date
on which the material was accessed. The information regarding the date of access is very important
because articles on the net are often updated. Here is an example:
1
George Boeree, “Victor Frankl.” http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/perscontents.html,
9/2/2001. or

17
 1
George Boeree,. “Victor Frankl.”
http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/perscontents.html, accessed on 9/2/2001.

3.4.4 Multi-Volume Works by the Same Author

1
Paul Tillich, Systematic Theology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951)
3: 38

As shown above, the volume number is normally highlighted in bold letters. In case of a
multi-volume work where each volume has a different title, the following style could be used:
1
Gabriel Marcel, The Mystery of Being, vol. 2: Faith and Reality (Chicago: Henry
Regnery, 1960) 33.

3.4.5 Book-Reviews
If you have referred to book reviews, then the style of citation differs. The first reference
should give the name of the reviewer, followed by the phrase ‘review of’... followed by the title of the
book reviewed, with the name of its author and finally the details of the journal in which this review
was published. For example:
1
Ashley Miranda, review of Virtue in Diverse Traditions: An Introduction, by
George Olivera, Divyadaan: Journal of Philosophy and Education, 12 (April 2001) 180-
181.

3.4.6 Scriptural References

When referring to citations from the Bible or some other well-known scriptures, use standard
abbreviations for the books, both in the text as well as in the notes. Hence the footnote includes the
book name (in abbreviation), the chapter number: the verses. The names of the books of the Bible are
not italicised. Besides, one could also provide the details of the version that one was reading. For
example:
1
Ps. 104: 6-14 NJB. (New Jerusalem Bible)
2
Mt. 12: 1-5.
3
1 Cor 13: 1-13 RSV. (Revised Standard Version)

3.4.7 Unpublished Material

This would include theses, dissertations, letters, lectures, class notes etc.
1
Banzelao Teixeira, The Hermeneutics of Paul Ricoeur (M.Ph. dissertation,
Divyadaan: Salesian Institute of Philosophy, Nashik, 2001) 25-27.
For class notes
2
Ivo Coelho, Philosophy of Knowing (Class Notes, Divyadaan: Salesian Institute of
Philosophy, Nashik, 2001) 59.

3.4.8 Indirect Citations

These are references to an author’s work that has been used in the book that you have read. In
such cases, references to both the works must be given in the following manner:

18
 1
Hans-Georg Gadamer, Philosophie Hermeneutic: Kliene Schriften, I (Tubingen:
Mohr, 1967) 158, as cited in Paul Ricoeur, From Text to Action: Essays in Hermeneutics, II
(Evanston: North-Western University Press, 1991) 55-56.

3.4.9 Citations from Philosophical and Other Classics

Philosophical classics are works by famous philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Thomas
Aquinas. Other classics would include the encyclicals of the popes and other Church documents like
the Catechism of the Catholic Church. For such references it is not necessary to give the page number.
Rather, such works are cited by their article numbers or paragraph numbers. See for example the
works of Thomas Aquinas. In this case the ‘I’ refers to the Part I, ‘13’ refers to the 13 th question and
‘5R’ refers to the 5th reply.
1
Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae I, 13, 5R.
2
Pope John Paul II, Evangelium Vitae, 35. [Here 35 is the article number]
In the above cases it is not necessary to give the publication details unless these are special
translations with comments and annotations.

Compiled/Edited Book with Articles by Different Writers

Occasionally one also comes across books which contain articles by various writers but are put
together into a book by an editor/editors. The citation style for such works is given below.
1
Joseph Putti, “Hermeneutics Today,” Hermeneutics: Truth or/and Meaning, ed.
Jose Maliekal (Kondadaba: St. John’s Regional Seminary, 1993-94) 2-3.

3.5 Content Notes and Cross-References

What could be the use of content notes? The first thing one must remember is that content notes are
not so common and even if they are, they shouldn’t be very frequent in the paper/thesis. Their primary
use is to fill in some supporting information which may not be important enough to be inserted in the
text of the paper. For example in a paper on hermeneutics the following information was put in the
content note:
1
Hermeneutics is also related to ‘Hermes’ the divine messenger in Greek myths who
is associated with the function of transmitting the divine message and communicating it to
mortals in a form understandable to human intelligence. Therefore hermeneutics could
mean bringing the concealed into the open. For further details see Joseph Putti,
“Hermeneutics Today,” Hermeneutics: Truth or/and Meaning, ed. Jose Maliekal
(Kondadaba: St. John’s Regional Seminary, 1993-94) 1.
Notes are also used for cross-references. Cross-references point out the place in the text where the
same matter has been discussed earlier or is going to be discussed at length at some later time. In
these case the use of the words see above or see below is very essential. See above refers to the text
that has preceded the particular cross-reference, while see below refers to the text that is to follow this
particular reference.
1
For a detailed study on this topic see pp. 20-28 above.
2
For a detailed discussion on this matter see pp. 56-67 below.
3
The findings of this particular study have been presented in appendix 5. For further
reference, see p.120 below.

19
osophical Journals, Magazines, Newspapers and Circular letters.
les, articles from edited books, unpublished matter, scriptural references.
osophical Problems in Quantum Mechanics. His methodology of doing the endnotes, however, is faulty. Pres

e World’s Great Physicists", Shambala Publishers, Boston 1985, p. 42

8, p. 75
EDWARDS Paul, Vol. 7, p. 48. (Macmillan, New York 1972)

s, 1979, p. 89

20
 CHAPTER 4

BIBLIOGRAPHY
There are different styles for the classification of bibliographical data. The most common
style is the division of the matter into what is called Primary Sources and Secondary Sources. Each of
these sections could be further divided into Books, Articles, and Manuscripts etc. However for short
papers and theses the student is advised not to make such divisions.
The Primary Sources should include the most authoritative books consulted and cited in the
paper. For example, if one is doing a study on The Cognitional Theory According to Bernard
Lonergan, the works of Lonergan will obviously be the primary source. Hence in this sense the books
by the author under study could be considered as primary sources, while the books on him by other
authors would be the secondary sources.
The other styles that are followed are the alphabetical order (authors) of classification and the
chronological one. Now if there are books by the same author then the chronological style should be
followed. But care should be taken to note the year when the books were first published. The
alphabetical order should simply follow the A-to-Z sequence.

4.1 How to Fill in a Bibliographical Entry

The contents within a bibliographical entry are the same as those of the notes. However the
arrangement style changes. Here is the general outline of it:
Surname/Second name/Family Name,
First name.
Name of the Book (Title and Subtitle & in italics).
Place of Publication:
Name of the Publishing Agency,
Year.
For example:

Thompson, John. Critical Hermeneutics: A Study in the Thought of Paul Ricoeur and
Jurgen Habermas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.

4.2 Classification by Alphabetical Order

Bibliographies are arranged alphabetically by author’s family names/surnames, letter by letter.
If the family names of two authors are identical then arrange next by the first names.
A bibliography styled according to alphabetical order may appear like this:

Bleicher, Josef. Contemporary Hermeneutics: Hermeneutics as Method, Philosophy and

Critique. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980.

Dornish, Loretta. “An Introduction to Paul Ricoeur.” Theology Digest, 24 (1976) 147-153.

Grondin, Jean. Introduction to Philosophical Hermeneutics. Translated by Joel

Weinsheimer and foreword by Hans-Georg Gadamer. New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1994.

Hahn, Lewis (ed.). The Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur. Chicago: Open Court, 1996.

Ihde, Don. Hermeneutic Phenomenology: The Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur. Foreword by

Paul Ricoeur. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1971.

21
Inwood, Michael. “Hermeneutics.” Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edited by
Edward Craig. London: Routledge, 1998. 4: 384-389.

Pandikattu, Kuruvilla. Idols to Die, Symbols to Live: Dynamic Interaction between

Language, Reality and the Divine. New Delhi: Intercultural Publications, 2000.

--------. Metaphorising of Reality. Pune: Jnana-Deepa Vidyapeeth, 1997.

Putti, Joseph. “Hermeneutics Today.” In Jose Maliekal (ed.), Hermeneutics: Truth or/and
Meaning. Kondadaba: St. John’s Regional Seminary, 1993-94.

In the above Bibliography you will notice that there are two works by a certain author called
Kuruvilla Pandikattu. In such cases you can sequence them according to the alphabetical order of the
titles, as done above.

4.3 Classification by Chronological Order

But, as said earlier, if you are doing a study on a particular author, it is advisable to offer all
the books by the author in a chronological order as they were first published. For example, in the box
below, all the books enlisted are the works of Paul Ricoeur.

1960 [Year when the book was first published]

The Symbolism of Evil. Translated by Emerson Buchanan. Boston: Beacon Press, 1969.
1965
Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. Translated by Denis Savage. New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1970.
1969
The Conflict of Interpretations: Essays in Hermeneutics. Edited and introduced by Don
Ihde. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1979.
1973
“Ethics and Culture: Habermas and Gadamer in Dialogue.” Philosophy Today, 17 (1973)
153-165.
1975
“Biblical Hermeneutics.” Semeia: An Experiential Journal of Biblical Criticism, 4 (1975)
27-148.
The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies of the Creation of Meaning in Language.
Translated by Robert Czerny with Kathleen McLaughlin and John Costello.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986.
1976
“History and Hermeneutics.” Journal of Philosophy, 73 (1976) 683-695.

22
*N.B. The month has to be specified if the pagination of every issue in a volume begins afresh from p

4.4 Other Cases

4.4.1 The Works of an Author Edited and Translated by Others

Ricoeur, Paul. The Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur: An Anthology of His Work. Edited by
Charles Reagan and David Stewart. Boston: Beacon Press, 1978.

Ricoeur, Paul. Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences: Essays on Language, Action and
Interpretation. Edited, translated and introduced by John Thompson with a response
by Paul Ricoeur. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.

Bibliographical Entry with Editor or Compiler in place of Author

Hahn, Lewis (ed.). The Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur. Chicago: Open Court, 1996.

4.4.2 Two or More Authors for the Same Book

Books that have more than one author or editor should normally mention all the names.
However only for the first name the style of ‘Surname, name,’ is followed. For the rest of the authors
the first name is followed by the surname. If there are more than three authors, the Bibliographical
entry simply states the surname and name of the first author followed by ‘and others’ or ‘et alii’. The
examples below will explain this point:

Fernandes, Albano and others. The ‘How-To’ Book for Youth Leaders. Mumbai: Tej-
Prasarini, 1997.

Lynd, Robert, and Helen Lynd. Middletown: A Study in American Culture. New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, 1929.

Lyon, Mary, Bryce Lyon, and Henry Lucas. The Wardrobe Book of William de Norwell.
Brussels: Commission Royale d’Histoire de Belgique, 1983.

4.4.3 Books with no Authors and Books from Institutes

If the name of the author or editor of a book is not given, then the bibliographical entry begins
with the title of the book. However, if the Institute takes responsibility for the compilation of a book,
then the name of the institute appears first.

Catechism of the Catholic Church. Bangalore: Theological Publications in India, 1997.

Indian Social Institute. Human Rights Issues 1997. New Delhi: Indian Social Institute,
1998.

4.4.4 Journals and Magazines

The Bibliographical entry for articles from Journals should have the following style:
Second name of the writer,
First name.
“Name of the article.”
Name of the Journal,
Volume number
Month (optional*) and Year (in brackets)
Pages.

23
Ricoeur, Paul. “Biblical Hermeneutics.” Semeia: An Experiential Journal of Biblical
Criticism 4 (1975) 27-148.

Dornish, Loretta. “An Introduction to Paul Ricoeur.” Theology Digest 24 (1976) 147-153.

Levenson, Carl Avren. “Distance and Presence in Augustine’s Confessions.” Journal of

Religion 65 (1985) 500-512.

Magazines and newspapers follow a similar pattern, but with slight modifications.

Iyer, Lalita, and Nistula Hebbar. “Married to the Mob.” The Week, 3 February 2002, 16-20.

Dayal, John. “Poll Muck.” Indian Currents, 17 February 2002, 11-12.

4.4.5 Newspapers
Signed Articles. These are articles whose authorship is indicated.

Subrahmaniam, Vidya. “Terrorism means little for UP’s Hotbed of ISI Activity.” The Times
of India (Mumbai), 20 February 2002, 7.

Dubey, Anil. “Ultras take Six Hostages near Vaishno Devi.” The Indian Express (Mumbai),
22 February 2002, 1.

Unsigned Articles. These are articles whose authorship is not specified. The news agency takes
responsibility. Most news clippings in the newspapers fall in this category.

“The Plight of America.” The Times of India (Mumbai), 26 January 2002, 12.

4.4.6 Books for Private Circulation (Books Privately Published)

When books are published privately, normally the authors take responsibility for their
publication; hence such an indication appears in the place where the name of the publishers should be
mentioned.

Srampickal, Jacob, and Leela Joseph. Teaching Media Education. New Delhi: by the
authors, 2000.

4.4.7 Book Reviews in Journals or Magazines

In such cases the name of the person who has written the review of the book appears first.
This is followed by the name of the book and its author and then the name of the journal in which this
review appeared. Finally give details of the volume and pages of the journal.

Miranda, Ashley. Review of Virtue in Diverse Traditions: An Introduction, by George

Olivera. Divyadaan: Journal of Philosophy and Education 12 (2001) 179-183.

4.4.8 M.Ph. Dissertations, Ph.D. Theses and Other Unpublished Material

The Bibliographical entry for dissertations and theses should follow the pattern given below.

Teixeira, Banzelao. The Hermeneutics of Paul Ricoeur (M.Ph. diss.) Nashik: Divyadaan,
Salesian Institute of Philosophy, 2001.

24
 The bibliographical entry for class notes and other unpublished material received at seminars
and other such occasions could be put in the following manner:

Coelho, Ivo. Philosophy of Knowing (class notes), Nashik: Divyadaan, Salesian Institute of
ks which should include books with
Philosophy, a single author, books having editors and translators.
2001.
ach of the following types of published works: philosophical journals, magazines and newspapers.
Rozario, Jackson. Postmodernism: A New Way of Living. Seminar held at Kings College,
e following types of works:
London,unpublished
2001. matter, Internet articles, book reviews and privately published work
her bibliographical details — that were used by a student while writing a scientific paper. Present them in the
ooks, New York,
4.4.91963).
Internet Articles
ERG, in Ken WILBER (ed.), Quantum Questions: Mystical Writings of the World’s Great Physicists, (Shambala
Boeree, George. “Victor Frankl.” http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/perscontents.html,
WILBER (ed.) Quantum Questions... etc.
9/2/2001.
NDL-RAST, (Harper-Collins, San Francisco, 1991).
RG, translated by Arnold POMERANS, (Scientific Book Guild, London, 1958).
by Norwood Russell HANSON, in The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, edited by Paul EDWARDS, Vol. 7, p. 46-49
n The Modern Schoolman, volume 38 (January 1961), p. 33-50.
tholic Encyclopaedia, (McGraw Hill, New York 1967), volume 12, p. 10-13.
ume I, (second edition), by Prof. Hilary PUTNAM, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1979).
ONERGAN, (Darton, Longman and Todd, London 1958).

25
 Appendix 1

AQUINAS’ SOLUTION
TO THE PROBLEM OF RELIGIOUS LANGUAGE

by
K.P. Vincent

Under the Guidance of

Rev. Fr. Amalraj Susai, SDB

A Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of

the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelor of Philosophy

June 2004

The Retreat
Jnanodaya Salesian Institute of Philosophy
Yercaud – 636 601, India

26
 Appendix 2

CONTENTS

CHAPTER Page

INTRODUCTION 1

1. THE SUMMA THEOLOGIAE— A BASIC OUTLINE 3

1.1. Why and For Whom was the Summa Written? 3
1.2. The Structure of the Summa
4
1.3. The Exitus-Reditus Scheme in the Summa
5

2. THE DOCTRINE OF ANALOGY 7

2.1. The Three Ways of Pseudo-Dionysius 7
2.2. The Doctrine of Analogy 8
2.2.1. A Basic Distinction of Terms 8
2.2.1.1. Univocal Terms 8
2.2.1.2. Equivocal Terms 9
2.2.1.3. Analogous Terms 9
2.2.2. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Analogy 10
2.2.2.1. Intrinsic Analogy 10
2.2.2.2. Extrinsic Analogy 11
2.2.3. Simple and Mixed Perfections 11
2.2.3.1. Mixed or Specific Perfections 11
2.2.3.2. Simple or Analogous Perfections 12
2.2.4. Perfection Signified and the Manner of Signification 12
2.2.5. Negative Attributes and Imperfections 12

3. CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM

OF RELIGIOUS LANGUAGE 14
3.1. The Falsification Debate 14
3.1.1. Anthony Flew 15
3.1.2. Richard M. Hare 15
3.1.3. Basil Mitchell 15
3.2. Ian M. Crombie 16

4. CONCLUSION 18
4.1. The Necessity of Religious Language 18
4.2. Differentiation of Religious Language According to Lonergan 19
4.3. Similarities Between Aquinas and Crombie 19

27
 Appendix 3

ENDNOTES 21

BIBLIOGRAPHY 24
CHAPTER 1

THE SUMMA THEOLOGIAE — A BASIC OUTLINE

Thomas Aquinas, the ‘angelic doctor’ of the church was born in 1225 in Aquino, near

Naples. He joined the Dominican order and excelled in his intellectual pursuit. Two of his

works the Summa Theologiae, and the Summa Contra Gentiles are accepted as masterpieces

of the heritage of the world. He began writing the Summa in 1267 and it was never finished

because Thomas passed away in 1274. The work remained incomplete, and was completed by

one of his close associates.

1.1 Why and for Whom was the Summa Written?

In 1226, Thomas Aquinas was sent to Paris to start a studentate and to instruct young

scholastics into theology.1 One of the reasons for beginning a new task was because the

prescribed texts weren’t satisfactory. Thus the aim of the Summa was to provide a brief,

synthetic and well-grounded collection of teachings in Christian Doctrine. In the opening

words of the Prologue to the Summa, Thomas Aquinas clearly states the target group of his

work—for whom it is meant:

The doctor of Catholic truth not only has to teach the advanced student; his business is also to
enlighten those who are just starting to learn. Hence it is my aim to treat of what pertains to
the Christian Religion in a manner suitable for the instruction of beginners.2

Thus we see that the Summa was meant for beginners, not for scholars. Perhaps

Thomas overrated the intelligence of his students, because even scholars of our age

1James A. Weisheipl, Frair Thomas De Aquino: His Life, Thought and Works. (New
York: Doubleday, 1974) 245.

2 Thomas Aquinas, Prologue to the Summa Theologiae.

28
 Appendix 4

NOTES

Chapter 1
1 Joseph Putti, “Hermeneutics Today,” Hermeneutics: Truth or/and Meaning, ed. Jose
Maliekal (Kondadaba: St. John’s Regional Seminary, 1993-94) 1.
2 Michael Inwood, “Hermeneutics,” Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, gen. ed.

Edward Craig (New York: Routledge, 1998) 4, 384-385.

3 Paul Ricoeur, “The Task of Hermeneutics,” Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences:

Essays on Language, Action and Interpretation, ed. and trans. John B. Thompson
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998) 45-46.
4 Ricoeur, “The Task of Hermeneutics,” 47.

5 Hans-Georg Gadamer, Philosophie Hermeneutic: Kleine Schriften, I (Tubingen: Mohr,

1967) 158, as cited in Ricoeur, “The Task of Hermeneutics,” 60.

6 Charles Reagan, Paul Ricoeur: His Life and His Work (Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1998) 4-51 passim. Also refer to Paul Ricoeur, “Intellectual Autobiography,”
The Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur, ed. Lewis Edwin Hahn, The Library of Living Philosophers,
vol. 23 (La Salle: Open Court, 1996) 3-53 passim.
7 Don Ihde, a leading scholar in Ricoeurian hermeneutics, did his doctoral thesis on

Ricoeur in 1964 entitled: Paul Ricoeur’s Phenomenological Methodology and Philosophical

Anthropology. The book Hermeneutic Phenomenology: The Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur
(Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1986) which he has edited, has become a standard
reference book on Ricoeur.
8 Don Ihde, “Paul Ricoeur’s Place in the Hermeneutic Tradition,” Hermeneutic

Phenomenology: The Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur, 64-67 passim.

9 The other works by Ricoeur in the early period include: Karl Jaspers et la

Philosophie du Paradox (1947), Gabriel Marcel et Karl Jaspers: Philosophie du Mystére et

Philosophie du Paradox (1948), History and Truth (1955).
10 John B. Thompson, Critical Hermeneutics: A Study in the Thought of Paul Ricoeur

and Jürgen Habermas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995) 41-42.

11 Thompson, Critical Hermeneutics, 43.

12 Reagan, Paul Ricoeur: His Life and His Work, 19.

Chapter 2
1 A. P. Martinich, “Metaphor,” Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward
Craig (New York: Routledge, 1998) 6, 335.
2 Kuruvilla Pandikattu, Idols to Die, Symbols to Live: Dynamic Interaction Between

Language, Reality and the Divine (New Delhi: Intercultural Publications, 2000) 90.
3 Paul Ricoeur, The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies of the Creation of

Meaning in Language, trans. Robert Czerny, Kathleen McLaughlin and John Costello (New
York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1986) 84.
4 Paul Ricoeur, “Biblical Hermeneutics,” Semeia: An Experimental Journal for Biblical

Criticism, 4 (1975) 76.

5 Ricoeur, “Biblical Hermeneutics,” 75-76.

6 Ricoeur, The Rule of Metaphor, 175.

7 Pandikattu, Idols to Die, Symbols to Live, 104.

8 Dabney Townsend, “Metaphor, Hermeneutics, and Situations,” Hermeneutic

29
Phenomenology: The Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur, 197.

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