Auld & Srinivas 1995-2011 www.aerodynamics4students.

com
Properties of Fluids
Fluids are very familiar to us. Our body itself is mostly water, while what surrounds us is largely air
which again is a fluid. In fact, Greeks and Indians in the past worshipped earth, fire, water and air;
three of these being fluids. We encounter motion of fluids almost everywhere- inside our bodies, in
our daily activity such as taking a shower, cleaning, swimming etc. We also fly and sail, activities
which are the motion of an object through a fluid. Fluid Mechanics is a science that studies the
behaviour of fluids and its effect on other bodies. It comprises of fluid statics, which is a study of
fluids at rest and fluid dynamics, which concerns fluids in motion. Then we also classify them further
as aerodynamics, which specialises in flow of air. If we concentrate on water, we have hydrostatics
and hydrodynamics.
Three Approaches to fluid Mechanics
There are three approaches to Fluid Mechanics : Experimental, Theoretical and Computational.
The experimental approach is the oldest approach, employed by Archimedes centuries ago. It is a
very popular approach where you will make measurements using a wind tunnel or a similar
equipment. But this is a costly and sometimes dangerous venture.
The theoretical approach where we employ the mathematical equations that govern the flow and try to
capture the fluid behaviour within a closed form solution i.e., formulas that can be readily used. This is
perhaps the simplest of the approaches, but its scope is somewhat limited. Not every fluid flow
renders itself to such an approach. The resulting equations may be too complicated to solve easily.
The third approach is Computational. Here we try to solve the complicated governing equations by
computing or simulating them using a computer. This has the advantage that a wide variety of fluid
flows may be computed and that the cost of computing seems to be going down day by day. With the
result the emerging discipline Computational Fluid Dynamics, CFD, has become a very powerful
approach today in industry and research. It is worth noting that any theoretical calculation or a
numerical computation has to be validated. For this it is usual to rely on experiments. After all seeing
is believing. Theory guides and experiment decides.
In this chapter, we concentrate mainly on the theoretical approach as it gives us a good insight into
fluid mechanics and provides the background knowledge required for some of the following chapters.
Of course, we will be benchmarking theory against information provided by the experimental studies.
Computational approach will be seen in later chapters.
What is a Fluid?
It is well known that matter is divided into solids and fluids. Fluids can be further divided into Liquids
and Gases. Solids have a definite shape and a definite size, while the liquids have a definite size, but
no definite shape. They assume the shape of the container they are poured into. Gases on the other
hand have neither a shape nor a size. They can fill any container fully and assume its shape. For
engineering we need a more precise definition. This comes when we consider the response of a solid
or a fluid to a shear force. A solid resists a shear force while a fluid deforms continuously under the
action of a shear force.
Figure 1. Deformation of a Solid
Consider two flat plates of infinite length placed a distance h apart as shown in Fig 1. The lower plate
is fixed while the upper plate is allowed to move. Let us fill the gap in between the plates first with a
solid substance. If now a shear force is applied to the upper plate the solid block deforms as shown.
Line ab assumes a new position ab'and the upper plate is displaced by a distance bb'. The
deformation produced is proportional to the applied shear stress F/A, where A is the area of the solid
surface in contact with the plate.
Figure 2. Deformation of a Fluid.
Now let us fill the gap with a fluid, say water. What happens when a shear force is applied to the top
plate? We find that it moves continuously ie., point b keeps moving and occupies positions b1, b2, b3,
etc at different instants of time. The fluid block between the plates deforms and continues to deform
as long as the force is applied. This experiment shows that a fluid at rest cannot resist shear stress.
Such an experiment also helps us to define viscosity, which we will take up later.
Continuum Hypothesis
We know that all matter is made up of molecules, which are in random motion. Any fluid we consider
has molecules bombarding each other and the boundaries. However the number at any location in the
fluid is usually so large that we can consider just their average behaviour.
An average of velocities (or densities) of the molecules that pass through a small volume surrounding
that point can be obtained. The size of this small volume has to meet with certain criteria. It must be
smaller than the physical dimensions of the region under consideration like the wing of an aircraft or
the pipe in a hydraulic system. At the same time it must be sufficiently large to accommodate a large
number of molecules to make any averaging meaningful.
The existence of this limit is established by considering the definition of density as mass per unit
volume ( 6m/ 6V ). Consider a small volume 6V around the point P (Fig. 3) within the region of
interest, R. Let us calculate density at P by considering different sizes of 6V . Values of density so
calculated are plotted in the same figure. It is clear that the size 6V has an enormous influence on
the calculated value of density. Too small a 6V , the value of calculated density fluctuates because
the number of molecules within 6V is varying significantly with time. Too big a 6V might mean
that density itself is varying significantly within the region of interest. It is clear that there is a limit
6V
o
below which molecular variations assume importance and above which one finds a
macroscopic variation of density within the region.
Figure ! Definition of Density

Therefore density is best defined as a limit -
j=lim
6V -6V
o
(
6m
6V
)
(1)
At Standard Temperature and Pressure conditions (STP) the limit ( 6V
o
) is around 10
-9
mm
3
and
air at this tiny volume has about 3 x 10
7
molecules. This is a large enough number to give a constant
value of density despite the rigorous molecular motion within it. For many of the applications in Fluid
Mechanics, this volume is smaller than the overall dimensions of the regions of interest considered
such as an aeroplane, wing of an aeroplane, ship or the parts of an engine etc. These considerations
do not hold good when we go to greater altitudes. For example, at an altitude of 130 km the molecular
mean free path is about 10.2 m and there are only 1.6 x 10
17
molecules in a cubic meter of air
(Molecular Mean Free Path, \ is defined as the average distance a molecule has to travel before it
collides with another molecule. At STP conditions its value is 6 x 10
-8
m ). Under these conditions it
becomes necessary to consider the effect of every molecule or groups of molecules, as in
calculations concerning satellites or re-entry vehicles. That branch of fluid mechanics is called
Rarefied Gasdynamics.
Viscosity, j
We all have a feel for viscosity. The more viscous a fluid, the more sticky it is and the more difficult for
it to flow. Oils flow at a slower rate than water. We understand viscosity as a property that tends to
retard fluid motion. But we do have a more rigorous definition of viscosity.
Figure 4: Flow etween parallel plates
!t was seen that when a shear force is applied to the top plate the fluid undergoes a continuous
deformation "Fig.#$. %s a result the lock of fluid abcd deforms to ab'c'd after a time 6t . &et the
speed of the top plate e U. !t is an important property of fluids that the layer of fluid ad'acent to a
solid surface moves with the same velocity as the solid surface. This is called the ()o *lip( condition.
%ccordingly, the fluid layer closest to the top plate moves with a speed U while that closest to the
lower plate is at rest. Thus the velocity of the fluid varies continuously from +ero on the lower plate to
U at the upper plate. !n other words, a velocity gradient develops in the fluid. !n the simple case of the
flow etween parallel plates this is a linear profile. The velocity gradient is given y
du
d y
=
U
h
"#$
where h is the distance etween the two plates.
!n a small instant of time 6t we find that the upper plate has moved y a distance bb' which is
e,ual to U. 6t .
)ow
tan (6o)6o=
U6t
h
"-$
)oting that for solids the shear stress t is proportional to strain 6o while for fluids it is
proportional to rate of strain, , which in turn is defined as
=lim
6 t -0
(
6o
6t
)
"4$
*ustituting for 6o we have
=
U
h
=
d u
d y
".$
Since t is proportional to
, we have
t
or
t
du
d y
(6)
It is found that for common fluids such as air, water and oil the relationship etween shear stress and
velocit! gradient can e e"pressed as,
t=j
du
d y
(#)
$he constant of proportionalit! j is an important propert! of fluids in determining the flow
ehaviour and is called Dynamic Viscosity or Absolute Viscosity. It is usuall! referred to as %ust
Viscosity. It has the dimensions FLT
-
and units of !s"m

in the SI s!stem.
Fluids for which the shear stress varies linearl! as rate of strain are called !e#tonian Fluids. &an!
of the common fluids elong to this categor!' air, water. (hen the relationship etween shear stress
and rate of strain is not linear, the fluid is designated !on-!e#tonian. )"amples of this categor! are
some of the industrial fluids such as plastics, sludge and iological fluids such as lood. $!pical plots
of shear stress vs rate of strain are shown in Fig *. +heolog! is the ranch of fluid mechanics which
specialises in these non',ewtonian fluids. -ere, we consider primaril! common fluids such as water
and air and hence restrict ourselves to ,ewtonian fluids.
Fi$ure % & Flow etween parallel plates
.iscosit! of a fluid is strongl! dependent on temperature and is a wea/ function of pressure. For
e"ample, when the pressure of air is increased from 1 atm to *0 atm, its viscosit! increases onl! !
aout 10 percent allowing one to ignore its dependence on pressure. Fig 6. shows the manner of
dependence of viscosit! on temperature for some of the common fluids. It is seen that the viscosit! of
li1uids deceases with temperature while that for the gases increases with temperature. $his difference
in ehaviour is e"plained ! the cohesive and intermolecular forces within the fluid. 2i1uids are
characterised ! strong cohesive forces and close pac/ing of molecules. (hen temperature
increases cohesive forces are wea/ened and there is less resistance to motion. -ence viscosit!
decreases. (ith gases, the cohesive
forces are ver! wea/ and the molecules
are spaced apart. .iscosit! is due to the
e"change of momentum etween
molecules as a result of random motion.
3s the temperature increases, the
molecular activit! increases giving rise to
an increased resistance to motion or in
other words viscosit! increases.
Formulas for Viscosity
3 widel! used formula for the calculation of viscosit! of gases is the Sutherland )1uation given !
j=
bT
3/2
T+S
(4)
where b and ' are constants and T is temperature.
For air
b=1.45810
5 kg
ms K
1/2
and S 5 110.6 7.
8ower 2aw is another appro"imation to calculate viscosit! and is given !
j
j
o
=
(
T
T
o
)
0.7
(9)
where j
o
is the value of viscosit! at a reference temperature T
o
,which could e ()*.
3n empirical fit for the viscosit! of li1uids is
ln
(
j
j
o
)
=a+b
(
T
o
T
)
+c
(
T
o
T
)
2
(10)
For water, T
o
5 2#:.167 j
o
5 0.001#92 /g;(m.s), a5'1.96, 5 '6.40 and c 5 6.#6.
3nother empirical formula for li1uids is the 3ndrade e1uation namel!,
j=De
( B/T )
(11)
where + and D are constants and T is the temperature in *
*inematic Viscosity, +
In fluid flow prolems viscosit! often appears in comination with densit! in the form
+=
j
j
(12)
<ne of the common e"amples is +e!nolds ,umer, defined as VL/ + eing one of the ver!
important parameters in Fluid D!namics. $his term + is referred to as 7inematic .iscosit! and has
the dimensions of L

"T. Figure # shows a plot of + for air and water against temperature.
Fi$ure ( & 7inematic .iscosit! plotted against temperature
Density, j
Densit! is defined as mass per unit volume of the sustance. -owever, as discussed efore, in the
=ontinuum -!pothesis, it is defined as a limit. If 6m is the mass of a small volume 6V then
j=lim
6V -6V
o (
6m
6V
)
(1:)
>nit of densit! in the SI s!stem is /g;m
:
. >nder ordinar! conditions the densit! of water is 99: 7g;m
:
while that for air at 1*
o
= and atmospheric pressure is 1.22* 7g;m
:

Densit! of li1uids is somewhat insensitive to the changes in pressure and temperature. For gases
there is a strong dependence of densit! on these 1uantities and is given ! the e1uation of state of
the particular gas.
'pecific Volume, -
Specific .olume, - of a fluid is defined as the volume per unit mass and its numerical value is given
! the reciprocal of densit!.
v=
1
j
(16)
'pecific Wei$ht,
Specific (eight, of a fluid is defined as the weight per unit volume and is related to densit!.

=jg (1*)
where $ is acceleration due to gravit!. Its units (in SI units) are ,;m
:
. ,oting that the value of $ is
9.40#m;s
2
specific weight of water at 60
o
= is 9.4 7,;m
:
. For air at 1*
o
= and atmospheric pressure
specific weight is 12 ,;m
:
.
'pecific .ra-ity, '.
Specific ?ravit!, '. of a fluid is the ratio of its densit! to that of water under reference conditions,
usuall! at 6
o
= (i.e., 10007g;m
:
.)
SG=
j
j
water at 4
o
C
(16)
Specific ?ravit! eing a ratio of densities is independent of units. Its value for mercur! at 20
o
= is
/)0%%. $here is not a single set standard for reference densit!. Sometimes for gases, densit! of air
under standard conditions 1.22* 7g;m
:
is used as the reference.
Pressure, P
8ressure along with velocit! is one of the main parameters in Fluid D!namics. It is defined as the
compressive stress at an! point in a fluid at rest. Imagine a thin plate immersed in a fluid at rest.
8ressure is the normal force per unit area e"erted on the plate. It is rought aout ! the
omardment of fluid molecules upon the solid surface.
Dimensions of pressure are F"L

which is also called a Pascal.

3t low speeds fluid flow is caused ! pressure differences and gradients than due to pressure itself@
the actual pressure level within a fluid ecomes less important. Aut for high speed flows the
magnitude of pressure ma! ecome important. <n the other hand at ver! low pressures, vaporisation
ma! set in a li1uid.
8ressure values read ! measuring devices such as a manometer are the pressure levels aove the
atmospheric pressure and are called gauge pressure. (hen pressure is referred to a vacuum it
ecomes an Absolute Pressure eing the sum of the gauge pressure and atmospheric pressure.
Temperature, T
$emperature is a measure of the random molecular motion of the fluid at a point. $he hotter the fluid
the more energ! is stored in random motion of molecules.
$he unit of temperature is 7elvin (7), as an asolute measure of thermal energ! or =entigrade (
o
=),
as a relative measure with 0 degrees at the freeBing point of water.
Velocity, V
.elocit! of the flow is the average speed of all molecules at a point in the flow at a given time. .elocit!
is a vector 1uantit! and can e constructed from three scalar components (u,-,#) (horiBontal, vertical,
forward)
$he units of .elocit! are m;s in the metric s!stem.
1deal .as La#
8ressure, densit! and temperature of a gas are related through an e1uation of state. >nder ordinar!
conditions for air,
P=jRT
(1#)
where P is the asolute pressure, j the densit!, T the asolute temperature and 2 is a gas
constant. $he aove e1uation is called the Ideal ?as 2aw or the 8erfect ?as )1uation. $he gases
oe!ing this e1uation are called Ideal ?ases.
$he gas constant 2 (Ideal ?as 2aw ) is given !
R=

M
(14)
where is called the universal gas constant and is e1ual to 3)/4 5"6$0*. For air the gas constant
2 7 3809 5"6$0* .
+ul6 :odulus, ;-
Aul/ &odulus determines how compressile a fluid is. In other words, it tells us how the densit! of a
fluid changes when the fluid is su%ected to pressure. It is defined as

v
=V
d P
d V
=j
dP
dj
(19)
where dP is the pressure change that is re1uired in order to change the volume ! d V , V
eing the initial volume. $he negative sign indicates that an increase in pressure is accompanied ! a
decrease in volume.
$he dimensions of Aul/ &odulus are F2
'2
@ the units eing ,;m
2
. -igher the value of Aul/ &odulus
indicates that it is difficult to compress the fluid. $a/e water for e"ample. Its Aul/ &odulus is 2.1* "
10
9
,;m
2
meaning that it re1uires an enormous pressure to change the volume of water ! a small
amount. For all practical purposes water (and man! other li1uids as well) is treated as eing
incompressile.
+ul6 :odulus for .ases
?ases have an e1uation of state that connects pressure, densit! and temperature i.e., e1uation of
state. $his enales us to deduce an e"plicit relationship etween pressure and densit!. Such a
relationship depends upon the process eing considered ' isothermal (at constant temperature) or
isentropic (at constant entrop!). $he deduced e1uations are
P
j
=co!sta!t For an isothermal process (20)
and
P
j
k
=co!sta!t
For an isentropic porcess. (21)
where 6 is the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure, Cp to the specific heat at constant
volume,C-. In addition C
"
C
v
=R , where 2 is the gas constant. >nder ordinar! conditions /51.6
for air.
A! sustituting e1uations 20 and 21 in the definition for ul/ modulus, )1n. 19 we have,

v
=P For an isothermal process (22)

v
=k P For an isentropic process (2:)
$hus we see that the ul/ modulus for a gas depends upon its pressure. ?iven that for air the
atmospheric pressure at S$8 conditions is 1.01:2* " 10
*
,;m
2
, the ul/ modulus is of the same order
( while that for water it is 2.1* " 10
9
,;m
2
). $hese figures show that air is aout 1*,000 times as
compressile as water.
Vapour Pressure
(hen a li1uid is e"posed to atmosphere molecules escape from its surface in a vapour form.
Supposing the li1uid is placed in a closed container, the activit! continues so that vapour fills the
space in etween the li1uid level and the container. 3 pressure develops and reaches an e1uilirium.
$he vapour is said to e saturated. $he pressure it e"erts upon the li1uid surface is the vapour
pressure.
'urface Tension, c
Surface $ension is said to act etween two immiscile li1uids or etween a li1uid and gas, sa! water
and air. $he interface etween the two fluids is assumed to act li/e a stretched memrane under
tensile stress. $his stress is re1uired to hold the memrane in position. &an! instances from ever!da!
life could e cited to %ustif! this assumption. 3 steel needle will float on water due to the apparent
tension developed at the water surface. (ater drops form on smooth surfaces. $in! spheres of
mercur! will form when it is poured on a smooth surface. >nalanced cohesive forces acting on li1uid
molecules at the interface are alanced ! the tensile force due to surface tension.
Surface $ension, is c e"pressed as force per unit distance (,;m) and has dimensions of F2
'1
. Its
magnitude depends upon the two fluids in contact and on temperature.
Pressure inside a Drop of Fluid
It is ecause of surface tension that pressure of a li1uid increases within a ule. =onsider the free'
od! diagram of a ule as shown in Fig.4.
Fi$ure 3 C Forces acting on a ule memrane
If the force due to surface tension at the edge is alanced ! the pressure force inside the ule, we
have
2nRc=PnR
2
(26)
i.e.,
P=
2c
R
where P is the pressure difference etween inside the drop and that outside. In addition the pressure
inside the ule is greater than that outside.
Capillary Tube
Fi$ure 9 & =apillar! $ue
3s shown in Fig. 9, if a small open tue is inserted into a container with water, we see that water
raises into the tue. (e now get a li1uid'gas'solid interface. In this case, attraction or adhesion
etween solid and water is strong and is ale to overcome the mutual cohesion etween li1uid
molecules. $hat is wh! water rises into the tue. $he li1uid is said to wet the surface.
$he height of the li1uid column is related to surface tension, tue radius, specific weight of the li1uid
and angle of contact 0 etween li1uid and the tue. $he vertical force due to surface tension ,
2nRccos(0) and weight of the fluid,
nR
2
h
,will alance each other.
nR
2
h=2nRccos(0)
D.
or
h=
2ccos(0)
R
(2*)
"t is seen that if the tue radius is small the capillar! rise, h is pronounced. $hat is narrower the tue
more the height to which the fluid rises in it. Aut whether the fluid rises in the capillar! tue or not is
decided ! the contact angle, 0 shown in the figure. It is the angle etween the solid and the li1uid
surfaces. (hen this angle is less than 90
o
the surface tension is such as to pull the fluid through the
tue. $here is a meniscus (concave upwards). $he li1uid is said to wet the surface. Aut when the
angle is greater than 90
o
as happens with mercur! the li1uid level is actuall! depressed. ,ow the
li1uid does not wet the surface.
+eturn to $ale of =ontents