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82 30
RTI Project No. 44U-2265 Contract No. EMW-C-0677 FEMA Work Unit 1239A
FINAL REPORT
Research Triangle Institute P.O. Box 12194 Research Triangle Park, North Carollna 27709
September 1982
This report has been reviewed in the Federal Emergency Management Agency and approved f o r publication. Approval does not s i g n i f y that the contents necessarily r e f l e c t the views and p o l i c i e s of the Federal Emergency Management Agency.
FINAL REPORT
STATE-OF-THE-ART-ASSESSMENT-SHELTER HABITABILITY
Prepared by:
M. Wright R. Chessin M. Laney
L. cox
UNCLASSIFIED
S E C U R I T Y C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F T H I S P A G E (When D e t e Entered)
R E P O R T NUMBER
2. G G V T ACCESSION N C
3.
R E C I P I E N T S C A T A L O G NUMBER
4. T I T L E (and Subtitle)
5.
FINAL
6.
P E R F O R M I N G ORG. R E P O R T N U M B E R
RTI/2265/00/04F
8.
C O N T R A C T O R G R A N T NUMBERfa)
Wright, M. D . ,
9.
P E R F O R M I N G O R G A N I Z A T I O N N A M E A N D ADDRESS
27711
12.
September 1982
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NUMBER O F P A G E S
192
MONITORING AGENCY N A M E 4 ADDRESS(if different from Controlling Office)
Unclassified
1 5 a .
scn EDULE
DECLASSIFICATION/DOWNGRADING
6.
8 . SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
9. K E Y WORDS (Continue
state- of- the- art she1 t e r habi tabi 1 i ty nuclear weapons e f f e c t s future research needs
10. A B S T R A C T
. The objectives of t h i s study were t o assess the state- of- the- art of s h e l t e r h a b i t a b i l i t y research, t o describe nuclear weapons e f f e c t s and mitigation techniques, t o summarize current c i v i l defense programs and policies, a n d t o identify future research needs related t o s h e l t e r
Fo r m 1 Jan 73
1473
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S E C U R I T Y C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F THIS PAGE(When Data Entered)
habitability. The work consisted of an extensive review of civil defense l i t e r a t u r e , a review of noncivil defense l i t e r a t u r e t h r o u g h computer searches, and personal communications with individual researchers. The information obtained was summarized into a state- of-the- art assessment of research related t o shelter habitability. General conclusions were listed t o identify areas where there i s general agreement among researchers. Recommendations for further study were made for areas where there i s disagreement among researchers and where there are i m p o r t a n t unanswered questions.
UNCLASSIFIED
SECURITY C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F T H I S PAGE(When Data Entered
B e t t g e , FEMA
Donald Johnston o f RTI who o f f e r e d v a l u a b l e suggestions r e l a t i n g t o occupant response data, and D r . James C. M u l l i g a n o f North C a r o l i n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
A B STRACT
The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s study were t o assess t h e s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t o f s h e l t e r h a b i t a b i l i t y research, t o describe nuclear weapons e f f e c t s and m i t i g a t i o n techniques, t o summarize c u r r e n t c i v i l defense programs and p o l i c i e s , and t o i d e n t i f y f u t u r e research needs r e l a t e d t o s h e l t e r habitability. The work c o n s i s t e d o f an extensive review o f c i v i l defense
1 i t e r a t u r e , a review o f n o n c i v i l defense l i t e r a t u r e through computer searches, and personal communications w i t h i n d i v i d u a l researchers. The i n f o r m a t i o n obtained was summarized i n t o a s t a t e - o f - t h e a r t assessment o f research rel ated t o s h e lt e r h a b i t a b i l i t y . General conclusions
were l i s t e d t o i d e n t i f y areas where t h e r e i s general agreement among researchers. Recommendations f o r f u r t h e r study were made f o r areas *here
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
............................ I- 1 A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I- 1 B . Summary o f Weapons E f f e c t s and M i t i g a t i o n Techniques . . . . I - 2 1. Nuclear Weapons E f f e c t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I - 2 2 . M i t i g a t i o n Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I - 4 C . C i v i l Defense Programs and P o l i c i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . I- 6 1. H i s t o r y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 2 . Current Programs and P o l i c i e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I- 9 D . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-11 I 1 . S h e l t e r H a b i t a b i l i t y Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I - 1 A . C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f S h e l t e r H a b i t a b i l i t y Elements . . . . . . I I - 1 1. Thermal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I - 1 2 . Chemical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I - 4 3 . B i o l o g i c a l Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I - 5 4 . Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I - 7 B . S t a t e - o f - t h e - A r t Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I - 8 1. Thermal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I - 8 a . Thermal Environmental P r e d i c t i o n . . . . . . . II- 8 b . Thermal Environmental Control . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13 c . Thermal Environmental M o n i t o r i n g . . . . . . . . . 11-24 2 . Chemical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-24 3 . B i o l o g i c a l Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-26 a . C i v i l Defense Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-27 b . D i s a s t e r - R e l a t e d H e a l t h Studies . . . . . . . . 11-41 c . Research on Al 1e r g e n s and Communicable D i seases . . 11-47 4 . Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-58 a . L i g h t i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-59 b . Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-60 c . Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-60 C . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-61 I I I. S h e l t e r Standards and Occupant Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 1 A . S h e l t e r Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III- 1 1. Thermal Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 1 2 . Chemical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 4 3 . B i o l o g i c a l Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 5 4 . Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 6 . Occupant Responses ( P h y s i o l o g i c a l ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I I - 7
I
Background
iv
. . . 2. .
1
. .
. . . . . . . . . . . 111-50 ...... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-51 . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-51 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . 111-53 . ... . . . . . . . 111-54 . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-54 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 111-58 111-56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-60 C . Occupant Responses (Psychological) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-60 1. Research Approaches Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-61 2 . Psychological Factors I d e n t i f i e d as Being Important . . 111-66 3 . L i k e l y Impacts o f the Psychological Factors o f Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-66 4 . Recommendations f o r Minimizing the Negative Impact . . . o f Responses t o t h e Psychological Environment . . . . . 111-72 a . S h e l t e r Manager S e l e c t i o n and T r a i n i n g . . . . . . 111-72 b . P u b l i c Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-73 c . S h e l t e r F a c i l i t y / A c t i v i t y Planning . . . . . . . . 111-74 D . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-78
c
Occupant C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a Age. Sex. Race. and Urban-Rural b State o f Health Responses a t Standard Conditions a Normal Population ( 1 ) Thermal Environment ( 2 ) Chemical Environment ( 3 ) B i o l o g i c a l Environment ( a) Communi cab1 e D i seases ( b ) Acute and Chronic Conditions ( 4 ) Other Considerations b S e n s i t i v e Population ( 1 ) Thermal Environment ( 2 ) Chemical Environment ( a ) Carbon Dioxide ( b ) Carbon Monoxide ( c ) N i t r o g e n Oxides ( d ) Smoke ( 3 ) B i o l o g i c a l Environment ( 4 ) Other Considerations Responses t o Non-Standard Conditions a Normal Population (1) Thermal Environment ( a ) Heat ( b ) Cold ( 2 ) Chemical Environment ( a ) Carbon Dioxide (b) Carbon Monoxide ( c ) Nitrogen Oxides ( d ) Smoke ( 3 ) B i o l o g i c a l Environment ( 4 ) Other Considerations b S e n s i t i v e Population (1) Thermal Environment ( 2 j Chemical Environment ( 3 ) B i o l o g i c a l Environment ( 4 ) Other Considerations
....... . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 111111- 7 . . . 7 ....... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 111- 9 . 111-15 ..... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 111-15 111-15 .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . 111-20 . . . . . . . . . 111-22 ..... .. .. .. .. .. .1 11-23 111-27 .. . . . . . . . . . . . 111-28 ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-36 ....... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 111-37 111-38 ..... .. .. .. . . . . . 111-40 . . . . . . 111-41 ..... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 111-41 111-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-41 ...... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 111-46 111-44 . 111-47 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 111-49
Page
B.
vi
LIST OF TABLES Number 11-1 Incidence of Respiratory, Infective, and Parasitic Diseases, Percent Distribution, and Number of Acute Conditions Per 100 Persons Per Year in the United States, 1980 Page
11-2
111-1
111-2
. . . . . . . 11-55 Number o f Cases and Cases Per 100,000 Population o f Reported Communicable Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-56 Age Distribution of U.S. Population, 1980 ( I n Thousands) . . . 111- 8 Incidence of Acute Conditions Per 100 Persons B y Condition Group, U.S. Per F o r t n i g h t . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 111-11
Percent Distribution of Persons With Limitation of Activity. Due t o Chronic Conditions, By Degree o f Limitation According t o Sex and Age, 1980
111-3
111-4 111-5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111-13 Reported Communicable Disease Incidence, U.S., 1980. Annual. . 111-25 Reaction t o Stressful Environmental Stimuli . . . . . . 111-67
vi i
T-
I.
A.
Introduction
BACKGROUND
I n recent years, c i v i l defense planners have emphasized two major a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r p r o t e c t i n g t h e c i v i l i a n p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e event o f a n u c l e a r a t t a c k on t h e U n i t e d States. The f i r s t a l t e r n a t i v e would be implemented
should an a t t a c k occur suddenly, w i t h o u t warning, and c o n s i s t s o f s h e l t e r i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y o f t h e i r l o c a l e a t t h e t i m e o f attack. The second a l t e r n a t i v e would be implemented d u r i n g a p e r i o d
o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l t e n s i o n s t h a t c o u l d l e a d t o war and c o n s i s t s o f r e l o c a t i n g (evacuating) p o p u l a t i o n s o f l i k e l y t a r g e t areas i n t o areas o f lower r i s k where s h e l t e r from f a l l o u t would be provided. The success o f both a l t e r n a t i v e s
depends on t h e a b i l i t y o f people t o be housed i n a s h e l t e r f o r an extended t i m e and t o emerge w i t h s u f f i c i e n t from t h e attack. h e a l t h and energy t o implement a recovery
s h e l t e r s , u s u a l l y e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g s brought i n t o s e r v i c e as s h e l t e r s d u r i n g a c r i s i s ; ( 2 ) s p e c i a l , o r working, s h e l t e r s such as emergency o p e r a t i n g centers; and ( 3 ) singl e-purpose s h e l t e r s erected s p e c i f i c a l l y t o p r o v i d e shel t e r d u r i n g an emergency. The l a t t e r two classes are constructed and equipped f o r They are t h e r e f o r e more l i k e l y t o have
s p e c i f i c shel t e r purposes.
environmental c o n t r o l systems designed i n t o them than i s t h e f i r s t class, which normal l y depends e i t h e r on e x i s t i n g environmental c o n t r o l systems designed f o r o t h e r purposes o r on e x p e d i e n t l y i n s t a l led environmental c o n t r o l systems.
1-1
For many years, c i v i l defense researchers have sponsored and conducted s t u d i e s t o i d e n t i f y problems associated w i t h s h e l t e r h a b i t a b i l i t y and t o d e f i n e techniques f o r m a i n t a i n i n g a h a b i t a b l e shel t e r environment. These
s t u d i e s have c o n s i s t e d o f a n a l y t i c a l and experimental p r o j e c t s , as w e l l as equipment design and development. The r e s u l t s o f these s t u d i e s have been used
as t h e basis t o e s t a b l i s h minimum standards f o r t h e i n t e r n a l s h e l t e r environment and t o develop guidance f o r i n s t a l 1 i n g expedient environmental c o n t r o l systems i n shel t e r s . No recent s t u d i e s have attempted t o assemble t h e r e s u l t s o f s h e l t e r h a b i t a b i l i t y research i n t o a s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t assessment.
As w i t h most o t h e r
areas o f study, such an assessment i s needed p e r i o d i c a l l y t o a i d planners i n i d e n t i f y i n g a d d i t i o n a l research and development needs. The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e
research described h e r e i n have been t o conduct a s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t study o f s h e l t e r h a b i t a b i l i t y and t o i d e n t i f y remaining research necessary f o r adequate assurance t h a t shel t e r plans are workable. The remainder o f t h i s chapter b r i e f l y summarizes nuclear weapons e f f e c t s , m i t i g a t i o n techniques, and c u r r e n t c i v i l defense p o l i c i e s and programs. Subsequent chapters d e s c r i b e t h e important elements t h a t determine shel t e r h a b i t a b i l i t y , present t h e s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t assessment, and make recommendations f o r f u r t h e r study.
B.
1 .
F i r s t , n u c l e a r explosions can be
many times more powerful than explosions o f t h e l a r g e s t conventional weapons, and, second, t h e energy release from n u c l e a r weapons d i f f e r s from conventional weapon energy release. While almost a l l o f t h e energy release from a
1- 2
on t h e weapon y i e l d , h e i g h t o f b u r s t , and o t h e r f a c t o r s .
A t y p i c a l energy
i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y and t h e gamma rays e m i t t e d by f i s s i o n products and o t h e r r a d i o a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s from t h e weapon. Fal l o u t r a d i a t i o n comes from
h e i g h t such t h a t t h e f i r e b a l l does n o t touch t h e ground, f a l l o u t i n t e n s i t y i s much lower than f o r weapons detonated a t o r near t h e e a r t h ' s surface. S i m i l a r l y , f a l l o u t from a f u s i o n (thermonuclear) weapon i s g e n e r a l l y much l e s s t h a n t h a t from a f i s s i o n weapon because o f t h e s m a l l e r q u a n t i t y of f i s s i o n fragments produced.
1-3
Thermal r a d i a t i o n from a nuclear weapon can produce severe burns on exposed i n d i v i d u a l s and may cause eye damage a t g r e a t d i s t a n c e s from t h e explosion. Thermal r a d i a t i o n i s a l s o capable o f i g n i t i n g f i r e s i n combustible These f i r e s c o u l d
r a d i a t i o n i s a t h r e a t depends on weapon y i e l d , h e i g h t o f b u r s t , atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s , and t h e presence o f i n t e r v e n i n g obstacles. B l a s t e f f e c t s c o n s i s t o f b o t h a i r b l a s t and ground shock. The a i r b l a s t
i s composed of an overpressure and b l a s t winds t h a t accompany t h e shock f r o n t as i t moves away from t h e detonation. d i s t a n c e from t h e b l a s t center. and i n d i r e c t l y . Both e f f e c t s decrease i n i n t e n s i t y w i t h
B l a s t e f f e c t s produce i n j u r i e s both d i r e c t l y
impact o f m i s s i l e s on t h e body o r from displacement of the body as a whole by t h e b l a s t winds. Nuclear r a d i a t i o n c o n s i s t s of high- energy neutrons and gamma rays t h a t emanate from a nuclear explosion. R a d i a t i o n i n j u r i e s r e s u l t when t h e The
2.
use o f a personnel s h e l t e r .
*Most
i n t h e s h e l t e r , e x t e r i o r w a l l apertures should be covered by an opaque, noncombustible m a t e r i a l . P r o t e c t i o n from combustion products t h a t emanate from any f i r e s i g n i t e d near a s h e l t e r by thermal r a d i a t i o n may be more d i f f i c u l t t o achieve than p r o t e c t i o n from i n i t i a l thermal r a d i a t i o n . One o f t h e more e f f e c t i v e
Use o f a p o s i t i v e pressure r e q u i r e s a source o f uncontaminated v e n t i l a t i n g a i r and, i f such a source i s a v a i l a b l e , would n o t adversely a f f e c t s h e l t e r habitability. Use o f a sealed b a r r i e r c o u l d i n t e r f e r e w i t h s h e l t e r
s t r e n g t h e n i n g reduces t h e susceptabil i t y o f a s h e lt e r t o s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e and thereby reduces t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f i n j u r i e s caused by such f a i l u r e s . Prevention o f a i r b l a s t e n t r y i n t o t h e s h e l t e r can reduce i n j u r i e s caused by whole body t r a n s l a t i o n and by m i s s i l e s , as w e l l as d i r e c t i n j u r i e s from the overpressure. Strengthening o f a s h e l t e r s t r u c t u r e can be achieved by adding
i n t e r m e d i a t e supports t o reduce span l e n g t h s and by otherwise strengthening s t r u c t u r a l members. These a c t i o n s should n o t have a s i g n i f i c a n t adverse
1-5
The s i t u a t i o n can be
a l l e v i a t e d by p r o t e c t i n g v e n t i l a t i o n openings w i t h b l a s t c l o s u r e valves. P r o v i d i n g p r o t e c t i o n from t h e n u c l e a r r a d i a t i o n t h a t n u c l e a r weapons produce r e q u i r e s t h a t s h i e l d i n g m a t e r i a l be p o s i t i o n e d between t h e r a d i a t i o n source and t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t o be protected. I f p r o t e c t i o n i s t o be provided
a g a i n s t i n i t i a l n u c l e a r r a d i a t i o n , t h e s h i e l d must be e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t both gamma rays and neutrons. P r o t e c t i o n from fal l o u t r a d i a t i o n r e q u i r e s o n l y t h a t Gamma-shield e f f e c t i v e n e s s i s a Neutron s h i e l d i n g i s
t h e s h i e l d be e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t gamma rays.
f u n c t i o n o n l y o f t h e mass o f t h e s h i e l d i n g m a t e r i a l .
more complicated ,because neutrons must f i r s t be slowed by an element w i t h h i g h atomic inass and then captured by elements w i t h low atomic mass. Gamma rays
a r e c r e a t e d i n t h e slowing process, and a gamma s h i e l d must thus be included. Concrete and damp e a r t h are good compromise m a t e r i a l s f o r both neutrons and gamma rays. S h i e l d i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s can be improved by adding boron o r Expedient r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n i s o f t e n provided by p l a c i n g Any a c t i o n s
i r o n t o concrete.
e a r t h a g a i n s t e x t e r i o r w a l l s and r o o f s o f s h e l t e r s t r u c t u r e s .
1 .
World War I when t h e Secretary o f War, as chairman o f t h e National Defense Council (NDC), was made r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c i v i l defense. Councils were
e s t a b l i s h e d a t S t a t e and l o c a l l e v e l s t o handle m a t t e r s such as morale, c o n s e r v a t i o n o f food and o t h e r resources, p u b li c h e a l t h , and " Americanization" o f a l i e n s d u r i n g t h e war years. I n 1339, t h e NDC and l o c a l c o u n c i l s were
1-6