ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY AND SEISMOTECTONICS

Seismology: The study of earthquakes, the structure of the earth, propagation of seismic waves and their recording.

Greek words: Seismos-earthquakes;

logos-Science

Engineering Seismology: Collaborative attempts of seismologists and engineers to minimize the damage, caused by earthquakes to structures. Seismotectonics: The study of earthquakes as a tectonic component has become known as seismotectonics. Tectonic: Refers to rock-deforming processes and resulting structures that occur over regional sections of the lithosphere. IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY

Earth !a"e# This term is used to describe both sudden slip on a fault, and the resulting ground shaking and radiated seismic energy caused by the slip, or by volcanic or magmatic activity, or other sudden stress changes in the earth. Seismic $a%es: &o'y ( S!r)ace $a%es &o'y $a%e# seismic wave that moves through the interior of the earth, as opposed to surface waves that travel near the earth!s surface. " and # waves are body waves. P*$a%e# seismic body wave that shakes the ground back and forth in the same direction and the opposite direction as the direction the wave is moving. $"rimary wave, longitudinal wave, compressional wave% S*$a%e# seismic body wave that shakes the ground back and forth perpendicular to the direction the wave is moving, also called a shear wave, secondary wave and transverse wave. S!r)ace $a%e# #eismic wave that travels along the earth!s surface. &ove and Rayleigh waves are the most common. Lo%e $a%e# type of seismic surface wave having a horizontal motion that is transverse $or perpendicular% to the direction the wave is traveling. Rayleigh $a%e# seismic surface wave causing the ground to shake in an elliptical motion, with no transverse, or perpendicular, motion. +y,ocenter# The point within the earth where an earthquake rupture starts. termed the focus. lso commonly

E,icenter# The point on the earth!s surface vertically above the point in the crust where a seismic rupture begins E,icentral Distance- +y,ocentral Distance Mainshoc"# The largest earthquake in a sequence, sometimes preceded by one or more foreshocks, and almost always followed by many aftershocks. A)tershoc"s# 'arthquakes that follow the largest shock of an earthquake sequence. They are smaller than the mainshock and continue over a period of weeks, months, or years. (n general, the larger the mainshock, the larger number of aftershocks, and the longer they will continue. .oreshoc"s# )oreshocks are relatively smaller earthquakes that precede the largest earthquake in a series, which is termed the mainshock. *ot all mainshocks have foreshocks. Seismogra,h. ground motion recording instrument.

Seismogram# record written by a seismograph in response to ground motions produced by an earthquake, e+plosion, or other ground-motion sources. Intensity# ,easure of degree of shaking at a specified place. number $written as a Roman numeral% describing the severity of an earthquake in terms of its effects on the earth!s surface and on humans and their structures. Isoseismal# earthquake. contour or line on a map bounding points of equal intensity for a particular

Magnit!'e# (t is a measure of energy released during earthquake rupture. number that characterizes the relative size of an earthquake. -alue of magnitude is fi+ed for a particular earthquake. Intra,late earth !a"e: pertains to processes within a plate. Inter,late pertains to processes between the plates. Seismicity# The geographic and historical distribution of earthquakes. Acti%e )a!lt# fault that is likely to have another earthquake sometime in the future. )aults are commonly considered to be active if they have moved one or more times in the past. Seismogenic# Capable of generating earthquakes. &e'roc"# Relatively hard, solid rock that commonly underlies softer rock, sediment, or soil. a subset of the basement.

INTERNAL STR/CT/RE O. T+E EART+ /. Classification based on chemical properties a. Crust0 &ow density granite and basalt b. ,antle0 ,edium density 1ltramafic rocks c. Core0 outer 2 inner . (ron and nickel Classification based on physical properties a. &ithosphere0 4ard 2 brittle $made of crust and upper mantle%. b. sthenosphere0 "lastic $upper mantle. /56 km thick% c. ,esosphere0 #emi-solid d. Core0 7uter&iquid. (nner-#olid

3.

ccording to the theory of plate tectonics, the outer layer of the earth known as &ithosphere is broken in to different part. These are known as plates.

CLASSI.ICATION O. EART+0/A1ES 1. Based on location a%. (nterplate b%. (ntraplate Based on focal depth a%. #hallow depth 6-:/ km b%. (ntermediate depth :/-;66 km c%. <eep earthquake 9;66 km 2. Based on Epicentral distances a%. &ocal earthquake 8/6 b%. Regional earthquake /-/66 c%. Teleseismic earthquake 9/66

3.

Based on magnitude a%. ,icroearthquake 8;.6 b%. (ntermediate earthquake ;-=.> c%. ,oderate earthquake 5-5.> d%. #trong earthquake ?-?.> e%. ,a@or earthquake :-:.> f%. Areat earthquake 9B.6 2# &ase' on ,rocess Man*Ma'e So!rce etc.% etc.% Controlled #ources $'+plosive,

4.

Nat!ral So!rce Tectonic Earthquakes Volcanic Earthquakes Rock falls/ Collapse of Cavity Microseism

Reservoir (nduces 'arthquakes ,ining (nduces 'arthquakes Cultural *oise $(ndustry, Traffic

3# Earth !a"e s$arm: sequence of earthquakes occurs closely clustered in space and time with no dominant main shock

EART+0/A1E E..ECTS

"rimary effects0 due to the causative process, such as faulting or volcanic eruptions. #econdary effects0 due to shaking or passage of elastic waves

1. Primary E))ects:

a. S!r)ace .a!lting: #urface faulting -- the differential movement of the two sides of a fracture at the
'arth!s surface-- is of three general types0 strike-slip, normal, and reverse. Combinations of the strike-slip type and the other two types of faulting can be found. <eath and in@uries from surface faulting are very unlikely, but casualties can occur indirectly through fault damage to structures. #urface faulting, in the case of a strike-slip fault, generally affects a long narrow zone whose total area is small compared with the total area affected by ground shaking. *evertheless, the damage to structures located in the fault zone can be very high, especially where the land use is intensive. variety of structures have been damaged by surface faulting, including houses, apartments, commercial buildings, nursing homes, railroads, highways, tunnels, bridges, canals, storm drains, water wells, and water, gas, and sewer lines. <amage to these types of structures has ranged from minor to very severe. n e+ample of severe damage occurred in />53 when three railroad tunnels were so badly damaged by faulting that traffic on a ma@or rail linking northern and so!thern Cali)ornia was stopped for 35 days despite an around-the-clock repair schedule. The displacements, lengths, and widths of surface fault ruptures show a wide range. )ault displacements may have range from a fraction of an inch to more than 36 feet of differential movement. s e+pected, the severity of potential damage increases as the size of the displacement increases. The lengths of the surface fault ruptures on land have ranged from less than / mile to more than 366 miles. ,ost fault displacement is confined to a narrow zone ranging from ? to /,666 feet in width, but separate subsidiary fault ruptures may occur 3 to ; miles from the main fault. The area sub@ect to disruption by surface faulting varies with the length and width of the rupture zone.

b. Tectonic 'e)ormations: 1plift and subsidence of landmass occurs due to the great earthquake.
This may cause flooding, change of river direction and associated flooding and life loss. Change in water level in wells and springs may also occur.

c. Ts!namis: Tsunami is a series of large waves of e+tremely long period caused by a violent,
impulsive undersea disturbance or activity near the coast or in the ocean. Chen a sudden displacement of a large volume of water occurs, or if the sea floor is suddenly raised or dropped by an earthquake, big tsunami waves are formed by the gravity force. Tsunami becomes e+tremely dangerous and damaging near the shore. The word tsunami is composed of the Dapanese words EtsuE $which means harbor% and EnamiE $which means EwaveE%. They are some times called seismic sea waves or, erroneously, tidal waves. (n case of tidal waves, disturbance is concentrated only along the free surface and water flows in a circular form. 7n other hand, in case of tsunami waves, energy e+tends to the ocean bottom and water flows straight. *ear the shore, tsunami energy is concentrated in the vertical direction by the reduction in water depth, and in the horizontal direction by shortening of the wavelength due to the wave slow down

2. Secon'ary e))ects:
<amage to structures-cracks, partial to complete collapse )ires caused by breaking of gas pipe lines <amage to water pipelines Around cracks in loose soil deposit #ound &andslides&iquefaction-sand boils. sand craters Seiche: A free oscillation of the surface of an enclosed bod of water such as lake! "ond etc. #he "eriod of oscillations range from few minutes to few hours and oscillations ma "ersist for se$eral hours to 1-2 da s.

#eiches #ea quakes "anic, fright, dizziness, etc

ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS /. 'ngineering properties of soils. 3. <etermination of depth of bed-rock and its geometry. ;. <etermination of water table. =. #ite-specific ground motion parameters for earthquake resistant design.

&. "reparation of isoseismal and isoforce map.

?. "reparation of seismic zoning maps. :. #eismic risk analysis and damage 2 loss scenario of impending earthquake. B. <etection of cavity. >. ,apping of sub-surface structures. /6. <etection of nuclear e+plosion.

&

.a!lts fracture along which the blocks of crust on either side have moved relative to one another parallel to the fracture. .a!lt Plane# plane on which there is relative displacement between the two rock masses. Stri"e# Trend or bearing, relative to north, of the line defined by the intersection of a planar geologic surface $for e+ample, a fault or a bed% and a horizontal surface such as the ground. +anging $all ( .oot $all# The hanging wall lies above the fault plane and foot wall lies below. Di,# (s the angle between the fault plane and the horizontal measured perpendicular to the strike. Sli,4ra"e# ,easured in the plane of fault from the strike direction to the slip vector showing the motion of the hanging wall relative to the foot wall. .a!lt Ty,es

a. Stri"e*sli, )a!lts are vertical $or

nearly vertical% fractures where the blocks have mostly moved horizontally.

Right*lateral# (f you were to stand on the fault and look along its length, this is a type of strike-slip fault where the right block moves toward you and the left block moves away. Le)t*lateral# (f you were to stand on the fault and look along its length, this is a type of strike-slip fault where the left block moves toward you and the right block moves away. Trans)orm )a!lt# special variety of strike-slip fault that accommodates relative horizontal slip between other tectonic elements, such as oceanic crustal plates. 7ften e+tend from oceanic ridges.

b. Di,*sli, )a!lts are inclined fractures where the blocks have mostly shifted vertically.
(f the rock mass above an inclined fault moves down, the fault is termed normal Chereas if the rock above the fault moves up, the fault is termed re%erse 5or thr!st dip8=566.

c. O7li !e*sli, )a!lts have significant components of both slip styles. '

Acti%e 5Seismogenic6 )a!lt# fault that is likely to have another earthquake sometime in the future. )aults are commonly considered to be active if they have moved one or more times in the past. Aseismic )a!lt# This term describes a fault on which no earthquakes have been observed. .a!lt I'enti)ication The search for geologic evidence of earthquake sources centers on the identification of faults The following list of features that suggest faulting is that of Reiter $/>>6%0

i. <irectly

ii.

iii.

iv. v. vi. vii.

observable fracture surfaces and indicators of fracturing. These include disruption of the ground surface and evidence of the movement and grinding of the two sides of the fault (slickensides, fault gouge, and fault reccias!" Aeologically mappable indicators. These include the @u+taposition of dissimilar materials, missing or repeated strata and the truncation of strata or structures. )ig. / Tarrain in the vicinity of fault showing Topographic and geomorphic topographic and geomorphic indicators of faulting $surface landform% indicators F)ig. $after Cesson et al, />:5 /G. These include topographic scarps or triangular facets on ridges, offset streams or drainage, tilting or changes in elevation of terraces or shorelines, sag ponds $water pounded by depressions near strike-slip faults% and anomalous stream gradients. #econdary geologic features. These include abrupt changes in groundwater levels, gradients, and chemical composition, alignment of springs or volcanic vents and the presence of hot springs. &ineaments on remote sensing imagery. These may be caused by topography, vegetation, or tonal contrasts. Aeophysical indicators of subsurface faulting. These include steep linear gravity or magnetic gradients, differences in seismic wave velocities, and offset of seismic reflection horizons. Aeodetic indicators. These include fault movement appearing in geodetic surveys as tilting and changes in the distance between fi+ed points.

Lineaments &ineaments are geological linear features that can be picked out as lines $appearing as such or evident because of contrasts in terrain or ground cover on either side% in aerial or space imagery. (f geological these are usually faults, @oints, or boundaries between stratigraphic formations. 7ther causes of lineaments include roads and railroads, contrast-emphasized contacts between natural or man-made geographic features $e.g., fence lines%, or vague Efalse alarmsE caused by unknown $unspecified% factors. The human eye tends to single out both genuine and spurious linear features, so that some thought to be geological may, in fact, be of other origins.

CA/SES O. EART+0/A1ES n 'arthquake is a sudden tremor or movement of the earth!s crust, which originates naturally at or below the surface. The word natural is important here, since it e+cludes shock waves caused by nuclear tests, man made e+plosions, etc. bout >6H of all earthquakes result from tectonic events, primarily movements on the faults. The remaining is related to volcanism, collapse of subterranean cavities or man-made effects. Tectonic earthquakes are triggered when the accumulated strain e+ceeds the shearing strength of rocks. 'lastic rebound theory gives the physics behind earthquake genesis. - ,yths regarding earthquakes were that /. 'arthquakes are generated by supernatural power 2. 7rigin of earthquake was not know up to the /Bth century ;. <amage and loss of human lives were interpreted as punishment given by god to a sinful society =. (t is a <evine anger. REID8S ELASTIC RE&O/ND T+EORY fter the devastating />6? #an #ig" $ %chematic of Elastic re ound theory (&fter Mussett and 'han, )rancisco, California earthquake, a ()))!" fault trace was discovered that could be followed along the ground in a more or less straight line for 3:6 miles. (t was found that the earth on one side of the fault had slipped compared to the earth on the other side of the fault by up to 3/ feet. This fault trace drew the curiosity of a number of scientists, especially since nobody had yet been able to e+plain what was happening within the earth, to cause earthquakes. )rom an e+amination of the displacement of the ground surface which accompanied the />6? earthquake, 4. ). Reid, "rofessor of Aeology at Dohns 4opkins 1niversity, concluded that the earthquakes must have involved an Eelastic reboundE of previously stored elastic stress $Reid, />//%. The gradual accumulation and release of stress and strain is now referred to as the Eelastic rebound theoryE of earthquakes. #uppose continuously increasing shear forces are acting on two blocks of an unstrained e+isting fault $)ig. /a%. )urther, assume that these stresses are trying to move the western block northward and the eastern block southward. Iecause of friction, there is no movement initially, but the blocks are distorted so that lines originally straight across the fault have become oblique $)ig. /b%. The weakest part the fault slips suddenly when the strain becomes more than what the fault can support. The rupture from the weakest part e+tends rapidly along the fault plane, allowing the blocks on either side of it to J@erkK into a less strained condition. The half arrows beside the fault in )ig. /c show the e+tent of this sudden displacement, called the elastic rebound. The accumulated energy in the strained volume of rock is suddenly released in the form of seismic waves and a part is converted into heat or other forms. This picture, taken near Iolinas in ,arin County by A.L. Ailbert, shows a fence that was offset about B.5 feet along the trace of the fault