Research Paper

Olof Palme in the context of the Cold War and Swedish neutrality

A comparative, historical text analysis

Author: Mats Andersson Supervisor/Examinant: Amr G. E. Sabet Subject field: Political Science ourse: Research Paper in Political Science ! "istance #earnin$ %S&'()'* Points: +., E -S redits "ate: .('.!(/!(+ 01$s2olan "alarna +3' 44 5alun S6eden -el: 7)/ (.8 ++ 4( ((

Table of contents Abstract 1 !ntroduction '.'. -he issue area '... Research aim and research 9uestions '...'. Earlier research '..... "efinin$ the old :ar '...8. "efinin$ S6edish neutralit; '.8. #imitations '.). Methodolo$ical considerations '.).'. Method '.)... Source material '.)...'. <ssues '.,. "isposition " Theoretical considerations ..'. <nternational relations theories ..'.'. Realism ..'... #iberalism ..'.8. Marxism $ Texts and speeches % Analysis ).'. A Marxist ta2e )... A #iberalist ta2e ).8. A Realist ta2e ).). onclusion ).,. 5uture research 'iterature )lectronic sources +iblio,raphy 1 ' ' . 8 , / / / + + 4 # 3 3 3 '( 1" 1& ', '/ '/ '+ '4 1( "* "*

Abstract
5rom '3)+ to '343= an era 6hich lar$el; coincided 6ith the political career of S6edish Prime Minister and Social "emocratic Part; leader >lof Palme %'3.+!'34/*= the 6orld 6itnessed a old :ar= 6here t6o blocs= each led b; a superpo6er= emer$ed. <n bet6een these t6o blocs= both $eo$raphicall; and politicall;= stood S6eden= 6hich maintained neutralit;. <n recent ;ears= 9uite an amount of literature on >lof Palme have been published= and as a conse9uence= there is an on$oin$ debate %e.$. ?er$$ren= @stber$ A B;cander= .('.* as 6hether to put Palme in the frame6or2 of Social #iberalism or Socialism. Given these various perceptions= the author has found it important to $o to the first hand sources and seriousl; examine 6hat Palme actuall; said= and from there on= ma2e an attempt to cast a li$ht on ho6 Palme and S6eden maneuvered its 6a; for6ard durin$ the old :ar. -he main concern has been to conduct an anal;sis of >lof PalmeCs texts and speeches= from '3/3 to '34/= to see 6hat ideolo$ical position he actuall; too2= and ho6 it mi$ht have varied over time. -he bi$$er 9uestion has been= 6hether the texts and speeches could reveal a positive or ne$ative attitude to6ards the t6o superpo6ers/blocs respectivel;= and 6hether an eventual chan$e of attitude could be related to the chan$in$ character of the old :ar. -hree main international relations theories= Realism= #iberalism and Marxism= have been applied to the texts and speeches and used in the profilin$ of >lof Palme. -he research sho6s that Palme used Beo!#iberal tactics 6ithin the frame6or2 of an overall Beo!Realist strate$; to secure S6edish independence= a strate$; that indirectl; benefited the Soviet Dnion. Key words: Olof Palme, The Cold War, Swedish neutrality, International relations, NeoRealism, Neo-Li eralism, !ar"ism

1 !ntroduction <n S6eden a broad consensus rei$ns on that the neutralit; polic; is a $ood polic; and that it best serves our interests. -he Social "emocrac; has constantl; strived for maintainin$ this consensus. onsensus thou$h must not become a va$ue $eneric concept= a $uise for 6hat effectivel; could be different opinions in fundamental forei$n political matters %Palme= '34)= p. )+= o6n translation*. "urin$ his political career= S6edish Prime Minister and Social "emocratic Part; leader >lof Palme %'3.+!'34/* left a si$nificant mar2 on S6edish= and international= politics. :hether people a$reed 6ith his vie6s or not= the; almost certainl; had an opinion of him. -he political ri$ht criticiEed him of $oin$ to far in balancin$ social and economic ine9ualities= 6hereas the political left accused him of introducin$ reforms just to calm the masses %@stber$= .((.F ?jereld A "en2er= .((,F ?j1r2= .((/ cited in E2en$ren= .((,= p. 3*. Even PalmeCs political st;le 6as subject to scrutin;F :hilst man; relished his rhetorical s2ills= others perceived him as a provocateur %E2en$ren= .((,= p. ''*. <n essence= Palme himself could also be seen as a contradiction= born into the aristocrac; of the Palme famil;= later to become Social "emocrat %Elmbrant '343= pp. '+!'4*. 1 1 The issue area 5rom '3)+ to '343= an era 6hich lar$el; coincided 6ith the political career of >lof Palme= the 6orld 6itnessed a old :ar= 6here t6o blocs= each led b; a superpo6er= emer$edF A :estern bloc fronted b; a capitalist Dnited States %DS* vs an Eastern bloc fronted b; a communist Soviet Dnion %DSSR* %B;e= .((4= p. ''/*. <n bet6een these t6o blocs= both $eo$raphicall; and politicall;= stood S6eden= 6hich maintained neutralit; %Palme= '34)= p. +*. <n recent ;ears= 9uite an amount of literature on >lof Palme have been published= and as a conse9uence= there is an on$oin$ debate %e.$. ?er$$ren= @stber$ A B;cander= .('.* as 6hether to put Palme in the frame6or2 of Social #iberalism ! as proposed b; 0enri2 ?er$$ren %.('(* ! or Socialism ! As proposed b; G1ran Greider %.(''*. <n addition= some 6riters %e.$. @stber$= .((4 cited in Pettersson A Stenber$= .((4* have revealed that Palme in his ;outh= 6or2in$ as student ambassador in the late '3)(Cs and earl; '3,(Cs= had connections to the entral <ntelli$ence A$enc; % <A*= not as an a$ent= but 6ell as an informant= 6hile others %e.$. Persson= .((.*= albeit 6ritin$ 6ithin the realm of fiction= and usin$ a pseudon;m for Palme= even have laid out the idea that Palme in his later ;ears mi$ht have defected to the Soviet Dnion. Given these various perceptions and speculations= < find it important to $o to the first hand sources and seriousl; examine 6hat Palme actuall; said= and from there on= ma2e an attempt to cast a li$ht on ho6 Palme and S6eden maneuvered its 6a; for6ard in the al6a;s present shado6 of the old :ar. 1 " -esearch aim and research .uestions -he aim of this research paper is to= 6ithin the frame6or2 of international relations= the context of the bipolar old :ar s;stem= and the principle of S6edish neutralit;= conduct an anal;sis of >lof PalmeCs texts and speeches= from '3/3= 6hen he became the leader of the Social "emocratic Part;= to '34/= 6hen he= still bein$ the leader of the part;= 6as assassinated= this to see 6hat ideolo$ical position he actuall; too2= and ho6 it mi$ht have varied over time. -he bi$$er 9uestion becomes 6hether the texts and speeches= in terms of the GEast vs :estG scenario= could reveal a positive or ne$ative attitude to6ards the t6o superpo6ers/blocs respectivel;= and 6hether an eventual chan$e of attitude could be related to the chan$in$ character of the old :ar.

'

5i$ure '. Research overvie6. -he thesis statement thus becomes: %'* "espite >lof PalmeCs claim of practicin$ S6edish neutralit;= he still= durin$ his time as the leader of the Social "emocratic Part;= expressed Eastern or :estern preferences= 6hich in effect si$naled ne$ative and positive attitudes to6ards the t6o superpo6ers= %.* attitudes 6hich also varied over time due to the chan$in$ character of the old :ar and the different historical phases it 6ent throu$h. 1 " 1 )arlier research As E2en$ren %'33+= p. +* concludes in her research revie6 of S6eden durin$ the old :ar= for a lon$ time= studies in S6edish forei$n and securit; policies 6ere ne$lected. Since= E2en$ren %.((,* herself has published a stud; specificall; dealin$ 6ith >lof PalmeCs relation to the S6edish forei$n polic;= a stud; also emphasiEin$ the importance of ta2in$ the ideas of the individual into account 6hen stud;in$ politics %Goldstein A &eohane= '338 cited in E2en$ren .((,= pp. '4!'3*. 5rom a broader perspective= not explicitl; focusin$ on >lof Palme= but rather= the Social "emocratic Part;= alternativel; S6eden as a 6hole= and its supposedl; neutral role durin$ the old :ar= man; boo2s have been published. 0ere= just to $ive an outline of the research field in 9uestion= < 6ill summariEe some of the contributions. 5or a more thorou$h exposH < recommend E2en$renCs %'33+*= alread; mentioned= revie6. 0uldt and Mis$eld %'33(* for6ard the 9uestion as of 6hether S6edish forei$n polic;= as practiced b; Social "emocratic $overnments= has been uni9ue in character= as opposed to other possible .

forei$n policies= and ?jereld %'33.* deals 6ith the contradictor; roles of S6eden durin$ the old :ar= on the one hand denouncin$ various perceived immoralities carried out b; other states= on the other hand stressin$ mediation and peaceful solutions to international conflicts. #1dHn %'333* investi$ates ho6 S6eden activel; durin$ the '3/(Cs and '3+(Cs= throu$h forei$n polic;= sou$ht to ma2e the S6edish social 6elfare model internationall; reno6ned= and #inder %.(((*= as 6ell as &ronvall and Petersson %.((,*= examines the difficult balancin$ act S6eden= bein$ situated bet6een t6o superpo6ers= had to $o throu$h durin$ the latter half of the .( th centur;= a topic also loo2ed into b; AndrHn %'33/*= the latter thou$h puttin$ more 6ei$ht to the European scene. 1 " " /efinin, the Cold War -here are several opposin$ vie6s debatin$ exactl; 6hen the old :ar started= a 9uestion also related to the issue of 6ho or 6hat started it %e.$. ?a;lis A Smith= .((,= pp. 34!33F B;e= .((4= pp. ''+!'.(*. 0o6ever= m; focus of research is on PalmeCs vie6s= and therefore= to be able to relate him to the old :ar context= m; concern is not to delve an; deeper into the exact ori$in and the causes of the conflict= but rather= merel; reflect the fact that there was a old :ar= explain its mechanisms= and also historicall; picture the different phases it 6ent throu$h. After the Second :orld :ar= 6hich ended in '3),= imperialism came to be loo2ed upon 6ith increased contempt internationall;. Man; colonies called for national liberation= 6hat came to be 2no6n as decoloniEation= as colonialism 6as seen as as incompatible 6ith the Dnited Bations %DB* harter %?a;lis A Smith= .((,= pp. 3,!34* 6hich promoted human ri$hts= e9ualit; and self! determination %i id.= p. )(+*. As the old :ar 6ent on= the t6o superpo6ers and their allies became more and more involved in the colonial stru$$le for independence= 6here the t6o blocs fou$ht each other indirectl;= b; $ivin$ support to various opposin$ $roups 6ithin the countries %i id.= pp. 3+! 34*= each superpo6er/bloc tr;in$ to promote their preferred political 6orld order %B;e= .((4= p. ''+*. -he period bet6een '3), and '3,8 mar2ed the onset of the old :ar= 6ith $ro6in$ tensions bet6een the former allies of the Second :orld :ar= the Dnited States= ?ritain= 5rance and the Soviet Dnion. -he :estern states suspected that the Soviet polic; to6ards Eastern Europe rested on ideolo$ical expansionist $oals rather than= 6ith re$ards to earlier attempts to invade Russia and the Soviet Dnion= historic securit; concerns. <n '3)+= DS President 0arr; S. -ruman declared the -ruman "octrine= statin$ that the Dnited States 6ould contain the Soviet Dnion b; $ivin$ support to those bein$ threatened b; Soviet expansion= the doctrine also bein$ underpinned b; the Marshall Plan created the same ;ear= intended as a help in the rebuildin$ of the European econom;. <n Eastern Europe on the other hand= democratic Socialist and anti!communist $roups 6ere undermined and eliminated as Mosco6 lo;al re$imes 6ere installed in their place %?a;lis A Smith= .((,= p. 33*. <n '3)4= Soviet leader Ioseph Stalin started a bloc2ade a$ainst the former= b; then divided German capital= ?erlin= left as an island in the heart of the Soviet occupied Eone= this b; tr;in$ to cut off the road! and rail6a; communications. Still= :est ?erlin 6as able to 2eep its political autonom; 6ith the help of a :estern launched airlift= and in '3)3= Stalin ended the bloc2ade. As a conse9uence= the Americans deplo;ed lon$!ran$e= non!nuclear= bombers in ?ritain= and the same ;ear= the Borth Atlantic -reat; >r$aniEation %BA->* 6as created= declarin$ that an attac2 on one member 6ould be reco$niEed as an attac2 on all= 6hich also meant that the Dnited States 6ould commit themselves to defend :estern Europe in the case of an attac2. '3)3 also sa6 communist leader Mao Jedon$ 8

come to po6er in hina= and the follo6in$ ;ear= 6hen Borth &orea attac2ed South &orea= in 6hat 6ould become a 6ar lastin$ for three ;ears= this 6as seen b; the Americans as part of a bi$$er communist offensive= resultin$ in a DS/DB bac2ed intervention a$ainst Borth &orea= the latter part supported b; the hinese %i id.= pp. 33!'((*. -he period ran$in$ from '3,8 to '3/3 6ent from conflict and confrontation to compromise= and be$an 6ith the death of Stalin= and later= hastened b; the '3,) rearmament of the 5ederal Republic of German;= the creation of the :arsa6 Pact in '3,,= the Eastern e9uivalent of BA->. StalinCs successor= Bi2ita &hrushchev= 6anted to moderniEe Soviet= 6hich at the same time released reformist sentiments in Eastern Europe= not the least in 0un$ar; in '3,/= 6here the Soviet Dnion intervened to stop the upheaval. &hrushchev sou$ht coexistence 6ith the :est= 6hile at the same time pursuin$ confrontation= and his support of national liberation movements once a$ain created :estern fears of a $lobal communist ta2eover= 6ith increased DS support to friends= the subvertion of -hird :orld enemies= and a build!up of American conventional forces= to6ards the end of the '3,(Cs also nuclear missiles= in :estern Europe as result %i id.= p. '((*. -he uban Missile risis in '3/. came to be the perhaps most critical event of the 6hole old :ar era= 6hen the Dnited States discovered Soviet nuclear missiles deplo;ed in uba. DS President Iohn 5. &enned; imposed a partial bloc2ade of uba= and after six da;s= the Soviets a$reed to 6ithdra6 the missiles in return for a $uarantee that the Dnited States 6ould not invade uba= and also= 6ithdra6 e9uivalent BA-> missiles from Europe. -his experience $ave 6a; for a more stable period of coexistence= albeit= 6ith both sides still increasin$ their nuclear arsenals= still supportin$ friends and underminin$ enemies= not the least in Kietnam= 6here the Americans from '3/, on6ards supported South Kietnam a$ainst the hinese and Soviet bac2ed communist re$ime in Borth Kietnam. "espite of this= the increased mutual a6areness of the need to avoid nuclear 6ar= and= an unrestrained arms race= created a relaxation bet6een the t6o superpo6ers= in 6hat came to be 2no6n as d#tente= a strate$; also practiced b; German Socialist hancellor :ill; ?randt= the so called Ost$oliti%, b; reco$niEin$ the status of ?erlin and the soverei$nt; of East German; % i id.= pp. 34!'('*. As for Soviet GinternalG affairs= in '3/4= shortl; after the crushin$ of the Eechoslova2 revolt %i id.= p. ''3*= Soviet leader #eonid ?reEhnev declared the ?reEhnev "octrine= statin$ that members of the :arsa6 Pact 6ould enjo; onl; limited soverei$nt; in their political development %i id.= p. 3,*. -he ;ears '3/3 to '3+3 sa6 the rise and fall of d#tente. ?oth the Dnited States and the Soviet Dnion attempted to mana$e their relations b; ne$otiation and a$reement= but each side continued to pursue their political $oals= and the Americans perceived the Soviet support for revolutionar; $roups in the -hird :orld= for example in Ethiopia and An$ola= as double dealin$. <n '3+3= the Shah of <ran 6as overthro6n= 6hich meant that the :est lost a valuable all; in the re$ion= althou$h the succeedin$ militant <slamic re$ime acted hostile to6ards both superpo6ers. #ater the same ;ear= Soviet armed forces intervened in Af$hanistan= $ivin$ support to revolutionar; allies= in 6hat 6ould become a lon$ and costl; involvement %i id.= pp. '('!'(.*. Six ;ears earlier= in '3+8= due to successful Borth Kietnamese revolutionar; 6arfare= the Dnited States 6as forced to 6ithdra6 their forces from Kietnam= and t6o ;ears later= in '3+,= South Kietnam 6as defeated %i id.= p. 34*. -he period of '3+3 to '34/ si$naled a GSecond old :arG= 6ith reminiscences of the occurrences bet6een '3), and '3,8. <n '34(= Ronald Rea$an became the ne6 DS President= and he too2 a more confrontational stance a$ainst the Soviets= and he also embar2ed on militar; interventions in Grenada in '348= and in #ib;a in '34/. DS Support for the rebel ontras in Bicara$ua= involvin$ <A covert operations= resulted in the verdict of '34/= 6here the <nternational ourt of Iustice found the Dnited States $uilt; of violatin$ <nternational #a6. -he a$ed Soviet leadership too2 the )

actions of the Rea$an administration ver; seriousl;= suspectin$ that the DS 6as plannin$ its first nuclear stri2e %i id.= p. '(.*. <n '34,= Mi2hail Gorbachev became the ne6 General Secretar; of the Soviet ommunist Part;. 0e started to pursue a more non!confrontational forei$n polic;= rejectin$ the thou$ht of Europe as a continent divided into t6o militar; blocs= althou$h not $oin$ as far as $ivin$ up the vie6 that different European countries still belon$ed to different social s;stems % i id.= pp. '(.!'(8*. Gorbachev also introduced dramaticall; ne6 concepts= such as &lasnost= 6hich meant openness and $reater tolerance of internal criticism= and Perestroi%a= intended as a polic; to restructure and moderniEe the Soviet political and economic s;stem % i id.= p. 3,*. As a conse9uence= these concepts= inadvertentl;= undermined the ommunist Part;Cs indisputable leadin$ role= and also unleashed nationalist sentiments= 6hich 6ould eventuall; lead to the demise of the Soviet Dnion in '33' %i id.= pp. '')!''/*. -hese sentiments also spread over Eastern Europe= and 6ith Gorbachev no lon$er conformin$ to the ?reEhnev "octrine= this $ave 6a; for a re$ime chan$e and the comparativel; peaceful installation of democrac; throu$hout Eastern Europe= 6hich= the unification of German; included %i id.= p. '(8*= too2 place bet6een '343 and '33' %i id.= p. ''.*. 1 " $ /efinin, Swedish neutrality At first= the concept of neutralit; mi$ht seem a fairl; simple and unambi$uous matter= ho6ever= its character is not one dimensional= and mi$ht= dependin$ on the vie6er and the context= be perceived ver; differentl;= even as contradictor;. Re$ardless of interpretation= as this research paper focuses on Palme= it is his definition of the concept that 6ill be the point of departure. 5rom this follo6s the lo$ical necessit; of examinin$ PalmeCs vie6 of the concept over time= and to cover the 6hole time span= from '3/3 to '34/= < have chosen t6o speeches= one held at the People and "efense onference in Storlien= S6eden= '3+( %olofpalme.or$= '3+(*= and one held in Stoc2holm= S6eden= '34, %olofpalme.or$= '34,*. ?; comparin$ these speeches it can be concluded that PalmeCs definition of the concept of neutralit; sta;ed the same durin$ the 6hole period. -hus= the variable of PalmeCs official understandin$ of neutralit; 6ill be held as a constant. -o account for the above= in Storlien= on 'e ruary (nd, )*+,= Palme stated: GAs the foundation of our forei$n polic; 6e have chosen freedom from alliances in peace!time 6ith the object of neutralit; in 6ar. LMN :e 2eep a6a; from all alliances in order to ma2e our neutralit; in 6ar credible alread; in peace timeG %olofpalme.or$= '3+(= p. 8*. 0e also declared: G<n our forei$n polic; 6e must no LsicN fail to interpret the $ro6in$ interest in other peoplesC conditions and the broadenin$ international solidarit;. -his 6e do b; expressin$ our opinions= b; increasin$ assistance to the poor and 6ar dama$ed peoples and b; participatin$ in the international co!operation ! especiall; 6ithin the frame6or2 of the Dnited BationsG. And furthermore: G>ur polic; of neutralit; does not prevent us from expressin$ an opinion 6hich disa$rees 6ith the vie6s of the Great po6ers. :e have no special obli$ations to an; particular states. :e have to adhere to <nternational #a6 and our o6n independent evaluationsG %i id.= p. +*. #astl;: G:e must ma2e the surroundin$ 6orld trust in our abilit; to reject ever; operation 6hich violates S6edish territor; in 6ar time. >ther6ise= 6e 6ill $ive rise to distrust or 6ron$ hopes amon$ the Great Po6ersG %i id.= p. ''*. <n addition to the statements above= and as a prere9uisite for their realiEation= Palme stressed the importance of a stron$ defense: G-he defence is an instrument of our forei$n polic;. <t stren$thens the credibilit; of our forei$n polic;. >n the other hand= it is onl; throu$h a firm forei$n polic; that our defence can be made credibleG. -o Palme= the issue of credibilit; 6as also related to the necessit; of a stron$ economic and civil defenseF <n the case of a bloc2ade= S6eden 6ould need stamina and the abilit; to distribute provisions. -a2en as a 6hole= Palme sa6 S6edenCs militar; ,

defense as purel; defensive= his reasonin$ restin$ on the assumption that Gif the attitude of the Great Po6ers is influenced b; credibilit; in our abilit; to safe$uard our neutralit; 6ith the aid of our militar; defence 6e have a real opportunit; to escape involvement in a future 6arG % i id.= pp. '.! ')*. <n Stoc2holm= on !ay )st, )*-.= $iven the different character of the occasion= Palme did not refer to S6edish forei$n polic; in the same detailed manner as in Storlien fifteen ;ears earlier. Bonetheless= it is clear that his vie6 on S6edish neutralit; had not chan$ed: Meetin$ attendeesO >ur main tas2 is to secure S6edenCs independence and protect the peace. >ur main responsibilit; is to safe$uard our ri$ht to decide our o6n future= to safe$uard our democratic social order. -his responsibilit; is best mana$ed throu$h a firm neutralit; polic;. <n a troubled 6orld it should feel $ood to 2no6 that the Social "emocrac; 6ill carr; out this neutralit; polic; 6ith po6er= clarit; and consistenc;. LMN <n support of our neutralit; polic; based on our conditions 6e have a stron$ defence. LMN ?ut above all it ta2es a confidence in our intention to not even under extreme external pressure abandon the neutralit; polic;. >ne must be able to trust our freedom of alliance. -herefore our forei$n polic; is al6a;s our best line of defence. -he stru$$le for democrac;= freedom and justice also refers to peoples in other countries. -his is the international solidarit;. >ur en$a$ement concerns important principles. ?ut it also refers to our o6n interests. :hen 6e 6or2 for peace and international solidarit;= 6e also 6or2 to secure our o6n future %olofpalme.or$= '34,= pp. '!.= o6n translation*. -o sum up the concept of neutralit; and to clarif; the 2e; point: <t is of vital importance to understand that GsubjectiveG statements= from PalmeCs point of vie6= 6ere totall; compatible 6ith S6edish neutralit;. M; concern thou$h= is to uncover the eventual de fa/to tendencies= 6here neutral Gsubjectivit;G mi$ht have been a $uise for %real* su 0e/ti1ity. 1 $ 'imitations Re$ardin$ the scope of the research paper= certain limitations has to be set. -he research 6ill onl; focus on the vie6s of Palme 6hich are of relevance to the frame6or2 and context alread; mentioned= and it 6ill not= in relation to other historical situations and events that occurred durin$ his time= consider 6h; Palme mi$ht have expressed certain vie6s or proposals. Beither 6ill it di$ into the eventual discrepanc; bet6een 6hat he said and actuall; did= politicall;F -his is a research paper anal;Ein$ PalmeCs ideolo$ical profile= throu$h his 6ords= proposals and opinions= 6ithin the frame6or2 of international relations= the old :ar and S6edish neutralit;. 1 % 0ethodolo,ical considerations 1 % 1 0ethod oncernin$ method= and theor;= three main international relations theories= Realism= #iberalism and Marxism %?a;lis A Smith= .((,= p. ',3*= 6hich < 6ill further describe in chapter t6o= 6ill be applied to the texts and speeches and used in the profilin$ of >lof Palme= and it is important to point out that theories 6or2 in both 6a;sF < 6ill use them to profile Palme= that is= subjectivel; tr; to ma2e a fit bet6een PalmeCs vie6s and the theories at hand= but= < 6ill also use the different epistemolo$ies objectivel;= GseparateG from Palme= or put differentl;= tr; to interpret PalmeCs manifestations throu$h perspectives he did not necessaril; abide b;. ?; usin$ this /

multidimensional= in a 6a; fluid= approach= < am hopin$ to be able to understand and characteriEe the texts and speeches in a fairl; broad= at the same time comparativel; deep manner= compared to if a more static approach had been applied. -o use the ideal classes of research strate$ies proposed b; Ra$in and Amoroso %.(''= p. 8/*= m; approach mostl; resembles the comparative research stud;= focusin$ on the diversit; that exists across a moderate number of cases= that is= a compromise bet6een the ver; thic2 and focused 9ualitative stud; and the more shallo6 and broad 9uantitative stud;= all this embraced b; a cross!time comparative perspective %Peters= '334= p. .8*. 1 % " Source material "urin$ his career= Palme produced a vast amount of speeches and texts= and to cover all of these is 6ell out of ran$e for this= and perhaps an;= research project. As a conse9uence= as far as the source material is concerned= the $oal has been to $ather a chronolo$icall; 6ell balanced and representative selection of texts and speeches. -herefore= a total of thirteen speeches= ran$in$ from '3+( to '34)= have been selected= the t6o speeches referred to in the section dealin$ 6ith S6edish neutralit; %'...8* here excluded. -he main sources= as these focus on international relations and S6edish forei$n polic;= consists of t6o= partl; overlappin$= publications= 2N must e stren3thened4 - Olof Palme5s s$ee/hes in 2N )*+,-)*-. %>lsson A Gustavsson= '33(* and Sweden5s forei3n $oli/y - 6ddresses y Olof Palme %Palme= '34)*= the latter compiled b; Palme himself. -hese have in turn been complimented 6ith material from olof$alme7or3 %n.d.*= a 6ebsite holdin$ di$italiEed versions of PalmeCs ori$inal speech manuscripts= and other documents as 6ell= 6ith the aim of $ivin$ public access to the political activit; of >lof Palme. -he advanta$e of usin$ texts and %personal* political speeches as source material= is that there can be no doubt of 6hat reall; happened %6as said*F -here is no need to use prox; evidence to reconstruct PalmeCs statements. <nstead= the underta2in$ lies in= 6ith the help of the method= and the theories embedded in the method= ma2in$ sense of their meanin$. As al6a;s= the 9uestion of saturation arises= but as Ra$in and Amoroso %.(''= p. ''+* notices: G<t is impossible to tell beforehand ho6 man; instances the researcher 6ill have to examine before the point of saturation is reached. <n $eneral= if the researcher learns as much as possible about the research subject= he or she 6ill be a $ood jud$e of 6hen this point has been reachedG. 1 % " 1 !ssues >ne consideration that emer$es is ho6 to treat PalmeCs opinions= as there mi$ht be a difference/compromise bet6een 6hat Palme= 6ithin the realm of politics= personall;= not privatel;= thou$ht= and 6hat the Social "emocratic Part; thou$ht. < have chosen not to separate the t6o= and treat the vie6s that Palme expressed as vie6s he supported= re$ardless of bein$ the result of a compromise or simpl; his o6n vie6s correlatin$ 6ith the part; lineF :ords mean somethin$= and 6hat Palme chose to sa; 6as 6hat he 6anted to= or felt that he had to= sa;. Also= as E2en$ren %.((,= p. ,8* has sho6n= to a lar$e extent= the ideas of the Social "emocratic Part; and the ideas of Palme 6ere the same. An interestin$ comment= made b; Anders 5erm= at the time= one of PalmeCs closest associates= mi$ht also su$$est that essentiall;= Palme hammered out his o6n forei$n political line %5erm A >hlsson= .((/*. <n the case of speech manuscripts bein$ used as an onl; source= there is the possibilit; that Palme mi$ht have chan$ed some of the content on the da; he actuall; made the speeches= but < 6ill treat this as an acceptable source of errorF 0e mi$ht have made chan$es= but not li2el; an;thin$ that +

radicall; 6ould have chan$ed his ideolo$ical standpoint= and also= as this research paper focuses on his expressions over time= this 6ill provide for a comparative= historical= overall pattern/tendenc;= 6hich 6ill decrease the dependenc; on sin$le speeches and comments and their effect on the picture as a 6hole. 1 & /isposition hapter one starts 6ith a brief summar; of >lof Palme %'*= the various ima$es of him that existed and the political context of his time %'.'*. -he next se$ments introduce the research aim and the thesis statement %'..*= a revie6 of the earlier research that has been made %'...'*= a thorou$h definition of the old :ar %'....* and the concept of S6edish neutralit; %'...8*= both phenomena described from a historical perspective= and lastl;= the scope of the research paper %'.8*. -he follo6in$ sections deal 6ith the method %'.).'* and the source material %'.)..= and '.)...'*= includin$ related issues. hapter t6o holds a critical discussion %.* and a description of the theoretical fundaments of the research paper %..'.' throu$h ..'.8*= 6hereas chapter three contains the actual empiricism/speeches= mainl; presented in chronolo$ical order %8*. hapter four holds the anal;sis of the empirical material= as derived throu$h each of the theoretical perspectives respectivel; %).' throu$h ).8*= follo6ed b; the conclusion= 6here the perspectives= includin$ the historical one= are 6ei$hed a$ainst each other %).)*. -he latter chapter also includes a brief discussion on possible areas for future research %).,*. #ast of all the references have been listed. " Theoretical considerations -here are man; theories to choose from 6hen tr;in$ to ma2e sense of various phenomena= and naturall;= all of them can not be embraced. <nternational relations theories such as Social onstructivism %?a;lis A Smith= .((,= p. .,'*= Post! olonialism= and other t;pes of Post!Modern theories %i id.= pp. .4,!.44*= are indeed both interestin$ and 6elcome additions to the 6orld of theor;. Bevertheless= and as alread; 2no6n= m; choice have fallen on three of the most established le$acies of thou$hts in international relations theor;= Realism= #iberalism and Marxism. -hese choices mi$ht seem uninspirin$= but on the contrar;= the; are all still vibrant schools of thou$ht= and < have chosen them partl; because the; cover the political spectrum 9uite commendabl;= from= if ;ou 6ill= left to ri$ht= and partl; because the; carr; historical 6ei$ht= havin$ had time to develop into different= and some times opposin$= strands. >f course= all theories have their shortcomin$s. 5or example= Realism ne$lects the different 6ills 6ithin the state and can not reall; explain altruism= 6hile #iberalism on the other hand does not have a $ood ans6er to 6h; planet earth still 6itnesses 6ar and povert;= and the deterministic character of Marxism ma2es it a static theor;= and e9uall;= it does not reco$niEe $roupin$s bound to$ether b; other interests than class. 0o6ever= these observations does not ma2e the theories useless= but rather= b; bein$ a6are of their 6ea2nesses= there is a better chance of puttin$ each epistemolo$; into use as effectivel; as possible= and neither should the; be loo2ed upon as competin$ perspectivesF ?; examinin$ the same phenomena throu$h all three t;pes of G$lassesG= the prospect of reachin$ a broader and better understandin$ of >lof Palme the politician is stren$thened.

" 1 !nternational relations theories " 1 1 -ealism Realism= stron$l; lin2ed to the political ideolo$; of onservatism= rests on an old le$ac; of thou$ht that in a ver; broad sense can be summariEed in the term raison d5#tat= or in other 6ords= the reason of state. 0ere= thin2ers such as -huc;dides= Biccolo Machiavelli= -homes 0obbes and Iean!Iac9ues Rousseau= provided state leaders 6ith a code of conduct on ho6 to handle forei$n affairs= so as to $uarantee the securit; and survival of the state. >ne important aspect of this perspective 6as the dual moral standard= impl;in$ one moral standard for individuals= livin$ 6ithin the state= and another for the state as such in its dealin$s 6ith other states. <n short= this did not mean complete abandonment of morals= but rather= that acts such as cheatin$ and 2illin$= unacceptable to individuals= could in fact be seen as acceptable 6hen carried out y the state to protect the state %i id.= pp. '/.!'/8*. Realism has its variants= but in a broad sense= 6hether discussin$ older or ne6er forms of Realism= the; all have three core elements in common: Statism= survival and self!help. Statism reflects the Realist stance that the soverei$n state is re$arded as the most important actor in the international s;stem= le$itimatel; representin$ the collective 6ill of the people. >utside the state= anarch; rules= that is= the absence of a central authorit; standin$ above the states= and that is 6h; the second element= survival= becomes so important. 0ere= Realists ar$ue that po6er= especiall; militar;= is a crucial component= enablin$ the state to $et 6hat it 6ants throu$h the threat or use of force. -his does not mean that all other state interests= such as economic= social et /etera= are i$nored= but if the state succumbs= then these secondar; $oals 6ill not be fulfilled either. All this points to the third concept= self!help= impl;in$ that in an anarchic 6orld= the state can not rel; on other actors for its safet;= nor states= nor= and even less so= international institutions %i id.= pp. '/8!'/)*. "espite the commonalities= one particularl; important dividin$ line bet6een the Realist branches should be mentionedF <n contrast to traditional Realists= loo2in$ at= in the spirit of 0obbes= the stru$$le for po6er as a conse9uence of human nature and its shortcomin$s= a ne6er follo6in$ of structural %or Beo!* Realists= lead b; &enneth :altE= deduces international conflict out of the lac2 of a hi$her authorit; and the distribution of po6er. <n other 6ords= the s;stem itself is seen to affect state behavior %i id.= p. '/3*= 6here a central concept in preservin$ the libert; of states becomes balance of po6er. -he term can have various meanin$s= but as a $eneral mechanism it encompasses the thou$ht that if the survival of a state= alternativel; a number of 6ea2er states= is threatened b; a he$emon or coalition of stron$er states= then the former should establish a formal alliance= as a 6a; of tr;in$ to preserve their o6n independence b; chec2in$ the po6er of the stron$er state%s*. -he 2e; point here is e8uili rium= that is= no state or coalition should be allo6ed to become so stron$ that it could dominate all the others %i id.= p. '/)*. <t should also be noticed that 6hereas traditional Realists emphasiEe absolute po6er= in other 6ords= international relations loo2ed upon as a Eero!sum $ame % i id.= p. '+(*= Structural Realists emphasiEe relative $ains= that is= the most important thin$ not bein$ po6er in itself= but the certaint; of $ainin$ more than the rivals %i id.= p. '3)*. " 1 " 'iberalism "urin$ the A$e of Enli$htenment= Ierem; ?entham and <mmanuel &ant= as a reaction to Gthe la6less state of sava$er;G the; thou$ht ruled the international s;stem= laid out their plans of a perpetual peace= stressin$ the belief that reason= and not in the harsh Realist meanin$= could deliver 3

freedom and justice in international relations= this b; the alterin$ of the individual consciousness= the presence of republican constitutionalism= and a federal a$reement bet6een states to expun$e 6ar. -his federal a$reement 6ould si$nif; permanent peace rather than a 6orld $overnment. #ater on= in the mid!nineteenth centur;= elaboratin$ on the ideas of Adam Smith= and ta2in$ them into the international realm= Richard obden ar$ued that freedom also depended on the spread of commerce and free trade= and the diffusion of education. Alto$ether= these ideas 6ould eventuall; $ive rise to the democratic peace thesis= developed durin$ the later half of the .( th centur;= impl;in$ that liberal states are less inclined to $o to 6ar 6ith each other %i id.= pp. '44!'3(*. <n the earlier decades of the .(th centur;= 6ith the 5irst :orld :ar fresh in memor;= #iberalists be$an to loo2 upon peace as not a state of nature= but somethin$ that had to be constructed= the most salient reflection of these vie6s= stron$l; promoted b; DS President :oodro6 :ilson= bein$ the creation of a the #ea$ue of Bations. 0ere= the 2e; concept consisted of collective securit;= 6hich meant that in case a of state behavin$ a$$ressivel;= all other member states 6ould join to$ether and respond collectivel;= if need be militaril;. -his concept also invo2ed one of the other 2e; elements in #iberal international relations theor;= self!determination= ironicall;= 6hat eventuall; also 6ould brin$ about the do6nfall of the or$aniEation= 6hen states li2e Iapan= <tal; and German; proceeded 6ith their o6n expansionist a$endas. :ith this failure in mind= the Dnited Bations= the ne6 international peace and securit; or$an= established in '3),= 6as e9uipped 6ith a veto s;stem= 6hich= in contrast to the #ea$ue of Bations= reco$niEed differin$ state interests and differences in po6er %i id.= pp. '3'!'38*. <n the '3/(Cs and '3+(Cs= Pluralist #iberalist scholars started emphasiEin$ the $ro6in$ importance of transnational actors= challen$in$ the dominance of soverei$n states= and the international scene 6as no6 seen as constituted of a ran$e of actors= lin2ed to$ether throu$h interaction and interdependence. -his 6as also the prere9uisite for the comin$ of the Beo!#iberalists in the '34(Cs= dra6in$ closer to the Beo!Realists in embracin$ the concepts of statism= value maximation and an anarchic international structure= ho6ever= in contrast to the latter= Beo!#iberalists= despite the state of anarch;= put their trust in the possibilit; of durable patterns of cooperation supported b; international re$imes. Also= 6here the main concern of Beo!Realists are relative $ains= Beo! #iberalists sees the opportunit; of absolute= evenl; shared= $ains as a sufficient prere9uisite for cooperation %i id.= pp. '38!'3)*. 5inall;= 6hile Beo!Realists tend to focus on Ghi$h politicsG= impl;in$ relative po6er= national securit; and survival= Beo!#iberalists are more focused on Glo6 politicsG= such as economic 6elfare and other non!militar; issues= for example international environmental concerns and human ri$hts %i id.= pp. .',!.'/*. " 1 $ 0arxism Marx himself= in an; direct and deeper sense= never expanded his theor; to cover the international scene= but others have built on his ideas= and constructed theories aimin$ at unmas2in$ the hidden 6or2in$s of capitalism also at a $lobal scale. -hree main proponents of these Marxist international relations theories are represented b; :orld!s;stems theor;= Gramscianism and ritical theor; %i id.= pp. ..4!..3*. :orld!s;stems theor;= 6ith its ori$ins in the earl; .( th centur; and the 6or2s of theorists such as Iohn A. 0obson and Kladimir #enin= too2 MarxCs criti9ue of imperialism one step further= appl;in$ it to international conditions. #enin proposed that capitalism no6 had entered its hi$hest and final sta$e= monopol; capitalism= 6here the 6orld econom; consisted of a core= exploitin$ a less developed peripher;. -hus= the bour$eoisie in the core countries could use the profits derived from exploitin$ the peripher; to bu; off their o6n 6or2in$ class. ?uildin$ upon these principles= '(

<mmanuel :allerstein added another economic Eone to the scheme= the semi!peripher;. Accordin$ to :allerstein= this intermediate Eone displa;s characteristics from both the core and peripher;= 6here the semi!peripher; certainl; has been penetrated b; core economic interests= but at the same time is mana$in$ its o6n domestic industrial base. Given this= the semi!peripher; acts as a stabiliEer in the 6orld s;stem= not the least b; providin$ cheap labor= b; counteractin$ up6ard pressure on 6a$es in the core= and also b; providin$ a ne6 arena for industries no lon$er 6or2in$ profitabl; in the core. <n the lon$ run= this 6ill lead to 6ealth bein$ drained a6a; from the peripher; to the centre= and eventuall;= throu$h the do6n6ard pressure on 6a$es ! leadin$ to= as one of the main factors= underconsumption ! the collapse of the s;stem %i id.= pp. .8'!.8)*. Gramscianism has its roots in the 6ritin$s of Antonio Gramsci and his concerns about 6h; the revolution had occurred in a less developed Russia rather then the advanced capitalist states of :estern Europe. <nstead of focusin$ on the economic relationships bet6een a production o6nin$ bour$eoisie and a 6a$e laborin$ proletariat= Gramsci emphasiEed this G$ivenG order as a result of the connection= the so called historic bloc= bet6een the socio!economic base and the superstructure= that is= re$ardin$ the latter= the political and cultural practices in societ;. <n other 6ords= GramsciCs vie6 6as that in the civil societ;= comprised of churches= the media= the education s;stem and so on= the dominant bour$eoisie order/ideolo$; had become so established that it 6as seen= b; all= as un9uestionable Gcommon senseG. -herefore= the onl; 6a;= accordin$ to Gramsci= to transform societ;= 6as to challen$e and replace the rulin$ historical bloc 6ith an alternative one. ?asin$ his thou$hts on the 6or2 of Gramsci= Robert :. ox has ta2en the ideas of his inspirer further= into the international= and Post!Modern= realm= claimin$ that the GnaturalG 6orld order= as for example laid out b; Beo!Realists and Beo!#iberalists= actuall; represents a practice intended on preservin$ :estern $lobal he$emon; %i id.= pp. .8,!.8+*. <n man; 6a;s= ritical theor; overlaps 6ith Gramscianism= both in terminolo$; and the 9uestion as to 6h; the GinevitableG emancipation of the 6or2in$ class had failed. ritical theor; $re6 out of the 5ran2furt School= 6hich be$an to develop in the '3.(Cs and '38(Cs= consistin$ of thin2ers such as Max 0or2heimer= -heodor Adorno and 0erbert Marcuse. 0ere= the main focus 6as on the superstructure and 9uestions relatin$ to culture and bureaucrac;= and especiall;= the media= 6here theorists= thereb; opposin$ Marx= ar$ued that the 6or2in$ class had become so absorbed b; the bour$eoisie s;stem= that an alternative 6as not even conceived. Another concern 6as emancipation in itself= and 6hereas traditional Marxists sa6 the road to emancipation throu$h the increased master; over nature= here= ritical theorists sa6 the destructive forces at pla;= forces that could easil; be transferred to include the domination of other human bein$s as 6ell. ?ased on these presumptions= 0or2heimer= Adorno and Marcuse called for the human reconciliation 6ith nature= impl;in$ the importance of reco$niEin$ other values and capabilities than just instrumental calculation %i id.= pp. .83!.)(*. #ater= also dra6in$ upon the problematiEation of the concept of emancipation= and opposin$ MarxCs vie6 of the roots of emancipation as located in the economic base= IPr$en 0abermas advocated that the realiEation of a more free societ; la; in radical democrac;= 6here citiEens= across state borders= and in a more direct manner= 6ould participate in the political practices of societ;. Since= Andre6 #in2later has ta2en 0abermasCs ideas to the extreme= b; proposin$ emancipation as a process 6here the borders of the soverei$n state lose their moral si$nificance= and 6here citiEens be$in to feel the same obli$ations to6ards non!citiEens as the; do to6ards fello6 citiEens= the European Dnion bein$ re$arded as one step in the ri$ht direction %i id.= pp. .)(!.)'*.

''

$ Texts and speeches <n an address to the Dnited Bations General Assembl; on O/to er (,th, )*+,, Palme hi$hli$hted DBCs effort in promotin$ national soverei$nt; and liberation from the ;o2e of colonialism= and he underlined national independence as the prere9uisite for confidence and cooperation amon$ e9uals= in other 6ords= the constitutin$ elements of international solidarit;. <n response to the dominant positions held b; the t6o superpo6ers= Palme stated: G-his is not necessaril; an entirel; ne$ative relationship. -hese po6ers are full; a6are of their enormous destructive potential and of the specific responsibilities= that this implies. -he; constantl; tr; to li9uidate causes for $reat po6er conflicts. -he balance of! terror and po6er is a safe$uard ! albeit a fra$ile one ! a$ainst a 6orld confla$rationG %>6n translation* %>lsson A Gustavsson= '33(= pp. ')!',*. 0o6ever= Palme also emphasiEed the ne$ative aspects of this duopolic GpeaceG and its effect on smaller states= especiall; the latter runnin$ the ris2 of= for political and militar; purposes= bein$ controlled b; the superpo6ers. 0e said: G< ma; be simplif;in$= but couldnCt one sa; that in the interest of peace the small people should have the ri$ht to be left aloneQ LMN -o stren$then the Dnited Bations is of the utmost importance for the small countries. -he charter as such offers a splendid machiner; for the interpla; bet6een the bi$ and the man; small states in the 6orldG %>6n translation* %i id.= p. ',*. 5urthermore= he insisted upon= developed as 6ell as developin$ countries included= the necessit; of brid$in$ the enormous social and economic $aps existin$ bet6een the rich and the poor= emphasiEin$ the causal relationship bet6een $ro6in$ social ine9ualities and violence %i id.= p. '4*. <n a statement made on 9e/em er (:rd, )*+(= in response to the DS bombin$s of 0anoi= Kietnam= Palme condemned the deed= e9uatin$ it 6ith several other historical acts of violence. 0e said: :hat ;ou are doin$ is to a$oniEe human bein$s= a$oniEe a nation to humiliate it= force it to submission in front of lan$ua$e of force. -herefore the bombin$s are an atrocit;. -hereof there are man; in modern histor;. -he; are often associated 6ith a name. Guernica= >radour= ?abi Rar= &at;n= #idice= Sharpeville and -reblin2a. Kiolence has triumphed. ?ut the verdict of posterit; has fallen hard on those 6ho have carried the responsibilit;. Bo6 there is one further name to add to the ro6. 0anoi ! hristmas '3+. %>6n translation* %olofpalme.or$= '3+.= p. '*. >n 6$ril )*th, )*+.= at the +,th Anniversar; of the Stoc2holm :or2ers ommune= in response to the increasin$ unemplo;ment rates in America as 6ell as Europe= Palme criticiEed consumerism= noticin$ that the destructive forces of capitalism still had not been tempered= but he also criticiEed the ommunist economic s;stem due to its incapabilit; to produce democrac; and social justice= here= especiall; alludin$ to the dictatorial re$ime in Eechoslova2ia= of 6hich he referred to as Gthe cattle of dictatorshipG %>6n translation*. 0e thereb; came to the conclusion that Gto the "emocratic Socialism either capitalism or communism can offer acceptable solutions to our social problemsG %>6n translation* %olofpalme.or$= '3+,a= pp. 3!''*. -his messa$e 6as also delivered at the Social "emocratic Part; on$ress five months later= on Se$tem er (-th, )*+.= an event other6ise 2no6n for havin$ harbored PalmeCs referrment to the 5ranco re$ime in Spain as Gsatanic murderersG %olofpalme.or$= '3+,b= p. '.*: apitalism represents no dream of freedom. -o our o6n ;outh= 6ho are en$a$ed in supportin$ national and social liberation movements= it has been revealed ho6 capitalism relies on the support of repressive re$imes. <n the -hird :orld there is scarcel; an; example of domestic capitalism. <n some countries there is merel; a '.

forei$n one that is protected b; domestic militar; forces and oppressors. LMN <nternational ommunism ! stained b; the brutalit; of Stalin ! represents no dream of freedom LeitherN. :hat attraction does communism have for those 6ho 6ant to have more to sa; at their 6or2place= 6ho 6ant to evolve local self! $overnment= 6ho 6ant to $o in for expanded activities and increased involvement for more and more people in political lifeQ ommunism responds to them 6ith democratic centralism and the dictatorship of the proletariat and 6ith $ra; theor; instead of livin$= practical political 6or2 %i id.= pp. 88!8)*. >n No1em er ))th, )*+.= Palme held another address in front of the Dnited Bations General Assembl;= 6here he tal2ed about his belief in e9ualit; within states as a prere9uisite for e9ualit; etween states. <n a societ;= here referrin$ to S6eden= 6here the people decided on the production and its distribution= Palme sa6 the transformation from a societ; based on class= to a societ; 6here people on the basis of freedom and e9ualit; 6or2ed to$ether in natural solidarit;= from a 6ider perspective= 6hat he perceived as the foundation for international solidarit;. 0e also tal2ed about the continuin$ need for relaxation and disarmament= and in a direct messa$e to the superpo6ers= ur$in$ them to ta2e responsibilit; for 6hat the; had started= he declared that G... those t6o po6ers 6ho started the nuclear race LmustN assume the responsibilities 6hich are theirs. -he; have to compl; 6ith their treat; obli$ations and solemn pled$es to the 6orld communit; to reach real tal2s on nuclear disarmamentG %olofpalme.or$= '3+,c= pp. )!+*. <n a speech held at the DB onference in Support of the Peoples of Bamibia and Jimbab6e= in Maputo= MoEambi9ue= on !ay (,th, )*++, Palme illustrated the :estern double standard related to the $reat po6er interests in Africa b; sa;in$: G-hose in the :est 6ho shout loud about political and material support to Africa from the East ou$ht to consider their o6n contributions to this development. "id the; assist the actual liberation movementsQ :here from did the Portu$uese colonialists $et their 6eaponsQ :here from have the South African racists $otten their 6eapons and their licensesQG %>6n translation* %>lsson A Gustavsson= '33(= p. +'*. >n ;anuary )(th, )*-,= Palme once a$ain held a speech in front of the Stoc2holm :or2ers ommune. >n the basis of four points= he condemned the Soviet intervention in Af$hanistan= 6hich he sa6 as %'* GM a fla$rant violation of ever; nationCs ri$ht to self!determination= a violation of <nternational #a6G= %.* an act that 6ould contribute to GM the escalation of tension in the 6orld= bet6een East and :est= but also bet6een north and southG= %8* an opportunit; for the superpo6ers to GM increase their armament= and their militar; presence in areas 6here the Dnited States did not have militar; bases beforeG= and lastl;= %)* GM a hard blo6 a$ainst the non!ali$ned 6orld= of 6hich Af$hanistan 6as a memberG. <n essence= 6hat Palme sa6 here= 6as the ris2 of the termination of the process of d#tente %olofpalme.or$= '34(= pp. '!8*. Palme continued his speech b; elaboratin$ on the complex and harsh realit; of po6er politics= 6hen he= $iven the hard DS reaction to the Soviet invasion= reminded of the fact that the DS bac2ed Muslim nationalist movements in Af$hanistan= basicall; represented the same t;pe of reli$ious $roups that the DS 6ere in conflict 6ith in <ran. Re$ardless= he 6elcomed the DS protest= and he 6arned a$ainst jud$in$ conflicts from the G6arped perspectiveG of the $lobal po6er stru$$le= also remindin$ of the man; attempts to discredit African liberation movements because of their Soviet support. -o clarif; the matter= and to $et to the heart of the issue= Palme stated: G-he liberation stru$$le of the Af$han people is not lessened b; the fact that it is directed a$ainst the Soviet Dnion and thereb; $ets the support of the Dnited States. :e shall support the Af$han people for its own sa%e Lemphasis addedNG %i id.= p. .*.

'8

<n #a$os= Bi$eria= on ;anuary )*th, )*-:= in front of the Bi$erian <nstitute of <nternational Affaires= Palme $ave his support to AfricaCs= based on its o6n terms= anti!colonial stru$$le= and denounced DS and Soviet practices in Africa: G-he attempts to use African countries as pa6ns in a po6er $ame must be combated= so that a ne6 free!for!all over Africa does not arise out of the rivalr; bet6een the superpo6ers. -he stru$$le a$ainst apartheid is somethin$ that concerns all and the extermination of this s;stem therefore becomes a contribution to peaceG %>6n translation*. 0e also stressed the importance of peopleCs ri$ht to self!determination and the need to respect the DB harter and DB decisions %Palme= '34)= pp. 8+!84*. <n Stoc2holm= S6eden= on !ar/h )<th, )*-:= durin$ a forei$n polic; debate in the Parliament % i id.= p. )+*= Palme criticiEed the ri$htist Moderate oalition Part; for compromisin$ the credibilit; of the S6edish neutralit; polic;. <n a pro$ram declaration= the; held for6ard the S6edish defense as the most important contributin$ factor to peace and stabilit; in Borthern Europe= a statement that accordin$ to Palme= contested the principle of neutralit;F -o Palme= as < have alread; sho6n= forei$n political credibilit; came first= a stron$ defense= as an important part of the parcel= second %i id.= p. ,'*. Palme also reacted a$ainst the expression of G5reedom in Eastern Europe ! A prere9uisite for lastin$ peaceG %>6n translation* used b; the Moderats. :hile underlinin$ that all democrats 6ere a$ainst the communist dictatorship in Eastern Europe %i id.*= a statement also put for6ard in Strasbour$= 5rance= on Se$tem er (-th, )*-:= in an address to the ouncil of Europe % i id.= p. 4+*= he perceived the phrase as a s;mbol for a :estern GcrusadeG= 6here the intent on crushin$ the Eastern s;stem b; puttin$ external pressure to it= rather= 6ould increase the arms race and the li2eliness of 6ar. Given this= Palme reminded the listeners of 6hat he sa6 as the essence of S6edish forei$n polic;: G... the purpose has been to brid$e ! not deepen ! the anta$onisms bet6een East and :est= to see2 consent ! not conflict ! and to support the relaxation polic; that has meant so much to the peace in EuropeG= and furthermore= G... the people in Eastern Europe have better prere9uisites of chan$in$ their situation in a climate of international relaxation than in times of harsh confrontationG %>6n translation* %i id.= pp. ,'!,.*. -o elaborate on the above= 6hat Palme sou$ht= as presented in Stoc2holm= S6eden= on ;anuary )+th, )*-== at the onference on onfidence and Securit; ?uildin$ Measures and "isarmament in Europe= 6as a climate characteriEed b; close contacts and cooperation= based on mutual respect= 6here the cross!border dialo$ue 6ould $enerate understandin$ and trust. 0e said: G"ifferent ideolo$ies must not tie us do6n to self!ri$hteous and suspicious attitudes. #et the people themselves realiEe their interests and in 6hat 6a; these interests can be promoted. -he; 6ill choose the 6a; of reconciliation and peaceG %>6n translation*. <n relation to this statement= he also made a reminder of ever; militar; conflict runnin$ the ris2 of spreadin$ to ne6 areas %i id.= pp. '(,!'(4*. "urin$ '34' and '34.= outside of &arls2rona and at 0SrsfjTrden respectivel;= S6edish territorial 6aters 6ere violated on several occasions b; forei$n submarines. -he follo6in$ ;ear= a Revie6 ommittee= appointed b; the S6edish Government= came to the conclusion that the submarines= on both occasions= had been Soviet. As a conse9uence= on 6$ril (<th, )*-:= the S6edish Government overhanded a protest note to the Soviets= condemnin$ the actions= callin$ for the Soviet Dnion to stop violatin$ S6edish territor;. -he; also pointed out S6edenCs ri$ht to protect its territorial 6aters= that the technical and militar; resources needed to meet these instructions had been stren$thened= and that the violators 6ould have to bear responsibilit; for an; conse9uences bein$ the result of S6edish intervention. <n a further statement= made on the same da;= Palme repeated the messa$e= and he also underlined that: G>ur politic must not an;6here create either disbelief or expectations of deviations from the chosen line of action. At the ver; least can it $ive $round for the ')

suspicion that S6edish territor; in a conflict ma; be used b; another po6erG %>6n translation* %i id.= pp. /8!/,*. <n 0elsin2i= 5inland= on ;une )st, )*-:= in front of the Paasi2ivi Societ;= Palme observed the deterioration of East!:est relations in Europe= and made a reminder that the Bordic ountries had a ri$ht= but also an obli$ation= to tr; to contribute to a peaceful development in the re$ion and to a chan$e in the political climate= 6hich could ultimatel; lead a6a; from 6hat he sa6 as G... the dead! end of rearmament and militar; confrontationG. 0e also denounced the balance of terror as a foundation for peace= instead touchin$ upon the possibilit; of a nuclear!6eapon!free Eone in entral Europe= bet6een the t6o blocs= 6hich 6ould create trust= and in the bi$$er context= the chance of an arran$ement that 6ould balance both sideCs conventional forces in Europe= at as lo6 level as possible. -o 9uote: G:hat has to be done is $raduall; to replace a securit;= 6hich is dependent upon constantl; increasin$ armaments= 6ith a securit; 6hich is basicall; political and 6hich rests upon mutual trust. Political and ideolo$ical opponents must= despite fundamental differences of opinion= 6or2 to$ether to avoid nuclear 6ar. -he; can onl; survive to$ether ! or perish to$etherG %olofpalme.or$= '348= pp. ''!'8*. % Analysis % 1 A 0arxist ta1e Palme certainl; criticiEed capitalism and its exploitative relationship 6ith the -hird :orld= he sa6 the $aps bet6een the rich and the poor= the ideal of a class based societ; transformed to a free= e9ual and %international* solidaric communit;= 6here the people decided on production and distribution ! surel; 6hat 0abermas and #in2later at least 6ould re$ard as a step in the ri$ht direction ! and he also $ave his support to liberation movements. 0o6ever= 6hereas Marxists re$arded revolution as the onl; solution= Palme sa6 it as the ver; last resort= onl; le$itimate as a means to overthro6 a repressive re$ime= for example a colonial po6er. >ther6ise= and especiall; the closer it $ot to his o6n European Gbac2;ardG= he sou$ht 3radual chan$e. Seen a$ainst this bac2$round= rather= his seemin$l; obvious GMarxistG rhetoric lands in the %Social* #iberal camp= and at best= if 6e 6ere to tal2 political ideolo$;= in the Socialist Reformist camp %#arsson= .((/= p. )3*. -o elaborate on the the path here implied= and to alter the perspective= in fact= Marxism could be used the other 6a; around= to sho6 that Palme= 6hen it came to the handlin$ of international relations= did not belon$ to a Marxist le$ac; of thou$ht. 5irst= in addition to 6hat has alread; been concluded as incommensurable 6ith Marxism= Reformism= Palme 6as a $reat supporter of the Dnited Bations and its charter= and he even thou$ht that the or$aniEationCs competencies should be stren$thened. Second= in connection 6ith the previous claim= Palme sou$ht relaxation= and even if he denounced the balance of terror= and as time pro$ressed= more and more so= he did notice the realities of the balance of $ower= and for the moment bein$= he accepted it as a temporar; s;stem stabiliEer= 6here he envisioned that the tensions bet6een the blocs= throu$h consent and the abrid$ement of anta$onisms= 6ould lessen in time. <n such a climate= Palme thou$ht that the people in Eastern Europe $raduall; 6ould realiEe their best interests= that is= choose reconciliation and peace. 5rom a Marxist point of vie6= Gramscianism/ ritical theor; as 6ell as :orld!s;stems theor; included= this approach 6ould have been perceived as a cloa2 for a maintained bour$eoisie order= 6here the Eastern bloc slo6l; 6ould have been dra6n into a :estern 6a; of life= ri$ht into the hands of a core= further exploitin$ the semi!peripher;.

',

-hus= it can be concluded that Palme certainl; sho6ed rhetorical a6areness of a Marxist lo$ic= and in some areas= here impl;in$ his vision of the solidaric societ;= his thou$hts even 6ent in line 6ith some of MarxismCs more modern thin2ers. ?ut essentiall;= 6hen it comes to the 9uestion of 6hat he perceived as le$itimate methods to chan$e societ;= Palme 6as not Marxist. <nitiall;= it mi$ht be seen as a contradiction= that Marxism in fact has revealed a picture of Palme as a #iberalist= ho6ever= the exercise has filled a vital purposeF -hrou$h Marxism= the picture of Palme as a #iberalist has been reinforced= compared to if the eventual similarities bet6een his opinions and #iberalism had been noticed throu$h the e;es of #iberalism onl;. Summa summarum= despite criticiEin$ capitalism= to a Marxist= Palme 6as not actin$ neutrall;. Rather= he 6as perceived as runnin$ the errands of the :estern bour$eoisie= dis$uised as a champion of freedom and international solidarit;. % " A 'iberalist ta1e As alread; implied= #iberalism= or to be more specific= Beo!#iberalism= is the theoretical frame6or2 that mostl; resembles PalmeCs o6n thou$hts= both as a Gtheoretical matchG= and= the other 6a; around= Palme loo2ed upon throu$h the e;es of Beo!#iberalism. As a Beo!#iberalist= Palme too2 notice of the realities of statism= value maximation and the anarchic international structure= but= the solution to a better 6orld= as he sa6 it= 6as not to be found in suspiciousness and po6er politics= but rather= as for example stated in Stoc2holm in '34)= throu$h close contacts= cooperation= mutual respect= cross!border dialo$ue= understandin$ and trust. -hrou$hout PalmeCs political career= his embracement of the Dnited Bations= national independence= and the concepts of relaxation and disarmament= runs as a common thread= and 6hen ta2in$ part of his reaction to the 0anoi bombin$s= or for that matter= his referrment to the repressive re$imes in Spain and Eechoslova2ia as Gsatanic murderersG and Gthe cattle of dictatorshipG= it is hard not to see a $enuine idealism behind these 6ords= mirrorin$ a person stron$l; opposin$ the infrin$ement on peoples ri$ht to decide on their o6n future. -o Palme= international solidarit; meant that absolute $ains= that 6ould benefit all= 6ould be created= and his #iberalist criti9ue of 6hat he perceived as violations of soverei$nt; and human di$nit; did not challen$e the concept of S6edish neutralit;F 0e opposed injustices carried out b; the East as 6ell as the :est= and 6hen he $ave his support to liberation movements= he did it for freedomCs o6n sa2e. % $ A -ealist ta1e So far= it is clear that Palme belon$ed to a Beo!#iberal= almost G&antianG tradition= but unless also a Realist perspective is ta2en into account= the picture 6ill not be complete. As 6ith the case of Beo! #iberalism= a GfitG bet6een PalmeCs rhetorical lo$ic and the use of Beo!Realism as a scientific tool as such emer$es here as 6ell. <t has alread; been concluded that Palme= as a Beo!#iberalist= 6as 6ell a6are of the existence of an anarchic Realist 6orld= of 6hich= for that matter= further evidence can be found in the introductor; chapter of his publication from '34): GDB is an instrument for upholdin$ an international le$al order= 6ithout 6hich somethin$ of an anarch; could spread in the intercourse bet6een the nationsG %Palme= '34)= p. '4= o6n translation*. 0o6ever= and to $et to the point= as much of a Beo!#iberalist as he 6as= 6hen it came to the main tas2= to secure S6edenCs independence= Beo!Realism too2 primac;= and as < 6ill sho6= the t6o perspectives 6ere perfectl; combinable. -he main factor to consider here are relative $ains= and the 9uestion thus becomes= focusin$ on S6eden= DSA and DSSR= ho6 6ere the $ains= as a conse9uence of S6edish forei$n polic;= distributed bet6een these actorsQ ertainl;= 6hen Palme %from a Beo!#iberal perspective* tal2ed about trust= relaxation and disarmament in Europe= for example in 0elsin2i in '348= he 6as= in '/

accordance 6ith the principle of neutralit;= and 6hen it literall; came do6n to the 9uestion of de fa/to arms= ver; careful not to favor either sideF Given the situation= the balance of po6er e9uilibrium had to be maintained= but= he believed that tensions could be eased $raduall;= 6ith DS and Soviet conventional forces balanced at as lo6 level as possible. 5rom a Beo!#iberal perspective= this surel; 6ould have been perceived as an opportunit; of absolute $ains for all. 0o6ever= the situation loo2ed upon from a Beo!Realist perspective= reveals that S6eden= in its a626ard position= situated bet6een t6o superpo6ers= actuall; $ained the most. And this is 6here the Beo!#iberal and Beo!Realist approaches coincideF ?; usin$ Neo-Li eral ta/ti/s within the framewor% of an o1erall Neo-Realist strate3y= Palme sou$ht to secure S6edish independence= a strate$; that could be defined as= if ;ou 6ill= #iberal Beo!Realism= ver; 6ell in line 6ith PalmeCs vie6 of the S6edish forei$n polic; as the first line of defense= the militar; defense bein$ the second. 0o6 about the other t6o actors thenQ Given that S6eden 6as part of a democratic :estern 6orld= and on top of that= the democratic peace thesis ta2en into consideration= chances of infrin$ement on S6edish soverei$nt; 6ere less li2el; to come from the :est. Rather= the threat came from the Eastern hemisphere and the Marxist foundation it rested on. Alto$ether= these factors put Palme and S6eden under suspicion from the East alread; from the start= a realit; of 6hich he certainl; 6as a6areF East6ards= the Gelbo6!roomG 6as far lesser= but b; si$nalin$ a $radual= non!confrontational approach= it could be said that Palme indirectl; GacceptedG the existence of the Soviet Dnion= and seen from this perspective= S6edenCs forei$n polic; served its purpose 6ell. As for the third part= the Dnited States= and for that matter= the S6edish internal opposition as 6ell= the; $ained the least. ?oth these actors= the Rea$an administration especiall;= stood behind a more confrontational politic to6ards the Soviet Dnion= but as it 6ere= PalmeCs forei$n polic; and international en$a$ement acted as a brea2= thereb; $ivin$ indirect le$itimac; to the Soviet Dnion. -o summariEe= in all its intricac;= and to borro6 from the title of Ian #inderCs %.(((* publication= S6edenCs forei$n political balancin$ act durin$ the old :ar reall; 6as a dance on a slac2 rope. % % Conclusion 5rom a Marxist point of vie6= Palme can not be interpreted as an;thin$ else than an ambassador of :estern capitalism= but to solel; rel; on this perspective results in a picture 6hich does not do him justice. As < have sho6n= it is first 6hen Palme is loo2ed upon from a #iberal Beo!Realist perspective= that his indirect Eastern bias becomes understandable. Re$ardin$ the second aim of the stud;= to tr; to lin2 PalmeCs statements/tendencies to the $eneral phases of the old :ar= t6o %non!opposin$* scenarios have emer$ed= one based on a positive covariance= the other based on a ne$ative one. -he first scenario is represented b; PalmeCs reactions to events that had a bi$ impact 6orld 6ide= such as the 0anoi bombin$s in '3+.= the Soviet invasion of Af$hanistan= and the violations of S6edish territorial 6aters in the earl; '34(Cs. 0ere= Palme responded directl; to an event= althou$h= and important to sa;= not in a 6a; that diver$ed from the alread; chosen path of neutralit;= soverei$nt;= relaxation and solidarit;. At such occasions= rather= he em$hasi>ed his core values= and seen from a short!term Gstimuli!responseG perspective= this behavior could be defined as positive covariance. Scenario t6o is represented b; the chan$in$ character of the old :ar= from '3+3 on6ards= 6hat came to be 2no6n as the USecond old :arG= 6hen Palme did ta2e notice of the deterioration of East!:est relations= but continued to stress the importance of a return to d#tente= and seen from a lon$!term stimuli!response perspective= this Gbac26ardG behavior could be defined as ne$ative covariance. -o sum up= the lastin$ impression= and 6hat thus contradicts the second part of the '+

thesis statement= is that PalmeCs chief values= as incorporated in the S6edish forei$n polic;= 6here ver; consistent durin$ the 6hole period= from '3/3 to '34/= albeit= not reall; neutral. % & 2uture research -here are man; aspects of >lof PalmeCs politicianship that could be studied in more detail= and one interestin$ research project 6ould certainl; be to examine ho6 Palme= durin$ the short time he had left= responded to the ne6 ideas of economic reor$aniEation that Mi2hail Gorbachev brou$ht about 6hen he became the ne6 General Secretar; of the Soviet ommunist Part; in '34,= and= dependin$ on the result= 6hat possible %indirect* effect this response mi$ht have had on the overall distribution of po6er in the bipolar old :ar s;stem. Another interestin$ project 6ould be to loo2 into 6hether an; nuances in the understandin$ of the concept of S6edish neutralit;= durin$ the old :ar= could be traced bet6een Palme and his successor= <n$var arlsson.

'4

'iterature
AndrHn= Bils %'33/*. ?alan/e of $ower and freedom of allian/e - Swedish forei3n $oli/y durin3 the (, th /entury L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : Borstedts juridi2. ?a;lis= Iohn A Smith= Steve %EdCs*. %.((,* The &lo ali>ation of World Politi/s - 6n introdu/tion to international relations7 8rd ed. >xford : >xford Dniversit; Press. ?er$$ren= 0enri2 %.('(*. Wonderful days ahead of us - 6 io3ra$hy on Olof Palme L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : Borstedts. ?er$$ren= 0enri2= @stber$= &jell A B;cander= Svante %.('.*. "ebate. Res$ons L<n S6edishN= Kol. '= pp. 4!'(. ?jereld= Dlf %'33.*. Criti/ or mediator@ - 6 study of Sweden5s forei3n $oliti/al roles )*=.-*, L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : Berenius A SantHrus. E2en$ren= Ann!Marie %'33+*. Sweden durin3 the Cold War )*=.-)*<* - 6 resear/h re1iew L<n S6edishN7 G1tebor$. E2en$ren= Ann!Marie %.((,*. Olof Palme and the forei3n $oli/y - Auro$e and the Third World L<n S6edishN7 DmeS : ?orHa. Elmbrant= ?j1rn %'343*. Palme L<n S6edishN7 Stoc2holm : 51rfattarf1rla$et 5ischer A R;e. Greider= G1ran %.(''*. No ody es/a$es Olof Palme L<n S6edishN7 Stoc2holm : >rdfront. 0uldt= ?o A Mis$eld= &laus %EdCs* %'33(*. The So/ial 9emo/ra/y and Swedish forei3n $oli/y - 'rom ?rantin3 to Palme L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : Dtri2espolitis2a institutet. &ronvall= >lof A Petersson= Ma$nus %.((,*. Swedish se/urity $oli/y in the shadow of the su$er$owers )*=.-)**) L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : SantHrus. #arsson= Reidar %.((/*. Politi/al ideolo3ies in our time L<n S6edishN7 +th ed. #und: Studentlitteratur. #inder= Ian %.(((*. 9an/e on a sla/% ro$e - Swedish neutrality $oli/y )*:*-)*** - ?alan/in3 a/ts durin3 the Se/ond World War and the Cold War L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : <nfomana$er. #1dHn= 0ans %'333*.B'or safety5s sa%eB - Ideolo3y and se/urity in Swedish a/ti1e forei3n $oli/y )*.*-)*+. L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : Berenius A SantHrus. B;e= Ioseph S. %.((4*. 2nderstandin3 international /onfli/ts - 6n introdu/tion to theory and history. +th ed. 0arlo6 : Pearson Education. >lsson= laes A Gustavsson= hrister %EdCs* %'33(*. 2N must e stren3thened4 - Olof Palme5s s$ee/hes in 2N )*+,-)*-. L<n S6edishN7 Stoc2holm : Dn$domens och Studenternas 5B!f1rbund i Sveri$e. Palme= >lof %'34)*. Sweden5s forei3n $oli/y - 6ddresses y Olof Palme L<n S6edishN7 Stoc2holm : -iden. Persson= #eif G. :. %.((.*. ?etween Summer5s Lon3in3 and Winter5s And - The Story of a Crime L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : Piratf1rla$et. Peters= Gu; ?. %'334*. Com$arati1e $oliti/s - Theory and methods. ?asin$sto2e : Pal$rave/Macmillan. Ra$in= harles . A Amoroso= #isa M. %.(''*. Constru/tin3 so/ial resear/h - The unity and di1ersity of method7 .nd ed. #os An$eles : Sa$e Publications.

'3

)lectronic sources
5erm= Anders A >hlsson= Per -. %.((/*. >lof Palme ! .( ;ears later. 'o%us L<n S6edishN L>nlineN L#ast updated on 5ebruar; .)th= .((/N. Available at: Vhttp://666.fo2us.se/.((//(./olof!palme!WE.W4(W38!.(!ar!senareX LAccessed Ma; ./th= .('.N. olofpalme.or$ %'3+(*. 6ddress 3i1en y Prime !inister Olof Palme at the BPeo$le and 9efen/eB Conferen/e at Storlien on 'e ruary (, )*+, LDnofficial translationN L>nlineN. Available at: Vhttp://666.olofpalme.or$/6p! content/do2ument/+((.(.bYstorlien.pdfX LAccessed Ma; .'st= .('.N. olofpalme.or$ %'3+.*. Statement on the 2S om in3s of Canoi Christmas )*+( L<n S6edishN L>nlineN. Available at: Vhttp://666.olofpalme.or$/6p!content/do2ument/+.'..8aYhanoiYjulenY'3+..pdfX LAccessed Ma; .4th= .('.N. olofpalme.or$ %'3+,a*. Prime !inister Olof Palme5s s$ee/h at the +. th 6nni1ersary of the Sto/%holm Wor%ers Commune on 6$ril )*th )*+. L<n S6edishN L>nlineN. Available at: Vhttp://666.olofpalme.or$/6p! content/do2ument/+,()'3Ysap.pdfX LAccessed Ma; .+th= .('.N. olofpalme.or$ %'3+,b*. So/ial 9emo/rati/ Party Con3ress - S$ee/h y Chairman Olof Palme on the draft $ro$osal for a Party Pro3ram Se$tem er (-, )*+. L>nlineN. Available at: Vhttp://666.olofpalme.or$/6p! content/do2ument/+,(3.4dYsap.pdfX LAccessed Ma; .4th= .('.N. olofpalme.or$ %'3+,c*. S$ee/h y Prime !inister Olof Palme in the 2nited Nations &eneral 6ssem ly, No1em er )), )*+. L>nlineN. Available at: Vhttp://666.olofpalme.or$/6p!content/do2ument/+,''''aYfn.pdfX LAccessed Ma; .+th= .('.N. olofpalme.or$ %'34(*. Olof Palme - S$ee/h at the Sto/%holm Wor%ers5 Commune ;anuary )(th, )*-, L>nlineN. Available at: Vhttp://666.olofpalme.or$/6p!content/do2ument/4((''.bYsthlmsYarbetare2ommun.pdfX LAccessed Ma; .3th= .('.N. olofpalme.or$ %'348*. S$ee/h y the Prime !inister, !r7 Olof Palme, to the Paasi1i%i So/iety in Celsin%i on ) ;une )*-: L>nlineN. Available at: Vhttp://666.olofpalme.or$/6p!content/do2ument/48(/('bYpaasi2ivi.pdfX LAccessed Ma; ./th= .('.N. olofpalme.or$ %'34,*. 6ddress in Sund y er3 and Sto/%holm !ay )st )*-. L<n S6edishN L>nlineN. Available at: Vhttp://666.olofpalme.or$/6p!content/do2ument/4,(,('Ysundb;ber$Ystoc2holm.pdfX LAccessed Ma; .'st= .('.N. olofpalme.or$ %n.d.*. 6 out this site L>nlineN. Available at: Vhttp://666.olofpalme.or$/en/aboutX LAccessed Ma; 4th= .('.N. Pettersson= -homas A Stenber$= E6a %.((4*. <A 6anted to enlist the ;oun$ >lof Palme. 9a3ens nyheter L<n S6edishN L>nlineN L#ast updated .8:,' PM on Ianuar; '.th= .((4N. Available at: Vhttp://666.dn.se/n;heter/sveri$e/cia!ville!varva!den!un$e!olof!palmeX LAccessed Ma; .(th= .('.N.

+iblio,raphy
?randt= :ill;= &reis2;= ?runo A Palme= >lof %'3+/*. ?randt, Kreis%y, Palme - Letters and /on1ersations L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : -iden. 0ansson= Sven >ve %Ed.* %'33/*. Palme himself - Sele/ted te"ts L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : -iden. <sa2sson= hrister %'33,*. Palme $ri1ately - In the shadow of Arlander L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : E2erlid. Palme= >lof %'3+)*. To want to mo1e on L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : -iden.

.(

Palme= >lof %'3+/*. To3ether we /an ma%e a 3ood /ountry etter - Olof Palme on the $oliti/s of the So/ial 9emo/rats efore the ele/tion of )*+< L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : -iden i samarbete med Socialdemo2raterna. Palme= >lof %'3++*. In his own words - Con1ersations with Ser3e Ri/hard and Nordal D%erman L<n S6edishN. Dppsala : ?romber$s. Palme= >lof %'34/*. Politi/s is to want L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : Prisma. Palme= >lof %'34+*. 6 li1in3 will L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : -iden. Palme= >lof %.((/*. Solidarity without orders - Sele/ted s$ee/hes and te"ts L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : Atlas. Palme= >lof %.((3*. We5ll meet a3ain /omrades - S$ee/hes and te"ts )*<=--< L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : Murbru2. Peterson= -ha$e G. %.((.*. Olof Palme as I remem er him L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : ?onniers. Strand= "ieter %'34(*. Palme a3ain@ - S/enes from the life of a $arty leader L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : Borstedts. @ster$ren= ?ertil %'34)*. Who is Olof Palme@ - 6 $oliti/al $ortrait L<n S6edishN. Stoc2holm : -imbro.

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