SURVEY OF WESTERN ART

LECTURE 4

Early Christian and Byzantine Art

The Beginnings and Constantine

We can begin our focus with the declining centuries of the Roman empire, the last century of classical Rome. In the 2nd c. Emperor Marcus Aurelius predicted that the power of Rome would last forever. 100 years later the Roman empire was in full decline. Currency bled away, there was an enormous tax on the middle class. The empire became so large that by the 3rd century the roads could no longer be maintained. The army was very large, but by the 3rd century it was composed of non-Italians, Persians, VisiGoths, etc. By the end of the 3rd c., it became too difficult to shield the enormous empire. Two emperors tried to change this, first Diocletian (pagan) and later Constantine, and for a brief period stability was restored, depending on a rigid state authority. The measures taken by the latter emperors did not prevent the empire from splitting in half. By the time Constantine became Caesar of the Roman empire, the Empire had split in half:

o o

The western Roman Empire centered in Rome, speaking Latin the Eastern Roman Empire of Byzantium (Constantinople), today Istanbul, Turkey; speaking Greek

Map of Medieval Europe

The Eastern Empire, or Byzantine Empire became strong and stable in the sixth century under Emperor Justinian:
o o o o o o

lasting 1000 years, with a great cultural history It fell to the Turks in 1453.The fifth century was Rome's blackest hour. The borders wee breached and the Emperor was forced to abandon Rome, moving the center northward, first to Milan then to Ravenna. Barbarians spilled over the rest of the Roman Empire, Germany, Spain, Italy, Gaul, and Africa. By the end of the sixth c. there were dozens of barbarian kingdoms which replaced the central authority of the Roman Emperor. Sea trade ceased, great cities were abandoned, and Rome shrunk. just about every institution of the Government ceased, except one. the Church.

The Church
The church emerged to fill the void, it grew in time of economic misery. The church declared themselves authority of state. Thus the people sought for

something beyond their miserable lives, a quest for a new religion emerged. The focus was no longer on "Man" but now on "God". Christianity, one of many cults in the first, second, and third centuries prevailed because it offered assurance of an afterlife in paradise and its accessibility for the lower class, and because of its extremely gifted leadership from the beginning, like St. Paul. For More Information On Above Click Here The pagan world was a continuous stream, focusing on manly pleasures, the material, temporal glories. The Christian world unfolded dramatically with a beginning a middle, and an end - the Last Judgment. Everything led up the Last Judgment, focusing on the spiritual, and the eternal. The focus on the Day of Reckoning - Last Judgment swept through the world. More and more people began to turn their eyes away from present world. Needing assurance of salvation. This radically altered the process of Western thought FROM THE MATERIAL TO THE SPIRITUAL. The chief focus moved away from the study of nature, or the study of man to the study of how the human soul might return to God. We see this new spiritual attitude reflected in the arts. We move away from a clear, logical, measurable art, as seen exemplified in the building of the Pantheon in Rome, towards an unsubstantial, symbolic art.

The Pantheon, Rome, 125 AD Roman Imperial Art

Hagia Sophia, Constantine Byzantine Art

The pantheon, a temple dedicated to all Gods, projects a certain attitude. It is highly organized, heavy, domed. Extremely balanced, a geometric unity - equal dimensions for the height of the dome and its diameter, easily read plan, the dome isolates and defines the interior space. Thus it is very materialistic architecture - clear, logical, measurable. Rich, heavy, powerful Hagia Sophia, in many ways is similar to the Pantheon, it is large, domed. However, there are basic differences that show how far we have come from pagan classical point of view to Medieval pt of view. In the Pantheon, everything was clear, understandable, in H. Sophia

architectural form becomes blurred, softened, mosaics covered upper parts of the wall, the lower parts are richly patterned marble. Where you don't have marble or mosaic, you have windows, hundreds. The dome sits on a row of windows. In early morning and late afternoon, light filters through windows so the dome rests on light. A miniature heaven, unsubstantial quality prevails, symbolic of heaven. Architects hide all supports from view. Where the Pantheon was solid, massive, H. Sophia is insubstantial, shell like. The walls disappear. FROM CLASSICAL MATERIALISM TO CHRISTIAN TRANSCENDENTALISM.

Early Christian Art

The period "Early Christian" refers to roughly the first five centuries A.D. The term "Byzantine" is the name of a style that originated in the Eastern Roman Empire, it is also used to include works made in Italy under Byzantine influence, beginning roughly in the sixth century under Emperor Justinian.

Before Constantine declared Christianity a state religion, Christians worshiped in secrecy, in private dwellings and sometimes in underground chambers beneath the city of Rome, and other cities, called Catacombs. Roman law protected any tomb, and even during periods of severe persecution, the sites were protected. Catacombs were mainly a place of burial for the Christian dead. Many chambers were decorated with frescoes of Christian symbolism to distinguish it from pagan tombs. We have to be careful about style of these works. The are very crude, naive craftsmanship, similar to folk art. One such fresco was found in a catacomb on the ceiling dating from the late third, early fourth century A.D.

Christ As The Good Shepherd With Flock Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus

The scene of Christ as the good shepherd in surrounded by 4 lunettes containing the story of Jonah. Christ is depicted as a shepherd, the favorite funerary motif derived form Psalm 23, "The lord is my shepherd, I shall not want; he maketh me to lie down in green pastures. He leadeth me beside still water; he restoreth my soul... Lo, even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I fear no evil," he is the Lord of salvation. Also, in John 10:11, Christ says " I am the Good Shepherd" The symbolism declares man's promised salvation in the next world. The four lunettes form a cross, a symbolism of Christ's crucifixion, death, and resurrection. Most of the scenes in early times rely heavily on the old Testament. Slowly we begin to see New Testament. You have to realize that the new testament was not canonized or accepted until the 2nd c.

Detail of Jonah, Thrown Into the Sea Catacomb of Saints Peter and Marcellinus, Rome 4th Century

The story of Jonah is very symbolic and related to Christ's life. Jonah was cast from a ship, into a belly of a whale. Jonah spent three days and three nights in the whale's belly. This action is a symbolic foreshadow of Christ's entombment. Jonah was released from the whale and thrown on shore, sitting beneath a vine, the vine a symbol of Christ's resurrection. The vine is the wine which symbolizes Christ's blood. Also, Jonah was cast out because he disobeyed God, but he was saved, showing no sin is too great to ask forgiveness, revealing a merciful God. The orantes, or figures of prayer represent the souls of the deceased in supplication, hope for salvation. We feel a program of subject matter in this early art. There is an established set, or a sequence of related themes or stories chosen and arranged together in order to a more comprehensive theme - here through prayer, and the mercy of God, salvation is possible.

While we are inundated with symbolism which only will become more complicated as this stylistic period continues, we see the beginnings of the disintegration of realism.

The whole design reveals very little sense of depth. The background is light, and flat ground. The figures are drawn in a hierarchic scale, 1. Christ as the Good Shepherd being the largest 2. The orantes (figures in prayer) being second 3. Jonah the smallest.

This stress their importance in the Christian world, rather than naturalism. The figures seem to float. However, the figures drawn in an impressionistic style, very tonal, not much linear detail, seeming to capture light and shadow, creating some sense of illusionism.

There are still some clear borrowings from the classical past, it will take time to come out of the material world, to create a transcendental, or other-world. We shall see the evolution take place as weprogress with the study of medieval art. The problem the early Christian artist has is how to remold Classical style for the thoughts of Christians. The same funerary motifs and liturgical practices as we saw in painting are also repeated over the surfaces of the sculptured coffins called sarcophagi (plural) sarcophagus (singular). Compared to painting and architecture, sculpture played a secondary role in Early Christian art. Because Christians wanted to avoid the taint of pagan idolatry, sculpture developed from the very start in an anti-monumental direction: away from the spatial depth and massive scale of Graeco-Roman sculpture toward shallow, small-scale forms and lacelike surface decoration. Sculpture in the round was particularly vulnerable to the charge of idol worship, since it encouraged association with the gods of the pagan world. Thus, except for portrait busts or small figures of the Good Shepherd, Christians encouraged sculpture only on sarcophagi. As we saw the physical world, the realism of Roman sculpture begin to disappear in the Column of Trajan, and almost completely in the Arch of Constantine, Early Christian art continues to de-emphasize the material, for the spiritual. The earliest works of Christian sculptor are marble sarcophagi, which were produced form the middle of the third century on for the more important members of the Church.

The Good Shepherd Sarcophagus, Late 4th Century

The same groping for a new style is seen in the Good Shepherd sarcophagus. Where spiritual and not physical presence was sought. The figure of Christ, as larger and central denotes the importance of Christ. Once again we have a hierarchy of scale governing the size and importance of the figures. The Eucharistic wine or vine, is symbolic of the Blood of Christ. The message is symbolic but easily read, through the crucifixion of Christ, the faithful are promised Salvation.

Architecture
CONSTANTINE AND THE BASILICA
Architecture in the first three centuries of the Christian era was not monumental, Christians primarily worshiped in houses. The clear signs of the emperor's favor caused the Church to prosper both in numbers and in the social standing, thus church organization became important. The church became organized into dioceses ruled by Bishops, modelled in detail of the civil government at the time. The liturgy also continued to develop; from being a simple matter of scripture and a fellowship supper, to a solemn ceremonial procedure, not unlike many court proceedings. Thus a new church was required to meet the desire for size and splendor. Now the Emperor and Church were faced with the problem of erecting large Christian churches which did not exist before. Before there were only small chapels. Now with Christianity the state religion a large scale monumental structure was needed to house large congregations, for Christians worshipped inside. Two major types of churches were created: THE BASILICA AND THE CENTRALIZED CHURCH. The basilica was fully developed in the Early Christian period, while the centralized church was fully developed in the Byzantine period. Constantine extended his patronage widely, concentrating his building activity in Rome. The choice of materials were lavish expenditures on decoration, expected to convey a sense of unearthly splendor and to demonstrate the emperor's piety and generosity."

PAGAN BASILICA
The word basilica means "kings hall" The basilica was - and this is a point to be emphasized - a general building type that served numerous functions in the Roman world as a gathering place for law courts, business transactions, stock and money exchanges, audience halls for civic affairs, and so forth. There was no one basilica form, and surely the building that Constantine

Christian Basilica

Plan of Old Saint Peters And Close Up Reconstruction

Rome, 324 A.D.

Elevation, Reconstruction of Old Saint Peters

The most revered Christian church in the West was St. Peter's basilica, built over the grave or tomb of the apostle St. Peter. This is the basic basilican type. We see that from the elevation and ground plan the basilica was a vast composition consisting of:

a nave double side aisles transept apse wooden beamed roof

all coming together in a monumental structure. Stood on a podium and staircase borrowed from Roman basilica. St. Peter's The visitor approached it from the east by means of a flight of steps leading into a large, enclosed courtyard called and atrium. The atrium was where the unbaptized could assemble, since they were not allowed in the church. Also, the atrium moved the church away from the street. This atrium is borrowed from a Roman house, where a colonnaded court served as the central public rooms. The visitor then saw ahead of him a plain portico set in front of the five doorways leading into the church itself. Where the atrium and the church connect, is a passage perpendicular to the church called the narthex. This is the entrance hall of the church. The entire complex is approached through a propylaea or entrance gate. The entire complex is approached through a propylaea or entrance gate. All the borrowings for the Christian basilica are from Roman architecture, its temples, basilicas, and houses.

CHURCH DECORATION, MOSAICS

The decoration of the Early Christian basilica constitutes the major artistic achievement of the period. The vast wall surfaces above the nave colonnade, the triumphal arch over the entrance to the sanctuary, and the half dome of the apse provided ample area for the development of narrative themes and ornate representations. Some of these decorations were paintings in fresco, but many were executed in mosaic. They all differed from the paintings of the catacombs in that they were created under the patronage of either of the imperial family or of the upper hierarchy of the church. The financial resources were greater, the scale was larger, and the major artisans of the period were employed. Mosaics were used extensively throughout the antique world. Mad of small cubes of colored stone or glass (tesserae), they were usually fitted together of the floors of atria or the rooms of the villas to create intricate designs or pictures. One of the major achievements of the Early Christian mosaicists, although they did not invent the method, was to perfect and extensively use mosaics on the vertical walls and curved vaulted surfaces of their buildings. With the aid of the interior decoration the Early Christian architect is attempting at creating a space which reflects the New Jerusalem in heaven.

THE APSE MOSAIC

The apse is considered the holiest place in the basilica. It is symbolic of the heavens, where Christ and his saints forever govern. The decoration of the apse was carefully considered because it functioned as a stage setting for the liturgical drama of the Mass below. The apse is usually reserved for representations of Christ, as teacher, philosopher or most frequently, as king or heavenly sovereign. One of the earliest apse paintings in Rome is the one at Santa Pudenziana, dating about 400 a.d.

Christ Enthroned in Majesty Church of Santa Pudenziana, Rome, A.D. 402-17

This mosaic is important for its iconography. It is the earliest surviving decorated Christian apse which takes us back to the period of classical revival in Rome. This mosaic was heavily restored during the Renaissance and the nineteenth c., but the Christ in the center is not changed, thus, in terms of style we have to look at Christ for analysis. There is a high degree of classicism in the proportions, modeling, ease and movement, linearity has not yet quite taken hold. Thus we see a union of the old naturalism and the symbolism taking hold in the fifth century. The subject is Christ teaching the apostles in front of heavenly Jerusalem. The landscape behind him may directly be related to a reproduction of the Holy Sepulchre Church built over Christ's tomb in Jerusalem. The cross is symbolic of the true cross erected on Golgatha (hill that Christ was crucified). The four evangelists (gospel writers) are in their animal symbolic form. The iconography can be traced back to the old testament source when Ezekial saw a vision in heaven of the four beasts spreading the word of the gospel. Also found in the book of Revelations. Matthew is the winged angel, Mark is the Lion, Luke is the Ox or bull, and John is the Eagle. Until the fourth c. the relationship between animal symbols and those who they represented were not fixed. Hence, the image stands as Christ, the king, presiding over the mass of the Apocalypse - we know it is the apocalypse because of the presence of the beasts. Peter and Paul are being crowned by female figures who symbolize the church of the Jews behind Peter on the right, and the church of the Gentiles, behind Paul, originally there were 12 apostles, only ten can now be seen, due to restorations. Again we see naturalism mixing with great symbolism of the Early Christian period. This naturalism will fade, the emphasis will become purely spiritual, other worldly, purposely making no or little reference to our natural world.

BYZANTINE ART - 1ST GOLDEN AGE

During the fifth century A.D., the western part of the Roman Empire was overrun by Germanic tribes from northern Europe. The Ostrogoths occupied the Italian city of Ravenna, until it was recaptured during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in 540. Under Justinian, the eastern Empire rose to political and artistic prominence. Justinian secured the territories bordering the Mediterranean Sea. his armies drove the Goths out of Italy; they forced the Vandals to surrender North Africa; and they pushed Persian invaders into the hinterlands of Asia Minor. It is Justinian's grandiose building programs that concern us. The highly original structures that his architects created for the Christian church in Constantinople in the East, and Ravenna in the West.

The interior of San Vitale is glowing with yellow light, resulting from the lavish use of gold in its mosaic decoration. The subjects of the mosaics are Christian, and stylistically they are among the best examples of Byzantine mural decoration.

SLIDE: APSE MOSAIC OF SAN VITALE, ENTHRONED CHRIST, 547 A.D.

The large apse mosaic depicts a young, beardless Christ. His halo contains an image of the cross. Imperial art contributes the most in establishing the iconographical makeup of the piece. For example, Christ as King (no loner the good shepherd), enthroned, surrounded by angels (retinue), he is wearing formal court ceremonial costumes, the purple robes, this structure is similar to imperial or court iconography adapted for Christian use. Christ is crowing San Vitale, or Saint Vitalus, on the right Bishop Ecclesius holds up a model of the church. Although there are still traces of Hellenistic and Roman naturalism, for example in the landscaped terrain and suggestions of shading in the figures and draperies, the representation is more conceptual than natural. The draperies do not convey a sense of organic bodily movement in space, and the figures are frontal. The absence of perspective is evident in Christ's seated pose, he is not logically supported by the globe and hovers as if in midair. The illusionistic qualities are diminished, the more iconic tendencies toward flat patterns is encountered. Symbolically, Christ is seated on the sphere of the world, as its universal sovereign. The sphere is symbolic of hes universal power. Beneath Christ's feet, not seen in this slide, are the four rivers, which are symbolic of the four evangelists who irrigated the world with God's world. On the two side walls of the apse are mosaics representing the court of Justinian and his empress Theodora.

Hagia Sophia Exterioir View

Hagia Sophia Floor Plan

The undisputed masterpiece and most perfected church of Justinian's reign is the Church of Hagia Sophia, in Constantinople. It was dedicated to Christ in the personification of Hagia (holy) Sophia (wisdom). Justinian commissioned two Greeks Anthemius and Isidore to build a new kind of church centered on a great dome. It church was completed in just six years. The dome rose 184 feet above the pavement, and with half-domes on either side covered an area of 100 feet by 250 feet. The building dates slightly later than San Vitale, in Ravenna. However, architects in Constantinople were faced with a challenge that was not a factor in the design of San Vitale. The challenge was how to accommodate a large congregation, hence a large space, usually solved by a basilical plan, and still keep the centralized spiritual structure developed in Ravenna? Ravenna's congregation had been small so they could keep a small domed space. The architects solved the problem by combining a basilica plan with a centralized dome plan. This problem was solved through the use of the pendentive system, which allowed the dome

to be laid out on a square basilica plan, using the pendentives as a transition from square to circle. The pendentive is a spherical triangular section of masonry that makes a structural transition from a square plan to a circular one. The enormous lateral thrusts of the domes is supported by great buttresses, which from the outside make the church look like a great pile of masonry. But the interior is light and airy The plan unfolds itself from the center. The central core consists of a ribbed dome resting on pendentives that are formed by four arches carried on piers. The north and south arches are embedded in the walls of the nave and rise above the roof of the galleries and aisles to buttress the central core. Two half-domes open up the basilical hall, and take some of the thrust of the central dome. On the diagonal axis, four semi-domes complete the central core, adding additional support. Light floods the interior, through the 40 clerestory windows of the central dome, vaults float, and the dome seems suspended from heaven. Every aspect of the design works toward the elimination of the physical reality of the building, a majestic weightlessness is achieved. The architects create this spiritual quality by hiding the mass of the walls beneath opulent mosaics and marble, and putting the main buttresses on the exterior. Again the exterior is sacrificed, is weighty and earthy, while the interior is brilliant and spiritual, and other worldly. The Byzantine style continued in both eastern and western Christendom for several centuries following the age of Justinian.

Transference of Iconography in Fourth Century Roman Art

Christ as Sol Invictus (Apollo-Helios) (mid-third century)

Detail of mosaic vault of Mausoleum of the Julii, ome !as Jesus a pa"an "od# $he ans%er depends on ho% one defines the %ord &pa"an'( Merriam-!e)ster dictionary traces the %ord to the *atin pan"ere, or country d%eller' It also lists t%o distinct definitions' +ne is &a follo%er of a polytheistic reli"ions( and the second is &someone %ho deli"hts in sensual pleasures and material "oods, an irreli"ious or hedonistic person'(-./ !hether or not follo%ers of Christ are particularly sensual or hedonistic %ill certainly vary from individual to individual )ut Christians, )y definition, are neither polytheistic nor irreli"ious' 0et amon" all of today1s ma2or reli"ions Christianity is the only one that still reveres a "od-man in the 3reco- oman tradition' 4or the purposes of this paper the term &pa"an( %ill )e used to descri)e 3reco- oman reli"ious practices %ith the e5clusion

of Judaism and Christianity' *oo6in" at the art%or6s commissioned for oman Christians and pa"ans durin" the early 7th century one can find clues as to the )eliefs of reli"ious practitioners at the critical moment %hen Christianity %ent from )ein" an outla% cult to the official state reli"ion' 4eatured prominently on the cover of $imothy 4re6e and 8eter 3andy1s controversial .999 )oo6 $he Jesus Mysteries, !as the &+ri"inal Jesus( a

8a"an 3od# is a rin"-seal amulet once housed in a museum in :erlin (4i"ure

.)';nfortunately this interestin" artifact %as lost durin" !orld !ar II' $he ima"e on the amulet is that of a crucified fi"ure and its inscription clearly reads +rpheus :acchus'-</ $he authors &came across a small picture -of the rin"-seal/ tuc6ed a%ay in the appendices of an old academic )oo6'(-=/ $he rin"-seal amulet is supposed to )e the smo6in" "un that proves their point that Jesus, Dionysus, Hercules, Mithraism, +siris and others are all )asically the same "od-man archetype in the Jun"ian tradition' 4re6e and 3andy1s scholarship has )een ri"htfully called into >uestion' $his sort of thin6in" has led many to speculate that Constantine simply united the various mystery cults under one tidy orthodo5y, Christianity' +ne can ima"ine the ?mperor1s efficient oman mind )elievin" this %ould also )e a fair compromise to ome1s lar"e Je%ish population' +f course it is difficult, if not impossi)le, to "et at Constantine1s true motivations for his various reli"ious decrees' $he Jesus Mysteries falls flat for many reasons includin" ma6in" such a )i" deal a)out the rin"-seal featured on its cover' :ut their du)ious smo6in" "un is unnecessary' Competent scholarship has sho%n that no %ild speculation a)out >uestiona)le artifacts is needed to understand the Christian "od in the same li"ht as other oman "ods from the same time period' !as there an a)rupt chan"e in the artistic styles )et%een pa"an and Christian ome# $here are scholars %ho fall on )oth sides of this >uestion' Accordin" to H' 8' *1+ran"e from 8rinceton ;niversity 8ress1 Art forms and

Civic *ife in the *ate oman ?mpire, &-a/ completely ne% aesthetic %as

developed durin" the third century, :eauty does not reside in the proportions of the )ody, )ut in the soul %hich penetrates and illuminates it'(-7/$hirty years later, in .99@, Jas ?lsner %rites in Cam)rid"e ;niversity 8ress1 Art and the oman Aie%er that &-he accepts/ that almost everythin" in Christian art (indeed, in Christian culture) is the direct descendant of elements, attitudes and forms present for centuries in Classical civiliBation'(-@/ It is difficult for an o)2ective vie%er to distin"uish any sharp division of artistic styles in ome durin" the early Christian era' !hat is clear is a "eneral de"radation of artistic >uality in the !estern oman ?mpire from its heyday in the .st century until the sac6 of ome in 7.C of the Common ?ra' $his can )e seen as part of a lar"er cultural decline in several areas' *oo6in" at t%o e5amples of pa"an frescos from the first and fourth centuries one can see a distinct evolution in style (4i"ure <)'

$he first century paintin", on the left, &record-s/ details of musculature, pose and e5pressive "esture as %ell as information on li"htin" and spatial relationships' :ut the fresco on the ri"ht from the fourth century D-sho%s/ little more than a schematic frontal vie% of a fi"ure consistin" of little more than an outline filled %ith patches of color'(-E/+ne %ould e5pect stylistic chan"es to )e apparent in any artistic tradition that spans several centuries' :ut unli6e at times of other reli"ious ruptures, li6e that of the advent of :uddhism or Islam, there is no dramatic chan"e in the art production of the oman ?mpire in the early 7th century' $o put it simply, early Christian art loo6s li6e pa"an art' *ater developments %ould occur %ithout the complication of competin" reli"ions'

$he <nd , =rd and 7th centuries also sa% the decline of fiction as a literary art and the rise of rhetoric' Much of these rhetorical %or6s involved the descriptions of paintin"s and sculptures' &$his %as )ecause the readin" and %ritin" of descriptions of such %or6s )ecame a principal instrument of education'(-F/ :ut as the rhetoric )ecame more ela)orate the art%or6s, themselves, )ecame more stylistically simplistic' $he period precedin" the rise of the ?mperor Diocletian in <G7 C? is 6no%n as the Crisis of the $hird Century' 4ifty years of economic collapse, pla"ue, civil %ar and invasion had led to a sort of crisis of faith in the ?mpire and its "ods' &In reli"ion a sym)iosis of the most diver"ent )eliefs %as esta)lished simultaneously %ith the penetration and transformation of the traditional 3reco- oman +lympus )y an invasion of influences from the provinces, especially )y ?astern reli"ions and philosophies'(-G/ !hen Diocletian entered the scene there %as a period of relative peace' $his %ould )e follo%ed in the ne5t fe% decades )y the rise of Constantine, the most important oman ?mperor in the eventual triumph of Christianity over pa"anism' Diocletian %as 6no%n to )e a pious man' *i6e Constantine he united the ?mpire under %orship of one father "od and his half-human son' In this case it %as Jupiter and Hercules'-9/ :ut unli6e Constantine, Diocletian ferociously persecuted those that didn1t care to practice his preferred )rand of reli"ion' $he Manichee edict from <9F outla%ed Manichaeism, a reli"ion similar to Christianity that %as founded )y a 8ersian prophet Manytos' $his %as soon follo%ed )y the %orst persecution of Christians )y the oman authorities, the Diocletian 8ersecution of =C=' It is important to remem)er that the ?dict of Milan %as in =.= and the Council of Hicea %as in =<@' So %ithin t%enty years Christianity %ent from )ein" an outla% cult to a reco"niBed state reli"ion' Constantine1s reli"ious convictions have )een speculated upon )y historians and theolo"ians to a point of confusion' :ut %hat is certain is that there is no o)vious Christian ima"ery on his famous triumphal arch (4i"ure =),

despite the le"end of the ?mperor %innin" the :attle of the Milvian :rid"e after a vision, and supposed )lessin", from the Christian "od' $he fact that Diocletian declared the %orship of Jupiter, the father, and Hercules, the "odman son, the official state reli"ion %ithin a fe% decades of the le"itimacy of Christianity seems more than conse>uential' It is amaBin" that this seemin"ly crucial fact is routinely i"nored )y those tryin" to understand the ori"ins of orthodo5 Christianity' &In their relentless campai"n to eradicate 8a"anism, Christians have portrayed its so-called polytheism as primitive idolatry'(-.C/ In actuality, pa"an reli"ions could )e very sophisticated' +ne can only ima"ine that, li6e today, any particular reli"ion mi"ht have very philosophically minded adherents and also more emotionally driven ones' !hen the .st century stoic *ucretius %rote of the +lympians he didn1t seem to )e referrin" to a "odman in the traditional, sense )ut rather an a)stract concepts more li6e the $ao or Allah, or ho% many contemporary li)eral Christians understand the concept of 3od' In the <Cth century tradition of lo"ical positivism and analytical philosophy, any tal6 of metaphysics %ill ultimately come do%n to the definition of %ords' !hat is a "od# 0et even %ithout a concrete definition, Hercules is %ithout >uestion a "od, as is Christ' $he former has fallen out of favor durin" the last couple of millenniums %hile the latter can no% count his follo%ers in the hundreds of millions'

:esides 3reco- oman ori"ins, Christianity is o)viously also closely lin6ed to Judaism' $he num)er of Je%s livin" in the oman ?mpire at any "iven time is hard to determine precisely, )ut accordin" to the ?ncyclopedia Judaica &It has )een estimated that there %ere @C,CCC Je%s in Italy durin" the first century of the empire, of %hom over half %ere concentrated in or around ome'(-../ If the city had a population of )et%een ECC,CCC and .,CCC,CCC that %ould put the percenta"e of Je%s around <'@ and 7'. percent' $his is almost t%ice that of America today' $he dearth of early Christian ima"es has )een traced )ac6 to the Je%ish la% and the second commandment' Je%ish shops and residences of the early Christian era in ome centered around the $rastevere district' After the sac6 of Jerusalem in FC C? the Je%ish reli"ion lost its primary temple comple5 and the tradition of animal sacrifice came to an end' In the arch of $itus (4i"ure 7)

one can see the ta6in" of the spoils of Jerusalem' $hese spoils include a Menorah, the $a)le of She%)read and the Silver $rumpets used to call the faithful to osh Hashanah' Ho "od-man ima"es %ould have )een found in the temple in Jerusalem, as they %ould have in most other temples throu"hout the oman !orld' !ith fe% e5ceptions, Je%s of the early 7th century %ould have re2ected ima"ery in the same %ay many do today' A "old-"lass medallion from the time (4i"ure @)

sho%s typical Je%ish ornamentation' $his medallion, no% at the :ritish Museum, lac6s the fi"urative elements found in most art from the classical %orld' 3old "lass, or fondi d-oroconsist of &pictures cut out of "old foil and sealed )et%een t%o pieces of "lass'(-.</$hese, alon" %ith sarcopha"i and frescos represent practically all 6no%n e5amples of early Christian art' &$he ever-increasin" popularity of inhumation instead of incineration after the )e"innin" of the second century -C?/ led to the %idespread use of mar)le sarcopha"i adorned %ith rich and varied relief decoration'(-.=/ $hese sarcopha"i %ould have )een commissioned )y )oth Christian and pa"an %orshipers' !ithout a "ood 6no%led"e of the individual mytholo"ies represented, it %ould )e difficult to distin"uish )et%een the various "ods sho%n in the sarcopha"i reliefs'

:ecause it %as ille"al to )ury the dead %ithin the city %alls, lar"e catacom)s %ere esta)lished outside to house the deceased %ho %ere a)le to afford it' $hou"h the ma2ority of the tom)s %ithin the catacom)s are Christian, this is actually due to the fact that they are from the from the 7th and @th centuries, after that reli"ion )ecame the dominant reli"ion of the empire'-.7/ $he sarcopha"i %ould have )een commissioned and constructed )y fossors, the catacom) di""ers %ho also %or6ed as artisans' $he client %ould have had a num)er of pattern )oo6s from %hich to chose his or her icono"raphy' In some cases "eneric desi"ns %ere created in %hich the central portrait %ould )e left incomplete and later, upon purchase, )e fashioned into the li6eness of the deceased'-.@/In one sarcopha"us )elon"in" to a oman 3eneral from the early Christian period, (4i"ure E)

one can see the deceased represented as a soldier, a devout reli"ious man, and as pater familias %ith his %ife' :y the <nd century the ima"ery on the oman sarcopha"i had come to chiefly represent the )est virtues of the dead person they si"nified'-.E/ +ne can ima"ine that at the time of death the oman citiBen %ould have )een concerned %ith the deeper meanin"s and mysteries of life that reli"ions address' So it is not surprisin" that )esides )io"raphical scenes %e also find much mytholo"ical su)2ect matter portrayed throu"hout the catacom)s' $he 3eneral on the sarcopha"us is portrayed sacrificin" a )ull in a reli"ious ceremony' Another e5ample from <@C C? (4i"ure F)

sho%s portrait carvin"s of a hus)and and %ife a)ove a scene of Achilles carryin" the dead 8enthesilea as descri)ed in the Iliad' $his depiction is )elieved to associate the couple %ith the no)le "od-man'-.F/ eli"ious and mytholo"ical scenes on sarcopha"i from this time commonly sho% the &punishment of vice'( Airtue %as reflected in the icono"raphy and associated %ith the deceased' &$here %as a ne% focus on the relationship )et%een morality and the afterlife in the middle and late ?mpire'(-.G/ Contemporary Christians mi"ht assume that pa"an reli"ions %ere someho% immoral' A careful loo6 at the reli"ious art created )y pa"ans in the early Christian era reveals 2ust the opposite' $his fundamental misunderstandin" can )e traced to the association of any particular reli"ion %ith a more universal morality' $he pa"ans reco"niBed )ravery, duty, fidelity, and piety as fundamental virtues 2ust as most cultures do today' $here is nothin" uni>ue in any reli"ious tradition that mi"ht "ive it a special claim to virtue' It is evident that many, if not all, mytholo"ical systems have a moral component' $hese tales of "ods and "oddess also have the nature of 2ust-so stories' Ho% similar any of these le"ends are to actual, historical events is, for the most part, indetermina)le' 8resupposin" postmodernist ideas of relativism and multiculturalism, there is no need to accept the notion that the le"ends surroundin" Christ are any more or less true than those of his contemporary "od-men' $he early

Christian leaders %ere %ell a%are of similarities )et%een their "od and that of their nei"h)ors' $he parallels %ere e5plained a%ay )y a theolo"ical idea 6no%n as dia)olical mimicry' &$he Church father $ertullian -%rote/ of the Devil1s dia)olical mimicry in creatin" the Mysteries of Mythras'(-.9/ In one particular sarcopha"us relief, no% at the !alter1s Art 3allery in :altimore, a reli"ious scene is portrayed (4i"ure G)'

Aarious le"ends of Dionysus are sho%n in its icono"raphy' +ne fi"ure in the top ri"ht motif is carryin" %hat appears to )e a crucifi5 (4i"ure 9)'

Accordin" to 4re6e and 3andy this depicts &-a/n old man )rin"in" the holy child Dionysus a lar"e cross as an omen of his ultimate fate'(-<C/ $his is the sort of >uestiona)le scholarship that fills $he Jesus Mysteries' !hat e5actly the fi"ure %ith the supposed crucifi5 represents on the :altimore sarcopha"i remains a mystery' 8erhaps this is 2ust a Christian friend of the deceased' $he %or6 is dated from the second or third century and is %ell preserved' $he carvin"s of the animals and fi"ures are e5pertly crafted' $his sho%s that, despite a "radual decline in >uality of art o)2ects in the early Christian era, there %ere still fine stone carvin"s )ein" created' +ne sarcopha"us dated to <FC C? -<./ depicts Jesus in the "uise of Hermes the 3ood Shepard (4i"ure .C)'

$here is a )earded philosopher-type readin" on the center left and an orans fi"ure on the center ri"ht' $he handlin" of the fi"ures %ith their to"as and contrapposto loo6s e5tremely similar to pa"an sarcopha"i from

the same period' $his %or6 can )e compared to a dramatically different ima"e of Christ from the end of the 7th century (4i"ure ..)' -<</

A century later Jesus is sho%n )earded li6e the philosopher in the <FC sarcopha"us' $his could represent a dramatic chan"e in theolo"y or simply sho% a chan"e in fashion' A lar"e com)ination of factors must have contri)uted to the evolution of Christ1s icono"raphy' $his %ould "et )oth more complicated and more structured as Christian orthodo5y continued to solidify over the centuries' Similar chan"es must have ta6en place in the reli"ions of other "od-men from the 3reco- oman %orld as their do"mas %ere tin6ered %ith and refined' Christianity %as only one of a num)er of reli"ions that )enefited from the oman ?mpire1s efficient )ureaucracy and no one denies the su)tlety of 3ree6 philosophy'

+ne sarcopha"us relief discovered )elo% Saint 8eter1s and dated to the 7CC C? -<=/ sho%s Christ as a youth handin" the scroll of the la% to Saint 8eter (4i"ure .<)'

Saint 8aul stands on Christ1s ri"ht side' 3iven the location and >uality of this sarcopha"us one %ould thin6 it )elon"ed to a po%erful Christian devotee' Also it %ould have )een created in ome, the ne% center of the Christian %orld, a)out seventy-five years after the Council of Hicea' So one can see the influence of %hat %ill eventually )ecome a solid orthodo5y' $he icono"raphy sho%s 8ilate )ein" %atched )y a youthful Christ as the oman official %ashes his hands' $he sacrifice of Isaac is also represented on the far left of the sarcopha"us' $he ima"ery comes mostly from the He% $estament or He)re% :i)le' In the center of the sarcopha"us Christ &feet are restin" on a veil that Caelus spreads a)ove himself'(-<7/ Caelus is the oman s6y "od often associated %ith ;ranus' !hy he is depicted in a Christian sarcopha"us is a mystery' :esides Christ as a youth, other early Christian ima"ery included Moses stri6in" the roc6 to produce %ater, the miracle of the loaves, the healin" of the paraple"ic, the adoration of the Ma"i, curin" the )lind man, healin" the %oman %ith issues of )lood, the marria"e feast of Cana, the )aptism of Jesus, Hoah, the sacrifice of Isaac and, Susanna and the elders' It is possi)le that the pious Susanna %as seen as a model of the dutiful roman matron' $he crucifi5, Christ1s means of e5ecution, sho%s up in another 7th century-<@/sarcopha"us (4i"ure .=)'

Christ is still represented as a )eardless youth' Here the icono"raphy is over%helmin"ly Christian sho%in" the Cro%n of $horns and *ast Supper alon" %ith one scene of Christ carryin" the cross' John +nians speculates in 0ale ;niversity 8ress1 Classical Art and the Culture of 3reece and ome that Constantine cynically adopted the cross as a sym)ol of his po%er )ecause of its similarity to the oman military standard'-<E/ As stated a)ove, Constantine1s reli"ious leanin"s are %idely contested' $here are several interestin" thin"s a)out this particular sarcopha"us' oman soldiers are sho%n persecutin" Christ' +ne has to %onder ho% this 6ind of icono"raphy %ould have "one over %ith the authorities at the time' $here are also t%o small fi"ures mournin" )elo% the center crucifi5' 8erhaps they represent the deceased' $here are also t%o )irds on the crucifi5' 4re6e and 3andy see the crucifi5 as an archetypical sym)ol' $hey )elieve it is associated %ith other "od-men )esides Jesus' In $he Jesus Mysteries they reproduce an ima"e of &Dionysus -)ein"/ lifted up on a tree durin" the sprin" festival of the Mysteries( (4i"ure .7)'-<F/

Is the fi"ure of the "od is particularly Christ-li6e# $hou"h reminiscent of many later paintin"s includin" Carava""io1s Crucifi5ion of Saint 8eter, it is far from convincin" that this ima"e has any relationship to a crucifi5ion, or if this is a depiction of %hat 4re6e and 3andy claim' It could easily )e ar"ues that the relief depicts the erection of a statue to the "od' $his sarcopha"us is currently in the 8rinceton ;niversity Art Museum' :esides sarcopha"i, other early Christian funerary art included t%odimensional art' +ne of the earliest e5amples of this is the famous Ale5amenos 3raffito (fi"ure .@)'

It sho%s a don6ey headed fi"ure )ein" crucified and reads, &Ale5amenos %orships his "od'( $he dra%in" has appeared in many history )oo6s, pro)a)ly )ecause of its easy accessi)ility and its humorous nature' 4re6e and 3andy understand it as representin" a sort of 3nostic &lo%er Ianimal1 nature, %hich -is/ put to death in the process of initiation so that -the

don6ey-headed fi"ure/ may )e spiritually resurrected'(-<G/ Authors li6e 4re6e and 3andy, )uildin" on the %or6 of ?laine 8a"les, )elieve that early Christian 3nostics represent an &authentic( vie% of the reli"ion' 4urthermore, the 3nostics %ere systematically eliminated )y %hat eventually )ecame the orthodo5, or state, reli"ion' 4re6e and 3andy >uote the early Church 4ather Clement as sayin" &Mar6 did not preach only the familiar "ospel in the He% $estament, )ut three different "ospels suita)le for different levels of initiation'(-<9/ $his is meant to dra% a similarity %ith mystery cults li6e that of other "od-men' $he authors "o further to use the so-called Secret 3ospel

of Mar6as an e5ample of one of these other versions of the "ospel that early
Christian 3nostics %ould have had "radually revealed to them' !ith so many authentic 3nostic %or6s from le"itimate Church archives and the Ha" Hammadi li)rary, one %onders %hy 4re6e and 3andy %ould reference a du)ious source li6e the Secret 3ospel of Mar6' ?arly Christian frescos from the oman catacom)s depict various scenes from the He% $estament and He)re% :i)le' +ne e5ample (4i"ure .E)

sho%s Hoah in an ar6 that loo6s li6e a )o5' $he "oddess Danae and her son 8erseus are often represented floatin" in a )o5, )ut this correlation is du)ious' Hoah in the undersiBed ar6 is pro)a)ly 2ust an efficient %ay to depict the fi"ure' 4e% %ould deny that the Hoah le"end came into Christianity throu"h Judaism' It is interestin" that it %as at this time that Jesus %as often sho%n usin" a &ma"ic %and'( In one fresco (4i"ure .F)

Christ is sho%n usin" his %and to perform the miracle of the loaves and fishes'-=C/ Here Jesus is %earin" a to"a and is )eardless %ith short hair' $here are also numerous depictions of Hercules in the Aia *atina Catacom)' $he "od is usually depicted nude and carryin" a clu)' $hou"h ima"es of Hercules have fe% out%ard si"ns that %ould confuse him %ith Christ, %orshipers of )oth "ods shared similar tom)s' +ne fresco (4i"ure .G) of Hercules sho%s the "od restorin" Alcestis to Admetus'

$he hellhound Cere)rus is also featured prominently' $his fresco is dated to a)out the time of the Council of Hicea' -=./ *i6e Christ raisin" *aBarus, Hercules is sho%n leadin" Alcestis )ac6 from the dead' $he Hercules icono"raphic pro"ram &form-s/ a parallel to the )i)lical scenes in the other rooms -of the catacom)/ %hich impart a Christian messa"e of salvation'(-=</ It is clear from this illustration that the messa"es a devotee of Hercules mi"ht have "leamed from his or her "od1s le"ends %ould have provided him or her %ith comfort in much the same %ay as le"ends of Christ provided comfort for his follo%ers' It is unima"ina)le that, at the time of death, the 7th century pa"an reacted dramatically differently than the avera"e 7th century Christian' Hercules must certainly have provided the same sorts of emotional comfort as Jesus to his follo%ers' $he choice of the resurrection of Alcestis as su)2ect matter for a tom) paintin" is not surprisin"' 8erhaps this is an appeal to the "od for aid in the afterlife' In the le"end, Alcestis chose to die for her hus)and Admetus and is )rou"ht )ac6 from the land of the dead )y the "od-man Hercules'

Another ima"e of Hercules from the Aia *atina Catacom) dated to the 7th century sho%s the "od in a similar fashion to the Judeo-Christian-Islamic character of Adam (fi"ure .9)'

If not for the fi"ure1s clu), a classic sym)ol of Hercules, the nude male standin" )eside a sna6e in an apple tree %ould )e reminiscent of later Christian icono"raphy' $hou"h at the time, one ima"ines, the different stories of Adam and Hercules %ould have )een commonly 6no%n' Here Hercules is pictured clean-shaven' $he Hercules frescos in the Aia *atina sho% the "od1s feats and emphasiBe his con>uerin" death' It is certainly reasona)le to e5pect that the 7th century oman follo%ers of Hercules

practiced their reli"ion in a fashion similar to that of the Christians of the same period' $here %ould have )een social norms and standard reli"ious practices' *oo6in" at the reli"ious sym)olism from the early Christian era it appears that animal sacrifice %as fallin" out of fashion' $he numerous representations of the sacrifice of Isaac certainly imply some sort of continuation of the theme of sacrifice' !hatever its ori"ins, sacrifice, %ith Jesus as the lam), has historically )een a fundamental part of Christianity' In $he Jesus Mysteries 4re6e and 3andy associate all sorts of "od-men %ith Christ as he is understood today' In the miracle of the fishes it is oddly noted in the :i)le that the num)er of fish cau"ht %as .@=' $he He% International translation of $he 3ospel of John chapter <., verse .. reads, &Simon 8eter clim)ed a)oard and dra""ed the net ashore' It %as full of lar"e fish, .@=, )ut even %ith so many the net %as not torn'( 4re6e and 3andy associate this num)er %ith 8ytha"oras, %ho also performed a miracle of the fishes' 8ytha"oras is also associated %ith the num)er .@=' Accordin" to the authors this is related to sacred "eometry' It is 6no%n as the vesica piscis and is composed of the ratio .@=,<E@' $his someho% involves the conver"ence of t%o circles that 4re6e and 3andy claim form the Jesus fish and the mandorla' &It isJthe nearest %hole num)er appro5imation of the s>uare root of three and the controllin" ratio of the e>uilateral trian"le'(-==/ $hey claim that Archimedes called the formula the &measure of the fish'( $here are certainly le"ends of 8ytha"oras havin" supernatural po%ers and he is reported to have performed a miracle of the fishes' :ut a consistent underlyin" messa"e in the teachin"s of 8ytha"oras seems to )e ve"etarianism' In his miracle of the fishes he ma6es a deal %ith the fisherman that if he can name the num)er of fish they cau"ht then the fishermen should let them "o free' $here is no 6no%n specific num)er' 4re6e and 3andy say that this num)er mi"ht )e .@=' It is odd that the He% $estament %ould )e so specific a)out the num)er of fish in the miracle of the fishes and that this num)er mi"ht )e seen as )ein" related to the ichthys and the mandorla' $he thou"ht of Christ )ein" a philosopher is more intri"uin" than that of him )ein" a pa"an "od' $he correlation )et%een Christ and other "od-men from the same period is o)vious upon close inspection' If the actual man 0eshua, or Jesus, e5isted, his character could not )e farther from the multitudes of interpretations that have )een devised for him over the centuries' 8eople seem to pic6 a persona for Christ that fits their o%n

particular personality' +ne must ima"ine that this %as the same for the follo%ers of Hercules' :y the 7th century C? Hercules had )een %orshiped for centuries if not millennia' His character must have )een %ell esta)lished' 8hilosophers li6e *ucretius prove that the %orship of KeusLJupiter could )e e5tremely sophisticated' :ut the thou"ht of Jesus as a mathematician similar to 8ytha"oras %ould seem unusual' $here %ere many "ods to choose from in ome durin" the early Christian era' $oday there are many different versions of Christ to choose from in America' It is amusin" to ma6e comparisons )et%een contemporary America and the oman ?mpire' $here is no lac6 of scholarship on the su)2ect' Americans em)raced the term 8a5 Americana %ithout irony' !hen it comes to depictions of the deity, today1s Christ has as many, if not more, faces than the entire oman pantheon' 4re6e and 3andy reference the du)ious Secret

3ospel of Mar6 that apparently reveals Jesus to )e a homose5ual' $he

homose5ual Jesus is alive and %ell in the minds of many Americans in the <.st century' 0et the homopho)ic Jesus is too' $here are numerous le"ends of Hercules from the Mediterranean area' Many of these stories are contradictory' 4rom the evidence in the Aia *atina Catacom) his persona in 7th century ome must have )een similar to that of Christ from the same period' *i6e Jesus, Hercules1s persona varied from different locations and times' $he :ritish Museum has a marvelous collection of "old-"lass from the catacom)s' In one e5ample (4i"ure <C) one can see the deceased couple represented %ith their primary deity, in this case Hercules'

$his e5act same motif (4i"ure <.) can )e seen in another e5ample, )ut no% the "od represented is Jesus'

!hat conclusions people dra% from this relationship %ill vary' 4re6e and 3andy )elieve this similarity is due to Jesus and Hercules )ein" )asically the same character' *1+ran"e mi"ht say the dissimilarities are "larin"' Ho% individual omans felt to%ard "ods in the early Christian era %ould certainly depend on the individual' Some must have )een loyal to one particular "od and others may have chan"ed reli"ions often in their lifetimes' +ne can only speculate that these people )ehaved not too differently than %e do today' $he ma2or difference %ould have )een the sheer num)er of "ods to choose from and the various s%eepin", yet ar)itrary, reli"ious decrees esta)lished )y the ?mperors' It seems si"nificant that Diocletian %ould have made the %orship of Jupiter and Hercules mandatory so fe% years )efore the ?dict of Milan and Christianity1s eventual dominance over the ?mpire' Many of the same people must have s%itched from %orshipin" Hercules to %orshipin" Jesus' $he ma2ority of the population mi"ht not have )een particularly pious' $hey mi"ht have 2ust %anted to avoid trou)le and do as the ?mperor commanded' A later ?mperor mi"ht have chan"ed the state reli"ion to

another "od' :ut, as fate %ould have it, the stron" central "overnment of the !estern oman ?mpire collapsed and Christianity )e"an its slo% transformation into the early <.st centuries lar"est reli"ion'

.' $he Merriam-!e)ster Dictionary, &Definition, 8a"an,( Merriam-!e)ster1s Dictionary, http,LL%%%'merriam-%e)ster'comLdictionaryLpa"an (accessed April .9, <C.C)' <' $imothy 4re6e and 8eter 3andy, $he Jesus Mysteries, !as the &+ri"inal

Jesus( a 8a"an 3od# (He% 0or6, Harmony :oo6s, .999), .='

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Icono"raphic 3uides, 3ods and Heroes of Classical Anti>uity' 8aris and He% 0or6,
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Ale5andrianism, F@-G7'
Santa Monica, California, .99E'

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Images of Inspiration in Early Christian Art

by Norman A. Rubin Independent Scholar

Photos: Courtesy of The ible !ands Museum" #erusalem" Israel. $c% All ri&hts reser'ed by The ible !ands Museum" #erusalem" Israel. Info

ABSTRACT The Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem, Israel marks the turn of the new millenium with its special exhibition, "Images of Inspiration: The Old Testament in Early Christian Art". The xhibition examines the use of Biblical imagery in the art of the first Christians and reveals how the Old Testament provided an important source of inspiration for artists and artisans in Early Christianity. The exhibition traces the history of early Christian art.

INTRODUCTION Throughout history man has expressed himself through art. Art is a powerful language to convey beliefs, hopes and to reflect the history of the people. Our heritage is carved in stone, painted in illumi- nated manuscripts, set in mosaics, sculpted from clay or wood and woven into textile for the perpetuity of mankind. The same is true with the advent of Christianity. The early development of Christianity two thousand years ago marked the growth of a new religion whose roots had been deeply laid in Jewish soil. The first Christians were for the most part Jews, well-versed in the Old Testament, who regarded Jesus as the fulfillment of Biblical prophecies regarding the arrival of the Messiah. With this belief in mind, early Christianity interpreted the stories of the Old Testament, applying new layers of meaning to the traditional Biblical tales. For example, the Biblical narrative of the Sacrifice of Isaac describes how God tests Abraham's faith by demanding his son Isaac as a sacrifice. In Jewish thought Abraham and Isaac become the supreme example of self-sacrifice in obedience to God's will and the symbol of Jewish martrydom throughout the ages. Early Christians also saw the Sacrifice of Isaac as one of the most important Biblical stories, relating it to the actual sacrifice of another son, Jesus. For Christians, the depiction of Isaac's sacrifice in art, particularly in funerary art, came to be an allegory for the sacrifice of Jesus.

On the other hand, the story of Jonah is a story of redemption. The story tells of the redemption of Jonah from the large fish, the redemption of the people of the people of Nineveh, and the ultimate redemption of Jonah from the anger of God. The story of Jonah has come to be seen by Christians as a precusor to the life, death and resur- rection of Jesus, and their artistic images clearly defines it, "and in the same way the Son of Man will be three days and three nights in the bowels of the earth." (Mat 12:40)

THE BEGINNINGS Next to nothing is know about the beginnings of a specifically Chris- tian form of art; the first examples only appear about c.180 AD. Various reasons have given by scholars, but the most commonly cited factor is the aversion to representational arts rooted in the Jewish origin of Christianity, "You shall not make carved images of your- self..." (Exod 20-4). As a child of Judaism, primitive Christianity was a religion simultaneously adverse to pictures in theory and opposed to their use in practice. This point of view was expressed by Christian clerics well into the fourth century and even longer in some places. They feared that having an image of the thing before you, vision and devo\b tion might attach themselves to the image, and fail to press on to the thing of which the image stands. This viewpoint was maintained by the image-rejection iconoclasts of the Christian Church for hundreds of years with fluctuating success. EARLY CHRISTIAN ART By the late second and early third centuries, this attitude had been changed and the Christian community began to use various art forms to express the message of the

new religion. The Christian artist faced the problem of finding ways in expressing God's mysteries adequately. The artist had to considerate the very foundations of Christianity which are the doctrines of creation and incarnation. It was inevitable that the early Christian artist should celebrate human flesh, depicted in the image of God, made in the image of the incar- nate god, and redeemed for the vision of god at last.

For the artist there was an enormously wide range of expressions that needed to be included in Christian art. This results from the central paradoxes of the Christian faith. They include paradoxes that arise when human imagination tries to function on the frontier that runs between time and eternity, between the transcendent and the imminent, or between the spiritual and the material. For example, in depicting the Annunciation, an artist, in the patronage of the church, would try to catch the whole idea of our mortal flesh being hailed by God's splendor: He would depict the Virgin (our flesh) crowned with gold (raised to glory by the promise of redemption), sitting under gilded arches, being approached by a shining winged creature. Another artist would show the Virgin as a very ordinary young woman, in ordinary surroundings. It was method of the popular artists of that era and their lower-class patrons who used the stories of deliverence, redemption and salvation taken from

the Hebrew Scriptures, and healing and identity taken from the early Christian traditions. The differences between the two ideas of painting in the artist's doctrines, are contrasting ways of coming to the subject. The Christian artist had to ask whether he had to paint 'religious sub- jects' (annunciation, nativitities, crucifixion, and saints' lives), or to show ordinary human life, relying on the symbolic themes to heighten the drama and to stress the religious significance. Both trends may reflect the effort to present God's works and deeds to impress the gentile world. The pictorial representation of Christian themes was justified with the dictum, "Quod legentibus scriptura, hoc idiotis pictura." - 'As writing is to those who can read, so is painting to the ignorant.' Christian art from the early centuries up to Renaissance tended to choose the first option of interpreting religious doctrines in their art. However medieval artists, far from ignoring ordinary life, brought the whole of everyday life into service. By the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the artists were depicting plain domestic, communal and professional life to convey the message of Christianity. Artists such as Titan, Rembrandt, Vermeer, van Rysdael and Cuyp are prime examples.

MEDIA OF EARLY CHRISTIAN ART Early depictions of Biblical stories and images appeared on various objects illuminated manuscripts, frescoes, mosaics, sarcophagi, textiles, vessels, coins, jewelery, gold decorated glass, carved ivories, medalions, and household utensils. Early Christian art was as diverse as the religions and sources from which it derived. Without any overt Christian style or symbols, it is difficult to decide whether an artistic object bearing an Old Testament narrative subject to be assigned to Early Christianity or Jewish art. Consequently, it is usually the context of the find that determines the attribution. Thus, early Christian Art, usuallly refers to any work produced by or for Christians. For example - A Byzantine clay lamp with Greek inscription (c. 6th-8th centuries) can be interpreted as "Light of Jesus. Light of Jesus." This inscription is clearly inspired by Psalm 27;1, although Jesus replaces Lord. The inscription is a good illustration of how the early Christians adopted and used the Hebrew Psalms. Grape imagery appears frequently throughout the Bible. Isaiah likens God to the owner of a vineyard and Israel to the vineyard (Isaiah 5). Jesus is quoted as

comparing himself to a viner: "I am the true vine and my Father is the vinedresser." (John 15:1). Thus we see many Christian crafted artifacts with the grape imagery - pottery, amulets, oil lamps, medallions, etc.. Thus transferring the symbol from Jewish tradition to Christian symbolism. Another interesting imagery adopted by the Christians was the 'Good Shepherd' symbol, "And the Lord said to you: 'You shall shepherd My people Israel; you shall be ruler of Israel'." (II Samuel 5:2). The allegorical figure of Jesus as the 'Good Shepherd' appears early in Christian literature (John 10:1-16 and Luke 15:37) and was elaborated by the early Church fathers, such as Clemens of Alexandia. Thus the image was easily assimilated to the Biblically-derived metaphor as describing Jesus. On the Early Christian art of late antiquity, the Good Shepherd had a clear significance as a philantropic saviour. The earliest example of the adoption by the Christians of the 'Good Shepherd' motif seems to be the third-century clay lamps produced by Annius Serapidorus, a potter specializing in producing lamps bearing this motif. In Rome the Good Shepherd appears in funerary contexts late in the third century. The motif occurs in the mosaics of the cemetery under St. Peter's, in the wall paintings of the Tomb of Aureli, and in the Catacombs of Via Latina of Domitilla, and of Callistus. The popularity of this motif continued after the reign of Constantine (c.306-337 AD), when Christianity became the official faith of the imperial court. It became depicted on statuary, wood panels, slip-ware plates, gold decorated rings. etc...

CONCLUSION The Early Christian era begins with recognition of Christianity at the official religion of the Byzantine state (c.313 AD) or with the foundation of its capital Constantinople (c.330 AD) and closes with reign of Justinian (c.565 AD) or, according to scholars, with the reign of Herakleios (c.630 AD). During this period the tradition of a grandiose imperial art based on the Roman character remained vigourous and unbroken. The beginning of Iconoclast period (c.725-843 AD) is one of extreme importance, for it witnessed the destruction of many works of arts, and the development of representational art was arrested as a result of the official attitude regarding the proscription of icon-worship. Religious painting consequently acquired a purely secular or decorative character. Only after the Iconoclast period (c.725-843 AD) Christian religious painting assumed a definite form, always of high artistic quality and of outstanding technical perfection, coexisting in a single dramatic art. Consequently, Christian representational art became fixed, and the Biblical repertoire was greatly encriched. Theological intrepretations also premeated early Christian art, both because of Christian reinter- pretations of the Old Testament and because of Christian interest in establishing the continuity of the Old and New

Testaments. Even when divorced from the Book, Early Christian illustrations generally retained the close relationship to the Biblical text, with the addition of borrowed elements from extra-Biblical sources introduced to heighten the drama and to stress religious significance. REFERENCE
1) Catalogue 'Images of Inspiration' - the Old Testament in Early Christian art, edited by Joan Goodnick Westenholz, curator, Bible Lands Museum, Jerusalem. 2)Christianity and the Arts - Thomas Howard, Lion Publishing, USA. 3)The Arts of Man - Eric Newton, Thames and Hudson, London. 4)The Byzantine Museum, Ekdotike Athenon SA., Athens. 5)The New English Bible, Oxford University Press, Cambridge.

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