Lecture 24

Odds n Ends
Astrophysical Journal access: SDSUs access to ApJ is currently limited
to issues before April 2007. If theres an article after that date that you
wish to access, you can usually get it via astro-PH: i.e., on the ADS
query page, click on the X option, and you will get the astro-PH version
of the article, which is usually very similar to the final, published version
in ApJ. Note that AJ, PASP, MNRAS, and A&A journals are fully available.
Problem Set 5: Problem 8b, bullet item 2 should read:
"Measure the fluxes of the appropriate emission lines, and report
your answers in erg cm
-2
s
-1
."
Note: Article by Kewley & Dopita (2002) available in Reading Room,
or it can be downloaded from the Internet.
Scale Height
n = n
0
e
z / H
n
or
ln(n) = ln(n
0
)
z
H
n
H
n
, the number density scale height, is the distance over which the
number density decreases by a factor of e.
At a distance of H
n
above (or below) the Galactic midplane, the
number density of stars is thus ~37% of its value in the midplane.
(Fig. 10.6)
Edge-On Diagram of the Galaxy
Edge-On Diagram of the Galaxy Miscellaneous Concepts
Opacity: A measure of the ability of a substance to absorb radiation.
The greater the opacity, the more incident radiation is absorbed (or
scattered).
Metal: In astronomy, any element heavier than helium.
Metallicity: Symbol: Z. The fraction by mass of metals in a star or
other astronomical object.
Population III stars: Hypothetical stars with no metals, Z = 0.
Population II stars: Low, but non-zero, metal-poor stars.
Population I stars: Metal-rich stars with Z approaching values as
high as 0.03. (Sun has Z ~ 0.016.)
Metal-rich stars tend to be younger than metal-poor stars of the
same spectral type. This suggests an age-metallicity relation.
Fe/H [ ] log
10
(N
Fe
/ N
H
)
star
(N
Fe
/ N
H
)
Sun






log
10
O/H ( ) +12 log
10
N
O
N
H






+12
Common metallicity indices:
(Sun: log(O/H) + 12 = 8.66)
For stars:
For gaseous nebulae:
Background (Assumed Knowledge/Assigned Reading)
Stars: Properties, Spectral Classification, H-R Diagram [Ch. 6]
Interstellar Matter [Ch. 7]
Stellar populations (metallicity) [Ch. 7]
Clusters of stars [Ch. 7]
Stellar evolution [Ch. 7]
Introduction to Galactic and Extragalactic Astronomy
Galaxy morphological classification [Ch. 11]
Structure and contents of the Milky Way: age-metallicity
relation; mass-to-light ratio; r
1/4
/de Vaucouleurs law; rotation
curve/dark matter; Galactic center/supermassive black hole [Ch. 10]
Mass-to-Light Ratio
Along the main-sequence, for M > 0.5 M
Sun
:
L M
4
Thus: High-mass stars have a LOW M/L ratio.
Low-mass stars have a HIGH M/L ratio.
Background (Assumed Knowledge/Assigned Reading)
Stars: Properties, Spectral Classification, H-R Diagram [Ch. 6]
Interstellar Matter [Ch. 7]
Stellar populations (metallicity) [Ch. 7]
Clusters of stars [Ch. 7]
Stellar evolution [Ch. 7]
Introduction to Galactic and Extragalactic Astronomy
Galaxy morphological classification [Ch. 11]
Structure and contents of the Milky Way: age-metallicity
relation; mass-to-light ratio; r
1/4
/de Vaucouleurs law; rotation
curve/dark matter; Galactic center/supermassive black hole [Ch. 10]
Surface Brightness
The amount of light contained per unit area (solid angle) on the sky. The
surface brightness of a uniformly bright source is equal to the total flux
received divided by the solid angle subtended by the source in the sky.
Consider a source of luminosity L, area A (measured in, e.g., pc
2
),
distance d, and resulting angular size :

d
A, L
Surface Brightness =
Flux
Solid Angle
; F
L
d
2
; Solid Angle
A
d
2
Surface Brightness
L
d
2
A
d
2
=
L
A
Magnitudes
A difference of 5 magnitudes is defined to correspond to a factor of
100 in flux, so:
F
2
F
1
=100
(m
1
m
2
)/ 5
; m = apparent magnitude
Absolute magnitude (M): The apparent magnitude an object would
have IF it were located 10 pc away. This definition allows us to define:
Distance modulus (m - M): A comparison between the apparent and
absolute magnitudes of an object. The greater the distance modulus,
the more distant the object:
m M = 5 log
10
(d) 5 = 5 log
10
d
10 pc






A galaxy that is 1 Mpc (i.e., 10
6
pc) away has a distance modulus of 25 mag.
By measuring the apparent brightness of a standard candle, whose
absolute magnitude is known, astronomers can determine its
distance modulus.
Distance modulus is the quantity that is directly measured by astronomers.
--> 0.75 mag corresponds to roughly a factor of 2 in apparent brightness.
Astronomy 660 Toolkit
Surface Brightness
The amount of light contained per unit area (solid angle) on the sky. The
surface brightness of a uniformly bright source is equal to the total flux
received divided by the solid angle subtended by the source in the sky.
Consider a source of luminosity L, area A (measured in, e.g., pc
2
),
distance d, and resulting angular size :

d
A, L
Surface Brightness =
Flux
Solid Angle
; F
L
d
2
; Solid Angle
A
d
2
Surface Brightness
L
d
2
A
d
2
=
L
A
Surface Brightness
The amount of light contained per unit area (solid angle) on the sky. The
surface brightness of a uniformly bright source is equal to the total flux
received divided by the solid angle subtended by the source in the sky.
Consider a source of luminosity L, area A (measured in, e.g., pc
2
),
distance d, and resulting angular size :

d
A, L
Independent of distance!
The surface brightness of an extended source does not depend on its
distance from us.
Surface Brightness =
Flux
Solid Angle
; F
L
d
2
; Solid Angle
A
d
2
Surface Brightness
L
d
2
A
d
2
=
L
A
Fitting Galaxy Isophotes (lines of constant surface brightness)
Sersic Profile
A generalized mathematical function that describes how the
surface brightness (intensity) of an object (e.g., galaxy) varies
with distance from its center.
I(R) = I
0
e
k
R
R
0






1
n
ln(I) = ln(I
0
) k
R
R
0






1
n
or
I = Intensity
I
0
= Intensity at center
n = Sersic index
k = A constant
R
0
=Scale length
If n = 1: Exponential profile (e.g., spiral galaxy disks)
If n = 4: r
1/4
or deVaucouleurs profile (e.g., spiral bulges, large ellipticals)
(arcsec)
1/4
(
m
a
g
/
a
r
c
s
e
c
2
)
The r
1/4
/de Vaucouleurs Law
Galactic center Galactic center
Baade s Window
Infrared View of the Galaxy
(Taken by the COsmic Background Explorer (COBE) Satellite)
Infrared View of the Galaxy
(Taken by the COsmic Background Explorer (COBE) Satellite)
NGC 4565
The r
1/4
Law (de Vaucouleurs profile)
I(r) = I
e
10
~3.3307
r
r
e
[
\
|

)
j
1/ 4
~1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
[
\
|
|

)
j
j
I = surface luminosity, in L
Sun
/pc
2
r
e
= effective radius : radius within which half of the light is emitted
I
e
= surface luminosity at r
e
(r) =
e
+ 8.3268
r
r
e
[
\
|

)
j
1/ 4
~1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Expressing surface brightness () in mag/arcsec
2
:
= surface brightness, in mag/arcsec
2
r
e
= "effective radius": radius within which half of the light is emitted

e
= surface brightness at r
e
Expressing surface luminosity (I) in L
Sun
/pc
2
:
Sersic Profile
A generalized mathematical function that describes how the
surface brightness (intensity) of an object (e.g., galaxy) varies
with distance from its center.
I(R) = I
0
e
k
R
R
0






1
n
ln(I) = ln(I
0
) k
R
R
0






1
n
or
I = Intensity
I
0
= Intensity at center
n = Sersic index
k = A constant
R
0
=Scale length
If n = 1: Exponential profile (e.g., spiral galaxy disks)
If n = 4: r
1/4
or deVaucouleurs profile (e.g., spiral bulges, large ellipticals)
NGC 7331: An Sb Spiral Galaxy
r (arcsec)
r
1/4
law bulge
exponential disk
Surface Brightness Profiles of Bulges and Disks
(r) =
e
+ 8.3268
r
r
e
[
\
|

)
j
1/ 4
~1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
For spiral bulges and elliptical galaxies:
For disks of spirals:
(r) =
0
+1.09
r
h
r






r
e
= effective radius : radius within which half of the bulges light is emitted

e
= surface brightness at r
e
h
r
= scale length of the disk along midplane

0
= surface brightness at h
r
Background (Assumed Knowledge/Assigned Reading)
Stars: Properties, Spectral Classification, H-R Diagram [Ch. 6]
Interstellar Matter [Ch. 7]
Stellar populations (metallicity) [Ch. 7]
Clusters of stars [Ch. 7]
Stellar evolution [Ch. 7]
Introduction to Galactic and Extragalactic Astronomy
Galaxy morphological classification [Ch. 11]
Structure and contents of the Milky Way: age-metallicity
relation; mass-to-light ratio; r
1/4
/de Vaucouleurs law; rotation
curve/dark matter; Galactic center/supermassive black hole [Ch. 10]
Rotation Curve: A graph of the speed of rotation vs. distance from the center of a rotating object,
like a galaxy.
Measuring the Masses of Galaxies
How much MASS is contained in a galaxy?
How can we measure it?
Find something that orbits it!
M
F
g
= F
c
GMm
R
2
=
mv
2
R
M =
v
2
R
G
Astronomy 660 Toolkit
P
2
R
3
P
2
=
4
2
G(m
1
+ m
2
)
R
3
How much MASS is contained in a galaxy?
How can we measure it?
Find something that orbits it!
M
F
g
= F
c
GMm
R
2
=
mv
2
R
M =
v
2
R
G
Astronomy 660 Toolkit
P
2
R
3
P
2
=
4
2
G(m
1
+ m
2
)
R
3
v =
GM
R
v
1
R
The Keplerian Rotation Curve of Solar System Objects
The Milky Way: An SBbcI-II Galaxy (artists rendition)
NASA/JPL-Caltech/R. Hurt (SSC/Caltech)
Rotation Curve of the Milky Way
(Fig. 10.22)
What density law is required to produce a flat rotation curve?
The Milky Way: An SBbcI-II Galaxy (artists rendition)
NASA/JPL-Caltech/R. Hurt (SSC/Caltech)
What density law is required to produce a flat rotation curve?
NGC 4565: A Milky Way Analogue Viewed Edge-On?
Fig. 10.24
Rotation Curve: A graph of the speed of rotation vs. distance from the center of a rotating object,
like a galaxy.
Measuring the Masses of Galaxies
O
r
b
i
t
a
l

S
p
e
e
d






(
k
m
/
s
)
100
300
200
Distance from Galaxy Center
(LY)
15,000 30,000
Typical Spiral Galaxy Rotation Curve
Predicted curve based on luminous matter
Observed rotation curve
Dark matter: Non-luminous matter, whose presence is inferred only because of its
gravitational influence on luminous matter.
About 95% of the gravitating matter in the Universe is dark. We know
it is there due to its gravitational influence, but we don t know what
makes it up.
The Mystery of Dark Matter
Current best bet for dark matter: An as yet undiscovered massive
particle that interacts very weakly with other (known) particles.
We see evidence for dark matter ONLY when we look at very large
size scales: Galaxies and clusters of galaxies.
We do NOT see evidence for dark matter on small scales. For
instance, no adjustment is needed for planetary orbits in our
Solar System due to the presence of dark matter. If dark matter
exists in our Solar System, even its gravitational effects are, at
present, below our ability to detect it.
About 95% of the gravitating matter in the Universe is dark. We know
it is there due to its gravitational influence, but we don t know what
makes it up.
The Mystery of Dark Matter
Current best bet for dark matter: An as yet undiscovered massive
particle that interacts very weakly with other (known) particles.
We see evidence for dark matter ONLY when we look at very large
size scales: Galaxies and clusters of galaxies.
We do NOT see evidence for dark matter on small scales. For
instance, no adjustment is needed for planetary orbits in our
Solar System due to the presence of dark matter. If dark matter
exists in our Solar System, even its gravitational effects are, at
present, below our ability to detect it.
NGC 7331
How is the Dark Matter Distributed?
(r) =

0
(r / a)(1+ r / a)
2
At small r:
At medium r:
At large r:
1/ r
1/ r
2
1/ r
3
(flat rotation curve)
About 95% of the gravitating matter in the Universe is dark. We know
it is there due to its gravitational influence, but we don t know what
makes it up.
The Mystery of Dark Matter
Current best bet for dark matter: An as yet undiscovered massive
particle that interacts very weakly with other (known) particles.
We see evidence for dark matter ONLY when we look at very large
size scales: Galaxies and clusters of galaxies.
We do NOT see evidence for dark matter on small scales. For
instance, no adjustment is needed for planetary orbits in our
Solar System due to the presence of dark matter. If dark matter
exists in our Solar System, even its gravitational effects are, at
present, below our ability to detect it.
Rotation Curve: A graph of the speed of rotation vs. distance from the center of a rotating object,
like a galaxy.
Measuring the Masses of Galaxies
O
r
b
i
t
a
l

S
p
e
e
d






(
k
m
/
s
)
100
300
200
Distance from Galaxy Center
(LY)
15,000 30,000
Typical Spiral Galaxy Rotation Curve
Predicted curve based on luminous matter
Observed rotation curve