Welding Processes Complete

12/22/13
Lesson 1 The Basics of Arc Welding
Lesson 2 - Common Electric Arc Welding Processes

Current Chapter Table of Contents
Lesson 2 Common Electric Arc Welding Processes Lesson 3 Covered Electrodes for Welding Mild Steels Lesson 4 Covered Electrodes for Welding Low Alloy Steels Lesson 5 Welding Filler Metals for Stainless Steels
BASIC WELDING FILLER METAL TECHNOLOGY

A Correspondence Course
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Glossary
Lesson 6 Carbon & Low Alloy Steel Filler Metals GMAW,GTAW,SAW Lesson 7 Flux Cored Arc Electrodes Carbon Low Alloy Steels
LESSON II COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES
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Lesson 8 Hardsurfacing Electrodes
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Lesson 9 Estimating & Comparing Weld Metal Costs
Lesson 10 Reliability of Welding Filler Metals

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TABLE OF CONTENTS LESSON II COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES

Section Nr. Section Title Page
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2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.3
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING ............................................... Equipment & Operation ..................................................................... Welding Pow er Sources .................................................................... Electrode Holder................................................................................ Ground Clamp ................................................................................... Welding Cables ................................................................................. Coated Electrodes ............................................................................ GAS-TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING .................................................. Equipment & Operation ..................................................................... Pow er Sources .................................................................................. Torches.............................................................................................. Shielding Gases ................................................................................ Electrodes ......................................................................................... Summary ........................................................................................... GAS METAL ARC WELDING .......................................................... Current Density .................................................................................. Metal Transfer Modes ........................................................................ Equipment and Operation .................................................................. Pow er Source.................................................................................... Wire Feeder ...................................................................................... Welding Gun ...................................................................................... Shielding Gases ................................................................................ 2.4.7.1 2.4.7.2 Short Circuiting Transfer .................................................... Spray Arc Transfer ............................................................
1 1 2 2 4 4 4 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 13 14 15 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Glossary
2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.3.6 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.4 2.4.5 2.4.6 2.4.7
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TABLE OF CONTENTS LESSON II - Con't.

Section Nr. 2.4.7.3 2.4.8 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.5 2.5.6 2.5.7 2.5.8 2.6 Section Title Pulse Spray Transfer ......................................................... Page 23 23 24 24 25 26 26 26 26 26 27 27 28 28 28 28 29 29 30 30 30 30 31 31 32
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Electrodes ......................................................................................... FLUX CORED ARC WELDING ....................................................... Self-Shielded Process ....................................................................... Gas Shielded Process....................................................................... Current Density .................................................................................. Equipment ......................................................................................... Pow er Source.................................................................................... Wire Feeder ...................................................................................... Welding Guns .................................................................................... Shielding Gases ................................................................................ SUBMERGED ARC WELDING ....................................................... Submerged Arc Flux .......................................................................... The Welding Gun ............................................................................... Pow er Sources .................................................................................. Equipment ......................................................................................... Electrodes ......................................................................................... Summary ........................................................................................... ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING .......................... Electroslag Welding........................................................................... Flux ................................................................................................... Process ............................................................................................. Equipment......................................................................................... Summary ..........................................................................................
Glossary
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2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.6.4 2.6.5 2.6.6 2.7 2.7.1
2.7.2 2.7.3 2.7.4 2.7.5
Appendix A - GLOSSARY OF TERMS .................................................................

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LESSON II
COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES

2.1 INTRODUCTION
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After much experimentation by others in the early 1800's, an Englishman named Wilde obtained the first electric w elding patent in 1865. He successfully joined tw o small pieces of iron by passing an electric current through both pieces producing a fusion w eld. Approximately tw enty years later, Bernado, a Russian, w as granted a patent for an electric arc w elding process in w hich he maintained an arc betw een a carbon electrode and the pieces to be joined, fusing the metals together as the arc w as manually passed over the joint to be w elded. 2.1.0.1 During the 1890's, arc w elding w as accomplished w ith bare metal electrodes that
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Glossary
w ere consumed in the molten puddle and became part of the w eld metal. The w elds w ere of poor quality due to the nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere forming harmful oxides and nitrides in the w eld metal. Early in the Tw entieth Century, the importance of shielding the arc from the atmosphere w as realized. Covering the electrode w ith a material that decomposed in the heat of the arc to form a gaseous shield appeared to be the best method to accomplish
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this end. As a result, various methods of covering electrodes, such as w rapping and dipping, w ere tried. These efforts culminated in the extruded coated electrode in the mid-1920's, greatly improving the quality of the w eld metal and providing w hat many consider the most significant advance in electric arc w elding. 2.1.0.2 Since w elding w ith coated electrodes is a rather slow procedure, more rapid
w elding processes w ere developed. This lesson w ill cover the more commonly used electric arc w elding processes in use today.
2.2
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
Shielded Metal Arc Welding* , also know n as manual metal arc w elding, stick w elding, or electric arc w elding, is the most w idely used of the various arc w elding processes. Welding is performed w ith the heat of an electric arc that is maintained betw een the end of a coated metal electrode and the w ork piece (See Figure 1). The heat produced by the arc melts the base metal, the electrode core rod, and the coating. As the molten metal droplets are transferred across the arc and into the molten w eld puddle, they are shielded from the atmosphere by the gases produced from the decomposition of the flux coating. The molten slag floats to the top of the w eld puddle w here it protects the w eld metal from the atmosphere during solidification.
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LESSON II Other functions of the coating are to provide arc stability and control bead shape. More
COATING
information on coating functions w ill be covered in subsequent lessons. *

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is the terminology approved by the American Welding Society. CORE ROD SHIELDING GASES MOLTEN POOL WELD METAL SOLIDIFIED SLAG
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2.2.1
Equipm ent & Operation - One
WORK PIECE SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING FIGURE 1
reason for the w ide acceptance of the SMAW process is the simplicity of the necessary equipment. The equipment consists of the follow ing items. (See Figure 2) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Welding pow er source Electrode holder Ground clamp Welding cables and connectors Accessory equipment (chipping hammer, w ire brush) 6. 2.2.2 Protective equipment (helmet, gloves, etc.)
Glossary
AC OR DC POWER SOURCE ELECTRODE CABLE ELECTRODE HOLDER ELECTRODE WORK GROUND
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CABLE SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CIRCUIT FIGURE 2
Welding Pow er Sources - Shielded metal arc w elding may utilize either
alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC), but in either case, the pow er source selected must be of the constant current type. This type of pow er source w ill deliver a relatively constant amperage or w elding current regardless of arc length variations by the operator (See Lesson I, Section 1.9). The amperage determines the amount of heat at the arc and since it w ill remain relatively constant, the w eld beads produced w ill be uniform in size and shape.
2.2.2.1
Whether to use an AC, DC, or AC/DC pow er source depends on the type of w elding
to be done and the electrodes used. The follow ing factors should be considered: 1. Electrode Selection - Using a DC pow er source allow s the use of a greater range
of electrode types. While most of the electrodes are designed to be used on AC or DC, some w ill w ork properly only on DC. 2. Metal Thickness - DC pow er sources may be used for w elding both heavy sections and light gauge w ork. Sheet metal is more easily w elded w ith DC because it is easier to strike and maintain the DC arc at low currents.
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LESSON II
3. Distance from Work - If the distance from the w ork to the pow er source is great, AC is the best choice since the voltage drop through the cables is low er than w ith DC. Even though w elding cables are made of copper or aluminum (both good conductors), the resistance in the cables becomes greater as the cable length increases. In other w ords, a voltage reading taken betw een the electrode and the w ork w ill be somew hat low er than a reading taken at the output terminals of the pow er source. This is know n as voltage drop. 4. Welding Position (See Appendix A - Glossary of Term s) - Because DC may be operated at low er w elding currents, it is more suitable for overhead and vertical w elding than AC. AC can successfully be used for out-of-position w ork if proper electrodes are selected. 5. Arc Blow - When w elding w ith DC, magnetic fields are set up throughout the w eldment. In w eldments that have varying thickness and protrusions, this magnetic field can affect the arc by making it stray or fluctuate in direction. This condition is especially troublesome w hen w elding in corners. AC seldom causes this problem because of the rapidly reversing magnetic field produced. 2.2.2.2 Combination pow er sources that produce both AC and DC are available and
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Glossary
provide the versatility necessary to select the proper w elding current for the application.
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2.2.2.3
When using a DC pow er source, the question of w hether to use electrode negative
or positive polarity arises. Some electrodes operate on both DC straight and reverse polarity, and others on DC negative or DC positive polarity only. Direct current flow s in one direction in an electrical circuit and the direction of current flow and the composition of the electrode coating w ill have a definite effect on the w elding arc and w eld bead. Figure 3 show s the connections and effects of straight and reverse polarity. 2.2.2.4 Electrode negative (-) produces w elds w ith shallow penetration; how ever, the
electrode melt-off rate is high. The w eld bead is rather w ide and shallow as show n at "A" in
Figure 3. Electrode positive (+) produces w elds w ith deep penetration and a narrow er w eld bead as show n at
"B" in Figure 3.
DC POWER SOURCE
DC POWER SOURCE
HIGHER BURN-OFF RATE, LESS PENETRATION ELECTRODE
DEEP PENETRATION, LOW BURN-OFF RATE ELECTRODE
WORK PIECE STRAIGHT POLARITY FIGURE 3
WORK PIECE REVERSE POLARITY
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LESSON II
2.2.2.5 While polarity affects the penetration and burn-off rate, the electrode coating also
has a strong influence on arc characteristics. Performance of individual electrodes w ill be
discussed in succeeding lessons.
2.2.3
Electrode Holder - The electrode holder connects to the w elding cable and conGo To Test Print
ducts the w elding current to the electrode. The insulated handle is used to guide the electrode over the w eld joint and feed the electrode over the w eld joint and feed the electrode into the w eld puddle as it is consumed. Electrode holders are available in different sizes and are rated on their current carrying capacity.
2.2.4
Ground Clamp - The ground clamp is used to connect the ground cable to the w ork Glossary
piece. It may be connected directly to the w ork or to the table or fixture upon w hich the w ork is positioned. Being a part of the w elding circuit, the ground clamp must be capable of carrying the w elding current w ithout overheating due to electrical resistance.
2.2.5
Welding Cables - The electrode cable and the ground cable are important parts of
the w elding circuit. They must be very flexible and have a tough heat-resistant insulation. Connections at the electrode holder, the ground clamp, and at the pow er source lugs must be soldered or w ell crimped to assure low electrical resistance. The cross-sectional area of the cable must be sufficient size to carry the w elding current w ith a minimum of voltage drop.
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Increasing the cable length necessitates increasing the cable diameter to lessen resistance and voltage drop. The table in Figure 4 lists the suggested American Wire Gauge (AWG) cable size to be used for various w elding currents and cable lengths.
Welding Serv ice Range (Amperes) 20 to 180 30 to 250 60 to 375 80 to 500 100 to 600
Total Cable Length (Ground Lead Plus Electrode Lead) Up to 50 f t. Cable Voltage Size Drop #3 #2 #0 #00 #00 1.8 1.8 1.7 1.8 2.0 Up to 100 f t. Cable Voltage Size Drop #2 #1 #0 #000 #0000 2.9 2.5 3.0 2.5 2.5 Up to 250 f t. Cable Voltage Size Drop #1 #0 #00 #0000 ... 5.7 5.0 5.9 5.0 ... Up to 500 f t. Cable Voltage Size Drop #0 #0 #000 #0000 ... 9.1 9.9 9.3 9.9
Voltage Drop Figured At 180 200 300 400 500 Amps Amps Amps Amps Amps
Voltage drops indicated do not include any drop caused by poor connection, electrode holder, or work metal FIGURE 4
2.2.6
Coated Electrodes - Various types of coated electrodes are used in shielded
metal arc w elding. Electrodes used for w elding mild or carbon steels are quite different than those used for w elding the low alloys and stainless steels. Details on the specific types w ill be covered in subsequent lessons.

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LESSON II
2.3
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding* is a w elding process performed using the heat of an arc established betw een a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the w ork piece. See Figure 5. The electrode, the arc, and the area surrounding the molten w eld puddle are protected from the atmosphere by an inert gas shield. The electrode is not consumed in the w eld puddle as in shielded metal arc w elding. If a filler metal is necessary, it is added to the leading the molten puddle as show n in 2.3.0.1 Gas tungsten arc w elding
TRAVEL DIRECTION TORCH
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produces exceptionally clean w elds no slag is produced, the chance inclusions in the w eld metal is and the finished w eld requires virtually no cleaning. Argon and Helium, the primary shielding gases employed, are inert gases. Inert gases do not chemically combine w ith other elements and therefore, are used to exclude the reactive gases, such as oxygen and nitrogen, from forming compounds that could be detrimental to the w eld metal. 2.3.0.2 Gas tungsten arc w elding may be used for w elding almost all metals mild steel,
FIGURE 5
FILLER METAL WORK PIECE GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING INERT GAS SHIELD ARC TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE SHIELDING GAS NOZZLE
Glossary
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low alloys, stainless steel, copper and copper alloys, aluminum and aluminum alloys, nickel and nickel alloys, magnesium and magnesium alloys, titanium, and others. This process is most extensively used for w elding aluminum and stainless steel alloys w here w eld integrity is of the utmost importance. Another use is for the root pass (initial pass) in pipe w elding, w hich requires a w eld of the highest quality. Full penetration w ithout an excessively high inside bead is important in the root pass, and due to the ease of current control of this process, it lends itself to control of back-bead size. For high quality w elds, it is usually necessary to provide an inert shielding gas inside the pipe to prevent oxidation of the inside w eld bead.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is the current terminology approv ed by the American Welding Society , f ormerly known as "TIG" (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding.
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LESSON II
2.3.0.3 Gas tungsten arc w elding lends itself to both manual and automatic operation. In
manual operation, the w elder holds the torch in one hand and directs the arc into the w eld joint.
The filler metal is fed manually into the leading edge of the puddle. In automatic applications, the torch may be automatically moved over a stationary w ork piece or the torch may be stationary w ith the w ork moved or rotated in relation to the torch. Filler metal, if required, is also fed automatically.
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2.3.1
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION - Gas tungsten arc w elding may be accomplished
w ith relatively simple equipment, or it may require some highly sophisticated components. Choice of equipment depends upon the type of metal being joined, the position of the w eld being made, and the quality of the w eld metal necessary for the application. The basic equipment consists of the follow ing: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The pow er source Electrode holder (torch) Shielding gas Tungsten electrode Water supply w hen necessary Ground cable Protective equipment
Glossary
7.
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Figure 6 show s a basic gas tungsten arc w elding schematic.
REGULATOR FLOW METER GAS HOSE (WATER COOLED ONLY ) GAS COOLED ONLY * COMPOSITE CABLE WELDING CABLE TORCH

POWER SOURCE
WATER COOLER WORK * COMPOSITE CABLE GAS COOLED TORCH. CURRENT IN & GAS IN. WATER COOLED TORCH. CURRENT IN & WATER OUT
WATER FROM TORCH
WATER TO TORCH GROUND CABLE
SHIELDING GAS SUPPLY
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING CONNECTION SCHEMATIC FIGURE 6

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LESSON II 2.3.2 Pow er Sources - Both AC and DC pow er sources are used in gas tungsten arc
w elding. They are the constant current type w ith a drooping volt-ampere curve. This type of
pow er source produces very slight changes in the arc current w hen the arc length (voltage) is varied. Refer to Lesson I, Section 1.9. 2.3.2.1 The choice betw een an AC or DC w elder depends on the type and thickness of the
metal to be w elded. Distinct differences exist betw een AC and DC arc characteristics, and if DC is chosen, the polarity also becomes an important factor. The effects of polarity in GTAW are directly opposite the effects of polarity in SMAW as described in paragraphs 2.2.2.3 through 2.2.2.5. In SMAW, the distribution of heat betw een the electrode and w ork, w hich determines the penetration and w eld bead w idth, is controlled mainly by the ingredients in the flux coating on the electrode. In GTAW w here no flux coating exists, heat distribution betw een the electrode and the w ork is controlled solely by the polarity. The choice of the proper w elding current w ill be better understood by analyzing each type separately. The chart in Figure 7 lists current recommendations.
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Glossary
WELDING CURRENT Material & Thickness Aluminum Under 1/8" Ov er 1/8" Magnesium Under 1/16" Ov er 1/16" Carbon Steel Under 1/8" Ov er 1/8" Stainless Steel Under 1/8" Ov er 1/8" Copper Under 1/8" Ov er 1/8" Nickel Alloy s Under 1/8" Ov er 1/8" Titanium Under 1/8" Ov er 1/8" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1. 2. 3. 1 DCEN 2 2&3 2 DCEP AC High Freq. 1 1 1 1 Argon 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
SHIELDING GAS Helium 2 3 2 Ar/He
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2
3 2 2 1
1 3 2
2 1 2 1
1 Pref erred Choice - Manual Welding Pref erred Choice - Automatic Welding Second Choice - Automatic Welding
CURRENT/SHIELDING GAS SELECTION, TUNGSTEN GAS ARC WELDING FIGURE 7

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LESSON II 2.3.2.2 Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is produced w hen the electrode is
connected to the negative terminal of the pow er source. Since the electrons flow from the
electrode to the plate, approximately 70% of the heat of the arc is concentrated at the w ork, and approximately 30% at the electrode end. This allow s the use of smaller tungsten electrodes that produce a relatively narrow concentrated arc. The w eld shape has deep penetration and is quite narrow . See Figure 8. Direct current electrode negative is suitable for w elding most metals. Magnesium and aluminum have a refractory oxide coating on the surface that must be physically removed immediately prior to w elding if DCSP is to be used. 2.3.2.3 Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) is produced w hen the electrode is
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connected to the positive terminal of the w elding pow er source. In this condition, the electrons flow from the w ork to the electrode tip, concentrating approximately 70% of the heat of the arc at the electrode and 30% at the w ork. This higher heat at the electrode necessitates using larger diameter tungsten to prevent it from melting and contaminating the w eld metal. Since the electrode diameter is larger and the heat is less concentrated at the w ork, the resultant w eld bead is relatively w ide and shallow . See Figure 8.
Electrode Polarity
_
Glossary
Penetration Deep Penetration Narrow Bead Medium Penetration
Oxide Cleaning
Heat Concentration At Work
GAS IONS
+
Direct Current Straight Polarity Electrode Negativ e
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None
ELECTRON FLOW
Alternating Current
+ _
Medium Width Bead
Good Cleans Oxide on Each Half
Cy cle Alternates Between Electrode and Work
Direct Current Rev erse Polarity Electrode Positiv e
Shallow Penetration Wide Bead
Maximum
At Electrode

2.3.2.4
EFFECTS OF CURRENT TY PE - GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING FIGURE 8
Aluminum and magnesium are tw o metals that have a heavy oxide coating that acts
as an insulator and must be removed before successful w elding can take place. Welding w ith
electrode positive provides a good oxide cleaning action in the arc. If w e w ere to study the physics of the w elding arc, w e find that the electric current causes the shielding gas atoms to lose some of their electrons. Since electrons are negatively charged, these gas atoms now are unbalanced and have an excessive positive charge. As w e learned in Lesson I, unlike charges attract. These positively charged atoms (or positive ions as they are know n in
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LESSON II
chemical terminology) are attracted to the negative pole, in this case the w ork, at high velocity. Upon striking the w ork surface, they dislodge the oxide coating permitting good electrical conductivity for the maintenance of the arc, and eliminate the impurities in the w eld metal that could be caused by these oxides. 2.3.2.5 Direct current electrode positive is rarely used in gas-tungsten arc w elding. Despite
the excellent oxide cleaning action, the low er heat input in the w eld area makes it a slow process, and in metals having higher thermal conductivity, the heat is rapidly conducted aw ay from the w eld zone. When used, DCEP is restricted to w elding thin sections (under 1/8") of magnesium and aluminum. 2.3.2.6
Alternating current is actually a combination of DCEN and DCEP and is w idely
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used for w elding aluminum. In a sense, the advantages of both DC processes are combined, and the w eld bead produced is a compromise of the tw o. Remember that w hen w elding w ith 60 Hz current, the electron flow from the electrode tip to the w ork reverses direction 120 times every second. Thereby, the intense heat alternates from electrode to w ork piece, allow ing the use of an intermediate size electrode. The w eld bead is a compromise having medium penetration and bead w idth. The gas ions blast the oxides from the surface of aluminum and magnesium during the positive half cycle. Figure 8 illustrates the effects of the different types of current used in gas-tungsten arc w elding.
Glossary
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2.3.2.7
DC constant current pow er sources - Constant current pow er sources, used for
shielded metal arc w elding, may also be used for gas-tungsten arc w elding. In applications w here w eld integrity is not of utmost importance, these pow er sources w ill suffice. With machines of this type, the arc must be initiated by touching the tungsten electrode to the w ork and quickly w ithdraw ing it to maintain the proper arc length. This starting method contaminates the electrode and blunts the point w hich has been grounded on the electrode end. These conditions can cause w eld metal inclusions and poor arc direction. Using a pow er source designed for gas tungsten arc w elding w ith a high frequency stabilizer w ill eliminate this problem. The electrode need not be touched to the w ork for arc initiation. Instead, the high frequency voltage, at very low current, is superimposed onto the w elding current. When the electrode is brought to w ithin approximately 1/8 inch of the base metal, the high frequency ionizes the gas path, making it conductive and a w elding arc is established. The high frequency is automatically turned off immediately after arc initiation w hen using direct current. 2.3.2.8
AC Constant Current Pow er Source - Designed for gas tungsten arc w elding,
alw ays incorporates high frequency, and it is turned on throughout the w eld cycle to maintain a
stable arc. When w elding w ith AC, the current passes through 0 tw ice in every cycle and the
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LESSON II
arc must be reestablished each time it does so. The oxide coating on metals, such as aluminum and magnesium, can act much like a rectifier as discussed in Lesson I. The positive half-cycle w ill be eliminated if the arc does not reignite, causing an unstable condition. Continuous high frequency maintains an ionized path for the w elding arc, and assures arc reignition each time the current changes direction. AC is extensively used for w elding aluminum and magnesium.
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2.3.2.9
AC/DC Constant Current Pow er Sources - Designed for gas tungsten arc
w elding, are available, and can be used for w elding practically all metals. The gas tungsten arc w elding process is usually chosen because of the high quality w elds it can produce. The metals that are commonly w elded w ith this process, such as stainless steel, aluminum and some of the more exotic metals, cost many times the price of mild steel; and therefore, the pow er sources designed for this process have many desirable features to insure high quality w elds. Among these are: 1. Rem ote current control, w hich allow s the operator to control w elding amperage w ith a hand control on the torch, or a foot control at the w elding station. 2. Autom atic soft-start , w hich prevents a high current surge w hen the arc is initiated.
Glossary
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3.
Shielding gas and cooling w ater solenoid valves , w hich automatically control flow before, during and for an adjustable length of time after the w eld is completed.
4.
Spot-w eld tim ers , w hich automatically control all elements during each spot-w eld cycle.
Other options and accessories are also available. 2.3.2.10 Pow er sources for automatic w elding w ith complete programmable output are also
available. Such units are used extensively for the automatic w elding of pipe in position. The
w elding current is automatically varied as the torch travels around the pipe. Some units provide a pulsed w elding current w here the amperage is automatically varied betw een a low and high several times per second. This produces w elds w ith good penetration and improved w eld bead shape.
2.3.3
Torches - The torch is actually an electrode holder that supplies w elding current to
the tungsten electrode, and an inert gas shield to the arc zone. The electrode is held in a collet-like clamping device that allow s adjustment so that the proper length of electrode protrudes beyond the shielding gas cup. Manual torches are designed to accept electrodes of 3

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LESSON II
inch or 7 inch lengths. Torches may be either air or w ater-cooled. The air-cooled types actually are cooled to a degree by the shielding gas that is fed to the torch head through a composite cable. The gas actually surrounds the copper w elding cable, affording some degree of cooling. Water-cooled torches are usually used for applications w here the w elding current exceeds 200 amperes. The w ater inlet hose is connected to the torch head. Circulating around the torch head, the w ater leaves the torch via the current-in hose and cable assembly. Cooling the w elding cable in this manner allow s the use of a smaller diameter cable that is more flexible and lighter in w eight. 2.3.3.1 used. 2.3.3.2 A sw itch on the torch is used to energize the electrode w ith w elding current and start The gas nozzles are made of ceramic materials and are available in various sizes
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and shapes. In some heavy duty, high current applications, metal w ater-cooled nozzles are
Glossary
the shielding gas flow . High frequency current and w ater flow are also initiated by this sw itch if the pow er source is so equipped. In many installations, these functions are initiated by a foot control that also is capable of controlling the w elding current. This method gives the operator full control of the arc. The usual w elding method is to start the arc at a low current, gradually increase the current until a molten pool is achieved, and w elding begins. At the end of the w eld, current is slow ly decreases and the arc extinguished, preventing the crater that forms at
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the end of the w eld w hen the arc is broken abruptly.
2.3.4
Shielding Gases - Argon and helium are the major shielding gases used in gas
tungsten arc w elding. In some applications, mixtures of the tw o gases prove advantageous. To a lesser extent, hydrogen is mixed w ith argon or helium for special applications. 2.3.4.1 Argon and helium are colorless, odorless, tasteless and nontoxic gases. Both are
inert gases, w hich means that they do not readily combine w ith other elements. They w ill not burn nor support combustion. Commercial grades used for w elding are 99.99% pure. Argon is .38% heavier than air and about 10 times heavier than helium. Both gases ionize w hen present in an electric arc. This means that the gas atoms lose some of their electrons that have a negative charge. These unbalanced gas atoms, properly called positive ions, now have a positive charge and are attracted to the negative pole in the arc. When the arc is positive and the w ork is negative, these positive ions impinge upon the w ork and remove surface oxides or scale in the w eld area. 2.3.4.2 Argon is most commonly used of the shielding gases. Excellent arc starting and
ease of use make it most desirable for manual w elding. Argon produces a better cleaning action w hen w elding aluminum and magnesium w ith alternating current. The arc produced is

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LESSON II relatively narrow . Argon is more suitable for w elding thinner material. At equal amperage, helium produces a higher arc voltage than argon. Since w elding heat is the product of volts times amperes, helium produces more available heat at the arc. This makes it more suitable for w elding heavy sections of metal that have high heat conductivity, or for automatic w elding operations w here higher w elding speeds are required. 2.3.4.3 Argon-helium gas mixtures are used in applications w here higher heat input and the
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desirable characteristics of argon are required. Argon, being a relatively heavy gas, blankets the w eld area at low er flow rates. Argon is preferred for many applications because it costs less than helium. 2.3.4.4 Helium, being approximately 10 times lighter than argon, requires flow rates of 2 to
3 times that of argon to satisfactorily shield the arc. 2.3.5 Electrodes - Electrodes for gas tungsten arc w elding are available in diameters
Glossary
from .010" to 1/4" in diameter and standard lengths range from 3" to 24". The most commonly used sizes, how ever, are the .040", 1/16", 3/32", and 1/8" diameters. 2.3.5.1 The shape of the tip of the electrode is an important factor in gas tungsten arc
w elding. When w elding w ith DCEN, the tip must be ground to a point. The included angle at
w hich the tip is ground varies w ith the application, the electrode diameter, and the w elding current. Narrow joints require a relatively small included angle. When w elding very thin material at low currents, a needlelike point ground onto the smallest available electrode may be necessary to stabilize the arc. Properly ground electrodes w ill assure easy arc starting, good arc stability, and proper bead w idth. 2.3.5.2 When w elding w ith AC, grinding the electrode tip is not necessary. When proper
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w elding current is used, the electrode w ill form a hemispherical end. If the proper w elding current is exceeded, the end w ill become bulbous in shape and possibly melt off to contaminate the w eld metal.
2.3.5.3
The American Welding Society has published Specification AWS A5.12-80 for
tungsten arc w elding electrodes that classifies the electrodes on the basis of their chemical composition, size and finish. Briefly, the types specified are listed below :
1) Pure Tungsten (AWS EWP) Color Code: Green Used for less critical applications. The cost is low and they give good results at relatively low currents on a variety of metals. Most stable arc w hen used on AC, either balanced w ave or continuous high frequency.

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LESSON II 2) 1% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-1) Color Code: Yellow Good current carrying capacity, easy arc starting and provide a stable arc. Less susceptible to contamination. Designed for DC applications of nonferrous materials. 3) 2% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-2) Color Code: Red Longer life than 1% Thoriated electrodes. Maintain the pointed end longer, used for
light gauge critical w elds in aircraft w ork. Like 1%, designed for DC applications for nonferrous materials. 4) .5% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-3) Color Code: Blue Sometimes called "striped" electrode because it has 1.0-2.0% Thoria inserted in a w edge-shaped groove throughout its length. Combines the good properties of pure and thoriated electrodes. Can be used on either AC or DC applications. 5) Zirconia Tungsten (AWS EWZr) Color Code: Brown Longer life than pure tungsten. Better performance w hen w elding w ith AC. Melts more easily than thoriam-tungsten w hen forming rounded or tapered tungsten end. Ideal for applications w here tungsten contamination must be minimized.
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Glossary
2.3.6
Sum m ary - Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is one of the major w elding processes
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today. The quality of the w elds produced and the ability to w eld very thin metals are the major features. The w eld metal quality is high since no flux is used, eliminating the problem of slag inclusions in the w eld metal. It is used extensively in the aircraft and aerospace industry, w here high quality w elds are necessary and also for w elding the more expensive metals w here the w eld defects become very costly. Metals as thin as .005" can be w elded due to the ease of controlling the current. 2.3.6.1 The major disadvantages of the process are that it is slow er than w elding w ith
consumable electrodes and is little used on thicknesses over 1/4" for this reason. Shielding
gas and tungsten electrode costs make the process relatively expensive.
2.4
GAS METAL ARC WELDING
Gas Metal Arc Welding* is an arc w elding process that uses the heat of an electric arc established betw een a consumable metal electrode and the w ork to be w elded. The electrode is a bare metal w ire that is transferred across the arc and into the molten w eld puddle. The *
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is the current technology approved by the American Welding Society. Formerly known as "MIG" (Metal Inert Gas) Welding.
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LESSON II w ire, the w eld puddle, and the area in the arc zone are protected from the atmosphere by a gaseous shield. Inert gases, reactive gases, and gas mixtures are used for shielding. The metal transfer mode is dependent on shielding gas choice and w elding current level. Figure 9 is a sketch of the process show ing the basic features.
TRAVEL DIRECTION WELDING WIRE WELDING CABLE SOLID WIRE ELECTRODE GAS NOZZLE GAS SHIELD CONTACT TIP SHIELDING GAS
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ARC WELD METAL WORK PIECE
Glossary
MOLTEN POOL GAS METAL ARC WELDING FIGURE 9
2.4.0.1
Gas metal arc w elding is a versatile process that may be used to w eld a w ide
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variety of metals including carbon steels, low alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum alloys, magnesium, copper and copper alloys, and nickel alloys. It can be used to w eld sheet metal or relatively heavy sections. Welds may be made in all positions, and the process may be used for semiautomatic w elding or automatic w elding. In semiautomatic w elding, the w ire feed speed, voltage, amperage, and gas flow are all preset on the control equipment. The operator needs merely to guide the w elding gun along the joint at a uniform speed and hold a relatively constant arc length. In automatic w elding, the gun is mounted on a travel carriage that moves along the joint, or the gun may be stationary w ith the w ork moving or revolving beneath it. 2.4.0.2 Practically all GMAW is done using DCEP (Electrode positive). This polarity
provides deep penetration, a stable arc and low spatter levels. A small amount of GMAW w elding is done w ith DCEN and although the melting rate of the electrode is high, the arc is erratic. Alternating current is not used for gas metal arc w elding.
2.4.1
Current Density - To understand w hy gas metal arc w elding can deposit w eld
metal at a rapid rate, it is necessary that the term "current density" be understood. Figure 10 show s a 1/4" coated electrode and a 1/16" solid w ire draw n to scale. Both are capable of carrying 400 amperes. Notice that the area of the 1/16" w ire is only 1/16 that of the core w ire of the coated electrode. We can say that the current density of the 1/16" w ire is 16 times
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LESSON II
greater than the current density of the 1/4" w ire at equal w elding currents. The resultant melt-off rate of the solid w ire is very high. If w e w ere to increase the current through the 1/4" coated electrode to increase the current density, the resistance heating through the 14" electrode length w ould be excessive, and the rod w ould become so hot that the coating w ould crack, rendering it useless. The 1/16" w ire carries the high current a distance of less than 3/4", the
FLUX COATING CORE WIRE
AREA = .049 SQ. IN.
AREA = .0031 SQ. IN. A 16 A
1/16"
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SOLID WIRE 1/4" COATED ELECTRODE .049 .0031 = 16
Print
RELATIVE SIZE OF ELECTRODES FOR WELDING AT 400 AMPS
Glossary
FIGURE 10
approximate distance from the end of the contact tip to the arc.
2.4.2 Metal Transfer Modes Spray transfer is a high current density process that rapidly deposits w eld metal in
2.4.2.1
droplets smaller than the electrode diameter. They are propelled in a straight line from the center of the electrode. A shielding gas mixture of Argon w ith 1% to 2% Oxygen is used for
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w elding mild and low alloy steel, and pure Argon or Argon-Helium mixtures are used for w elding aluminum, magnesium, copper, and nickel alloys. Welding current at w hich spray transfer
SPRAY TRANSFER
GLOBULAR TRANSFER
PULSE TRANSFER
1 2 3 SHORT CIRCUITING ARC METAL TRANSFER
MODES OF METAL TRANSFER

FIGURE 11
takes place is relatively high and w ill vary w ith the metal being w elded, electrode diameter, and the shielding gas being used. Deposition rates are high and w elding is usually limited to the flat or horizontal fillet position. See Figure 11.

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LESSON II
2.4.2.2
Globular transfer takes place at low er w elding currents than spray transfer. There
is a transition current w here the transfer changes to globular even w hen shielding gases using
a high percentage of argon are used. When carbon dioxide (CO2) is used as a shielding gas, the transfer is alw ays globular. In globular transfer, a molten drop larger than the electrode diameter forms on the end of the electrode, moves to the outer edge of the electrode and falls into the molten puddle. Occasionally, a large drop w ill "short circuit" across the arc, causing the arc to extinguish momentarily, and then instantaneously reignite. As a result, the arc is somew hat erratic, spatter level is high, and penetration shallow . Globular transfer is not suitable for out-of-position w elding. See Figure 11. 2.4.2.3 Short circuiting transfer is a much used method in gas metal arc w elding. It is
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produced by using the low est current-voltage settings and the smaller w ires, usually .030", .035", and .045" diameters. The low heat input makes this process ideal for sheet metal, outof-position w ork, and poor fit-up applications. Often called "short arc w elding" because metal transfer is achieved each time the w ire actually short circuits (makes contact) w ith the w eld puddle. This happens very rapidly. It is feasible for the short circuit frequency to be 20-200 times a second, but in practice, it occurs from 90-100 times a second. Each time the electrode touches the puddle, the arc is extinguished. It happens so rapidly that it is visible only on high speed films.
Glossary
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2.4.2.4
Pulse transfer is a mode of metal transfer somew hat betw een spray and short
circuiting. The specific pow er source has built into it tw o output levels: a steady background level, and a high output (peak) level. The later permits the transfer of metal across the arc. This peak output is controllable betw een high and low values up to several hundred cycles per second. The result of such a peak output produces a spray arc below the typical transition current. 2.4.2.4.1 Figure 11 show s the transfer method. The arc is initiated by touching the w ire to the w ork. Upon initial contact, a bit of the w ire melts off to form a molten puddle. The w ire feeds forw ard until it actually contacts the w ork again, as at 1 in Figure 11, and the arc is extinguished. The short circuiting current causes the w ire to neck dow n, as show n in 1, until it melts off, as show n at 2. As soon as the w ire is free of the puddle, the arc is reignited and a molten ball forms at the end of the electrode, as at 3. The w ire continues to move forw ard until it makes contact w ith the puddle, and the cycle is repeated. 2.4.2.5 Gas m etal arc spot w elding is a variation of the process that allow s spot w elding
of thinner gauge metals, or of a thin gauge metal to a heavier section. The gun is placed directly against the w ork and is equipped w ith a special nozzle to allow escape of the shielding gas. When the trigger sw itch is actuated, the follow ing sequence takes place. The shielding
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LESSON II
gas flow s for a short interval before w ire feeding starts; w ire feeding starts; the arc is initiated and continues for a preset time (usually a few seconds). The w elding current and w ire feeding stops, and the shielding gas flow s for a short interval before it automatically stops. The process is also useful for tacking w elding pieces in position prior to running the final w eld bead.
2.4.3
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION - The equipment used for gas metal arc w elding
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is more complicated than that required for shielded metal arc w elding. Initial cost is relatively high, but the cost is rapidly amortized due to the savings in labor and overhead achieved by the rapid w eld metal deposition. 2.4.3.1 The equipment necessary for gas metal arc w elding is listed below : 1) Pow er source 2) Wire feeder 3) Welding gun 4) Shielding gas supply 5) Solid electrode w ire 6) Protective equipment
Glossary
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2.4.3.2
The basic equipment necessary for semiautomatic gas metal arc w elding is show n
in Figure 12.
GAS HOSE FLOWMETER REGULATOR TRIGGER CONTROL LEAD FEED ROLLS WIRE SPOOL WIRE FEEDER VALVE

MAGNETIC SHIELDING GAS POWER SOURCE
WELD CABLE 115V
CONTACTOR _ +
WELDING GUN
GROUND CABLE WORK SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM SEMI-AUTOMATIC GMAW EQUIPMENT
FIGURE 12
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2.4.4

LESSON II Pow er Source - A direct current, constant v oltage power source is recommended
for gas metal arc w elding. It may be a transformer-rectifier or a rotary type unit. The low er open circuit voltage and self-correcting arc length feature, as described in Lesson I, makes it most suitable. Constant voltage pow er sources used for spray transfer w elding and for flux cored electrode w elding (to be covered later) are the same. How ever, if the unit is to be used for short-circuiting arc w elding, it must have "slope" or slope control. Slope control is a means of limiting the high short-circuit current that is characteristic of this type w elder. Figure 13 show s the effect of slope on the shortcircuiting current.
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 V O L T S
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OPERATING POINT
25 20 15 10 5
SHORT CIRCUITING CURRENT WITH SLOPE SHORT CIRCUITING CURRENT NO SLOPE
CONSTANT VOLTAGE V/A CURVE
Glossary
2.4.4.1
If w e w ere
EFFECT OF SLOPE ON SHORT CIRCUITING CURRENT
short-arc w elding at
approximately 150 amperes and 18 volts, as show n in Figure 13,
FIGURE 13
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and had no slope components in the pow er source, the current at short-circuit or w hen the w ire touches the w ork, w ould be over 1400 amperes. At this high current, a good length of the w ire w ould literally explode off the end, cause much spatter, and the arc w ould be erratic. With the slope components in the circuit, the short-circuiting current is in the neighborhood of 400 amperes, and the molten ball is sort of pinched off the end of the w ire more gently. For those w ith an electrical background, it might be added that in some machines, slope is achieved by adding a reactor in the AC secondary of the pow er source. In others, a slope resistor is added in the DC output portion of the circuit. Slope may be adjustable for varying w ire diameters or it may be fixed, giving a good average value for .035" and .045" diameter w ires, the tw o most popular sizes. 2.4.4.2 Another factor influencing the arc in short-circuiting w elding is the rate that the
amperage reaches the short-circuiting current level. Using the example in Figure 13, w e know that the current goes from 150 amperes to 400 amperes during each shorting period. If w e w ere to plot the current rise on a graph, as in Figure 14, w e w ould see that the current rise if very rapid, as show n by the broken line.

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LESSON II This rapid current rise can be by using a device called an (sometimes called a stabilizer) output circuit of the w elder. An
400 AMPS WITHOUT INDUCTANCE
merely an iron core w ound turns of heavy w ire. It does current flow , but it acts somew hat like a fly w heel or damper by retarding the rate of rise as show n by the solid line. By preventing the
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WITH INDUCTANCE
150 AMPS TIME - MILLISECONDS EFFECT OF INDUCTANCE ON CURRENT RISE FIGURE 14
rapid current rise, the arc becomes smoother, spatter is reduced, and bead shape and appearance are
Glossary
improved. Because the inductor influences the time function, its design determines arc on-off time, and short-circuit frequency. Some pow er sources have a selector that can sw itch in several different inductance values to finely tune the arc.
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2.4.4.4
Welding pow er sources designed for gas metal arc w elding have a 115 volt outlet to
provide pow er to operate the w ire feeder. They also have a receptacle to receive the electrical pow er required to close the main contactor in the pow er source, w hich turns on the w elding pow er to the w elding gun w hen the gun trigger is actuated. 2.4.4.5 Additional advancements in equipment technology have introduced many new
models. Inverters, as w ell as microprocessor controls, have created the greatest attention. In addition, multipurpose machines have provided the user w ith greater flexibility w ith a variety of capabilities.
2.4.4.6
Global competition w ill continue to have a profound influence on future
advancements in arc w elding equipment. As energy prices rise, greater demands for more efficient equipment w ill follow .
2.4.5
Wire Feeder - When w elding w ith a constant voltage pow er source, as is the case
in most gas metal arc w elding applications, the prime function of the w ire feeder is to deliver the w elding w ire to the arc at a very constant speed. Since the w ire feed speed determines the amperage, and the amperage determines the amount of heat at the arc, inconsistent w ire feed speed w ill produce w elds of varying penetration and bead w idth. Advanced electronics
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LESSON II
technology makes it possible to design motor speed controls that w ill produce the same speed, even though the load on the motor varies or the input voltage to the motor may fluctuate.
2.4.5.1
A limited amount of gas metal arc w elding is performed w ith constant current type
pow er sources. In this case, the motor speed automatically varies to increase or decrease the w ire feed speed as the arc length varies to maintain a constant voltage. 2.4.5.2 The w ire feeder also controls the main contactor in the pow er source for safety
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reasons. This assures that the w elding w ire w ill only be energized w hen the sw itch on the w elding gun is depressed. 2.4.5.3 The flow of shielding gas is controlled by a solenoid valve (magnetic valve) in the
w ire feeder to turn the shielding gas on and off w hen the gun sw itch is actuated. Most feeders utilize a dynamic breaking circuit to quickly stop the motor at the end of a w eld to prevent a long length of w ire protruding from the gun w hen the w eld is terminated. Most feeders have a burn-back circuit that allow s the w elding current to stay on for a short period of time after w ire feeding has stopped, to allow the w ire to burn back exactly the right amount for the next arc initiation. 2.4.5.4 The feed rolls, sometimes called drive rolls, pull the w ire off the spool or reel, and
Glossary
push it through a feed cable or conduit to the w elding gun. These rolls must usually be
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changed to accommodate each different w ire diameter, although some rolls are designed to feed a combination of sizes.
2.4.6
Welding Gun - The function of the w elding gun, sometimes referred to as a torch, is Search Chapter (Faster Download) Search Document (Slower Download)
to deliver the w elding w ire, w elding current, and shielding gas to the w elding arc. Guns are available for semi-automatic operation and for automatic operation, w here they are fixed in the automatic w elding head. 2.4.6.1 Guns for GMAW have several characteristics in common. All have a copper alloy
shielding gas nozzle, that delivers the gas to the arc area in a nonturbulent, angular pattern to prevent aspiration of air. The nozzle may be w ater cooled for semiautomatic w elding at high amperage and for automatic w elding w here the arc time is of long duration. Welding current is transferred to the w elding w ire as the w ire travels through the contact tip or contact tube located inside the gas nozzle (Refer to Figure 9). The hole in the contact tip through w hich the w ire passes is only a few thousandths of an inch larger than the w ire diameter. A w orn contact tip w ill result in an erratic arc due to poor current transfer. Figure 15 show s a few different semiautomatic gun configurations that are commonly used for GMAW.

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LESSON II
CURVED NECK
PISTOL TY PE
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SELF CONTAINED
PULL TY PE
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SEMI-AUTOMATIC GMAW GUN TY PES FIGURE 15
Glossary
2.4.6.2
The curved neck or "goose neck" type is probably the most commonly used. It
allow s the best access to a variety of w eld joints. The w ire is pushed to this type of gun by the feed rolls in the w ire feeder through a feed cable or conduit that usually is 10 or 12 feet in length. The shielding gas hose, w elding current cable, and trigger sw itch leads are supplied w ith the w elding gun. 2.4.6.3 The pistol type gun is similar to the curved neck type, but is less adaptable for
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difficult to reach joints. The pistol type is also a "push" type gun and is more suitable for gas metal arc spot w elding applications. 2.4.6.4 The self contained type has an electric motor in the handle and feed rolls that pull the
w ire from a 1 or 2 pound spool mounted on the gun. The need for a long w ire feed cable is eliminated, and w ire feed speed may be controlled by the gun. Guns of this type are often used for aluminum w ire up to .045" diameter, although they may also be used for feeding steel or other hard w ires. 2.4.6.5 The pull type gun has either an electric motor or an air motor mounted in the handle
that is coupled to a feeding mechanism in the gun. The spool of w ire is located in the control cabinet that may be located as far as fifty feet from the gun. When feeding such long distances, a set of "push" rolls located in the control cabinet assist in feeding the w ire. This then becomes know n as a push-pull feed system and is especially useful in feeding the softer w ires such as aluminum.
2.4.7
SHIELDING GASES - In gas metal arc w elding, there are a variety of shielding
gases that can be used, either alone or in combinations of varying degrees. The choice is
dependent on the type of metal transfer employed, the type and thickness of metal, the bead
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LESSON II
profile (See Figure 16), penetration, and speed of w elding. In our discussion, w e w ill deal w ith the more common choices used for the various transfer processes.
FERROUS METALS
NON-FERROUS METALS
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CO2 ARGON + CO2 ARGON + O2 BEAD PROFILE FIGURE 16 ARGON HELIUM
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2.4.7.1
Short Circuiting Transfer - Straight carbon dioxide (CO2) is often used for short
Glossary
circuiting arc w elding because of its low cost. The deep penetration usually associated w ith CO2 is minimized because of the low amperage and voltage settings used w ith this process. Compared to other gas mixes, CO2 w ill produce a harsher arc and therefore, greater spatter levels. Usually, this is minimized by maintaining a short arc length and by careful adjustment of the pow er supply inductance. The temperatures reached in w elding w ill cause carbon dioxide to decompose into carbon monoxide and oxygen. To reduce the possibility of porosity caused by entrapped oxygen in the w eld metal, it is w ise to use electrodes that contain deoxidizing
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elements, such as silicon and manganese. If the current is increased above the short circuiting range, the use of carbon dioxide tends to produce a globular transfer. 2.4.7.1.1 Mixing argon in proportions of 50-75% w ith carbon dioxide w ill produce a smoother arc and reduce spatter levels. It w ill also w iden the bead profile, reduce penetration, and encourage "w etting". Wetting, i.e., a uniform fusion, along w ith joining edges of the base metal and the w eld metal, minimizes the w eld imperfection know n as undercutting (See Figure 17).
UNDERCUT FIGURE 17
WETTING
2.4.7.1.2 The 75% Argon/25 CO2 mixture is often chosen for short circuit w elding of thin sections, w hereas the 50-50 combination w orks w ell on thicker sections. 2.4.7.1.3 It should be noted that shielding gases can affect the metallurgy of the w eld metal. As an example, a combination of argon and carbon dioxide may be used for w elding stainless steel, but as the carbon dioxide breaks dow n, excessive carbon may be transferred into the
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LESSON II
w eld metal. Corrosion resistance in stainless steel is reduced as the carbon content increases. To counteract this possibility, a less reactive mixture of 90% helium - 7-1/2% argon - 2-1/2% CO2 is sometimes chosen. This combination, know n as a trimix, provides good arc stability and w etting. 2.4.7.2 Spray Arc Transfer - Pure argon produces a deep constricted penetration at the
center of the bead w ith much shallow er penetration at the edges (Figure 16). Argon performs w ell on nonferrous metals, but w hen used on ferrous metals, the transfer is somew hat erratic w ith the tendency for the w eld metal to move aw ay from the center line. To make argon suitable for spray transfer on ferrous metals, small additions of 1 to 5% oxygen have proven to provide remarkable improvements. The arc stabilizes, becomes less spattery, and the w eld metal w ets out nicely. If the percentage of argon falls below 80%, it is impossible to achieve true spray transfer. 2.4.7.2.1 Pure helium or combinations of helium and argon are used for w elding nonferrous metals. The bead profile w ill broaden as the concentration of helium increases. 2.4.7.3 Pulse Spray Transfer - The selection of shielding gas must be adequate enough to
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Glossary
support a spray transfer. Material type, thickness, and w elding position are essential variables in selecting a particular shielding gas. The follow ing is a list of recommended gases:
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Lesson 6 Carbon & Low Alloy Steel Filler Metals GMAW,GTAW,SAW Lesson 7 Flux Cored Arc Electrodes Carbon Low Alloy Steels 2.4.8 Lesson 8 Hardsurfacing Electrodes
Carbon Steel Alloy Steel Stainless Copper, Nickel, & Cu-Ni Alloys Aluminum
Argon/CO2/O2/He (He less than 50%) Argon/CO2/O2/He (He less than 50%) Argon/O2/CO2 (CO2 max. 2%) Argon/Helium Argon/Helium
Electrodes - The solid electrodes used in GMAW are of high purity w hen they come
from the mill. Their chemistry must be closely controlled and some types purposely contain high levels of deoxidizers for use w ith CO2 shielding. 2.4.8.1 The electrode manufacturer draw s dow n the electrode to a finished diameter that,
w ith GMAW, is usually quite small. Diameters from .030" thru 1/16" are common.
2.4.8.2
Most steel GMAW electrodes are copper plated as a means of protecting the
surface. The copper inhibits rusting, provides smooth feeding, and helps electrical conductivity. 2.4.8.3 Information on types and classifications w ill be covered in a future lesson.
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LESSON II
2.5
FLUX CORED ARC WELDING
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is quite similar to GMAW as far as operation and equipment are concerned. The major difference is that FCAW utilizes an electrode that is very different from the solid electrode used in GMAW. The flux cored electrode is a fabricated electrode and as the name implies, flux material is deposited into its core. The flux cored electrode begins as a flat metal strip that is formed first into a "U" shape. Flux and alloying elements are deposited into the "U" and then the shape is closed into a tubular configuration by a series of forming rolls. 2.5.0.1 The flux cored electrode is a continuous electrode that is fed into the arc w here it is
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melted and transferred into the molten puddle. As in GMAW, the flux cored process depends on a gas shield to protect the w eld zone from detrimental atmospheric contamination. With FCAW, there are tw o primary w ays this is accomplished (See Figure 18). The gas is either applied externally, in w hich case the electrode is referred to as a gas shielded flux cored electrode, or it is generated from the decomposition of gas forming ingredients contained in the electrode's core. In this instance, the electrode is know n as a self-shielding flux cored electrode. In addition to the gas shield, the flux cored electrode produces a slag covering for
Glossary
CONTACT TIP GAS CUP
CONTACT TIP INSULATED GUIDE TUBE
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GAS SHIELD
FLUX CORE
FLUX CORE
GAS SHIELDED FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING FIGURE 18
SELF SHIELDED
further protection of the w eld metal as it cools. The slag is manually removed w ith a w ire brush or chipping hammer. 2.5.1 Self Shielded Process - The main advantage of the self shielding method is that
its operation is somew hat simplified because of the absence of external shielding equipment.
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LESSON II Although self shielding electrodes have been developed for w elding low alloy and stainless steels, they are most w idely used on mild steels. The self shielding method generally uses a long electrical stick-out (distance betw een the contact tube and the end of the unmelted electrode) commonly from one to four inches. Electrical resistance is increased w ith the long extension, preheating the electrode before it is fed into the arc. This enables the electrode to burn off at a faster rate and increases deposition. The preheating also decreases the heat available for melting the base metal, resulting in a more shallow penetration than the gas shielded process. 2.5.1.1 A major draw back of the self shielded process is the metallurgical quality of the
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deposited w eld metal. In addition to gaining its shielding ability from gas forming ingredients in the core, the self shielded electrode contains a high level of deoxidizing and denitrifying alloys, primarily aluminum, in its core. Although the aluminum performs w ell in neutralizing the affects of oxygen and nitrogen in the arc zone, its presence in the w eld metal w ill reduce ductility and impact strength at low temperatures. For this reason, the self shielding method is usually restricted to less critical applications. 2.5.1.2 The self shielding electrodes are more suitable for w elding in drafty locations than
Glossary
the gas shielded types. Since the molten filler metal is on the outside of the flux, the gases formed by the decomposing flux are not totally relied upon to shield the arc from the
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atmosphere. The deoxidizing and denitrifying elements in the flux further help to neutralize the affects of nitrogen and oxygen present in the w eld zone. 2.5.2 The Gas Shielded Process - A major advantage w ith the shielded flux cored
electrode is the protective envelope formed by the auxiliary gas shield around the molten puddle. This envelope effectively excludes the natural gases in the atmosphere w ithout the need for core ingredients such as aluminum. Because of this more thorough shielding, the w eld metallurgy is cleaner w hich makes this process suitable for w elding not only mild steels, but also low alloy steels in a w ide range of strength and impact levels.
2.5.2.1
The gas shielded method uses a shorter electrical stickout than the self shielded
process. Extensions from 1/2" to 3/4" are common on all diameters, and 3/4" to 1-1/2" on larger diameters. Higher w elding currents are also used w ith this process, enabling high deposition rates to be reached. The auxiliary shielding helps to reduce the arc energy into a columnar pattern. The combination of high currents and the action of the shielding gas contributes to the deep penetration inherent w ith this process. Both spray and globular transfer are utilized w ith the gas shielded process.

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LESSON II
2.5.3
Current Density - Flux cored arc w elding utilizes the same principles of current
density, as explained in section 2.4.1, but there is one significant difference betw een the flux
cored electrode and the solid electrode. With the flux cored electrode, the granular core ingredients are poor electrical conductors and therefore, the current is carried primarily through the outer metal sheathing. When an equal diameter cross section of the tw o are compared (See Figure 19), it is seen that the flux cored electrode has a smaller current carrying area than the solid electrode. This greater concentration of current in a smaller area increases the burnoff rate.
CURRENT PATH
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Glossary
2.5.3.1 When all other factors are equal,
1/16" FLUX-CORED ELECTRODE FIGURE 19 1/16" SOLID ELECTRODE
the deposition rate of the flux cored electrode is somew hat higher than the solid electrode. 2.5.4
EQUIPMENT - The equipment used for flux cored arc w elding is the same as
show n previously in Section 2.3.2.2, Figure 12, w ith the exception that the self shielded method does not need the external gas apparatus.
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2.5.4.1
Flux cored arc w elding is done w ith direct current. All of the gas shielded electrodes
are designed for DCEP operation. The self shielded electrodes are either designed specifically for DCEN or DCEP. 2.5.5
Pow er Source - The recommended pow er source is the direct current constant
voltage type. The constant current type can be used but w ith less satisfactory results. 2.5.6
Wire Feeder - The function of the w ire feeder in FCAW is the same as discussed in
the section on GMAW. Since the flux cored electrode is tubular in construction, precautions
must be taken not to flatten the electrode. To facilitate feeding by means other than pressure alone, specially designed feed rolls w ith knurled or grooved surfaces are used. Some feeders use four feed rolls rather than tw o to minimize unit pressure on the electrode. 2.5.7
The Welding Gun - As compared to GMAW, the main difference in FCAW w elding
guns is in those used w ith the self shielding process. The gun is somew hat more compact due to the absence of an external gas shielding nozzle. Since the self shielding process normally requires a longer electrode extension, the self shielding gun may have an insulated guide tube (Refer back to Figure 18) to give stability to the electrode. Water cooled guns are available for high duty semi-automatic w elding and for automatic w elding.
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LESSON II
2.5.7.1 Flux cored w elding generates fumes, that for environmental reasons, must be
removed from the w elding area. This is usually done w ith an external exhaust system, but
w elding guns w ith internal fume extractors have been developed. They are heavier than the regular gun and must be properly maintained so that the extracting mechanism does not disturb the shielding gas.
2.5.8
SHIELDING GASES - Carbon dioxide is the most w idely used gas for auxiliary
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shielding of the flux cored electrode. The other commonly used gas is a mixture of 75% Argon and 25% CO2. 2.5.8.1 A carbon dioxide shield produces deep penetration and the transfer is globular. As
previously discussed, CO2 w ill dissociate in the heat of the arc. To counteract this characteristic, deoxidizing elements are added to the core ingredients of the electrode. The deoxidizers react to form solid oxide compounds that float to the surface as part of the slag covering. 2.5.8.2 The addition of Argon to CO2 w ill increase the w etting action, produce a smooth arc
Glossary
arc, and reduce spatter. The transfer is spray-like, and the penetration is somew hat less than w ith the straight carbon dioxide. 2.5.8.3 While some flux cored electrodes are designed to operate w ell on both the 100%
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CO2 or the 75/25 mixture, others are formulated specifically for the CO2 shield or the Argon/ CO2 mixture. If the recommended gas is not used w ith these electrodes, the w eld chemistry may be affected. The reason for this is that inert gas, such as Argon, does not react w ith the other elements; therefore, allow ing them to be transferred across the arc into the w eld metal. An electrode designed for CO2 shielding contains deoxidizing elements, such as silicon and manganese. If a high percentage of Argon is used in the shielding medium, a large portion of these elements may pass into the w eld metal causing the w eld metallurgy to be less ductile than intended. 2.5.8.3 The opposite happens w ith electrodes formulated for a 75/25 mixture. These
electrodes are usually designed for high yield and tensile strength. If a high percentage of CO2 is used w ith them, the CO2 may react w ith the elements needed to attain these strength levels, thereby preventing them from passing into the w eld metal.
2.6
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
Subm erged Arc Welding (SAW) is different from the previously explained arc w elding processes in that the arc is not visible. The arc is submerged beneath loose granular flux. A
continuous electrode is fed by automatic drive rolls through an electrode holder w here current
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LESSON II
is picked up at the contact tube. The electrode moves into the loose flux and the arc is initiated. The flux is deposited from a separate container that moves at the same pace as the electrode assuring complete coverage (See Figure 20). 2.6.1 Subm erged Arc Flux - The flux helps form the molten puddle, slow s the cooling
rate, and acts as a protective shield. The flux, w hich is in close contact w ith the arc, is fused into a slag cover and that w hich is not fused is collected for reuse. The flux can contain alloying elements that, w hen molten, w ill pass into the w eld metal affecting the metallurgy. Some fluxes are specifically prepared for their alloy altering capabilities w hile others, know n as neutral fluxes, are chosen w hen a minimal alloy change is desired. Although these latter fluxes are called "neutral", they still have the ability to slightly alter the w eld chemistry.
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Glossary
FLUX HOPPER
ELECTRODE
LOOSE GRANULAR FLUX
Turn Pages Lesson 6 Carbon & Low Alloy Steel Filler Metals GMAW,GTAW,SAW Lesson 7 Flux Cored Arc Electrodes Carbon Low Alloy Steels
BASE METAL MOLTEN PUDDLE FUSED SLAG COVER SOLIDIFIED WELD METAL SUBMERGED ARC WELDING FIGURE 20
2.6.2
The Welding Gun - Although there are hand-held w elding guns for the submerged
arc process, the majority of SAW is done w ith fully automatic equipment. The basic compo-
nents include a w ire feeder, a pow er source, a flux delivery system, and in some instances, an automatic flux recovery system. 2.6.3 Pow er Sources - The pow er source can be a constant current AC transformer, or it
may be a DC rectifier or generator of either the constant current or constant voltage variety. The pow er source must be rated for high current output. When current requirements exceed the value of a single machine, tw o or more of the same type may be connected in parallel. 2.6.4 Equipm ent - Most submerged arc w elding is done w ith DCEP because it provides
easy arc starting, deep penetration and excellent bead shape. DCEN provides the highest
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LESSON II deposition rates but minimum penetration. Alternating current is often used as a trailing arc in tandem arc applications. In this type of application, the leading DCEP arc provides deep penetration, and the closely trailing AC arc provides high deposition w ith a minimum of arc blow . 2.6.5 Electrodes - A variety of ferrous and nonferrous electrodes are used in submerged
arc w elding. They are usually solid electrodes refined w ith the appropriate alloys at the steel mill, and then shipped to electrode manufacturers w here they are draw n dow n to a specific diameter and packaged. There is another type of sub arc electrode know n as a composite electrode, that is fabricated in the same manner as a flux cored electrode. A chief advantage of this type is that the alloying elements can be added to the core of the electrode more cheaply than a steel mill can produce those same alloys in a solid form. The electrodes for SAW vary in diameter from 1/16 inch to 1/4 inch w ith the larger diameters being the most w idely used. 2.6.6 Sum m ary - Submerged arc w elding has some advantages over other w elding
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Glossary
processes. Since the radiance of the arc is blanketed by the loose flux, there is no need for a protective w elding hood (although safety glasses are recommended), there is no spatter and only a very minimal amount of fumes escape from under the blanket. High w elding currents, quite commonly in the 300 to 1600 ampere range, are used. These high currents, combined
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w ith fast travel speeds, make SAW a high deposition process that is especially suitable for applications that require a series of repetitious w elds. Some setups allow tw o or more electrodes to be fed simultaneously into the joint, further increasing the deposition rate and speed. 2.6.6.1 Although SAW has these advantages, it does have some limitations. The flux must
be deposited and collected for every w elding pass. This requires additional equipment and handling. Also because of the loose flux, the process is limited to the flat and horizontal positions. The equipment for SAW is commonly quite bulky w hich limits its mobility, and although the process w orks w ell on thick materials, it usually is not satisfactory for thin gauge material. The process requires care in the operation. The amperages commonly used may cause excessive heat buildup in the base metal, that may result in distortion or brittleness.

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LESSON II
2.7
ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING
Electroslag Welding (ESW) and Electrogas Welding (EGW) comprise only a minor portion of all w elding done in the country, but they are uniquely adapted to certain applications, primarily the joining of very thick materials. The joining of a 12 inch material along a 40 foot line is not an uncommon application for the Electroslag process. 2.7.1 Electroslag Welding (See Figure 21) is technically not an arc w elding process,
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although it utilizes a current carrying consumable electrode. The only time there is an arc betw een the electrode and the w ork piece is w hen current is initially charged through the electrode. This initial charge heats a layer of loose flux that becomes molten and extinguishes the arc.
Glossary
WATER INLET/OUTLET ELECTRODE COPPER SHOE
GUIDE TUBE (CONSUMABLE GUIDE METHOD) BASE METAL
MOLTEN FLUX
WELD POOL
SOLIDIFIED METAL
ELECTROSLAG WELDING FIGURE 21
2.7.2
Flux - The flux used in ESW is high in electrical resistance. As current is applied,
enough heat is generated from this resistance to keep the flux, base metal, and electrode in a
molten state. This axis of the w eld joint is on a vertical plane. The tw o pieces of metal, usually of the same thickness, are positioned so that there is an opening betw een them. One or more electrodes are fed into the opening through a w elding bead that travels vertically as the joint is filled. To contain the molten puddle, w ater cooled copper shoes or dams are placed on the
sides of the vertical cavity. As the w eld joint solidifies, the dams move vertically so as to alw ays remain in contact w ith the molten puddle. 2.7.3 Process - A variation of ESW is the consumable guide method. The process is the
same w ith this method except that the guide tube that feeds the electrode to the molten pool is

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LESSON II also consumed. The chief advantage w ith this method is the elimination of the electrode holder w hich must move vertically w ith the w eld pool. Also since the guide tube is consumed, the deposition rate is slightly increased w ith this method. 2.7.4 Equipm ent - The equipment used in ESW is all automatic and of special design.
The pow er source may use either AC or DC current. The electrode may be either solid or flux cored, although if the flux cored is used, it must be specially formulated so as not to contain its normal amount of slag forming ingredients. 2.7.5 Sum m ary - Electrogas Welding is similar to ESW as far as the mechanical as-
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pects are concerned. The equipment is automatic, the w elding head travels vertically, and the molten puddle is retained by shoes on the sides of the joint. The difference is that Electrogas Welding utilizes an arc and it is externally gas shielded. The pow er source is also limited to DC operation. The electrodes used in EGW can be either solid or flux cored.
Glossary
Turn Pages Lesson 6 Carbon & Low Alloy Steel Filler Metals GMAW,GTAW,SAW Lesson 7 Flux Cored Arc Electrodes Carbon Low Alloy Steels Search Chapter (Faster Download) Search Document (Slower Download)

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LESSON II
APPENDIX A LESSON II - GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Arc Blow
- Deviation of the direction of the w elding arc caused by magnetic fields in the w ork piece w hen w elding w ith direct current.
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Straight Polarity
- Welding condition w hen the electrode is connected to the negative terminal and the w ork is connected to the positive terminal of the w elding pow er source.
Glossary
Reverse Polarity
- Welding condition w hen the electrode is connected to the positive terminal and the w ork is connected to the negative terminal of the w elding pow er source.
Slag
- The brittle mass that forms over the w eld bead on w elds made w ith coated electrodes, flux cored electrodes, submerged arc w elding and other slag producing w elding processes. Welds made w ith the gas metal arc and the
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gas tungsten arc w elding processes are slag free.
Manual Arc Welding
- Welding w ith a coated electrode w here the operator's hand controls travel speed and the rate the electrode is fed into the arc.
Sem i-Autom atic Welding
- Welding w ith a continuous solid w ire or flux cored electrode w here the w ire feed speed, shielding gas flow rate, and voltage are preset on the equipment, and the operator guides the hand held w elding gun along the joint to be w elded.

Slag Inclusion
- A w eld defect w here slag is entrapped in the w eld metal before it can float to the surface. - The initial pass in a multi-pass w eld, usually requiring 100% penetration.
Root Pass

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LESSON II Gas Ions - Shielding gas atoms that, in the presence of an electrical current, lose one or more electrons and therefore, carry a positive electrical charge. The provide a more electrically conductive path for the arc betw een the electrode and the w ork piece. High Frequency - (as applied to gas-tungsten arc w elding) An alternating current consisting of over 50,000 cycles per second at high voltage, low amperage that is superimposed on the w elding circuit in GTAW pow er sources. It ionizes a path for non-touch arc starting and stabilizes the arc w hen w elding w ith alternating current. Inert Gases - Gases that are chemically inactive. They do not readily combine w ith other elements. Flux - In arc w elding, fluxes are formulations that, w hen subjected to the arc, act as a cleaning agent by dissolving oxides, releasing trapped gases and slag and generally cleaning the w eld metal by floating the impurities to the surface w here they solidify in the slag covering. The flux also serves to reduce spatter and contributes to w eld bead shape. The flux may be the coating on the electrode, inside the electrode as in flux cored types, or in a granular form as used in submerged arc w elding. Current Density - The amperes per square inch of cross-sectional area of an electrode. High current density results in high electrode melt-off rate and a concentrated, deep penetrating arc. Slope or Slope
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Glossary
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Control
- A necessary feature in w elding pow er sources used for short circuiting arc w elding. Slope Control reduces the short circuiting current each time the electrode touches the w eld puddle (See Section 2.5.3).
Inductance
- (as applies to short circuiting arc w elding) A feature in w elding pow er sources designed for short circuiting arc w elding to retard the rate of current rise each time the electrode touches the w eld puddle.

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Contact Tip

LESSON II
- That part of a gas metal arc w elding gun or flux cored arc w elding gun that transfers the w elding current to the w elding w ire immediately before the w ire enters the arc.
Lesson 2 Common Electric Arc Welding Processes

Spray
- Mode of metal transfer across the arc w here the molten metal droplets are smaller than the electrode diameter and are axially directed to the w eld puddle. Requires high voltage and amperage settings and a shielding gas of at least 80% argon.
Lesson 3 Covered Electrodes for Welding Mild Steels Lesson 4 Covered Electrodes for Welding Low Alloy Steels Lesson 5 Welding Filler Metals for Stainless Steels
Transfer
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Globular Transfer
- Mode of metal transfer across the arc w here a molten ball larger than the electrode diameter forms at the tip of the electrode. On detachment, it takes on an irregular shape and tumbles tow ards the w eld puddle sometimes shorting betw een the electrode and w ork at irregular intervals. Occurs w hen using shielding gases other than those consisting of at least 80% argon and at medium current settings.
Glossary
Pulse
- Mode of metal transfer somew hat betw een spray and short circuiting. The specific pow er source has built into it tw o output levels: a steady background level, and a high output (peak) level. The later permits the transfer of metal across the arc. This peak output is controllable betw een high and low values up to several hundred cycles per second. The result of such a peak output produces a spray arc below the typical transition current.
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Transfer
Shortcircuiting Transfer
- Mode of metal transfer in gas metal arc w elding at low voltage and amperage. Transfer takes place each time the electrode touches or short-circuits to the w eld puddle, extinguishing the arc. The short-circuiting current causes the electrode to neck dow n, melt off, and then repeats the cycle.

Trimix or
- A shielding gas consisting of approximately 90% helium, 7-1/2% argon, and 2-1/2% carbon dioxide used primarily for short-circuiting arc w elding of stainless steels. Maintains corrosion resistance of the stainless steel and produces good w etting and excellent w eld bead shape.
Triple Mix

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Electrical

LESSON II
- In any w elding process using a solid or flux cored w ire, the electrical stick-out is the distance from the contact tip to the unmelted electrode end. Sometimes called the "amount of w ire in resistance". This distance influences melt-off rate, penetration, and w eld bead shape.
Stick-Out
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Out-of-Position Welds - Welds made in positions other than flat or horizontal fillets.
Print
-
Weld Positions
Glossary
FLAT HORIZONTAL FILLET
HORIZONTAL BUTT POSITIONED FILLET (FLAT) VERTICAL OVERHEAD

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12/22/13

Lesson 1 The Basics of Arc Welding

Lesson 2 - Common Electric Arc Welding Processes

BASIC WELDING FILLER METAL TECHNOLOGY

LESSON II COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES

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Lesson 8 Hardsurfacing Electrodes

ESAB Welding & Cutting Products

Lesson 9 Estimating & Comparing Weld Metal Costs

Lesson 10 Reliability of Welding Filler Metals

Lesson 2 - Common Electric Arc Welding Processes

TABLE OF CONTENTS LESSON II COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES

2.1 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.3

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Lesson 8 Hardsurfacing Electrodes

Lesson 9 Estimating & Comparing Weld Metal Costs

Lesson 10 Reliability of Welding Filler Metals

Lesson 2 - Common Electric Arc Welding Processes

TABLE OF CONTENTS LESSON II - Con't.

2.6.1 2.6.2 2.6.3 2.6.4 2.6.5 2.6.6 2.7 2.7.1

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Lesson 8 Hardsurfacing Electrodes

2.7.2 2.7.3 2.7.4 2.7.5

Lesson 9 Estimating & Comparing Weld Metal Costs

Appendix A - GLOSSARY OF TERMS .................................................................

Lesson 10 Reliability of Welding Filler Metals

Lesson 2 - Common Electric Arc Welding Processes

COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES

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Lesson 8 Hardsurfacing Electrodes

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Lesson 9 Estimating & Comparing Weld Metal Costs

Lesson 10 Reliability of Welding Filler Metals

COPYRIGHT 1998 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

Lesson 2 - Common Electric Arc Welding Processes

information on coating functions w ill be covered in subsequent lessons. *

Equipm ent & Operation - One

WORK PIECE SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING FIGURE 1

CABLE SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CIRCUIT FIGURE 2

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Lesson 8 Hardsurfacing Electrodes

Lesson 9 Estimating & Comparing Weld Metal Costs

Lesson 10 Reliability of Welding Filler Metals

COPYRIGHT 1998 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

Lesson 2 - Common Electric Arc Welding Processes

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Lesson 8 Hardsurfacing Electrodes

HIGHER BURN-OFF RATE, LESS PENETRATION ELECTRODE

DEEP PENETRATION, LOW BURN-OFF RATE ELECTRODE

Lesson 9 Estimating & Comparing Weld Metal Costs

WORK PIECE STRAIGHT POLARITY FIGURE 3

WORK PIECE REVERSE POLARITY

Lesson 10 Reliability of Welding Filler Metals

COPY RIGHT 1998 THE ESAB GROUP, INC.

Lesson 2 - Common Electric Arc Welding Processes

has a strong influence on arc characteristics. Performance of individual electrodes w ill be

discussed in succeeding lessons.

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Lesson 8 Hardsurfacing Electrodes

Lesson 9 Estimating & Comparing Weld Metal Costs

Coated Electrodes - Various types of coated electrodes are used in shielded

Lesson 10 Reliability of Welding Filler Metals

Lesson 2 - Common Electric Arc Welding Processes

GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING