A classical definition of wine is very simple: "Wine is an alcoholic beverage obtained from the fermentation of juice from freshly

y gathered grapes, the fermentation taking place in the district of origin according to local tradition and practice". Fermentation is the process by which sugar is converted to alcohol by yeasts. At its simplest, wine is made by crushing grapes and allowing the natural yeasts present on the skins to come in to contact with the natural sugars present in the juice. o other human intervention is needed: crushed and fermented like this, any grapes will make wine. !he winemaker, of course, intervenes in this process in many ways to affect the "uality of the wine that is produced. #e must choose the best "uality of fruit, he must ensure the operation is carried out with scrupulous hygiene, he must ensure the final product is bright, clear and fit for consumption. $eyond these simple steps however, the winemaker can influence the wine in many other ways, taking certain decisions and actions that affect the style of the wine and how it will taste. We will look at these actions in detail later in the course, but they include: the selection and mi%ture of grapes used, the method of fermentation and the treatment the wine is given as it matures in his cellars. !he rules vary from region to region, but most authorities allow the addition of controlled "uantities of certain other ingredients in the making of wine: &ugar is allowed in many areas, especially if there is insufficient sun to fully ripen the grapes &ome strains of yeast perform better than others, and the introduction of specific yeasts is allowed 'f the grapes do not have enough natural acidity to keep the wine fresh and appetising, the addition of natural fruit acids is permitted in some regions &ince winemaking began, small "uantities of sulphur have been used to sanitise wines.

The origins of wine

obody knows who "invented" wine. 'ts discovery was probably accidental. After harvesting, some grapes were left in a container over the winter and the natural yeasts and sugars converted the juice into wine. From earliest times, the process of winemaking developed and was encouraged. Apart from the taste, and the "magical" effect wine had on drinkers, it was granted religious, even mystical properties. !he (reek (od )ionysus and the *oman (od $acchus were high ranking (ods of wine. !he +hristians used sacramental wines: the miracle of the conversion of water into wine and the use of wine to represent +hrist,s blood in the communion service, are e%amples of its importance in the +hristian religion. !he wine industry would not be flourishing in +alifornia today had not the +hristian missionaries planted vines there for religious purposes. Although archaeologists have traced the origins of wine grapes -Vitis vinifera. back tens of thousands of years, the first evidence of wine having actually been made from grapes comes from a clay pot found in /ersia -now 'ran. dating from around 01,111 years $.+. 2ur understanding of how vine growing and winemaking grew, spread and flourished has been pieced together. &eparate waves of the great, ancient, seafaring cultures took the vine and the secrets of winemaking on their travels along the shores of the 3editerranean and beyond. !he (reeks introduced vines wherever they set up colonies, from France to 4gypt. !his 4gyptian wall painting shows each stage of the winemaking process,

from gathering the grapes, to drinking the finished product. 'n turn the *omans spread their vineyard lands throughout France and to their other colonies throughout 4urope, including (reat $ritain.

Where is Wine Made?

!he climatic conditions needed for growing "uality vines are strictly defined. 5ines need cool winters when the vine can "sleep" and gather strength for the production of the ne%t summer,s crop. !oo cold though, and the roots of the vine can be damaged by frost leading to the death of the plant. &pring must be warm and wet, though not too wet, so that the plants can bud and produce the tiny flowers that will eventually become bunches of grapes. &ummers should be long, sunny, and hot, but again, too much heat is counter6productive, leading to scorched fruit that ripens too "uickly and doesn,t have enough "uality. !he autumn must be gentle and relatively dry so that the grapes can reach full maturity and the harvest can be completed before e%cessive rain or cold damages the mature grapes.!hese re"uirements e%clude much of the northern and southern latitudes, as these are too cold and have too little sun. !he e"uatorial lands are also e%cluded, as they are too hot, with no period in which the vines can rest. 5ines flourish in two "uite narrow bands of latitude appro%imately 716819 north and 716819 south of the e"uator. 2nly here are the climatic conditions right for wines of the highest standard. Wines are made on the margins of these latitudes, but they are rarely consistent or of real "uality.

Conditions for growing vines

:nlike most agricultural crops, the grapevine does not re"uire rich, fertile soil to thrive. 'n fact, soils which are too rich, too full of nitrogen and nutrients, might produce abundant grape crops, but these will be grapes suitable for eating, not for making wine. !he fruit will be too simple and sweet and lacking in comple% minerals, sugars, acids and flavours. !he world,s finest wines are invariably produced from poor "uality soils where few other crops would be worth planting. !he great wines of $ordeau% are produced from soil composed largely of gravel and pebbles, on a base of clay or chalk. !he great $urgundies come from acidic, granite soil on a base of limestone. !he reason for this anomaly 6 poor land producing great wines 6 is that the thinness of the soil naturally restricts the "uantity of the crop, so that fewer grapes are produced, but of higher "uality. !his is the same principle that a pri;e rose grower might adopt: thinning the bush to encourage the blooms that remain to reach a higher "uality. Also, poor, free draining topsoil encourages the vine to send its roots deeper in search of water and nutrients. As the roots reach further down, comple% minerals will be absorbed that will add comple%ity to the grape and, eventually, to the wine. 5ineyards tend to be situated along river valleys, on gentle slopes where they have ma%imum e%posure to the sun, where the soil is free draining, and where, historically, the rivers could be used for transport.

Grapes and Wine

+uriously, wine rarely tastes or smells of grapes. !he grapes from which wine is made, however, are the most important factor in taste. Wines made from the chardonnay, for e%ample, are said to have a taste of peaches, lemons or butter. Wines made from the cabernet sauvignon are reckoned to have flavours of blackcurrant, plums or chocolate. #istorically, old world producers stressed the importance of where the wine came from on the label, rather than what was in the bottle: $ordeau%, $urgundy, +hablis, &ancerre, *ioja, /ort, &herry. &ome producers, on the other hand, used brand names for their products: #irondelle, $lack !ower, 3ateus *os<, $lue un, =e /iat d,2r. !he one thing that never appeared on the label was the grape variety. !he consumer simply didn,t know the origins of the wine they were drinking: 01 years ago we didn,t ask for a chardonnay or a riesling because we didn,t know we liked chardonnay or riesling.

The Old World and the New

!he ew World had a lot to contend with in trying to compete in this marketplace. Why would we buy some strangely named bottle from +alifornia or Australia> At first, the ew World competed by simply "borrowing" famous names from the 2ld World: "Australian $urgundy" and "+alifornian +hablis" became commonplace. 'nternational law soon caught up with this practice however, ruling that $urgundy or +hablis can only be made in $urgundy or +hablis. &o even though the ew World producer could use identical grapes and identical methods to produce a high "uality version of one of these famous wines, he couldn,t use any name that the consumer would recognise. *ather than battle against tradition and prejudice, the solution the ew World arrived at was to use varietal labelling. !hey attempted to change the whole way we thought about, talked about, selected, chose between, and most importantly, bought wine. !hey educated us in the grapes from which the wine was made by stressing this, rather than the place of origin on the label. &oon we got used to the idea of buying a bottle of chardonnay, a bottle of sauvignon blanc, a bottle of merlot or a bottle of pinot noir. !his is perhaps the biggest change ever in the way wine is regarded by consumers: ordinary people learned to recognise wine by the grape variety used. 'n turn this lead to a willingness to e%periment: to buy and e%perience the type of wine they like, no matter where it was made, ew World or 2ld World. 4ven France has recognised that they must move in to this modern world in order to compete and survive. 3aybe not in the great, classical regions, but in the simpler country wines the naming of grapes on labels is now as common in 4urope as anywhere in the winemaking world. Although the ew World has altered the whole way we buy and think about wine, they have always acknowledged that the 2ld World 6 France in particular 6 had a huge amount to teach them. France has a combination of many factors which mean it is still at the fore6front of "uality wine production: an ideal location -latitude. a highly suitable range of soil types suitable weather conditions generations of knowledge long established vineyards a well established set of wine laws -appellation contr?l<e. a highly skilled support industry 6 nurserymen, barrel makers, shippers, scientists, etc.

'n other countries around the world winemakers have taken the grape varieties and techni"ues used in France and have attempted to create their own versions of classic wines. $elow is a table with 7 columns: 0. gives the name of some of the "classic" French wines @. gives the principal grapes from which they are made 3. shows some of the countries around the world who are making successful wines in a similar style:

Wine Bordeaux Burgund( *red+ Burgund( *w$ite+ Nort$ern &$.ne #lsace Sancerre C$ampagne

Grapes

New world competitors

"S#, #ustralia, Sout$ #%rica, C$ile, Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Bulgaria, &omania, Spain, 'tal(, Cabernet Franc, etit !erdot )ebanon inot Noir C$ardonna( S(ra$ *s$ira/+ Gewur/traminer, &iesling Sauvignon Blanc C$ardonna(, inot Noir, inot Meunier "S#, New ,ealand, #ustralia, Sout$ #%rica #ustralia, New ,ealand, "S#, Sout$ #%rica, C$ile, #rgentina, Spain, 'tal(, Bulgaria, -ungar( #ustralia, New ,ealand, "S#, Sout$ #%rica New ,ealand, #ustralia, "S# New ,ealand, C$ile, "S#, Sout$ #%rica "S#, #ustralia, New ,ealand

!he challenge for the newer producers is to create wines that have the "uality of the "originals" from France and will have the staying power to keep them being bought and enjoyed by wine lovers around the world for generations. For us, this results in a wider choice of wines than ever before, from a wider variety of places. 't also means 6 with some wines of $ordeau% and $urgundy now costing upwards of A081.11 per bottle 6 that we have a chance to e%perience a glimpse of what some of the world,s greatest wines have to offer, at a reasonable price. White wine

The grape
!o begin to understand how any wine is made we must first look at the composition of the grape. 'f you take any grape 6 black, red or green 6 and slice it through the middle it looks much the same: The stalk is woody and full of a substance called tannin. !annin is a preservative with a bitter flavour. The skin is covered in a whitish bloom which is a dusting of wild yeasts and bacteria. !he skin itself contains more tannin and, in black grapes, a colouring pigment. The pips

contain bitter oils and are never desirable in white winemaking. The pulp is the most interesting part of the grape in white wine making. 2ver B1C of the pulp is just water, but the remaining 71C contains most of the elements which give a wine character, flavour and interest. !hese elements include various fruit sugars and acids, trace elements absorbed from the earth and pectin, a gelling agent. !he pulp of almost all grapes is the same colour: a pale greenDyellow. &ince the juice of almost all grapes is the same pale, almost clear colour, white wines can be made from any colour of grapes. 'f using black grapes to make a white wine, the winemaker must separate the juice from the skins immediately after pressing and before the fermentation stage so that no colour is picked up from the skins. &ome e%amples of white wine made from black grapes are +hampagne, blanc de noirs and white ;infandel. 3ost whites are actually made from green grapes. !here is, therefore, no hurry to separate juice from skins since there is no danger of them picking up colour, but most winemakers prefer to separate anyway, to prevent tannin leaching from the skins into the juice. !hough there is an insignificant group of black grapes whose flesh and juice is actually dark, almost all red wines e%tract their colour only from the skins of black grapes. *ed wines therefore, can only be made from black -or red. grapes.

Making white wine

!he first priority with freshly gathered white wine grapes is to get them to the presses as "uickly as possible. !his avoids o%idisation of the grapes as they sit on lorries, e%posed to the sun and air. At the winery, the grapes go through a machine called a crusher6destalker. !his machine breaks the skins of the grapes but doesn,t press them, and removes all stalks and some of the pips. !he resulting mash of broken grapes is immediately poured into a press. A gentle pressing is re"uired for white wines. !here have been many improvements on the original heavy stone presses, including the screw press which is like a giant mincing machine, and pressing by inflating a bag inside a tank, so that the grapes are gradually s"uee;ed against the sides. !he pure juice that is collected from this process is poured directly into the fermentation tank. &ome producers will leave the skins in during fermentation to add some e%tra dimension to the wine, but most do not. After fermentation most white wines are run into stainless6steel tanks for a period of settling. A few months later they are filtered and bottled. &ome wines will undergo a further period of maturation in oak casks before bottling.

!emperature has always been the bugbear of white wine makers. #otter countries simply could not make "uality white wines as these re"uire long, cool fermentation -at around 089 +elsius. to allow flavours and comple%ity to develop. !he act of fermentation itself creates heat, and in a hot climate, with uncontrolled tanks, the result is a very violent fermentation with temperatures rising to 789 or more and the yeasts dying off "uickly. !his produces a rather rough and unbalanced wine. /erhaps the greatest innovation in the history of white wine making has been the introduction of temperature controlled stainless steel tanks for fermentation. 'ntroduced first in Australia and +alifornia, these huge, refrigerated tanks have taken the winemaking world by storm. 4ven in the hottest climates, white wines of distinction can now be produced. +ountries like &pain, (reece and southern 'taly can, for the first time, produce whites of world class "uality. !his use of new technology has also led to a new breed of e%pert, known as the "flying winemaker". =argely from Australia and +alifornia, these winemakers travel the world to advise old6fashioned wineries on new technology -like stainless steel. that can bring them up to date. &ome white wines are fermented in old wooden vats. !hese will also have some method of cooling applied, such as being surrounded by a coil of pipes through which cold water is pumped. !hese vats are less reliable than steel, but some winemakers swear that fermenting in oak is the only method to use. 3any of the greatest white $urgundies and sweet white &auternes are fermented in small oak barrels with stunning results. !his labour intensive techni"ue is usually reserved for the highest "uality wines, especially those built for long ageing. 2nce fermentation is complete -taking between 0 and E weeks or so. most white wines are considered complete. !he wine is simply run off into clean steel containers to settle before bottling. !he alternative is to mature the wine in small oak casks -often referred to as "barri"ues" 6 the original $ordeau% name.. 3aturation in oak is much more common in red wines, but chardonnay and semillon in particular seem to marry very well with the uni"ue vanillaDbuttery flavour that oak imparts to wine. 3aturing wine in barrels is an e%pensive and labour intensive process, as we will see ne%t week when we look more closely at the process in relation to red wines. 2ften, the taste we notice most in a chardonnay has come from the oak, not from the grapes. 'n the cheapest chardonnays, handfuls of oak chips are added to the wine to impart a commercially desirable oaky flavour. Whilst tasty, these wines are rarely subtle or sufficiently well6balanced for ageing and further development in bottle. Finally, prior to bottling, the wine must be filtered to leave it crystal clear. !his process can be carried out by many methods. :se of filters and centrifuges to eliminate all solid matter are effective, but some people claim these methods also remove body and character from the wine. A more traditional method is fining. Fining uses a gelatinous substance that is stirred into a barrel of wine. !he fining agent gradually sinks to the bottom of the barrel, dragging all particles with it. !raditionally, fining is done with whisked egg whites. 2ther common substances are bentonite -a clay. and isinglass -made from fish bladdersF.. 2nce the wine is perfectly clear and bright it can be bottled, labelled and shipped. Wines might also undergo a process of "cold stabilisation" before filtering, when they are chilled in order to force tartaric acids naturally present in the wine to form into tiny crystals. !hese crystals can then be removed during filtration. !his is done mostly for cosmetic reasons: white wines that are not stabilised might throw these crystals naturally during storage or transportation. When the consumer sees tiny white crystals in the bottom of a bottle it can be very off6 putting, though in fact they are harmless and tasteless.

Factors affecting the styles of white wine

+learly, one important factor is grape variety. Whilst some grapes, such as the chardonnay, are "all rounders" 6 capable of being moulded into a variety of styles 6 others, such as the gewGr;traminer, have a very distinctive and individual taste which asserts itself in every decent bottle. Fermentation and maturation in oak is another important aspect. !his is a complicated area: oak trees from different forests impart different flavoursH new barrels have more impact than barrels one or two years oldH barrels can be toasted on the inside before they are filled and the degree of toast will affect the flavour. We will look more closely at oak and barrels in relation to red wine. !he winemaker can also decide how much residual sugar to leave behind in the wine. 'f fermentation is stopped early, before the yeasts eat all the sugars, then a certain amount of sugar is left behind. For very ripe wines from hot climates it is perfectly possible to produce a wine that has 07 or 0E degrees of alcohol yet still has some residual sugar. 'n some countries the addition of e%tra sugar is allowed during the fermentation stage 6 a process known as chaptalisation 6 but this is done to boost alcohol to a minimum standard, not to sweeten the finished wine. 3alolactic fermentation is a natural biological process that occurs after alcoholic fermentation if the wine is kept at a slightly increased temperature. !his is a chemical change, whereby harsh malic acid -such as that found in tart green apples. is converted into lactic acid -found in milk.. !his has the effect of softening the wine and reducing obvious acidity, so the winemaker may choose to encourage or avoid malolactic fermentation according to his re"uirement for a specific style of wine. !his is acheived by inoculating the wine with relevant bacteria. 3aturing the wine "sur lees" 6 keeping the skins and dead yeast cells in contact in the barrel 6 can add a creaminess and comple%ity to a wine. Again, this is done at the winemaker,s discretion and is a process that re"uires care and attention: the "soup" of wine and lees can spoil if scrupulous hygiene is not practised.

White wine and grapes - styles and characteristics

!here are many varieties of grape used in the production of white wines. #ere is a list of the most important varieties along with a description of their general character and some of the tasting terms commonly applied to them: +hardonnay 6 full, soft, buttery, fruity 6 peach, pear, pineapple, citrus, melon, butter, vanilla &auvignon $lanc 6 invigorating, dry, grassy, acidic 6 grass, gooseberries, asparagus, green beans, cat pee, flint *iesling 6 vividly fruity, lively acidity, oily 6 apples, limes, passion fruit, minerals, petrol &emillon 6 round, smooth, honeyed, toasty 6 grass, citrus, lanolin, honey, toast (ewur;traminer 6 exotic, spicy, perfumed, oily, rich 6 ginger, cinnamon, lychees, nivea creamF !he search is on amongst the big, commercial wineries to find a successor to chardonnay. 3arket watchers have noted that some people are showing signs of being fed up with over6oaked, big, blowsy chardonnays and are looking for a different taste. 3ost of the grapes above are too distinctive to fit the bill, and might not be so widely accepted. &ome other grapesDwines that have been less commonly seen in the past are starting to become more evident on supermarket shelves: 3arsanne I *oussanne 6 honey, tropical fruit, luscious 5iognier 6 flowery, peachy, delicate, fresh /inot $lanc 6 oily, perfumed, minerals, citrus, rich +henin $lanc 6 straw, flowers, honey, can be dry or sweet

White wine tasting terms and descriptors

Wine tasters have their own vocabulary or jargon, just like other groups of enthusiasts: computer geeks, trainspotters, ballroom dancers, etc. !here can be a

certain amount of snobbishness and hints of "one6upmanship" in wine tasting. 2n the other hand these terms are very useful: the true wine lover will never try to blind you with science, but may well use some common terms and descriptions. A few e%amples are listed below: +reamy 6 often applied to champagne and sometimes to chardonnay +risp 6 clean and sharply flavoured, not sweet or oaky Flabby 6 the opposite - a wine without crispness (reen 6 too acidic (some overly tart sauvignon blancs) 2ily 6 richly textured wines such as some gewurztraminers or pinot blancs &teely 6 crisp and a bit austere, like the best Chablis or ancerre! #ere are some descriptive words often used to conjure up the flavour or scent from a particular wine. !o the e%perienced taster these are often indicative of a particular wine or style of wine: $iscuity 6 Champagne Flinty 6 ancerre or "ouilly-#ume (rassy 6 sauvignon blanc =emony 6 chardonnay =ychees 6 gewurztraminer or sauvignon blanc !oasty 6 chardonnay 5anilla 6 oak ageing!

Red wine The grape

*ed wine can only be made from black -or red. grapes. !o make red wine the skins are an integral part of the recipe, whereas in whites they are often little more than packaging.

!he skins of black grapes are important because of their "phenolic" compounds: a comple% mi% of colouring agents, flavouring agents and a substance called tannin. !annin is the essential difference between red and white wines. 't is a powerful preservative, and since red wines are often made to mature over many years, tannin is re"uired to ensure the wine does not grow old prematurely. !annin also has a taste 6 slightly bitter 6 and an effect that dries and puckers the mouth. Another substance containing large "uantities of tannin is cold, stewed, strong tea. A mouthful of that will give you an idea of what tannin is all about. !he classic red wines of $ordeau% and $urgundy -and their new world counterparts. are made with a hefty dose of tannin that preserves the wine and balances against the other flavour components of fruits, minerals and acids. &uch wines are designed to improve over many years until they reach their peak 6 the point when the tannins have mellowed and the components have integrated perfectly. Jou need patience, suitable conditions and a healthy bank balance to get into the business of cellaring the great red wines until they each their peak. *ed wines destined for early or short term drinking -and not for "laying down". are made with little or no tannin in their composition. !raditionally these were lesser, peasant wines, made to be drunk with the daily meal and without ceremony. #owever, tastes and needs change, and many fine, modern wines are made for immediate consumption. &ince these wines don,t need to last several years, the bitter tannins are e%cluded and the wine tastes fruity, fresh and approachable upon release.

Making red wine

!he winemaker has at his disposal a far greater range of techni"ues, and must

make a far greater number of decisions, when making a red wine. !he process is essentially the same as the white wine process: gathering the grapes, fermentation, maturation and bottling. At various stages the winemaker can intervene to change the style of the wine he is making. !he grapes are crushed, but a proportion of the stalks may be left in place. !he resulting mash is run straight into the fermentation tank without pressing. :nlike white wine, the skins are part of the fermentation. Fermentation temperature varies between around 0K9 and @K9 celsius, as does the length of fermentation between a few days and si% weeks. !he fermentation vats may be concrete, steel or, traditionally, oak. !he high "uality "free run" wine is poured straight into barrels or stainless steel to rest and mature. !he remaining mulch of juice, skins, and stalks is pressed, to e%tract a strong, tannic li"uid known as "press6 wine", a proportion of which is often blended back in at a later stage to add body, tannin and strength to the finished wine. 3ost of the great red wines are matured in oak barrels. !his is an e%pensive and labour intensive process. 2ak from ancient French forests is generally agreed to be the finest, imparting a subtle vanilla, toasty flavour. 4ach @11 year old tree produces only @ barrels, so they are e%pensive at A781.11 each. !he forests are managed with a re6planiting policy. American oak is also very popular and is cheaper. 't is regarded as imparting a "bigger", less subtle, spicy flavour to wine. 2ak from the :kraine, /oland and &lovenia is very old and fine and is the cheapest of all, but many e%perts find it is not flavourful enough. /rior to bottling the wine must be cleared. !raditional fining is widely practised, but use of filters and centrifuges to remove absolutely all micro6solids from the wine is highly controversial. Wine is a living thing. !iny biological changes take place over years as the wine matures in the bottle and many people believe that heavy handed filtration destroys the wine,s ability to age and improve. !his is why many red wines must be decanted before serving: to run the wine off from solid deposits.

Factors affecting the styles of red wine

As ' have said, the winemaker has a great deal of freedom to make choices in making a red wine. #is decisions will be affected by the style of wine he is aiming

to make, and the raw materials the vintage has given him to work with. &ome of the options open to him are listed below: 'n most areas the vineyards may be planted with a variety different grapes. &ince many of the great red wines are blends of one or more grape variety -$ordeau%, +hLteauneuf6du6/ape, etc.. he first can choose the proportion of each grape he will plant and use #e can choose the proportion of tannic stalks to include in the fermentation #e can "cold soak" the grapes 6 crush them lightly and allow them to sit for a week or two at a temperature too low to ferment, but still allowing colour and tannin to leach from the skins #e can choose cement, steel or oak for fermentation tanks #e can choose the temperature and length of fermentation #e can choose when to remove stalks and skins during fermentation #e can choose how to mature the wine -if in barrel, taking into account all the variables of type of oak, level of toast, age of barrel, etc.. #e can choose the length of maturation -usually between K and @E months, though some fine wines 6 sherries and *iojas for e%ample 6 can spend up to E1 years in oakF. #e can add some of the press6wine back in to the blend #e can blend the wines from different grapes and different casks #e can choose the method of fining andDor filtration.

Special considerations in making a fine red wine

As well as offering a world of choices to the winemaker, red wine also offers e%tra challenges and complications he must overcome to make a great wine. Firstly he must balance the colour and tannin e%traction of the wine with its fruit and freshness. Wines made with too much tannin may never reach a peak where the natural fruit and flavours of the wine re6emerge as the tannins subside +arbon dio%ide given off during fermentation causes the skins to float to the surface of the tank and form a "cap". !his must be regularly submerged to ensure the wine keeps e%tracting elements from the skins. !his can be achieved by "pumping over" juice from the bottom to the top of the tank, by manually pushing down the cap, or by fitting a mesh filter below the surface of the wine #e must judge the correct levels of newDold oak and toast level For all the time the barrels are in the cellar the wine must be "racked": wine is drawn from one barrel into a clean barrel. 2nly around M1C of the barrel is drawn off, the remaining 01C is full of dead yeast cells and is discarded. !his process is carried out every 7 months or so and the fresh barrel must be topped back up to 011C with reserved wine 3alolactic fermentation must be induced )ecisions must be taken on blending, fining and filtration.

Red wine and grapes - styles and characteristics

!here are just as many flavour profiles amongst red wines as white. &ome grapes, like the cabernet sauvignon take "uite easily to a variety of growing conditions, whilst others, such as the pinot noir, seem unhappy anywhere outside their home in $urgundy. A few places are starting to produce credible pinot noirs, notably in cool climates such as 2regon on the northwest coast of the :nited &ates and on the south island of ew Nealand. +abernet &auvignon 6 the classic $ordeau% wine grape. A "serious" wine, with intensity and ageing potential which marries very well with the flavour of oak. blackcurrant, cedar, pencil shavings, peppers, mint, chocolate, tobacco

3erlot 6 the @nd great grape of $ordeau% 6 most $ordeau% is a blend of these @ grapes along with small amounts of some others. 't is a very rich, plummy, spicy grape which lends softness to the sometimes rather serious cabernet. plums, roses, spice, fruit-cake, blackcurrant, pencil shavings /inot oir 6 !he great red grape of $urgundy. 't is a very fragrant and should be silky with heady fruit and sometimes gamey comple%ity. raspberries, strawberries, cherries, violets, roses, game, compost, manure &yrah 6 the great red grape of the *hone. /lanted outside France it is known as the &hira;. #uge and comple%, rich, spicy and "manly". raspberries, blackberries, pepper, cloves, spice, leather, game, tar! 2ther important red wine grapes include: +abernet Franc 6 green peppers, blackcurrant, leaves, chocolate! (amay 6 the grape of $eau%olais! $eau%olais style wines employ a uni&ue method of fermentation called Carbonic 'aceration, or whole berry fermentation, which produces light bodied and coloured wine that is fruity, low in tannin and made for early drinking! &angiovese 6 the grape of Chianti! #ull, firm, dry, spicy, tobacco and herbs! !empranillo 6 the grape of (io%a, usually with plenty of spicy, vanilla oak! Ninfandel 6 uni&ue to California! )ts origins are a mystery, but it is believed to be descended from the )talian primitivo! #ull blooded, spicy, powerful, alcoholic!

Red wine tasting terms and descriptors

!here are even more words for taking about red wines, largely because red wines can cover such a variety of colours, te%tures, aromas and tastes. A few e%amples are listed below: Austere 6 tannic* lacking fruit! +he wine is too young, or too severe in style $aked 6 from a hot climate! ,ot necessarily bad, but can mean -not fresh+oarse 6 rough and ready - should be cheap )ense 6 positive! olid colour and packed with flavour 4arthy 6 tastes of earth but can also mean simple and rustic Finesse 6 used for wines of high &uality, showing a silky and refined nature Firm 6 a positive term for a wine with a good balance of tannins and acid Flabby 6 not a compliment! +he wine is over-oaked, or lacking acidity (reen 6 raw . un-ripe, often a characteristic of cabernets from poor years (rip 6 used as a positive term for young wines with good tannins #eavy 6 full bodied and alcoholic, usually means too alcoholic/ out of balance Oammy 6 not a compliment! +oo obviously fruity without great finesse 3eaty 6 rich . full-bodied, maybe literally with an aroma of meat &ilky 6 smooth, velvety mouth feel! 0sually the sign of a &uality wine &talky 6 bitter tannins evident! 1 fault in some pinot noirs and cabernets &tructure 6 very positive! )s balanced, well made and will last! !hin 6 lacking some flavour and usually some weight in the mouth! #ere are some descriptive words often used to conjure up the flavours and scents of red wine: $lackcurrant 6 along with cedar, the classic $ordeaux2cabernet taste +abbage 6 mature $urgundy! +his cabbage smell is a positive aspect3 +offee 6 comes from well integrated oak, associated with top &uality wines (reen /epper 6 a distinctive note of the two cabernet grapes =eather 6 classic shiraz, tough, big, spicy =i"uorice 6 many full bodied, tannic young wines 2lives 6 usually slightly under-ripe cabernet sauvignon or cabernet franc /epper 6 (hone wines are often very peppery on the tongue &pice 6 many -big- reds, including (hone, zinfandel and (io%a &trawberry 6 $eau%olais . lighter $urgundy !ar 6 a heady, rich wine, probably from a hot climate !obacco 6 a lovely rich, warm taste from good $ordeaux 5anilla 6 oak ageing

Sparkling wine
All sparkling wines start life as still wines and have the sparkle added later. !he crucial factor in the "uality of every sparkling wine is how the fi;; is added. !he fermentation process naturally produces carbon dio%ide gas -+2@. 6 the waste product of the yeasts devouring the sugars. 'n still wine making this gas is allowed to escape. 'n sparkling wines, the +2@ is retained, dissolving within the wine the wine which is kept under pressure. When it is released, the +2@ bubbles to the surface. !he method for producing a wine filled with +2@ varies from the very time6consuming and e%pensive +hampagne method of natural, secondary fermentation in individual bottles, to the ine%pensive and easy method of s"uirting industrial +2@ into cheap, still wine.

The Champagne method

!he +hampenois are justifiably proud of their wines and the age old methods used in their creation. =egend has it that the method was invented by a monk and winemaker named )om /<rignon. +hampagne itself can come only from a very well defined area in the north east of France, but many "uality wines are made using the "3<thode +hampenoise" -this term is no longer allowed on labels, so the term "traditional method" is often used instead.. First of all, a high "uality, dry white wine is made -usually from a blend of chardonnay, pinot noir and pinot meunier grapes. with "ordinary" tank fermentation. 2nce the wine is complete it is placed into special, heavyweight bottles and a fresh dose of yeast and sugar is added. !he bottles are then capped and placed in the cool cellars of the winery for up to @ years. )uring this time, a secondary fermentation takes place. !he yeasts and sugars create +2@ that, because it is in a sealed container, cannot escape so dissolves into the li"uid. 'n the early days +hampagne production was a dangerous business 6 cellars were destroyed by e%ploding wines. +ontrolled production methods and stronger bottles have eliminated that risk. !he problem with this techni"ue is the deposit of dead yeast cells that collects in the bottle. 'n still wines these would simply be filtered out, but since that would also remove the bubbles, another method had to be found. !his process is known as *emuage: an action whereby each bottle is shaken lightly, revolved and its position adjusted, so that over the course of a few weeks the bottle ends up upside6down with the dead yeast cells captured in the neck of the bottle. !he *emueur can precisely adjust E1,111 bottles per day. At this stage the inverted bottles are carefully transported to a free;ing tank. !he necks are dipped in, just to the level of the gathered sediment, which free;es into a solid "plug" of dead yeast cells. !he caps are removed and the gas pressure shoots the plug out. )epending on the style of wine being made -dry, medium or sweet. the bottles are topped up with a "dosage" of reserved wine and sugar. !he bottles are corked, wired and at that stage, the +hampagne is complete. !hough this process is long, e%pensive and labour intensive, no other method produces wines with such fine and persistent bubbles and such a creamy comple%ity on the tongue.

The tank method

!his is a different process by which good "uality bubblies can be made. #ere the secondary fermentation still takes place naturally, by adding new yeast and sugar

to a finished wine, but instead of taking place in bottles, the wine is held under pressure in large sealed tanks so that the e"uivalent of several thousand bottles re6ferment at the same time. !he wine is cleared of sediment and bottled under pressure, directly from the tank. !he bubbles are a little larger and disperse more "uickly, but the tank method can produce good results.

The transfer method

!his is a less common system for creating a sparkling wine. #ere, secondary fermentation takes place in individual bottles 6 like +hampagne 6 but instead of the e%pensive remuage process, the wine is cleared by filtration and is then pumped, under pressure, into clean bottles.

Sweet (or dessert) wines

=ike sparkling wines, there are a variety of methods for making sweet wines. !hese vary from cheap and easy, to some of the most labour intensive and e%pensive processes in the wine making world. We are talking here about fully sweet wines, often drunk with desserts, though the French like to partner the finest foie6gras with a luscious &auternes 6 perhaps the king of sweet wines. =ike so many aspects of wine making, the discovery that grapes left on the vine until they rot can produce beautiful wines, was probably yet another accident. $otrytis is a fungus which may attacks grapes, usually in the cool of late autumn. 't occurs in the early morning mists which form in vineyards sited near large bodies of water. !he fungus wraps itself around the grapes and spores puncture the skin, drawing off water and leaving the grape shrivelled. 'f left unchecked, botrytis will kill grapes and can be a big problem to vine growers. 'n some uni"ue locations -&auternes in France, parts of (ermany and Austria for e%ample. the vineyards are sited such that they also get ma%imum e%posure to the sun. 'n good years, the warmth of the sun as it rises kills off the fungus, leaving the grapes shrivelled and unsightly, but tasting delicious: full of the sugar and glycerine which was left behind. 5ineyards for botrytis wines are harvested by hand, so that only those individual grapes affected by the "noble rot" are selected. 2ften the same area will be picked over several times so that grapes can be picked in ideal condition. !he wine is then made using the normal method for white wines, but the high sugar and glycerine content means that the wine is sweet, luscious and full6bodied. $ecause grapes high in natural acidity are used -s<millon, sauvignon blanc, riesling, gewGr;traminer. the wine is not at all cloying. !hough sweet, the best wines are balanced and full of subtle flavours that linger on the palate. $otrytis wines are always e%pensive and often bought by the half bottle. With the unpredictability of the harvest and the labour intensive methods used, it is perhaps easy to see where the money goes.
/hoto P +ephas

ther sweet wines and methods of production

&ome other sweet wines are produced from grapes that are over6ripened, but not rotted. !his can be done by simply leaving the grapes on the vine for longer than usual, or harvesting the grapes as normal but leaving them spread out to dry on mats so that they shrivel in the sun and air. 2ne interesting, rare and e%pensive form of sweet wine is the ice6wine -in (erman, 4iswein. of (ermany, Austria and +anada. #ere the grapes are left on the vine into the dead of winter 6 often into the new year. 2n a suitably free;ing cold night the grapes are harvested. 3ost of the water content of the grapes has turned to ice and this is e%pelled from the

grapes leaving only the sugars and acids behind in the pulp. A wine is made from this which is very luscious and sweet. Another group of sweet wines are sweet because fermentation is stopped at a fairly low alcohol level. At that point, there is still plenty of natural sugar that has not been consumed by the yeast, so the resulting wine is naturally sweet. Fermentation is usually stopped by filtering out the yeasts, but in some wines the fermentation is stopped by adding spirit to the tank: this is the basis of the great sweet, fortified wines such as /ort and 3adeira, as we shall see in the ne%t section. !he cheapest method of making a dessert wine is simply to add sugar. 'n the best cases this will be natural grape sugar, in the worst, sacks of cane sugar. Although these wines are sweet 6 and may please some palates 6 they are usually lacking in balancing acidity and interesting flavours.

Fortified wines
!he term fortified indicates that the wine,s alcoholic strength has been boosted by the addition of spirit, usually a grape based spirit, like brandy. Fortified wines can be sweet or dry, depending on whether the spirit is added during or after fermentation of the base wine. !he family of sweet fortified wines include /ort, 3adeira, 3almsey, 5ermouth and 3uscat de $eaumes de 5enise. Again, the "uality of these is only as good as their components: a good base wine and a good "uality spirit. About half way through fermentation -with an alcohol level around 89. a measure of spirit is added to the tank. !his immediately raises the alcohol level. Jeast cannot survive in alcohol levels much above 07D0E9, so the fermentation stops and all the unfermented sugar is left in the wine. !he resulting wine is both strong and sweet. 't is normally transferred to oak barrels at that point for ageing. &ome of the world,s great fortified wines include: Port 2riginating from the )ouro valley of /ortugal, port comes in various styles and "uality levels. 'n particularly good years -usually two or three per decade. a "vintage" year is declared and a vintage port is released. 5intage ports are the aristocrats of the port world and often take around 71 years after release to develop into truly great wines. !hese should not be confused with =ate $ottled 5intage -or =$5. ports: these are ports which have been matured for longer than ordinary ruby or tawny ports in the shippers, cellars, but they are not true vintage ports of a great year. =$5s are ready to drink when they are released. Madeira From the island of the same name, 3adeira is uni"ue in that after being made 6 in much the same way as port 6 it is cooked. !he wine is placed in very hot vats -over 819 centigrade. for M1 days. 2nce again this was an accidentally discovered techni"ue 6 3adeira wines being shipped in the holds of sailing ships on long voyages were kept in very hot conditions which seemed to caramelise the wines 6 a flavour that people seemed to enjoy. Vermouth !his fortified wine -usually manufactured on an industrial scale in the north of 'taly. is flavoured with wormwood or other herbs. Sherry &herry, from Oere; in &pain, is perhaps the greatest wine made by the post6 fermentation method. 'n other words, unlike port, the spirit is only added after fermentation is complete. All sherry therefore, starts life as a completely dry style. 5arying amounts of sweet reserve wine are added back in before bottling, according to the style of sherry being made. Another unusual feature of sherry making is the "solera" system of ageing. 'n the solera system, wine from many vintages is matured in the cellars in separate casks. !he casks containing the oldest sherry are constantly topped up with wine from the second oldest casks. !hese in turn are topped up with wine from the third oldest casks, and so on until

the newest casks 6 from the current vintage. 'n this way, the style of sherry can stay much the same from year to year as all sherry is a blend of several vintages. Fortified wines typically range from around 0Q9 to @79 of alcohol 6 about double the strength of ordinary wines.

Sparkling! sweet and fortified wine tastes and styles

!here is a huge variation in terms of style and taste amongst these groups of wines. #ere are a few pointers: Champagne/Sparkling wines can be made white or ros<. Although rare, there are e%amples of red sparkling wines, such as the deep red, sparkling syrah from Australia. 3ost +hampagnes tend towards a dry, elegant style, but many other sparkling wines -such as Asti6 &pumanti for e%ample. are lighter in alcohol and sweet, or semi6sweet. Dessert wines have varying levels of sweetness and are often a golden yellow colour. !heir taste is often described as honeyed, whilst toffee and caramel notes are common too. 3any will display flavours of "white" fruits: peaches, pears, melon, etc. Vermouth here the overwhelming flavour comes not from the wine at all, but from the herbs used as flavouring agents. Port comes in many styles and "uality levels, but the characteristics are just like those of fine red wines: vintage ports can be tannic and overpowering when young, but can mature over many years so that the fruitiness and sweetness of the grapes re6emerges. Sherry also appears under a huge variety of guises. 3ost sherries are commercial blends, made with consistency in mind: to taste the same year after year in a pleasant but uncomplicated style. !here can be a lot more to sherry than that however: some fine, old, dry sherries develop wonderful walnutty, warm scents and flavours "uite unlike any other wine. !he finest, true fino sherries are produced when a strange substance called "flor" grows on the top of the open cask as the sherry ages. Flor is a yeast compound, which prevents the sherry from o%idising and adds subtle comple%ity to the flavour. 3ost sherry is made principally from the palomino grape, but look out for sherry made mainly from the /edro Rim<ne; grape: these are intensely sweet: wonderful poured neat over good vanilla ice6creamF

"uidelines - con#entional com$inations

Fish 6 -plain grilled or fried.dry or medium whites which shouldn,t overwhelm the fish and should help to cleanse the palate between mouthfuls. Shellfish 6 crisp, dry white like +hablis, dry riesling, sauvignon blanc or +hampagne. Poultry 6 pinot noir and mature cabernet sauvignon are delicious with roast chicken or turkey. 'f choosing a white, try something medium bodied and tasty like a vouvray, chardonnay or medium6dry (erman wine. !he richness of duck needs a rich wine -red or white. with full favour. Game & red meat6 the classic combination is with full, mature, red wines of high "uality 6 $urgundy, $ordeau%, +hLteauneuf6du6/ape or a new6world e"uivalent. am!6 a fairly firm, robust red with some acidity, like +hianti, *ioja or ;infandel. Chinese food 6 tea, or spicy whites such as gewur;traminer or off6dry riesling. "ndian or other spi#y food 6 water, beer, or very cold, semi6sweet whites. Cheese 6 there are many good cheese and wine matches 6 mature cheddar and mature red wine, port with stilton, goats, cheese with sauvignon blanc, sweet wine with creamy cheeses are all classic pairings. Avoid reds that are very tannic and whites that are heavily oaked. Dessert 6 the best sweet white wines are perfect partners for most desserts.

4atch out for sauces and dressings that can make nonsense of these guidelines/ if wine has been used to cook the dish, it is often an excellent solution to drink the same, or similar wine along with it! Another tip is to drink a wine from the same region as the food: red $urgundy with boeuf bourguignon or 'talian red with pasta dishes, are e%amples of very sympathetic local foodDwine combinations. &ome foods are regarded as "problem" foods for wine matching: eggs, tomatoes, vinegar, salad dressings and lemon are some e%amples that spring to mind, but again it,s all down to personal taste. 'f forced to choose just one wine to match with a variety of different dishes, a ros< might fit the bill nicely. 2therwise, a medium bodied, medium dry white is probably the safest choice.

Part 6: Buying serving and storing wine

Wine #ppreciation Course. 0 1om Cannavan, 233456777.

Wine is one of the great success stories of the late twentieth century. World6wide sales are booming, wines from many new countries are on the shelves, prices for wine are as low in real terms as they have ever been, choice is enormous and availability is e%cellent. &upermarkets and high street chains have revolutionised the way we think about and purchase wine. A bottle of wine with dinner at the weekend is now the norm for many "ordinary" people. !wenty or thirty years ago in $ritain it would have been unthinkable, but nowadays many of us are as likely to pick up a bottle of wine with our weekly shop, as we are a loaf of bread. As well as developing our knowledge so that we can choose wines with confidence, our enjoyment of wine can be enhanced by understanding the basic rules for correct storage and serving so that the wine can be e%perienced at its best.

%uying wine - understanding the la$el

!he world of wine labelling is confusing. 't,s not that there isn,t enough information on labels, it,s just that each country 6 and often each wine region within a country 6 has its own system for presenting important information on the label. =et,s look at a few e%amples from around the world of wine: !his label is a typical French label. with all the information you need to establish the "uality level and origins of the wine: +ru $ourgeois is an official classification for $ordeau%. +hLteau =amothe $ergeron is the name of the wine. 0MKK is the vintage date -the year of production.. 0@C is the alcohol level of the wine, and opposite, the bottle volume !he Appellation +ontr?l<e of this wine. "A+" is the sign of highest "uality in France. 4ach wine area his its own controlling body which ensures standards. $elow A+ comes "5)S&" or 5in )<limit< de Sualit< &up<rieure. $elow that is the designation "5in de /ays". !hese "+ountry Wines" include much average wine, but due to comple% regional laws, also some real gems where the producer chooses to grow certain grapes at the e%pense of gaining a higher "uality designation. 3is en $outeille en +hLteau means the wine was made and bottled by the

proprietor, not blended by a third party. :sually a good sign. !he label below comes from the *ioja region of &pain: =a *ioja Alta is the producer. 5ina Ardan;a is the name of the wine and below, the e"uivalent of 3is en $outeille au +hLteau: bottled by the proprietor. *eserva is the "uality classification of the wine 6 there are strict rules for what is plain *ioja, *ioja *eserva, and *ioja (ran *eserva. )enominacin de 2rigen +alificada 6 the official stamp of "uality in *ioja. (erman wine labels are notoriously difficult to read. Apart from the problems (ermany brought upon itself during the 0MB1s and K1s by bottling huge amounts of over sweetened, cheap wines for the :T market, it has always had another problem with the consumer: its obscure and complicated labelling. 3osel6&aar6*uwer 6 specified region of origin. 0MKMer 6 year of vintage Avelsbacher Avelsbach is the 5illage and #ammerstein the vineyard from which the wine comes. *iesling 6 grape variety. Tabinett is a degree of "uality within the Sualit tswein mit /r dikat category, which is (ermany,s highest category. =esser wines are marked simply, "Sualit tswein" or "SbA". $elow this comes "!afelwein". A/ number 6 strict legal tests have been completed on this wine. 4r;eugerabfGllung 6 the e"uivalent of "3is en $outeille au +hLteau" again 6 producer bottled.

Wine pricing
!here are obviously many factors that affect the amount any of us will pay for a bottle of wine. Apart from the differences in how much each of us can afford to spend on a lu%ury item like wine, we are likely to pay a lot less for our "everyday" wine than for a bottle to celebrate a special occasion. &upermarkets have increased their share of the wine retailing market dramatically over the past decade or so. With their relentless pursuit of price6cutting to out6do the competition, wines are now as cheap in relative terms as they have ever been. !he average supermarket stocks wines in the rough price range of A7.11 to A0@.11. A detailed look at the proportion of each and every bottle that is made up of non-wine costs might be "uite surprising: 0. #3 +ustoms I 4%cise )uty A0.0Q

@. &hipping 7. $ottle, +ork, +apsule I =abel E. Wine 3erchant,s 3argin &ub !otal 5A! U 0B.8C $otal

A1.@1 A1.E1 A1.88 A@.70 A1.E1 %&'()

With every bottle costing over A@.B1 before a drop of wine is put in it, it stands to reason that paying A@.MM for a bottle means you are actually buying only 71 pence worth of wineF 'n the past year or so the great psychological consumer barrier of A7.11 has been e%ceeded: few of us e%pect to pay less than A7.11 for a bottle, and the only A@.MM wines left on the shelves are either discounted stock, or "loss6leaders" used as promotional gimmicks. !here is still a great pressure on "mass" wine retailers -supermarkets and chains. to offer sub A7.81 wines however 6 the ne%t psychological barrier. ' firmly believe that the wise wine lover really benefits if they can up their basic spending level by a pound or so. At around AE.MM a whole new range of possibilities opens up, with wines made by producers who are not so constrained by impossibly low margins, and have a chance to add real character to their wines. As a general rule, ' would always spend my money on three genuinely interesting AE.MM bottles, than four easy6drinking, but probably dull, A7.EM bottles. !he price of fine wines 6 particularly those from $ordeau% and $urgundy 6 is like a runaway train at the moment, fuelled by speculators and far6eastern buyers who are willing to spend fortunes in auctions at &otheby,s and +hristie,s to secure the great names. !hese wines are now out of the reach of many ordinary wine lovers: top $ordeau% of the 0MMQ vintage fetched A@,111 per case, or A0Q1.11 per bottle. &uperb though these wines are, there are plenty of alternatives in purely value6 for6money terms: e%tremely well made, comple%, delicious wines in the A86A01 price bracket that are also of the "uality necessary to merit longer term cellaring. From the "lesser" regions of France, 'taly and &pain, and from new world countries such as Australia, +hile, &outh Africa and the :&A, come a host of individual and profound wines 6 many of which can rival "prestige" bottles at twice the price. As your interest in wine grows, you may become tempted to visit some specialist wine retailers rather than supermarkets. 'f buying older wines -say reds with vintage dates more than E years old, whites more than @ years old., it pays to check the condition of the bottle: some retailers do not look after wines on their shelves ade"uately, keeping them standing upright in hot, dry conditions where the wine can maderise -in other words, "cook".. !ell6tale signs of this include seepage from beneath the capsule, running down the side of the bottle, corks pushed out so that they strain against the capsule, and low fill6levels where some wine has evaporated. Avoid such bottles, or if you risk one, keep the receipt and don,t be scared to return it if it proves unacceptable.

Storing Wine
Jour wine "cellar" might be anything from a proper, underground cellar filled with e%pensive rarities, to a few bottles kept on a rack in the kitchen. 'n either case, there are certain re"uirements for maintaining wine in good condition that you should know. 'n modern, centrally heated, well insulated houses, some of these conditions are hard to find, though this is only really a problem if you have wines you intend to keep for the mid to long term 6 say 7 to 01 years or more.

What to #ellar* First of all, not all wines are suitable for longer term storage. 'f stored correctly almost all red wines will stay in good condition for @ or 7 years after release, whereas most white wines are best drunk within a year or so. $eyond that, only certain wines are considered worth "laying down". With such wines, we hope that not only will they keep for 01 years, but that they will evolve positively in that time, gaining comple%ity and subtlety as they mature. +ed wines suita!le for mid to long term storage, 2nly those red wines with sufficient tannins and acidity will last longer than a couple of years. !his rules out lighter wines -like $eaujolais or most wines from the +?tes du *h?ne, for e%ample. and most of the cheaper red wines, such as those from +entral 4urope. As a rough guide, wines costing under AQ.11 or AB.11 are unlikely to stand up to longer storage. Among the best bets for red wines suitable for laying down are: 5intage port -but not =$5 or "ordinary" ruby or tawny ports. *ed $ordeau% -perhaps only those costing more than A01 from this e%pensive area. 2ther +abernet &auvignonD3erlot based wines -from the :&A, Australia, +hile, etc.. *ed $urgundy -but only the finest, of /remier +ru level or above. Wines of the orthern *h?ne such as #ermitage, +?te6*otie and +ornas From &pain, better *iojas and from 'taly, better +hiantis, $arolos and $arbarescos. White wines suita!le for mid to long term storage, !he vast majority of white wine is made for short term drinking 6 within a year or two of vintage date. A few whites can reward patience, and those include: Fully sweet white wines -particularly botrytis wines of &auternes in France, and (erman wines of Auslese, $eerenauslese and !rockenbeerenauslese "uality. $etter chardonnays -again, maybe only those costing over A01.11 as a general rule of thumb. 5intage champagne will cellar for several years, but it is usually best to buy this as you need it.

Storage conditions
!he wines on the left are shown lying in the cellars of a French producer. !his cellar is cool -around 019 6 0@9 celsius., has no wild fluctuations in temperature, is dark and is free from vibrations. 'n addition, it is relatively humid: that,s what has caused the characteristic mould to grow on these old bottles.

!hese are the ideal conditions for cellaring wines, but they are conditions that humans would find uncomfortable. 3odern homes are rather unfriendly places in which to cellar wine. otice that the bottles are placed hori;ontally into racks. !his is vital for all wines that are being stored for more than a month or two. Teeping the bottles hori;ontal means that the cork is kept in contact with the li"uid, preventing it from drying out. 'f the bottles are left upright, the cork will eventually shrink, allowing air to enter and "uite "uickly spoiling the wine. 2ne of your first purchases should be a simple rack that will let you store your bottles on their sides. )espite the inhospitable environment outlined above, it is possible to find a place with ade"uate -if not ideal. conditions in a modern home, if a few simple points can be observed: +onstant temperature is far more important than absolute coolness. 'deally, an unheated cupboard where the central heating will not be constantly raising and lowering the temperature. 'f you can keep the temperature down below around 0B9 celsius -most living rooms are around @09 6 @79., so much the better. (arages and sheds are not a good idea, as these free;e in winter and over6heat in summer. )ark conditions will avoid the wine,s fine colour being spoiled, so again an under6 stairs cupboard might be a possible choice, but in any event try to ensure the wine is not in direct sunlight. Freedom from vibration is important. +onstant agitation doesn,t give the wine time to "rest" and mature slowly. )on,t site your wine rack ne%t to the washing machine or spin6dryerF A humidity level of around K1C is ideal for wine, but feels positively damp for humans. 'f your wine is kept for a long time in too dry a place the cork can dry out, which might prematurely age the wine. &trong smells can taint the wine over long periods of storage 6 another reason why the kitchen, garage or coal6cellar might not be the ideal space for very fine wines. Another aspect that you should learn more about if you plan to build up your own cellar, is the effect that vintage conditions play on the suitability of wines for laying down. 3any wine books publish vintage charts that show the "uality and the "ageability" of each vintage for each of the important wine regions. For e%ample, 0MM1 was a superb vintage in $ordeau% and many of the wines will last for @1 years or more. 2n the other hand, 0MM0 was a wash6out: many of the wines from the same producers are best drunk in the first half do;en years of their life. 'f you can pick a space bearing most of these points in mind then buy a few suitable bottles, you have a cellarF

Ser#ing wine
!here can be a lot of pretension surrounding the "correct" serving of wine. &ome people make too big a show of having wine at e%actly the correct temperature, served in e%actly the right glass. 2n the other hand, there is no doubt that there

are certain sensible guidelines for serving wine that should ensure your enjoyment of every bottle is enhanced. Ser-ing temperature 3ost authorities agree that there is an optimum temperature for the enjoyment of various styles of wine. *ed wines can seem very "flat" and lacking in taste and scent if served too warm. !hat is one of the problems with the commonly "uoted "*oom temperature" rule: unfortunately, the meaning of room temperature was very different when this rule was established 6 before the days of insulated walls, fitted carpets, double gla;ing and central heating. !he living rooms of modern houses are often maintained at around @79+. 'n wine terms, "room temperature" is actually several degrees lower than this. !o the left is a reference chart proposed by the wine writer #ugh Oohnson for the ideal serving temperature for various styles of wine. !he best and easiest advice is probably not to worry too much for your everyday wines. 'f serving a special red wine, leave it in a hallway or cool cupboard for a few hours before serving, rather than the heat of your kitchen. 'f serving an e%pensive white, put it in the fridge for just an hour or two rather than leaving it overnight to chill too much. With white wines, the reverse is true. White wines should be served cool rather than free;ing cold. +ertainly, the temperature of a domestic refrigerator is too cold for many wines at around 89+. At this temperature even great wines can taste dull and insipid. De#anting wine *ed wines are sometimes decanted before serving. ot all reds need decanting, only those that have thrown a sediment in the bottle, or need to be e%posed to air in order to "open them up". &ome wines -most of the finest red wines and vintage /orts, for e%ample. are bottled without filtration. !his means that small particles remain in the wine. !hese particles 6 tannins, yeast cells, microscopic pieces of organic matter 6 are entirely harmless, but are unpleasant if poured into your glass. For such wines decanting into a clean vessel prior to serving is the best solution. !o decant a wine, the bottle should be stood upright for a day before opening to allow the sediment to settle in the bottom. !hen, use a steady, gentle motion to pour the wine into a clean vessel, leaving the last centimetre or so of wine in the bottle, along with all the sediment. 'f you can pour the wine with a light source behind the neck of the bottle even better: then you can easily see as sediment starts to flow towards the neck. !he idea of "letting the wine breathe" by decanting it and leaving it for a few hours before serving is to e%pose the wine to air, which will soften it and mellow any harsh tannins. !his is an ine%act science, and only needs to be done if you are sure the wine is too young and would benefit from the procedure. Glassware

&erving wine in suitable glassware can make a huge difference. 'f you have ever tried drinking wine out of a thick rimmed pottery mug you will know what ' meanF 2nce again, a sensible approach is needed here: some people insist that there is a specific glass for every type of wine, so chardonnay should be served in a chardonnay glass, riesling in a riesling glass, *ioja in a *ioja glass, and so on. !here are specialist companies such as *iedel of Austria who manufacture an enormous range of e%pensive and beautiful glasses for this purpose. !he basic re"uirements though, are actually a lot simpler: 0. !he glass should taper towards the top, so that the aromas are trapped in the glass @. !he bowl should be large enough to allow you to swirl the contents 7. !he glass must have a stem so the heat of your hand does not transfer to the wine E. !he glass should be plain and clear so you can see the colour of the wine. As long as your glassware follows these basic rules, it should be ideal for enjoying your wine. $e careful to rinse your glasses carefully after washing, as traces of detergent can taint a wine "uickly. Preser-ing left o-er wine !he two great enemies to wine are o%ygen and heat. 'f a half finished bottle is left uncorked in a warm room overnight, it will almost certainly have lost its freshness and flavour by the morning. !he wine has reacted to the air and heat and has started to o%idise, taking on a stale, flat character. !here are various opinions on how best to preserve open bottles for short periods, and various products on the market that claim to do so. 2ne useful system involves a canister containing an inert gas. !he gas is s"uirted into the bottle, forming a protective barrier from the air, then the bottle is stoppered. !hese systems are "uite effective and claim to do no damage to even the finest, most delicate wines. An ine%pensive option is a device called the 5acu6 vin. !his is a small pump and a collection of rubber stoppers. A stopper is placed in the half empty bottle, the pump is placed over it, and the air is drawn from the bottle until the stopper seals. 'n theory you have removed the air, causing a vacuum, which should help preserve the wine. ' find that this method has mi%ed results 6 some wines stand up to overnight storage better than others 6 but is an ine%pensive option that has some effect. A simple solution is to keep a couple of empty half bottles clean and ready to be used. $y pouring the remains of a half finished full bottle into a half bottle, you automatically e%clude o%ygen. A simple cork should keep the wine fresh for a short period.